Figure 1.

7: Load distribution in building

1.7.1 PERMANENT ACTIONS, G, g

Permanent actions or dead loads consist of the permanent
construction material loads comprising the roof, floor, wall, and
foundation systems, including claddings, finishes, and fixed
equipment. The load type can vary greafly depending on the type of

construction and the interior finishes. Dead loads of structural

elements cannot be readily determined because weight depends
on size which in turn depends on weight to be supported (initially
weight must be assumed to make a preliminary calculation, and

then actual weight can be used for checking the calculation).

Permanent actions are a constant over the life of the structure.

12-1

Figure 1.8: Permanent loads effects on structure

Table 1.5

iB:l-l Htlh'&il..r}!}i|it !*tur

llll. l-l fhlrao

l&ilrttf

ltr
l&dnq
Otrtt t

,&edr{

rfr
m

t?r

errsc*, rdrrcft.d cii*Lr

lll

t?,

Cmcqdrlirndrm

l$
a9,

rt{

ellt,et

ory.et
t*i'c{tild,er,
3od'rl.prtl

ho!

16

HmI.e'*{!tdldw
14ry{arli.lofind

*d&

nrffi(
3Mr&i&rr
tE4'e$r'fh

fto(kel
fitxlqf$e

hs

us
ltr
r0
16

rs

't,
il
xtt
n

tlr.d.r

/
t'

..tu:{{f
--lrGd*r
mfia{rffi

fi?

2,,6

fim

OEd

.tyd

eild

r.a.

.QanHG,S{a

thig.

t
t6

&ffilkncldt
mndrrerieh&tw q
*t*rtgrAil.a*
*
kirtiblxd {ll r,tgl)
r@r,
{
Seo{*tr {,$lx

tt? '

ilstadfi.d&
Itrcrrdmo*h

0.D

0.s

Otrt

ptirn'{m}
t
oonft, is'iiid[lee] ll

ent

fbm

fl{

{fi!mmr,phin

ru

Slooi

&

r?

^&sed&eid
Ib$rs&,qqr*

5*laxsmqiuip
ehsrt

s.dE!

dfi?hm

13-1

0.tl

&

l&t

t.t

LN

0"11

(bddsmm&ra'defunrl

r.f

,o

lz

tt,

,r,

t,

tJt

16;

weo(MlI t4t{ n{ogi;

rn

UA,

03

OIE

0lr

t0 '0.{
t10
utt 0t
rfialrlG!.t .6$bc

r.

1.7.2 Variable Actions, Q, q

Variable actions
occupancy

of a

or live loads are

produced by the use and

building. Actions include those from human

occupants, furnlshings, non-fixed equipment, storage, and

construction and maintenance activities. Variable Ioads are
established by code for different occupancies.

The loads are assumed for purposes of design shall be the greatest

loads that probably will be produced by the intended uses and

occupancies, provided that the minimum live loads to be
considered as uniformly distributed.

ln the design of floors,

probable concentrated loads shall be

considered. Where such loads may occur, the supporting beams,

girders and slabs shall be designed to carry either the concentrated
loads.

Figure 1.9: Variable loads effects on structure.

variable actions can be leading or non leading. The combination

factors as shown below are the characters of variable actions is
discussed in detail in 1.8;
Q*

Characteristics value, U = 1.0

VoQr

Combine value

VrOr

Frequent value

VzQt

Quasi-permanent value
14-1

Figure 1.20: Real variable actions are idealized as uniform distribution

actions

Table 1.6
Catagory

Exanrpla

A1

All arcac within scli contcr'ned singfc family dwall;ngs or nredu]ar

studenl acccrnrrotlaticn
Cornrnuntl areas linclLding kitclrens) in blocks of flats thst are
nc rnore than 2 storeys and orlv 4 Cweilirrgs per flonr are
accessiblc frorn a ling{e rtaircasc.

qt (kN/mi t
1.6

Eedrcorns anel dorrnit,Jries except those in A1 arid A3

1.5

A3

Eedrcoms in holls snd ma-te]s; hspata, wa{ds; toiler ereas

7.O

B1

General oi{ice use olher than in B2

4i,

6L

O{fiee ereas at or below ground fioor level

3.C

c31

Corridors, hallways, aisles which are not subjected to crowds or

wheeled vehiclas and enmmlnai areas in blccks nf flals nat
covered by Al

3.0

(,ll

Areas strsceptible ro lar0F crowris

50

Stagcs in .g,ublic oecembly *reas {ctre Ncte 6}

Areas in general retail shops alrd cfepartment Etores

7.6

c52
D

4.0

1.7,3 Wind Actions

This actions is variable and beyond human control. Wind loads are

the positive or negative pressures exerted on a buiiding when it

obstructs the flow of moving air. Wind loads generally act
perpendicular

to the surfaces of the house. The wind loading

1

5-1

pressures, direction and timing are constanily changing. For

purpose of calculation however wind is considered a static force.

Statistical approach adopted

to

quantify

the magnitude and

direction of related design loads.

**

wind, earthquake or snow loads are not considered live toads but transient

loads b/c so variable and are determined by consulting codes

Figure 1.21: Wind load effect on building

1.7.4 Accidental Actions, A

Accidental actions such as impact from construction vehicres,
cranes or building equipment (e.9. skip of fresh concrete), local
failure of final or temporary supports, etc., which might result

in

(progressive) collapse of load bearing structural elements, shail be

checked for the relevant limit states.

1.8 Basic of structural

design

ln common with most other modern design standards, the Eurocodes

have adopted the 'limit state design' method. The object is to ensure
that the probability of operating conditions reaching failure conditions

is so low as to be negligible. This is done by factoring the applied

loads upwards so that a 'design load' which represents a probable
maximum load is estimated; likewise a 'design resistance' which
represents

a probable minimum resistance is also estimated by

factoring resistances downwards.

16-1

A Iimit state is a state beyond which the structure no longer satisfies

the design requirements. Ultimate limit states (ULS) include
excessive deformation, rupture, instability and equilibrium loss; this

stage related to structural collapse or endangering human safety.

serviceability limit states (sLS) include excessive defrection or
vibration. This state related to conditions which are regarded as
being unacceptable in everyday use but which do not actually
endanger the structure or its occupants.

The term 'design value' is used for factored loading and resistances.
The loads are obtained by multiplying the characteristics value by the

appropriate partial safety factors. The design resistances are

obtained by dividing the characteristics resistances by the
appropriate safety

factors. Safety factors needed for ultimate

limit

state and serviceability limit state can be refer to BS EN 1990. The

safety factors can be classified as partial safety factors and

combination factors from Table l and Table 2 in BS EN 1gg0
respectively. From Clause 6.3 BS EN 1990, Design Value of an
Action,

F6

csh be expressed as;

Fa

with

Fr"p

(6.7a)

Tf Fr"p

(6.Lb)

= QF*

where
Fk

Fr"o
T7

ls the characteristics value of the action

Is the relevant representative value of the action

ls a partial factor for the action which takes account of

the possibility unfavorable deviations of the action
values from the representative values

4,

ls either 1.0 or Qo,{t or

17-1

{z

1.8.1 Combinations of actions

The different loads discussed in the previous subsections do not
occur alone but in combinations. The designer must determine
which combination is the most critical for the structure. Fundamental
combinations of actions may be determined from EN 1990 using either of:

o
o

Equation 6.10
Less favorable of Equation 6.10a and 6.10b

2r",, Grc,i *
2t",,

Gr,,i

\F,rr,,
""

Gx,i

ypP +

yeP

yq1Qr't*

yq,i!)o,tQx,i.

(6.10)

+ Te,rtpo,iQrt *\ro,,tlto,i.Qr,,i

ypP

TqrQt

(6.10a)

,t +lro,ttlto,tQr,1

(6.L0b)

f; it 0.925 from NA 2.2.3.2

substitute factors from Tables 1 and 2 into the equation and check for a
range of different loading combinations and choose the least favorable
result.

Table 1.7 and rable 1 .8 show combination factors,

3.1 NA ,A1.1 and partial factor for actions,

18-1

)21

r.f

extracts from Table

rspectively.

Table 1.7: Recommended values for r[ factors for building

Actiou

fuipora$ b.cds iu hriMfurgs, rareeon,

E\ r$9r-1-ti
C ntegory A : iloilEsric. residenml areas

v4

tl4

{see

!.:

0.5

0.3

('ategoryB:offrcearrar

Lr..

0.5

0.3

CategtrRr C : comgrrgatriorr nreas

0,1

0.:

0.6

Categoqr D : sirq4:utg area:

rj.:

tt.

0.6

1.0

0.9

0.8

0,:

0.'

0.6

il.7

0"5

0.3

il

ft.10

0.i0

fr.:tr

fi_70

r't.50

rl.l0

fi.50

0.:0

l99l.t-,{l

[.fi

(lr

truddforgs (ree EN

tl.h

0.5

Categolt

E::toftrt

tueils

Categtrry F ; trattrc area.

rdricle v;eight { J0k\i

Cateuory G : nathr ilre;1.
-l0kl\

rehicle neiehr

l60kN

diateeo$ H : lo*fs
Snorr load.s on hriltlines

{se e

E}- I 8!

1-

I.ii'r

Finland- L'elalri" .l.-011\'il'. Srxeden

Reurafuder ol'CET \{eurber Srates- lor ilTer
locatecl at al[fide H r" I0m r:n a.s.l"
Reurairuler

of CEli \Ie$rber

l+cated at alrrnrete H

\lutd lmdron

$tfites- tor irler

](]IJtl rn a.s,l.

l.rrdlrtttrgt llee EN

Ten$a.rnu'e umn-fire1

fu

I99l-I-5'!

litlTT

Ttrn yr values ura1. he ier tr,r'

* Fnr eomrtri* no[ rnerfioueel lx]o*'.

tl-le

)'ialiomai arulex

see

rel*l'a*r kcal ar*riilitns,

Table 1.8: Partial factor for actions

Permanent Aotlons

Ultlmate Llmit
State

Leadlng or

Vadebls

lsJ

Main

Aodon

Aooompanying
Varlable Aotlon

Unfavourable

Favourablo

/qt

lq.r

tl

0.9

15

1.6

1.35

t.0

1.5

1.6

OU

!ate: V{heu uariable actions

are fevoursble f,r Shqlld lrc takeru as zsr+

More information is extracted from Eurocode as shown in Figure 1.22

19-1

6.:1.3 C:ornbinafion

of actions (frtigue relificafious extlutled)

6.1.3.1 General

(1)F Fot eaclt ctitical load case. the clesign r.alues of the etlects sf actions (E.1) shall be
detemunerl bv combining the values of actious 1trrat are cr-rnsitlererl to occr-u srunrlTaneously.
(1) Each crnnbitaliou of actious should iLrclutle
a Ieaclilg rlariable ftctio1t, or
an accidental actiou.

(i)

The corubiltrtious of actiors slrotLl<l be in accoi'clauce rvith 6.J.3.2 to 6.4.-1.-l-

(ul)P \Mtere the :.esulrs of a verification are velT serisirive to variatioris of the uragcrinnle of
pelrluDellt actilrt fi'o1rl place to place in the sllrtcfrue- the ruthrrr)tu?ble aud ttrre farroruable
parts of rliis action shall be cr:nsidei:ecl as indivirhral acticus.
a

NOfE This applies ur prrr:icrilar tro the \.e1iticarioll Lrf rtoric

eqrrilibrirurr arid :il:alogour

iinilr staie!.

see

6..+.r(l).

elhcts of orie actioli (e,g. beudurg ruornent t-urcl nonual tbrce due to seli'uot flllly correlated- tlie partial 1'actor appliecl to any iar,ourable correoueut ula\,

(-5) ltrrlter'e set eLal

iteight)

a1'e

be reducecl.

NOTE FoI hrfihef Rddtulce ou tlds topir

see flre clarlles on

lertorial effecls ir) E\- 199] to EN 1999.

(6) kuposed tlefonnatious shoulcl be takerr irito accorurt r,r.here relevatt.

NOTE Foliuther g1lidaflce.

A2,3 Llltiurnfe liurit

see 5-1.i.-4(P)

ftrd EN 199: to EN

1q99,

s.tates

ltrOTE \.leritic.qtror lor fattgue ercludedjL3.3.n Desigil i'nlues of eittioEs iil persisteut nrrtl trtns,ielrt desigrr situ,rtio[s

(1) The de:ign r.alues

r--lf actiolrc for Ldtrruate linut stafes iil the

Ferrqterif ald trail.sierrt desiqlr
sihratiots {expressiors 6-9a to 6.10b) should tre irr atcordance rvittr Tables A! a(A) to (C).
T-he talues it Tables A1..4{A) Id
ieuels see S{fiol]:. efld .fumen tsi.

$OIE

i(')

nla,i be ch*ng,ed ifl the lfxtiirnal -Lruer

{lg.

for differe,fi 13li

(3) h appllu;u Tables A2 1(A) to A?.4(C) in caeer rr,.laen ttrre lilult state is terl e*usrril-e
l',artations in the lnagninrde of p.ertran+at actions, lhe irp.per arrd lorver char'.lcteri.ttir valties
tfure actioris should be takeu accordirlg to ,+. 1.1(lip'.

Figure 1.22'.Extracted from BS EN 1990

20-1

1.8.2 Unfavourable and favourable loading

Loads may be considered as 'favourable' or unfavourable' in any
load combination, depending on whether they increase or reduce

the effects such as bending moment, axial force ect. in

the

structural members.

loads
loads
loads
loads

Unfavourable permanent
favourable permanent
Unfavourable variable
favourable variable

1.8.3 Leading variable actions

I
I
I
I

y, I t.SS
y, I t.OO
yo I t S
vn I
O

Qr,r

The leading variable action is the one that leads to the most
unfavourable effect (i.e. the critical combination). ln Equation 6.10,

the full value of the leading variable action is applied TerQw (.e.
1.5 x characteristic imposed load)

ln order to generate the various load combinations, each variable

action should be considered in turn as the leasing one. The
consideration should also be given to whether loading is favourable
or unfavourable.

Example 1.1
A roof has the following loads applied;
Permanent load, Grc: 7.0 kN /mz
Variable actions,

0r = 0.5 kN /m2

Wind load;
wupttft = 1.25 kN /m2
wd.owntoad.

Snow

= 0.4

kN

/m2

0.4 kN /m2

Determine the most critical combination load.

21-1

Solution:

Partial factors

From Table NA ,A1.1

i.

Actions

lto

Category H: roofs

0.7

Snow : sites up to 1000 m

0.5

Wind

0.5

Equation 6.10

EY*,tGw

/e,r Qnr

(6.10)

E]/c,itno,r Qr,i

Load Combinationl
Permanent and imposed (leading)
1.35Gk

+ 1.5Qk = 1.35 x

1.0

+ 1.5 x 0.5 =

1.0

2.1.0 kN

/m2

Load Combination2
Permanent and snow (leading)
1,.35Gk

+ L.SQ|: 1,35 x

1.5

x 0.6 :

2.25 kN /m2

Load Combination3
Permanent, snow (leading) and wind (download)
1.35Gk

1.5S

1.5

:2.55

x 0.5 x
kN

w4:

1.35 x 1.0

/m2

22-1

1.5

x 0.6

* 1_.5 x 0.5 x 0.4

Load Combination4
Permanent, snow and wind (download) (leading)

1.35Gk* 1.5 x 0.5 xS

,,

1..5wa= 1.35 x 1.0

* 1.5 x 0.4 * 1.5 x 0.5 x 0.6

2.40 kN /m2

Load Combination5
Permanent and wind (uplift) (leading)

-0.88

ii.

yeP

/m2

The negative sign tndlcates that the

wind load acts i11 the opposite sense to
tlre permanent load

Equation 6.10a

Zyc,iGu,i

kN

+ Tqdto,iQq

-lEyq,irPojQk,r

(6.10a)

E=

Load Combinationl
Permanent and imposed (leading)
1.35Gk

* 1.5 x 0.7 x Qp = 1.35 x 1.0 * 1.5 x 0.7 x 0.5 = 7.BBkN /m2

Load Combination2
Permanent and snow (leading)

1.35Gk* 1.5 x 0.5S = 1.35 x 1.0 + 1.5 x 0.5 x 0.6 =

1.8

kN/m2

Load Gombination3
Permanent, snow (leading) and wind (download)
1..35Gk* 1.5 x 0.5 x S * 1.5 x 0.5 xwa

= 1,35 x

1.0

1.5

0.5

0.6

+ 0.75 x 0.4 = 2.1OkN/m2

Load Combination4
Permanent, snow and wind (download) (leading)

1.35Gk* 1.5 x 0.5 x

1.0

1.35

2.1.0 kN

1.5

x 0.5 xw7

* 1.5 x 0.5 x 0.4 + 1.5 x 0.5 x 0.6

/m2
23-1

Load Combination5
Permanent and wind (uplift) (leading)
1.0Gk

iii.

+ 1.5 x 0.5 vwu=

1.0

x 1.0 -0.75x1.ZS: -0.06 kNlmz

Equation 6.10b

Z{;Yc,i Guj t

YpP

+ Yq1Q4 *Zyej{o,iQp,t

(6.Lob)

Load Combinationl
Permanent and imposed (leading)

(0.925x1.35)Gp+1..5Qk:0.925 x 1.35 x

1.0

* 1.5 x 0.5 :2kN/m2

Load Gombination2
Permanent and snow (leading)
(0.925 x 1.35)G;, + 1.5S = 0.925x 1.35 x 1.0 * 1.5 x 0.6

2.15kN /m2

Load Combination3
Permanent, snow (leading) and wind (download)

* 1.5 x 0.5w7
: 0.925x 1.35 x 1.0 * 1.5 x 0.6 * 1.5 x 0.5 x 0.4

(0.925 x 1.35)G4 + 1,5S

2.45 kN /m2

Load Gombination4
Permanent, snow and wind (download) (leading)
(0.925 x 1.35)G4

* 1.5 x 0.5 x S t

= 0.925x 1.35 x

1.0

2.00 kN /mz

24-1

LSwa

* 1.5 x 0.5 x 0.4 * 0.75 x 0.6

Load Gombination5
Permanent and wind (uplift) (leading)
0.925

1.0

Gp

* 7.5wu: 0.925 x 1.0 -

1.5

x 7.25: -0.95

kN

/m2

Results

Load Combination

6.10 6.10a

1.

2.10

1.88

2.00

2.25

1.80

2.15

3. Permanent, snow (leading) and wind 2.55 2.10

2.45

Permanent and imposed (leading)

2. Permanent and snow (leading)

6.10b

(download)

4.

Permanent, snow and wind (download)

2.40 2.10

2.00

-0.88

-0.95

(leading)

5. Permanent and wind (uplift) (leading)

-0.06

The critical

conibination load case

1.9

ANALYSIS OF STEEL STRUCTURES

The design process requires a knowledge of the stiffness and strength of

the structure under load. The basic for this process is a knowledge of the
material behaviour.

The methods of structural analysis are treated in many textbooks. ln most

methods, the distribution of forces and moments throughtout the structure

is determined by using the conditions of static equiribrium and of

geometric compatibility between the members at the joints. The way in
which this is done depends on whether a structure is statically determinate
or is statically indeterminate.
25-1