K.S.

K College of Engg&TechCE6304-SURVEYING IYear/Sem:II/III

UNITI
INDRODUCTIONANDCHAINSURVEYING
1.DefineSurveying.Whatarethefundamentalprinciplesofsurveying?
Surveyingisanartofdeterminingtherelativepositionsofvariouspointson,
aboveorbelowthesurfaceoftheearthbymeansofdirectorindirectmeasurementof
distance,directionandelevation.
Theprinciplesofsurveyingare:
(i).Workingfromwholetopart.
(ii).Tolocateanewstationbyatleasttwomeasurements(angular,
linear)fromfixedreferencepoints.
2.Whatistheobjectorpurposeofsurveying?
Theprimaryobjectofsurveyingistoprepareaplanormaptoshowthe
relativepositionoftheobjectsonthesurfaceoftheearth.Itisalsousedtodeterminethe
areas,volumesandotherrelatedquantities.
3.Namethedifferentwaysofclassificationofsurveys.
a.Primaryclassification
(i).Planesurveying
(ii).Geodeticsurveying.
b.Secondaryclassification
(i).Basedoninstrumentsused
(ii).Basedonmethods.
(iii).Basedonobject
(iv).Basedonnatureofthefield

4.Differentiatebetweenplaneandgeodeticsurveying.
S.No.
1.

2.
3.
4.

Planesurveying

Thecurvatureoftheearthis

Geodeticsurveying.
Thecurvatureoftheearthistaken.

neglected.
Alinejoininganytwopointsis
Alinejoininganytwopointsis
consideredstraight.
consideredascurvedline.
Thetriangleformedbyanythree Thetriangleformedbyanythree
pointsisconsideredasplane pointsisconsideredasspherical
triangle.
triangle.
Itisdoneonaarealessthan250Itisdoneonaareagreaterthan250
2
2
Km
Km

5. Classifysurveyingbasedontheequipments.
1. Chainsurveying
2. Compasssurveying
3. Planetablesurveying

K.Saraswathi Lect/Civil

K.S.K CET

4. Theodolitesurveying
5. Tacheometricsurveying
6. Photogrammetricsurveying
7. Aerialsurveying
6. Explaintheconstructionsofadiagonalscale.
Foragivenshortlength(PQ=PR),drawarightangletriangle.Itsbase(PR)
andheight(PQ)areequal.Ashortlengthisdividedintoanumberofpartsbyusingthe
principleofsimilartrianglesinwhichlikesidesareproportional.
Thus,
11represents1/10PQ
99represents9/10PQ
7.Definechainsurveying.Whatisthefundamentalprincipleofchainsurveying?
Chainsurveyingisthetypeofsurveyinginwhichonlylinearmeasurements
aremadeinthefield.
Themainprincipleofchainsurveyingorchaintriangulationistoprovidea
frameworkconsistofnumberofwellconditionedtrianglesornearlyequilateraltriangles.
Itisusedtofindtheareaofthefield.
8.Whatisawellconditionedtriangle?Whatisitsspecificadvantage?.
A triangle is said to be well- conditioned or well proportioned when it
contains no angle smaller than 300 and no angle greater than 1200 .
The main principleofchainsurveyingischaintriangulation.Itconsists of frame
work of triangles..To plot the network of triangles accurately, the triangles must be
nearly equal to equilateral or well-conditioned. The distortion due to errors in
measurementandplotting should be minimum.
9.Whataretheoperationsinvolvedinchainsurvey?
(i).Ranging:Theprocessoflocatingintermediatepointsonastraight
linebetweentwoendpointsinastraightline.
(ii).Chaining:Theprocessofmeasuringthedistancewithachainortape.
(iii).Offsetting:Theprocessofmeasuringthelateraldistanceofthe
objectfromthesurveylinetotheleftorrightaccordingtotheirpositions.
10.Whataretheinstrumentsrequiredforachainsurvey?
Chainortape,Arrows,Pegs,Rangingrods,Offsetrods,Lathsor
whites,Plumbbob,CrossstaffandMallet.

11.WritethedifferenttypesofChain.
(i).Metricchain
(ii).NonMetricchain
(a).GunterschainorSurveyorschain
(b).Engineerschain
(c).Revenuechain
(d).Steelband.
12.DifferentiatebetweenGunterschainandEngineersChain
Sl.No.
1.
2.

GunterschainorSurveyorschain
Engineerschain
Itis66feetlonganddividedinto100
Itis100feetlonganddividedin
links.1link=0.66feet
to100links.1link=1feet
Measurementsareinmilesandfurlongs. Measurementsareinfeetand
decimals

13.Define:(a).Mainstations.
Main station is a prominent point on the chain line and can be either at
the beginning of the chain line or at the end or along the boundary.
(b). Subsidiary stations:
The stations located on the main survey lines are known as Subsidiary
stations.
(c). Tie stations:
.
These are also subsidiary stations taken on the main survey lines to locate
the details of the object.
14.Distinguishbetweenachecklineandatieline.
Sl.No
Checkline
Tieline
1.
Check lines or Proof lines are the Themainobjectofrunningatieline

2.

. lines which are run in the field to istotakethedetailsoftheobjects.

check the accuracy of the work
Thelengthofthecheckline
Tielineisalinewhichjoints
measuredinthefieldmustagree subsidiarystationsortiestationson
withitslengthoftheplan.

themainline.

15.Whataretheinstrumentsusedforsettingoutrightanglestoachainline?
(i).Crossstaff.
a. Opencrossstaff
b. Frenchcrossstaff
c. Adjustable cross
staff(ii).Opticalsquare.
(iii).Prismsquare
(iv).Sitesquare

16.Whatareoffsets?Classifythem.
Anoffsetisthelateraldistanceofanobjectorgroundfeaturemeasuredfrom
asurveyline.Thetwotypesofoffsetsare,
(i).Perpendicularoffset:Theangleofoffsetfromapointonachainlineis90

0.

(ii).Obliqueoffset:Whentheangleofoffsetisotherthan90 .

Perpendicularoffset

Obliqueoffset

17.WhatistheuseofalineRanger?
ThelineRangerisasmallreflectinginstrumentusedforfixingintermediate
pointsonthechainlines.Withoutgoingtoeitherend,wecanfixtheintermediatepoints.
18.Whatarethestagesoffieldworkinchainsurveying?OrWhatare.thestepsinvolved
inchainsurvey?
1.Reconnaissance:Itisthepreliminaryinspectionoftheareatobesurveyed.
2.MarkingandfixingSurveylines.
3. Runningsurveylines.
4.TakingOffsets.
19. What are the different.tape corrections?
1.Correctionforabsolutelengthorstandardisation.
2.Correctionfortemperature.
3.Correctionforpullortension.
4 Correction for sag. (- ve)
5. Correction for slope. (- ve)
20.Whataretheerrorsinchaining?
(i).CompensatingErrors:Whichareliabletooccurineitherdirectionand
tendtocompensate.
(ii).CumulativeErrors:Whichoccurinthesamedirectionandtendtoaddor
subtract.Itmaybepositive(measuredlengthsmorethantheactuallength)ornegative
(measuredlengthslessthantheactuallength).
21.Whatarethedifferentsourcesoferrorsinchainsurveying?
(i).Instrumentalerrors:incorrectlengthofthechain(CumulativeErrors).

(ii).Personalerror:Badranging(CumulativeErrors).
Carelessholding(CompensatingErrors).
Badstraightening(CumulativeErrors).
Nonhorizontality(CumulativeErrors).
Saginchain(CumulativeErrors).
Miscountingandmisreadingandbooking.
(ii).NaturalErrors:Variationintemperature.(CumulativeErrors).
22.Enumeratetheinstrumentsusedformeasurementoflengthsofsurveylines.
(i).Chainortape.
(ii).Passometer.
(iii).Pedometer
(iv).Odometer
(v).Speedometer.

UNITII
COMPASSSURVEYINGANDPLANETABLESURVEYING

1.Define:Compasssurveying.Whataretheobjectsofcompasssurveying?
Compasssurveyingisthetypeofsurveyinginwhichthedirectionofthe
surveylinesaremeasuredwithacompassandthelengthofthesurveylinesaremeasured
withatapeorchaininthefield.
0,
5.Convertthewholecirclebearingintoreducedbearing:50
1760,2100,2320,1500,
0
0
0
76
,310 ,242 .
2.Writethenamesoftheinstrumentsusedinchainsurveying.
(i).Instrumentsforthedirectmeasurementofdirections:
1. Surveyorscompass. Reducedbearing
Wholecirclebearing
RB
WCB 2. Prismaticcompass.
0
0
(ii).Instrumentsforthemeasurementofangles:
50
N50 E.
1. Sextant.
0
0
0
0
176
2. Theodolite. S(180 176 )E=S4 E
0

210
S(210 180 )W=S30 W
3. Define:(a).Truemeridianandbearing.
True meridian:
0
0
0
0
232
180
)W=S52 W
The line or plane passingS(232
through
the geographical
North Pole,SouthPole and any point on
the surface of the earth,0is known as true meridian.orgeographical
meridian. True meridian at a point is
0
0
0
constant.
S(180 150 )E=S30 E
150
0
True bearing:
76
0
E
The angle 0between the N76
true meridian
and a 0survey line is known as true
0
0
310the line.
N(360 310 )W=N50 W
bearing or Azimuth of
0

242
S(242 180 )W=S62 W
(b).MagneticmeridianandBearing.
Magneticmeridian:
Magnetic.meridianatapointisthedirectionindicatedbyfreelysuspended,
properlybalancedandunaffectedmagneticneedleatthatpoint.

www

MagneticBearing:
Theanglebetweenthemagneticmeridianandasurveylineisknownasmagneticbearing
orbearing.oftheline.Itchangeswithtime.

4.WhatdoyouunderstandbyWholecirclebearingandquadrantalbearingofaline?
MagneticBearingsaredesignatedbyWholecirclebearingsystemand
quadrantalbearingsystem.
InWholecirclebearingsystem(WCB),thebearingofthelineismeasured
0
0
withmagneticnorthinclockwisedirection.Itvariesfrom0 to360 .
In quadrantal bearing system (Q.B or R.B) the bearing of the line is
measuredeastwardorwestwardfromnorthorsouth,whicheverisnearer.Thedirections
0
0
canbeeitherclockwiseoranticlockwise.Itvariesfrom0 to90 .

6.DifferentiatebetweenPrismaticcompassandSurveyorscompasswithreferenceto
com

readingandtripod.
SI.No.
1.

Item
Reading

2.

Tripod

Prismaticcompass
Surveyorscompass
(i).Thereadingistakenwitha
(i).Thereadingistakenby
helpofprismprovidedattheeye directlyseeingthroughthetopof
slit.
theglass.
(ii).Sightingandreadingtaking(ii).Sightingandreadingtaking
.
cannotbedonesimultaneously
canbedonesimultaneouslyfrom
onepositionoftheobserver.
fromonepositionofthe
observer.
Tripodmayormaynotbe
Theinstrumentcannotbeused
www
withoutatripod.
provided.
0

7.TheforebearingofalinePQisN28 W.Whatisitsbackbearing?
Inquadrantalbearing(RB)system,theFBandBBarenumericallyequalbut
thequadrantsarejustopposite.
0
TheFBofalinePQisN28

0
W,ThenitsBBisS28 E.
8.Define:ForeandBackbearing.
Thebearingofalineismeasuredinthedirectionoftheprogressofthe
surveyiscalledtheforebearingofthe(FB)line.
Thebearingofalineismeasuredinthedirectionoppositetothesurveyis
calledthebackbearingofthe(BB)line.
0

BB=FB+180 .(FBgreaterthan180 ,usesign)(FB

0
smallerthan180 ,use+sign)
0

9. TheforebearingoflineABis155 2520.IdentifythebackbearingofthelineABin
quadrantalsystem.
0
TheforebearingoflineAB=155 2520.The
0
backbearingoflineAB,BB=FB+180
0
0
= 155 2520+180
0
= 335 2520(WCB)
0
0
= N(360 335 2520)W
0
= N24 3440W
10.Defineanddistinguishbetweenmagneticdipandmagneticdeclination.
Magneticdip:
Duetothemagneticinfluenceoftheearth,theneedledoesnotremaininthe
balancedposition.Thisinclinationoftheneedlewiththehorizontalisknownasthe
dip ofthemagneticneedle. Tobalancethedipoftheneedle,arider(brassorsilver
coil)isprovidedalongwithit.
Magnetic declination:
.
The magnetic meridian of a place is variable one due to some local attractive
forces. Therefore, the true meridian and the magnetic meridian at a place do not coincide.
The horizontal angle between the magnetic meridian and the true meridian is known as
magnetic declination.
11. The magnetic bearing of a line is 48024. Calculate the true bearing if the magnetic
declinations
are 5.38 East and
5

Truebearing=Magneticbearing+Easternmagneticdeclination
0
0
=48 24+5 38
0
=54 02.
Truebearing=MagneticbearingWesternmagneticdeclination
0
0
= 48 245 38
0
= 42 46.
0

12. ThemagneticbearingofalineisS28
30E.Calculatethetruebearing
0
0
ifthemagneticdeclinationsare5 38Eastand5 38West.
ConvertthereducedbearingintoWholecirclebearing.
0

Magneticbearing=S28 30E.(RB)
0
0
= 180 28 30
0
0
= 151 30 .
Truebearing=Magneticbearing+Easternmagneticdeclination
0

= 151 30+7 30
0
= 159 00.(WCB)
= S(1800159000)E(RB)
0
= S21 E.
Truebearing=MagneticbearingWesternmagneticdeclination
0

= 151 307 30
0
= 144 00.(WCB)
= S(1800144000)E(RB)
0
= S36 E.
13. Whatislocalattraction?Whatarethesourcesoflocalattractions?
Local attraction is a term used to denote any influence, such as
magneticsubstances,whichpreventstheneedlefrompointingtothemagneticnorth
inagivenlocality.
Thesourcesoflocalattractionsare:magnetiteintheground,wirecarrying
electriccurrent,steelstructures,rails,undergroundironpipes,chainetc.,
14.Distinguishbetweenclosedtraverseandopentraverse.
SI.No.

Closedtraverse

Opentraverse

Ifthecircuitendselsewhere,.itis
knownasopentraverse.
com

1.
2.

3.

Whenthelinesformacircuit,which
endsatthestartingpoint,itisknown
asclosedtraverse.
Itissuitableforlocatingthe
boundariesoflakes,woodsetc,.
Check:
.
Sum of interior angles
= (2n 4) 90
Sum of exterior angles = (2n +4) 90
Where, n= number of sides of the
traverse.

Itissuitableforsurveyingalong
narrowstripoflandrequiredfor
roadcanaletc,.
Nodirectcheckonangular
measurements.

www

15.Whatisplanetablesurveying?Whenisitpreferred?Writeitsprinciple.

Plane tabling is the graphical method of surveying in which the field

observationsandplottingproceedsimultaneously.
Itismainlysuitableforfillingtheinteriordetailsbetweenthecontrolstations
andalsoinmagneticareas.
The main principle of plane table surveying is that the lines joining the
pointsontheplanetablearemadetolieparalleltothecorrespondinglinesjoiningthe
pointsonthegroundwhileworkingateachstation.
16. Namefourmethodsofplanesurveying.
1.Radiation
2.Intersection.
3.Traversing
4.Resection.
(i).Resectionafterorientationbycompass.
(ii).Resectionafterorientationbybacksighting.
(iii).Resectionafterorientationbythreepointproblem.
a. Mechanicalmethod.(Tracingpapermethod)
b. Graphicalmethod.(Besselsmethod)
c. Lehmansmethod.(Trialanderrormethod)
(iv).Resectionafterorientationbytwopointproblem
17.Whenathreepointproblemresortedtoinplanetablesurveying?
Itisthemethodoforientationwhenthetableoccupiesapositionnotyet
locatedonthedrawingsheet.
This method is employed when during surveying the surveyor feels that
someimportantdetailscanbeplottedeasilybychoosinganystations.
18. State the First and second Lehmans rule. First rule: The distance of the point p (positionof
plane.table on the
drawingsheet)tobefixedfromeachraysAa(papera,togroundA),Bb(paper,bto
groundB)andCc(paperc,togroundC)isproportionaltotherespectivedistancesofthe
stationsA,BandCfromthegroundstationP.
Secondrule:Whilelookingtowardsthestationsthepointptobefixed,will
beeithertotheleftortotherightofeachoftherays.
19.WhataretheAdvantagesofplanetablesurveying?
rejinpaul

1. Itis.usefulinmagneticareas.
2.Itischeaperthanthetheodolitesurveying.
3.Itismostsuitableforsmallscalemaps.
4.Thesurveyorcancompareplottedworkwiththeactualfeatures.

www

5.Noskillisrequired.
20.118.amesomeoftheerrorsinplanetabling.
1.Instrumentalerror.
2.Errorsofplotting
3.Errorsduetomanipulationandsighting.
1.Nonhorizontalityoftheboard.
2.Defectivesighting.
3.Defectiveorientation.
4.Movementofboardbetweensights.

UNITIII
LEVELLINGANDAPPLICATIONS
1.DefineLevelling.Whataretheusesofleveling?
Levellingisabranchofsurveying,theobjectofwhichis;(i).Tofindthe
elevationsofgivenpointswithrespecttoagivenorassumeddatum,and(ii).Toestablish
pointsatagivenelevationoratdifferentelevationswithrespecttoagivenorassumed
datum.
2.Definebenchmarkandreduced
level.Benchmark:
Benchmarkisarelativelypermanentpointofreferencewhoseelevationwith
respecttosomeassumeddatumisknown.
ReducedlevelorElevation:
Theverticaldistanceofapointaboveorbelowthedatumisknownasthe
elevationorR.Lofthatpoint.R.Lofapointmaybepositiveornegativeaccordingasthe
pointisaboveorbelowthedatum.
3.Whatarethedifferentkindsofbenchmarks?
A BM is the reference point of known elevation. It may be classified into
following types.

.
(i).G.T.S Bench Mark: The great trigonometrical survey (G.T.S) bench
marks are established by the survey of India throughout the country. The levels of this
bench marks are established very accurately at a large interval with respect to the mean
sea level at Bombay port.
(ii). Permanent. Bench Mark: These are established by different
Government PWD, Railways, Irrigation etc,. The RL of these points are determined
with reference to the G.T.S Bench Marks. Points on rocks, culvert, gate pillars, etc,.
(iii).Temporary Bench Mark: These are established temporarily whenever
required. These are generally chosen to close the days work and to start the next days.
Points on roofs, walls, basements, etc,.
(iv). Arbitrary Bench Mark: When the RL of some fixed points are assumed,
they are termed arbitrary benchmark.
4.Whatdoyoumeanbydatumsurface?

Itisanysurface,towhichelevationsaretakenasareferenceforthedeterminationofelevationsof
Variouspoints.InIndiathedatumadoptedforthegreattrigonometricalsurvey(G.T.S)isthemeansealevelat
Bombayport5.Whatismeanbylineofcollimationandheightofcollimation?
Line of collimation (Line of sight): It is an imaginary line passing through the
intersectionofthecrosshairsatthediaphragmandtheopticalcentreoftheobjectglass
anditscontinuation.
Heightofcollimation(HOC):TheelevationoftheLineofcollimation(Lineofsight)is
knownasHeightofcollimation.HOC=RLofBM+BS.
6. Writethedifferenttypesoflevels.
1. Dumpylevel
2. Tiltinglevel
3. Quicksettinglevel.
4. Ylevel.
5. Reversiblelevel.
6. Automaticlevel
7. Lazerlevel.
7. ListtheessentialpartsofaLevel.
Telescope,Eyepiece,Objective
Focusingscrews.Longitudinalbubble
Footscrews,Upperparallelplate(Tribrach),Footplate(Trivet).
Diaphragmadjustingscrews,Bubbleadjustingscrews,Tripod.
8.Whatarethedifferenttypeslevelingstaffs?

1.TargetStaff
2.SelfreadingStaff.
a.SolidStaff
b.FoldingStaff

rejinpaul

c.TelescopicStaff.
9.DefineanddistinguishbetweenBacksightsandForesightintheprocessoffly
Levelling.
SI.No
1.

2.

Backsights(BS)
Thisisthefirststaffreadingtaken
inanysetupoftheinstrument.Itis
alwaystakenonapointofknown
elevation(BM).
Itisusedtodeterminetheheight
oftheinstrument.
HI=knownRL+BS

Foresight (FS)
Thisisthelaststaffreading
takeninanysetupofthe
instrument
and,afterthat
instrumentisshifted.
Itisusedtodeterminethe
elevation(RL)ofthestaff
station.
RL=HIFS.

10.Explainthetheoryofdirectleveling
Itisthebranchoflevelinginwhichtheverticaldistanceswithrespecttoa
horizontallinemaybeusedtodeterminetherelativedifferenceinelevationbetweentwo
adjacentpoints.Stepsinvolved:
HI=knownRL(BM)+BS
RL=HIFS.
11.Distinguishbetweendifferentiallevellingandreciprocallevelling.
SI.No.
1.

2.

Differentiallevelling
Differenceinelevationbetween
twoormorepointsisdetermined
bywithoutanyregardtothe
alignmentofthepointsiscalled
differentialleveling.
Itisusedwhen:
(i).twopointsarealarge
distanceapart.
(ii).Thedifferenceinelevation
betweentwopointsislarge.
(iii).Someobstaclesintervenes
betweenthepoints.

12. Reduced level of Bench Mark A

Reading on staff held at A
Reading on staff held at station point B
Find: (a) Height of collimation.

Reciprocallevelling
Differenceinelevationbetweentwo
pointsisaccuratelydeterminedby
twosetsofreciprocalobservations..
Itisusedwhen:
(i).Theinstrumentcannotbesetup
betweenthetwopointsduetoan
obstructionsuchasavalley,river,
etc,.

.
- 50.000m
- 2.435m
- 1.650m

(b) Reduced.level of station point B.

(c) Rise/fall of B with respect to A.
(a).Heightofcollimation=RLofBMA+BS
(HOC)

=50.000+2.435
= 52.435m

(b) ReducedlevelofstationpointB.
= HOCFS.
= 52.4351.650
= 50.785m
( c).Rise/fallofBwithrespecttoA.
= 2.4351.65(Lowerstaffreadingbeinghigher)
= 0.785m,
withcomparetoA,thestationpointBbeing0.785mhighe

r
13.Compareheightofcollimationmethodandriseandfallmethod.
SI.No
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

Heightofcollimationmethod

Riseandfallmethod

Itismorerapid,lesstediousand
simplerasitinvolvesfewcalculation.
ThereisnocheckontheRLofthe
intermediatepoints.
ErrorsinintermediateRLscannotbe
detected.
Therearetwoarithmeticcheckson
theaccuracyofRLcalculation.
BSFS=LastRLFirstRL.

Itismorelaboriousandtedious,
involvingseveralcalculations.
ThereisacheckontheRLofthe
intermediatepoints.
ErrorsinintermediateRLscanbe
detected.
Therearethreearithmeticchecks
ontheaccuracyofRLcalculation.
BSFS= RiseFall=Last
RLFirstRL.
ItissuitableinthecaseofL.Sand ItissuitableinflylevelingwhereI
C.S,Contouretc.
intermediatesightsareless.

14.Writetheformulaforcurvaturecorrection,refractioncorrectionandcombined
correction
.
Curvaturecorrection CC=0.07849d2(negative)m
2

Refractioncorrection Cr=0.01121d (positive)m

2
Combinedcorrection.C=CCCr=0.06728d (negative)m.
Note:distobesubstitutedinKm,whilethecorrectionswillbeinm.
15.Listoutthevarioussourcesoferrorsinlevelling.
Threeprincipalsources:
(i).Instrumentalerror
rejinpaul
.
a.Errorduetoimperfectadjustment
b.Errorduetosluggishbubble.
c.Errorduetomovementofobjectiveslide.
d.Errorduetodefectivejoint.
e.Errorduetoincorrectlengthofstaff.
(ii).Naturalerror.
a. Earthscurvature.
b. Atmosphericrefraction.
c. Variationsintemperature.
d. Settlementoftripod.
e. Windvibrations.
(iii).Personalerrors.
a. Mistakesinmanipulation.
b. Mistakeinstaffhandling
c. Mistakeinreadingthestaff.
d. Errorsinsighting.
e. Mistakesinrecording.

16. Listoutthelevelingproblems.

1. LevellingonSteepSlope.
2. LevellingonSummitsandHollows.
3.TakingLevelofanOverheadPoint.
4. LevellingPondsandLakestooWidetobeSightedacross.
5. LevellingacrossRiver.
6. LevellingonPastHighWall.
17. Definesensitivityofabubble.Stateanytwofactorsaffectingthesame.
Thesensitivenessofabubbleisdefinedtheangularvalueofonedivisionof
thebubbletube.Itmeansthecapabilityofshowingsmallangularmovementsofthetube
vertically.Itcanbeincreasedby:
1. Increasingtheinternalradiusofthetube.
2. Increasingthediameterofthetube.
3. Increasingthelengthofthetube.
4. Decreasingtheroughnessofthewalls.
5. Decreasingtheviscosityoftheliquid.
18. Whatisaspiretest?
Itisusedtomakethehorizontalaxisperpendiculartotheverticalaxis.This
testisalsoknownasthetestfortheadjustmentsofthestandards.Itisdonebymeansof
theadjustmentsoftheverticalhair.Itisoneofthepermanentadjustmentofthelevelandtheodolite

19.DefineContour,contourintervaland,horizontalequivalent.
Contour:Acontourisanimaginarylineonthegroundjoiningthepointsof
equalelevation.
Contourinterval:Itistheverticaldistancebetweenanytwoconsecutive
contours.Itdependsuponthenatureoftheground,thescaleofthemapandthepurpose
ofthesurvey.

rejinpaul

.
Horizontalequivalent:Itisthehorizontaldistancebetweenanytwo
consecutivecontours.Itvariesaccordingtothesteepnessoftheground.
20.WhatarethedifferentCharacteristicsofcontour?
1.Contourlinesareclosedcurves.Theymayeitherwithinthemapitselfor
outsidethemapdependinguponthetopography.
2. Uniformlyspaced,contourlinesindicateauniformslope.
3. Aseriesofclosedcontourswithincreaseinelevationfromoutsideto
insideinplandenotesahill.
4.Aseriesofclosedcontourswithincreaseinelevationfrominsideto
outsideinplandenotesadepression.
5.Thespacingbetweenthecontourlinesdependsupontheslopeofthe
ground.Insteepslopes,thespacingissmallandforgentleslope,thespacingislarge.

21.Whataretheusesofcontours?
1. Volumeofearthworkforanyworkcanbeestimated.
2. Thecapacityofthereservoirortheareaofthecatchmentscanbe
calculated.
3.Veryusefulinmilitaryoperationstodecidethepositionoftheguns,the
lineofmarch.
4.Longitudinalandcrosssectioncanbedrawnalonganydirectiontoknow
thenatureoftheground.

22. Writethedifferentformulaetocalculatetheareaoftheirregularplate.
1. By computations based directly on the field measurements:
(i). By dividing the area into number of
triangles. (ii). By offsets to base line.
a. Mid ordinate rule = O .d
b. Average ordinate Rule = nd. O
n+1
c. Trapezoidal rule = ( Oo + On + Ol +O2+O3+On-1) d 2
d. Simpsons rule = [( Oo + On )+ 4( O1+ O3+ . On-1) +
2( O2+ O4+ . On-2 ) ] (d/3)
Oo

= Ordinate at one end.

On

= Ordinate at other end.

Ol+O2+O3+On-1=Ordinateatendofeach divison. d =
Length of the base
(iii). By latitudes and Departures:
a. By double meridian distance (D.M.D. method).
.b. By double parallel distance (D.P.D. method). (iv). By
co- ordinates.
2.Bycomputations based on measurements scaled from a map.
3. By mechanical method: By means of planimeter.
23.Howdoyoucalculatethecapacityofthereservoirfromthecontourmap?
Fromthecontourmap,thecapacityofthereservoiriscalculatedbythe
followingformulas.
1.Trapezoidalrule=(Ao+An+Al+A2+A3+An1)
2
2.Prismoidalrule=[(Ao+An)+4(A1+A3+.An1)+
2(A2+A4+.An2)](d/3)
Ao,A1,A2,A3,An=Areasenclosedbysuccessivecontours.
d=contourinterval.

UNITIV
THEODOLITESURVEYING
1.Define:Theodolitesurveying.Whataretheusesofatheodolite?
Theodolitesurveyingisabranchofsurveying,inwhichthetheodoliteis
accurateinstrumentusedforthemeasurementofhorizontalangles,verticalangles.Itcan
alsobeusedforvariouspurposessuchaslayingoffhorizontalangles,locatingpointson
aline,prolongingsurveylines,establishinggrades,determiningdifferencesinelevation,
etc,.
2.Whyatypeoftheodoliteiscalledatransittheodolite?
A transit theodolite is oneis whichthe line ofsightcan bereversedby
0
revolvingthetelescopethrough180 intheverticalplane.
3.Listtheessentialpartsofatheodolite.
Thetelescope,Theverticalcircle,Theindexframe(Tframe),
Thelevellinghead,Thescaleplate(Lower),TheVernierplate(Upper).
Thetripod,Plumbbob,Thecompass,Focusingscrews,
Theupperandlowerclampanditstangentialscrews,
Verticalclampscrew,Footscrews.etc,.
4.DifferentiatebetweentheVerniertheodoliteandMicrometertheodolite..
In
Verniertheodolitetheverniersarefittedtoreadtheanglesupto20.
In
Micrometertheodolitemicrometersarefittedtoreadtheangles.
5. List the essential qualities ofatheodolitetelescope. The
essential.parts of thetelescope:
(i).Objective(ii).Eyepiece,(iii).Diaphragm,(iv).Bodyandfocusingdevice.
Theessentialqualitiesofatheodolitetelescope:
(i).Therealimagemustbeformedinfrontoftheeyepiece.
(ii).Theplaneoftheimagemustcoincidewiththatofthecrosshairs.
6.Whatarethetemporaryadjustmentsofthetheodolite?
1.Settingup.
2.Levellingup.
3.Eliminationofparallax.
(i).Focusingtheeyepiece.
(ii).FocusingtheObjective.
7.ListoutthepermanentadjustmentsofTheodolite.
1. Adjustmentofplatelevel(Plateleveltest).
2. Adjustmentoflineofsight(Crosshairtest).
3. Adjustmentofhorizontalaxis.(Spiretest).
4. Adjustmentofverticalindexframeandaltitudebubble.(Verticalarctest).

8. ListoutthefundamentallinesofTheodolite
1. Theverticalaxis
2. Thehorizontalaxisortrunnionaxis
3. The line of collimation or line of
sight.4.Axisofplatelevel.
5. Axisofaltitudelevel.
9. Whatisananallaticlens?Whatistheuseofananallaticlens?
Itisaspecialconvexlensfittedbetweentheobjectglassandeyepiece,ata
fixeddistancefromtheobjectglass,insidethetelescopeofatacheometer.
Theuseofananallaticlensistoreducetheadditiveconstant(C)tozero.
Tacheometricequation,D=Ks+C.Where,
D=horizontaldistancebetweenthestaffandtheinstrumentstation.
S=staffintercept
K=multiplyingconstant.
C=additiveconstant.
10.Namethetwomethodsofmeasuringhorizontalanglesusingathedolite.When
eachmethodisadvantageouslyused?
Themethodofrepetitionispreferredforthemeasurement . ofa singleangle.
Thetwomethods:(i).Repetitionmethod.
(ii).Reiterationmethod(Directmethod).
Themethodofreiterationispreferredintriangulation,whereanumberofangles
mayberequiredatonepointbytheinstrument.
Themethodofrepetitionappearstobebetter,itismoretimeconsumingand
evenmanyrepetitionsmayyieldordinaryresults.
11. State what errors . are eliminated by repetition method.
1. Errors due to imperfect eccentricity of verniers and centres are
eliminated by reading both verniers and taking the mean of the reading.
2. Errors due to imperfect adjustment of the instrument are eliminated by
taking face left and right observations.
3. Errors due to inaccurate graduations on the main scale are eliminated as
the readings are spread over different parts of the circle.
4.Errorsduetoinaccuratebisectionofthesignalareeliminated,astheytend
tobalanceeachother.Alltheerrorsarealsominimizedasthenumberofrepetitions
dividesthesum.
12. Whatarethemethodsusedtoplotthetraverse?
1. ByparallelMeridiansThroughEachStation.
2. ByIncludedAngles
3. ByPaperProtractor.
4. Byrectangularcoordinates.
5. Plottingbytangentsandchords.

13.Defineclosingerror.
Ifaclosedtraverseisplottedaccordingtothefieldmeasurements,theend
pointofthetraversewillnotcoincideexactlywiththestartingpoint,duetotheerrorsin
thefieldobservations.Suchaserrorisknownasclosingerror.
2

Closingerrore=(L) +(D) .
where,

L=sumoflatitudes.
D=sumofdepartures.
Thedirectionofclosingerror
tan=D/L.

14.Define:Balancing.Whatarethemethodsusedtobalancingthetraverse?
The term balancing is generally applied to the operation of applying
correctionstolatitudesanddepartures.SothatL=sumoflatitudes=0;D=sumof
departures=0.Thisisappliedonlyforclosedtraverse
Methodsusedtobalancing(adjusting)thetraverse:
1. Bowditchsrule
2.Transitrule.
3.Graphicalmethod.
4.Axismethod.
15.Explain the Bowditchs rule in balancing the traverse.
TheBowditchsrule(compassrule)isusedtobalanceatraversewherethe
linearandangularmeasurementsareofequalprecision.Inthismethodtheerrorinlinear
measurementsareproportionaltolandtheerrorinangularmeasurementsareinversely
proportionaltol,wherelisthelengthoftheline.
Correction

tolatitude(ordeparture)ofanyside
=Totalerrorinlatitude(ordeparture)xLengthofthatside
Perimeteroftraverse.
CL=L.(l/l)
CD=D.(l/l)

where,

L=TotalerrorinLatitude.
D=TotalerrorinDeparture.
l=Lengthoftheside
l=Perimeteroftraverse.

16.WhatisGalestable?Whatisitsuse?
Traversecomputationsareusuallydoneinatabularform.Onesuchformis
knownasGalesTable.
Itisusedtobalancethetraverseandalsousedtofindtheareaoftheclosed
traverse.

17.Define:Omittedmeasurements.
Sometimesitisnotpossibletotakeallthemeasurementsduetoobstacles.
Suchmissingquantitiesareknownasomittedmeasurements.Theycanbecalculated
fromtheknownlatitudesanddepartures.
18.Whatisclosedtraverse?Whatarethetwochecksapplicableinthiscase?
Whenthelinesformacircuit,whichendsatthestartingpoint,itisknownas
closedtraverse.
Check:
(i).Sumofinteriorangles=(2n4)90
(ii).Sumofexteriorangles=(2n+4)90
Where,n=numberofsidesofthetraverse.
19.Define:TrigonometricallevelingorHeightsandDistances.
Trigonometricallevelingisanindirectmethodoflevelling.Therelative
elevationsofvariouspointsaredeterminedfromtheobserved
verticalanglesand
horizontaldistancesbytheuseoftrigonometricalrelations.Theverticalanglesare
measuredwithatheodoliteandthehorizontaldistancesare
measuredwithatapeor
chain.ThismethodisalsoknownasHeightsandDistances.
20. What are the methods used to find the elevations of the Points in the case of
inaccessible points? Differentiate that?
1.Singleplanemethod
2.Doubleplanemethod.
SI.No.
1.
2.
3.

www

Singleplanemethod
Twoinstrumentstationsarechosen
inlinewiththeobject.
.

rejinpaul

Thetwoverticalanglesaremeasured
inthesameverticalplane.
Horizontalanglesarenotrequired.

Doubleplanemethod
Twoinstrumentstationsarechosen
whicharenotinlinewiththeobject.
Thetwoverticalanglesaremeasured
intwodifferentverticalplanes.
Horizontalanglesarealsomeasured.

UNITV
THEODOLITESURVEYS
1.Whycurvesarenecessaryinthealignmentofahighway/railway?
During the survey of the alignment of a road, railway, canals, etc, the
directionofthelinemaychangeduetosomeunavoidablesituations.Whentwostraights
ofahighwayorrailwayareatsomeangletoeachother,acurveisintroducedbetween
them to avoid an abrupt change in direction and to make the vehicle move safely,
smoothlyandcomfortably.
2.Listthevarioustypesofcurves.Typesofcurves:
1.Horizontalcurveprovidedinthehorizontal
plane.a.Simplecurve
b.Compoundcurve
c.Reversecurve.d.
Transitioncurve.
2.Verticalcurveprovidedwheretwostraightlinesofdifferentgradient
intersectintheverticalplane.
a.Summitcurve.
b.Sagcurve.
3.Whatarethethreeclassesofcircularcurves?
.
a.Simplecurveconsistsofsinglearcconnectingtwostraights.
b.Compoundcurveconsistsoftwoarcsofdifferentradiibendinginsame
direction.Centresbeingonthesamesideofthecurve.
c.Reversecurveconsistsoftwoarcsofdifferentradiiorequalbendingin
oppositedirection.Centresbeingonoppositesideofthe
curve.

www

.
4.Definedegreeofcurveaccordingtohighwaypractice.
Thedegreeofacurvecanbedefinedbasedoneitheranarcorachord.
Accordingtothearcdefinition,thedegreeofacurveisthecentralanglesubtendedbyan
arcof30or20mlength.Inhighwaysthisarcdefinitionisutilized.
Accordingtothechorddefinition,thedegreeofacurveisthecentralangle
subtendedbyanarcof30or20mlength.Inrailwaysthischorddefinitionisutilized.
5.Statetherelationshipbetweentheradiusofacurveandthedegreeofthe
curve.Ifthechordlengthis30m,R=1719/D
Ifthechordlengthis20m,R=1146/
DWhere,R=Radiusofacurve
D=Degreeofthecurve
6. WhataretheelementsofasimpleCircularcurve?
1. Backtangent2.Forwardtangent.3.Pointofcurve.(P.C)T1
4.Pointoftangency(P.T)T2.5.Pointofintersection(P.I).

6.Intersectionangle(I).7.DeflectionangleorCentral
angle().8.Tangentlength9.ExternaldistanceorApex
distance
10.Lengthofthecurve11.Longchord.(T1T2).12.Midordinate
7.Define:Settingoutofcurves(curveranging).
Settingoutofcurvesmeansthelocationofvariouspointsalongthecurve
andjoiningthesametoobtaintheactualcurves.
8.Whatarethemethodsusedforsettingcurves?
Themethodsusedforsettingcurves:
1.Linearmethods.
(i).Offsetsfromlongchord.
(ii).Radialoffsetsfromtangents.
(iii).Perpendicularoffsetsfromtangents.
(iv).Successivebisectionofarcs.
(v).Offsetsfromthechordproduced.
2.Angularmethods.
(i).Rankinesmethodofdeflectionangle.(Onetheodolitemethod)
(ii).Twotheodolitemethod.
(iii).Tacheometricmethod.
9.WhatisSightdistanceinhighways?Whichfactorsaffectif?
Sightdistancemaybedefinedastheminimumdistancebetween.twovehicle
movingalongacurve,whenthedriverofonevehiclecanjustseetheothervehicler
aheadontheroad.Thefactorsaffectingthesightdistanceare:
(i).Heightofthelineofthesightofthedriver
(ii).Gradeorlongitudinalslopeofthecurve
(iii).Speedofthevehicle.
(iv).Coefficientoffriction
(v).Efficiency.ofthebreak.

10.Whatismeantbystoppingsightdistance?
Itistheminimumdistancenecessaryforthesafemovementoftrafficwithin
whichthedriverofavehiclemovingatdesignspeed.Afterreachingtothepresenceofa
hazardahead,canbringittoastopbeforereachingahazard.Itdependsupon
(i).Gradeorlongitudinalslopeofthe
curve(ii).Speedofthevehicle.
(iii).Coefficientoffriction
(iv).Efficiencyofthebreak.
11.Define:transitioncurve.
Acurveofvaryingradiusisknownastransitioncurveorspiraloreasement
curve.Atransitioncurveisanoncirculararcintroducedoneithersidesofacircular
curveorbetweenthetwobranchesofcompoundorareversecurve.Itisnotprovidedin
highwaysbutisprovidedinrailways.

12.Whatarethefunctionsofatransitioncurve?
1. Theradiusofthecurvatureincreasesordecreasesgradually.
2. Itisprovidedforthegradualchangeinsuperelevation.
3. Itallowsagradualtransitionofcurvaturefromthetangenttothecircular
curveoffromthecircularcurvetothetangent.
4. Iteliminatesthedangerofderailment,overturningorsideslipping
ofvehiclesanddiscomforttopassengers.
13. Whatarethetypesoftransitioncurve?
1. CubicspiralorclothoidorEulerspiralprovidedinRailways.
2. BernoullisLemniscate.providedinHighways
3. CubicparabolaorFroudescurve.providedinRailways
14. Whataretheaimswhenundertakingsettingoutoperations?
1. Thestructuretobeconstructedmustbesetoutcorrectlyinallthree
dimensionsbothrelativelyandabsolutely,sothatitisofcorrectsize,inthecorrect
planpositionandacorrectlevel.
2.Thesettingoutprocess,oncebegun,mustproceedquickly,without
causinganydelayinconstructionprogram.
15.Whatarethecontrolsrequiredforsettingout?
1. Horizontalcontrol.
Inhorizontalcontrol,controlstations(Triangulationstations)mustbe
establishedwithinorneartheconstructionarea.Thewellknownprincipleofworking
fromwholetopartisapplied.
2. Verticalcontrol.
Itconsistsofreferencemarksofknownheightrelativetosome
specifieddatum.
16.Whataretheoperations.involvedinsettingoutatunnel?
1. Surfacesurvey
2. Theconnectionofsurfaceandundergroundsurveys.
3. Settingoutunderground.
4.Levelsintunnels.
17.Define:Shafts
Theyarehollowverticalmembers.Theyarefrequentlysunkonthecentre
lineofthetunnelsettingouttofacilitateconstructionbyprovidingadditionalworking
faces.
18.Writetheseriesofsurveysconductedforthelocationoftheroadways,
railways,waterways.
1.ReconnaissancesurveyExaminationoftheentireareaandcollectthe
requireddetails.Selectnumberofroutes.
2.Preliminarysurveydetailedinstrumentalexaminationoftheentirearea
andfinalizetheroute.

ground.

3.Locationsurveysetoutthealignmentofthedecidedrouteonthe
4. ConstructionSurveyPrepareL.SandC.S.Begintheconstruction.

19.Define:Leadlines.
Theleadlines,alsocalledsoundinglinesareusuallyusedfordepthover6m.
Theleadlineconsistsofalineofhemp,cotton,orabrasschainhavingatitsendaweight
calledalead.
20.Whataretheinstrumentsusedforsettingout
tunnels?Theodolite.Tape,Tripod,