You are on page 1of 13

Music for solo violin: Bach, Paganini, Ysaye.

Introduction.
Violinists should be grateful for having the largest solo repertoire of any string
instrument, especially since violin itself is by no means an instrument that was by no
means supposed to be fully independent and self-sufficient (as opposed to piano or
organ). There is a number of specific features that make writing for solo violin very
challenging as well as rewarding for both composers and performers.
Being the smallest widely used string instrument gives violin some of its most
characteristic features: brilliance and sweetness of tone, voice-like vibrance and
incredible variety of timbre. However, the very same fact gives violin its main
disadvantage as well: relatively limited sound projection. While the best examples of
Cremonian violin school (for example, violins made by Guarneri del Gesu) display
a somewhat better ability to project in large concert spaces, they are still no match for
piano, organ and some other instruments (not to mention orchestra, choir and other
combinations of instruments/voices). Another major problem is that the overall
construction of violin clearly lends itself to homophonic use. Having only 4 strings
and, since the beginning of 19th century, rounded bridge, violin only allows a very
limited use of polyphony or any kind of melody+accompaniment arrangement.
Double-stops are widely used but have certain limits defined by natural stretching
ability of player's left hand. Though triple- and even quadruple-stops are also
physically possible, their use is rather limited because the possibility to control sound
production and quality of tone decreases dramatically compared to double-stopping.
However, when it comes to writing for solo violin the most significant
challenge is not related directly to the instrument itself but rather to the place it has
held for centuries: accompanied solo instrument. A vast majority of repertoire was
written for violin accompanied by either orchestra or piano (cembalo or basso
continuo during Baroque era). In such situation, violin fully shows its advantages and
throughout the history of Western music this use of violin became almost a stereotype
for both composers and audiences around the world. Nevertheless, some composers

and performers still felt that there was a reason to keep trying to accommodate the
whole musical texture on violin alone and this persistence eventually gave violin
repertoire some of its best representatives. Through the initial rise of Baroque era to
the decline during Classic period to the shining Paganini revolution of Romantic
century to the darker an more complex compositions that followed in the 20 th century,
writing for solo violin has always been a rather special occasion and relatively small
percent of the music ever written for unaccompanied violin has managed to survive
through changes of the instrument's construction, changes of tastes, changes of styles
and, most of all, time.
Bach: Before and After.
Baroque era was a very productive period for violin repertoire and music for
solo violin was also developing, especially in Germany and Austria. At that time, hair
on the bow was more loose and, in case of German curved bow, the player could
vary the tension of hair by moving his or her thumb on the right hand. This feature,
combined with almost flat bridge, made it possible to play up to four sustained voices
at the same time. Because of such ability, polyphonic writing for violin became
practically possible. In fact, even the earliest known examples of solo violin music
show that composers of 17th and beginning of 18th century counted on the abilities of
curved bow and, as such, their works are notoriously difficult to play with modern
bow. The main problem of curved bow was a lack of volume (since the hair is not
tensed sufficiently to allow enough pressure on the string). However, famous Bach
specialist Albert Schweizer insisted for decades that the weakness of sound associated
with the curved bow would bring Bach's violin music out of huge concert halls and
into smaller, more chamber-like spaces exactly where it belongs. It is most probably
true that Bach's cycle was not supposed to be performed in large concert spaces but it
would be difficult to simply exclude this work of genius from recitals altogether.
The earliest known (and published) example of music for solo violin is Six
Partitas for solo violin (1682/1696) by Johann Paul von Westhoff, who was
considered one of the best violinists during his lifetime. However, very intriguing and

highly original Mysterien Sonaten (c.1676) by Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber were
composed even earlier. Biber was also a renowned violinist himself but managed to
gain a wide recognition as a composer too. It is not surprising that the earliest
compositions for solo violin were written by musicians praised as finest violinists of
their time: a very deep and detailed knowledge of the instrument is needed in order to
succeed in composing a solo work. While Biber's compositions are musically
developed and deserve a thorough study of their own, Westhoff's partitas are
primarily famous for allegedly inspiring Johann Sebastian Bach to write Six Sonatas
and Partitas for solo violin. There is no evidence of direct connection between two
cycles but it was definitely possible since Bach met Westhoff in Weimar and must
have been aware of his music and violin skills (quote).
There is also no evidence of reasons or inspirations that convinced Bach to
write such a monumental work. Strangely enough, the most famous work for solo
violin was written by a composer that did not have a particularly good reputation as a
violinist. Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach did mention that his father was a capable
violinist in his younger years (quote) but it is not even distantly comparable to the
fame J.S.Bach was enjoying as an organist. However, from studying the cycle of six
sonatas and partitas, one can certainly assume that the composer knew very well the
mechanics of violin playing. On the other hand, it can be speculated that the cycle
actually gained certain purposefulness because of Bach not being a prominent
violinist since the music does not follow the usual lines of violin technique but forces
the technical aspects of violin playing to serve a purely musical purpose. It is never
too comfortable and never too easy, as it often happens with pieces written by great
instrumentalists.
Nevertheless, the most impressive feature of Bach's phenomenal cycle is not
the technical aspect of it but rather the way composer adopts his characteristic
polyphonic writing to such non-polyphonic instrument. There is a number of
compositional and technical devices that allowed it to be done.
1. Hidden polyphony. In many cases, Bach uses a seemingly homophonic

texture that actually hides one or more voices. It happens especially frequently

in the faster movements (gigues, G minor and A minor fugues, etc). These
voices never sound at the same time but because of the fast tempo and timbral
difference they do separate from the rest of texture.
2. Interrupted or silent voices. When it is not technically possible, Bach omits a

certain voice (which would otherwise be sustained, like an organ pedal) and
only continues it when the next harmony or chord comes. This technique is
primarily used in slower movements (e.g. first bars of Adagio in G minor
Sonata) and again, because of acoustic resonance and timbral separation, this
technique may create an illusion of polyphony.
3. Chords. Since it is the only way to use more than 2 voices on a violin, Bach

makes extensive use of chordal technique and, in case of fugues, stretches this
side of instrument's abilities to the physical limit. There is no definite answer
as to whether Bach counted on using a curved bow or not, but it is certainly
very difficult to sustain all those chords with modern bow (sustaining is often
musically desirable). Also, in certain cases Bach uses broken chords or
arpeggio to create an illusion of continuous sound, such as in this example
from Ciaccone:

4. Bowing. The manuscript of Six Sonatas and Partitas for violin solo has very

detailed bowing written in by the composer himself (another indication that he


was comfortably familiar with violin playing). In some cases it is clearly more
of a phrasing direction rather than practical bowing but in a majority of
situations these bowings are very helpful because they help to separate the
voices much more clearly. The following example is taken from Presto in
Sonata No.1 in G minor:

Even though from purely violinistic point of view there can be more
comfortable and secure options, this particular bowing provides better, clearer
outlining of the top voice (G A (B flat)). In general, Bach's approach to
bowing in fast movements with one voice was clearly influenced by Italian
violin school (and Corelli in particular) since Italians abandoned the curved
bow earlier than Germans and Austrians and by the time when Bach was
composing his cycle, they already established a well-sorted school of playing
with Baroque (Italian) bow.
But, of course, the main strength of Six Sonatas and Partitas for solo violin is a
sheer quality of music. The whole cycle is extremely consistent in its perfection and
every violinist nowadays should be aiming to have them all securely in their
repertoire because these pieces have always been and will always be the ultimate test
for any musician: a combination of almost extreme technical difficulty and amazing
musical and emotional depth.
Although there are evidences suggesting that Bach's cycle was performed
during his lifetime, there are no identifications as to who and where gave a premiere
performance. We can safely say that this work did not cause a substantial following
and, just like most of Bach's music, was almost completely forgotten for nearly a
century. The only notable example of music for solo violin written during Baroque
era after the completion of Bach's set is 12 Fantasies for solo violin by Georg Philipp
Telemann but they are hardly comparable both in terms of polyphony (though some
of them do include fugues) and overall musical quality, as it was proved by the
unquestionable judgment of time.

Paganini: Brilliance of Perfection.


Classical period appeared to be disappointingly poor for solo violin repertoire.
Compared to music for solo piano or, even more so, to chamber music, almost no
new music was written for the solo violin. However, Romantic era brought new
philosophy to music for solo instruments and the result definitely compensated for
the recent decline. Given maximum freedom, performer of unaccompanied repertoire
could allow a much higher degree of spontaneity and expression. There was also
improvement in violin construction: strings became stronger; some violin-makers
(e.g. Jean Bauptiste Villiuame started changing the shape of the neck and try different
angles of the fingerboard which allowed for more precise intonation and easier
double-stopping for left hand; Francois Tourte has invented the standard modern bow
(so-called French model) which was able to deal with a lot more pressure and much
higher hair tension than the Baroque (Italian) model. All these improvements
combined with constantly developing violin technique (the process that was still
being led primarily be Italian composers and performers, such as Giuseppe Tartini)
provided performers with much more powerful sound. Niccolo Paganini was raised
and educated with Classical era approach but eventually became almost a definitive
model of Romanticism in solo performance. According to numerous reviews by his
contemporaries, he would often give concerts solo (which was not a usual practice for
violinists of his time) and manage to sustain attention of the whole audience while
playing only unaccompanied pieces. Also, he is frequently called the first real
showman in the history of classical music: his typical performance was essentially an
act, concentrating not only on the music being performed but also very much on the
performer himself. This kind of artistry was not very common in the first half of 19 th
century and Paganini certainly influenced generations of musicians (and not only
violinists) that followed his example. It is safe to say that performer-centered
approach is still very much in use, especially in pop and rock music, and Paganini's
example has played a major role in its development.
Large part of Paganini's artistic and scenic image was related to his technical
ability and very advanced violin techniques that he either invented or substantially

perfected. By the time he appeared on international stage, most of violin technique


was already well-developed but nobody had put it together so coherently and
convincingly before. Most of bow techniques were invented and developed by Italian
violin school (primarily by Corelli, Tartini, Locatelli and their pupils). Left hand
technique, including left hand pizzicato and advanced double-stopping, had also been
invented and perfected before Paganini's zenith (notably by Polish-French violinist
Auguste Frdric Durand, pupil of Giovanni Baptista Viotti, who was also thought to
have been a major inspiration for Paganini's performance manner).
. But it was all-round brilliance and showmanship of Niccolo Paganini that has put
all these technical advances together and made them exciting for the audience.
Making such a leap forward, Paganini needed new music that would allow to fully
show his strengths as a virtuoso and, as such, he wrote a number of pieces himself.
His pieces are almost exclusively written for violin (either unaccompanied or with
orchestra, rarely with guitar) and are excellent reflections of his musical thinking.
While being not particularly imaginative in terms of composition, music of Niccolo
Paganini combines explosive technical feast with easily accessible melodies that
derive either from Italian folk song tradition or popular arias from the operas of that
time (as in Paganini's numerous variations on the themes from certain operas). 24
Caprices op.1 (published 1819) are full of such song-inspired tunes and also make
the best display of Paganini's truly unlimited and very imaginative technique. Typical
example of Paganini's easy-to-sing, free-flowing melodie is the theme of Caprice
op.1 No.9 The Hunt. And the way Paganini arranges this theme in the
recapitulation (double harmonics!) is also a very typical example of his approach to
violin tecnique.
However, the main achievement of Paganini's art is not so much in his music as
in the fact that he showed what can be done on a solo instrument (and on violin in
particular) and inspired generations of musicians that followed him. As for solo violin
repertoire, his 24 Caprices,op.1 became a fundamental part of any violinist's
repertoire it is considered necessary for any soloist to be able to play them. Also,
these caprices, together with Paganini's variations on arias from Italian operas,

encouraged other violinists to write

for solo violin: Polish virtuoso Henryk

Wieniawski followed Paganini's steps with his own caprices (L'ecole Modern op.10 is
particularly notable) and few other pieces for solo violin; Heinrich Wilhelm Ernst
became one of Paganini's very few serious rivals (which was confirmed by the praise
from Niccolo Paganini himself) and wrote a number of amazingly difficult and very
polyphonically developed pieces and arrangements for solo violin, most notably the
arrangement of Schubert's Der Erlkonig and Etude No.6 The Last Rose of Summer.
Paganini's influence and artistic authority was so powerful that even composers not
related to violin were moved and affected by his art. For example, Franz Lizst wrote a
number of paraphrases on themes of popular operas (Mozart's Don Giovanni and
Verdi's Rigoletto among others) for solo piano that were clearly inspired by the works
of the same kind by Niccolo Paganini. Because of the brilliance with which Paganini
showed what violin is capable of and what reserves does it have as a solo instrument,
violin gained international acclaim as a self-sufficient instrument and during 20 th
century composers worldwide were writing for solo violin in a variety of different
styles and genres still being under Paganini's influence (e.g. Schnitke's A Paganini).
Eugene Ysaye: Putting The Pieces Together:.
Bach's Sonatas and Partitas achieved the point of remarkable polyphonic
complexity and musical depth. Paganini's 24 caprices op.1 are widely acknowledged
as an anthology of violin virtuosity and brilliance. So, by the beginning of 20 th
century it could seem as if there was nothing else to add to solo violin repertoire.
Also, the tradition of violinists who also composed (which started with Corelli) was
almost lost and, together with that tradition, repertoire for solo violin did not develop
much: composers that did not play violin started to compose major part of new violin
music and even though it appeared to be a great way to improve genres of larger scale
(sonatas, concertos, etc), solo violin became abandoned as composers like Brahms
and Tchaikovsky had neither interest nor technical knowledge to write for
unaccompanied violin. Even Pablo Sarasate, himself a great violinist, was writing
pieces with accompaniment only. Nevertheless, Belgian virtuoso and composer

Eugene Ysaye managed to create a cycle for solo violin that, together with Bach and
Paganini, forms what one could call the great triad of solo violin music. The
background of Ysaye's Six Sonatas for solo violin op.27 is rather complex.
Official inspiration was Joseph Szigeti's solo recital at which he had performed
the complete Sonatas and Partitas by J.S.Bach. Connection to Bach can be traced in
many cases throughout the cycle. For example, the key of outer parts of the cycle
(which is moving from G minor to E major, from darkness to the light) are the
same as those used by Bach. Also, certain movements carry resemblance to Barouque
music in general and Bach in particular: there is Fugato in the Sonata No.1, which is
most probably the only known and published fugue written for solo violin during
Romantic and post-Romantic era; Sonata No.2 starts with short extracts from Bach's
Prelude from Partita No.3 in E major:

Also, the most dramatic of the six sonatas, Sonata No.3 Ballade, is written in D
minor which suggests a vague connection to Ciaccone from Partita No.2 in D minor
(which is the apotheosis of Bach's cycle). Moreover, some technical devices
(especially those related to bow technique) used by Ysaye are remarkably similar to
ones used by Bach: use of chords (e.g. 1 st movement of Sonata No.1) and hidden
polyphony in faster single-voiced passages (e.g. 3 rd movement of Sonata No.4 in E
minor) are the most obvious examples. And, above all, Ysaye himself was highly
praised for his interpretation of Bach, especially Ciaccone.
However, there were also other inspirations and connections. Ysaye himself
was one of the greatest violinists in the history of instrument: pupil of Henryk
Wieniawski and Henry Vieuxtemps; friend, collaborator and source of inspiration for
French and Belgian composers such as Cesar Franck (his Violin Sonata was Ysaye's

wedding present), Claude Debussy (his String Quartet was premiered by Ysaye
Quartet) and Ernest Chausson (who dedicated the famous Poeme to Eugene Ysaye);
highly influential figure both as a performer and as a teacher, widely acknowledged
as the greatest violinist of his time. Connection to French music of 19 th and beginning
of 20th century can be traced in this episode of Sonata No.3 Ballade in D minor
(page 4):

Constantly modulating wave-like movement, reaching the top note and then flowing
down to the next chord, is clearly inspired by the music of Debussy and Ravel.
During his life, Ysaye has witnessed the Golden Age of Romantic violin (most
baldly represented by his teachers, Wieniawski and Vieuxtemps, but also Joseph
Joachim and Pablo Sarasate) and was taught in the manner and style of that time. In
fact, his most notable qualities as a performer included those typically associated with
Romantic manner of violin playing: flexible, extremely expressive vibrato, full warm
tone and elegant, tasteful rubato. Obviously, being a violinist of such tradition, Ysaye
inevitably studied music of Paganini and of those who followed his artistry. Most
pronounced identification of connection to Paganini is, of course, an extensive use of
advanced violin techniques. For example, in Sonata No.5 L'Aurore Ysaye uses left
hand pizzicato which was known as one of Paganini's most characteristic techniques.
Also, in Sonata No.6 Ysaye uses scale runs in fingered octaves which, in
slightly different rhythmical form, can also be found in Paganini's I Palpiti (variations
on the theme from Rossini's opera Tancredi). However, it should be noted that
Ysaye very rarely uses advanced techniques simply to display technical brilliance
(and we can quite confidently state that this was Paganini's original intention in a
majority of cases). In this respect, Eugene Ysaye certainly represents a very rare case

of great virtuoso that is able to think above (or outside) their instrument.
Another source of inspiration for the cycle was related to the cirumstances of
composition and Ysaye's own biography. By the time when he composed the cycle of
six sonatas for solo violin (1923-1924), Eugene Ysaye was already at his decline as a
performer and started to develop first traces of serious health problems that
eventually led to his death in 1931. Being composed during this rather hard period in
composer's life, Six Sonatas for solo violin do show a certain degree of darkness and
associations with personal drama, obsession and death. All of these associations
combine in Sonata No.2, which is often called Obsession (after the title of the 1st
movement). Thoughts and feelings related to death are concentrated around Dies Irae
theme that is taken from medieval Gregorian choral. It is used throughout the sonata
and appears in dramatic climaxes of 1st and 4th movements, but also as a whispering
prayer in the end of the 2nd movement, Malinconia, and even as a seemingly simple
and modest pizzicato theme of the 3rd movement, mystically called Danse des
Ombres or Dance of Spirits.
However, instead of merely reflecting on the past Ysaye decided to dedicate
each sonata to a prominent violinist from a younger generation and, to support such
decision, tried to show the character and artistic personality of each dedicatee using
subtle clues and stylistic features. Jacques Thibaud, for example, was known for
using Bach's E major Prelude as a daily warm-up piece and this is reflected in the 1 st
movement of Sonata No.2 dedicated to him. Fritz Kreisler was closely associated
with arrangements of relatively unknown music from Baroque period (which later
proved to be his own pieces composed in the styles of Baroque composers) and the
3rd movement from Sonata No.4 can be easily connected to Praeludium and Allegro
in the Style of Pugnani that Kreisler composed: the overall texture of Ysaye's Finale
and Kreisler's Allegro is suspiciously similar, using a combination of fast singlevoiced passages and chords broken into pairs of double-stops. The last sonata, No.6,
was dedicated to the Spanish virtuoso Manuel Quiroga, in 1924 a very promising
violinist whose career would later be interrupted by an accident, and as a reflection of
Quiroga's origin Ysaye chose the form habanera, a famous Spanish dance.

Another indication that Eugene Ysaye wanted his work to be contemporary and
fresh in its musical language, rather than following the reminiscences of the
Romantic era that had passed a long time ago, is his use of some fairly inventive
notating techniques. At the beginning of the original edition of the cycle, there is a list
of symbols used throughout the work and a detailed explanation of each symbol.
Most of them are related purely to the issues of violin technique, but some others,
such as indications of playing quarter tone higher or quarter tone lower, are clearly
indicating composer's unconventional approach.
Ysaye's sonatas for solo violin were widely accepted and performed
extensively throughout the world, especially in United States of America and Soviet
Union (David Oistrakh and Leonid Kogan both won Ysaye Violin Competition in
Brussels which now bears the name of Queen Elizabeth Competition and performed
Ysaye's pieces extensively through their careers). Just like Bach's Sonatas and
Partitas and Paganini's 24 Caprices, Ysaye's cycle is now part of fundamental violin
repertoire.
Conclusion
Repertoire for solo violin is still growing and it enjoyed a very powerful rise
during the second half of 20th century with composers such as Lutoslawski, Berio,
Schnitke and many others writing some great pieces for this difficult, struggling
instrument. However, it should always be remembered that none of them would even
think of writing for solo violin if it was not for the great triad that preceded them:
Bach, Paganini and Ysaye.

Bibliography.
.
Auer, Leopold (1921), Violin playing as I teach it. Stokes
Flesch, Carl (2007), The Art of Violin Playing: Book II. Moscow: Klassika-XXI
Kendall, Alan (1982), Paganini: a biography. Chappell
Rabei, Vladimir (1970), Sonatas and Partitas of J.S.Bach for Violin Solo. Moscow:
Muzyka
Wood, Sir Henry Joseph (1938), My life of Music. London
Wikipedia,

Niccolo

Paganini

2011

in

Wikipedia.org

Available

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Paganini [Accessed 29/03/2011]

from:

You might also like