Steel Bumper Systems

Front Cover Vehicle Illustrations:
Top Section, Left to Right:

Chevy Silverado - stamped facebar, 50XLF steel
P/T Cruiser - stamped reinforcing beam, 120XF steel
Honda Odyssey - roll formed reinforcing beam, 140T steel
Lincoln Navigator - stamped reinforcing beam, 80XLF steel
Bottom Section, Left to Right:

Dodge Durango - stamped reinforcing beam, 50 XLF steel
Ford Mustang - roll formed reinforcing beam, M190HT steel
Ford F-150 - stamped facebar, 50XLF steel
Jeep Wrangler - roll formed facebar, 120XF steel
Steel Bumper Systems for
Passenger Cars and Light Trucks
Revision Number Three

June 30, 2006
American Iron and Steel Institute

Copyright © American Iron and Steel Institute
This publication is for general information only. The information in it

should not be used without first securing competent advice with
respect to its suitability for any given application. The publication of
the information is not intended as a representation or warranty on
the part of American Iron and Steel Institute - or any other person
named herein - that the information is suitable for any general or
particular use or freedom from infringement of any patent or patents.
Anyone making use of the information assumes all liability from such
use.
First Edition, June 1998

First Revision, March 15, 2001
Second Revision, February 15, 2003
Third Revision, June 30, 2006
Contents
Contents i
Figures vi
Tables vii
Preface ix
Introduction x
Objective xiii
1. Bumper systems and components

1.1 Bumper systems 1-1
1.1.1 System selection
1.1.2 Metal facebar system
1.1.3 Plastic fascia and reinforcing beam system
1.1.4 Plastic fascia, reinforcing beam and energy absorption system

1.2 Bumper components 1-3
1.2.1 Fascia
1.2.2 Energy absorbers
1.2.3 Facebar
1.2.4 Reinforcing beam
2. Steel materials 2-1

2.1 Introduction 2-1
2.2 Typical properties of steel grades for facebars 2-2
2.3 Typical properties of steel grades for brackets, supports, and reinforcing beams 2-2
2.4 Elongation versus as-shipped (steel mill) yield strength 2-5
2.5 Elongation versus after-fabrication yield strength 2-5
2.6 Yield strength versus strain rate 2-9
2.7 Sheet steel descriptors 2-11
2.8 SAE J2329 Low-carbon sheet steel 2-12
2.8.1 Steel grade
2.8.2 Types of cold rolled sheet
2.8.3 Types of hot rolled sheet
2.9 SAE J2340 Dent resistant, high-strength and ultra high-strength sheet steel 2-13
2.9.1 Steel grade
2.9.2 Steel type
2.9.3 Hot rolled, cold reduced and metallic coated sheet
2.9.4 Surface conditions for cold reduced and metallic coated sheet
2.9.5 Conditions for hot rolled sheet
i
Contents
2.10 SAE J1562 Zinc and zinc-alloy coated sheet steel 2-15
2.10.1 Galvanizing processes
2.10.2 Types of coatings
2.10.3 Coating mass
2.10.4 Surface quality
2.10.5 Coated sheet thickness
2.10.6 Coating designations
2.11 SAE J403 Carbon steel chemical compositions 2-17

2.11.1 Carbon sheet steel
2.11.2 Boron sheet steel
2.12 SAE J405 Wrought stainless steels 2-18

2.13 SAE Specification and ordering descriptions 2-19
2.14 ASTM A463 Aluminized Sheet Steel 2-21
3. Manufacturing processes
3.1 Stamping 3-1
3.1.1 Stretching
3.1.2 Drawing
3.1.3 Bending
3.1.4 Bending and straightening
3.1.5 Forming limits
3.2 Roll forming 3-5

3.3 Hydroforming 3-7
3.4 Hot forming 3-8
3.5 Bumper beam coatings 3-9
3.5.1 Zinc or zinc-iron coatings
3.5.2 Aluminum coating
3.5.3 Polishing
3.5.4 Chromium coating
3.5.5 Conversion coating
3.5.6 Electrocoating (E-coating)
3.5.7 Paint coating
3.5.8 Autodeposition coating
3.5.9 Powder coating
ii
Contents
4. Manufacturing considerations
4.1 Forming considerations 4-1
4.1.1 Guidelines for roll forming high-strength steel
4.1.2 Guidelines for roll forming ultra high-strength steel
4.1.3 General guidelines for stamping high-strength
and ultra high-strength steels
4.1.4 Guidelines for hat sections stamped from
high-strength or ultra high-strength steels
4.1.5 Rules of thumb for high-strength steel stampings
4.2 Welding considerations 4-21
4.2.1 Steel chemistry
4.2.2 High-strength and ultra high-strength steels
4.2.3 Welding processes
4.2.3.1 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
4.2.3.2 Flux cored arc welding (FCAW)
4.2.3.3 Resistance spot welding (RSW)
4.2.3.4 Resistance projection welding (RPW)
4.2.3.5 Resistance seam welding (RSeW)
4.2.3.6 Resistance projection seam welding (RPSeW)
4.2.3.7 High frequency and induction resistance seam welding (RSeW-HF&I)
4.2.3.8 Upset welding (UW)
4.2.3.9 Friction welding (FRW)
4.2.3.10 Laser beam welding (LBW)
4.2.3.11 Laser beam and plasma arc welding (LBW/PAW)
4.2.4 Weldability of bumper materials
4.2.5 Ranking of welding processes
5. Design concepts
5.1 Sweep (roll formed sections) and depth of draw (stampings) 5-1
5.2 Tailor welded blanks 5-1
5.3 Leading benchmark bumper beams 5-8
5.4 Bumper weights, materials and coatings 5-16
5.5 Current steel bumper design - North American passenger cars and minivans 5-32
5.5.1 Typical bumper design for 5mph (8km/h) low speed system
5.5.2 IIHS/CU design path
5.5.3 Canadian/NHTSA design path
5.6 Current steel bumper design - North American pickups, full size vans and sport utilities 5-36
5.6.1 Flow chart for 2.5mph (4 km/h) low speed system
5.6.3 NHTSA design path
5.7 Auto/Steel Partnership high speed steel bumper design - North American passenger cars 5-39
5.7.1 Quantech design criteria for high speed steel bumper system
5.7.2 Flow Chart for high speed system
iii
Contents
5.8 Bumper design for pedestrian impact 5-42

5.8.1 Impact tests
5.8.2 EuroNCAP leg to bumper impacts with a “leg-form” impactor
5.8.3 Government regulations
5.8.4 Design approaches
5.8.4.1 Cushioning the impact
5.8.4.2 Supporting the lower limb
5.8.5 Design solutions
6. Relevant safety standards in North America and Europe 6-1

6.1 United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (49CFR),
Part 581 Bumper Standard 6-3
6.1.1 Requirements
6.1.2 Pendulum corner impacts
6.1.3 Pendulum longitudinal impacts
6.1.4 Impacts into a fixed collision barrier
6.2 Canadian Motor Vehicle Safety Regulations Standard 215 6-8
6.2.1 Requirements
6.3 Comparison between United States and Canadian Bumper Regulations 6-9
6.3.1 Requirements
iv
Contents
6.4 Insurance Institute for Highway Safety: Low-Speed Crash Test Protocol 6-10
6.4.1 Requirements
6.4.2 Test vehicles
6.4.3 Full-width flat-barrier impact
6.4.4 Right front into 30 degree angle-barrier impact
6.4.5 Rear into pole impact
6.5 Consumers Union bumper-basher tests 6-11
6.5.1 Requirements
6.5.2 Bumper-basher
6.5.3 Center impact
6.5.4 Off-center impact
6.5.5 Corner impact
6.6 Research Council for Automotive Repairs (RCAR) Low-Speed Offset Crash Test 6-12
6.6.1 Requirements
6.6.2 Test vehicle
6.6.3 Front impact
6.6.4 Rear impact
6.6.5 Damageability and repairability
7. Steel versus aluminum and composite bumper beams 7-1

7.1 Types of bumper beams 7-1
7.2 Cost of bumper beams 7-2
8. Conclusions 8-1
9. References 9-1
v
Figures
NORTH AMERICAN BUMPER SYSTEM MARKET SHARE

BY UNITS FOR KNOWN SYSTEMS xii
1.1 COMMON BUMPER SYSTEMS 1-2
1.2 COMMON REINFORCING BEAM CROSS SECTIONS 1-5
2.1 ELONGATION VERSUS YIELD STRENGTH: STEEL AS-SHIPPED FROM THE
STEEL MILL 2-6
2.2 ELONGATION VERSUS YIELD STRENGTH: STEEL AFTER FABRICATION BY
BUMPER SUPPLIER 2-7
2.3 INCREASE IN YIELD STRENGTH THROUGH WORK HARDENING AND BAKE
HARDENING 2-8
2.4 STRESS VERSUS STRAIN AT DIFFERENT STRAIN RATES FOR TRIP 600 2-10
2.5 STRESS VERSUS STRAIN AT DIFFERENT STRAIN RATES FOR DP 600 2-10
3.1 TYPICAL CIRCLE GRID PATTERN 3-2
3.2 REPRESENTATION OF STRAINS BY ETCHED CIRCLES 3-3
3.3 TYPICAL FORMING LIMIT DIAGRAM 3-6
3.4 COATINGS: FRONT REINFORCING BEAMS 3-10
3.5 COATINGS: REAR REINFORCING BEAMS 3-11
4.1 a) RULES OF THUMB - SPRINGBACK 4-4
4.1 b) RULES OF THUMB - SPRINGBACK 4-5
4.1 c) RULES OF THUMB - SPRINGBACK 4-6
4.2 RULES OF THUMB - DIE FLANGE STEELS 4-7
4.3 RULES OF THUMB - HAT SECTION 4-8
4.4 RULES OF THUMB - V-CHANNEL 4-9
4.5 RULES OF THUMB - RADIUS SETTING 4-10
4.6 a) RULES OF THUMB
- COMBINATION FORM AND FLANGE DIE 4-11
4.6 b) RULES OF THUMB
- COMBINATION FORM AND FLANGE DIE 4-12
4.7 RULES OF THUMB - FORMING BEADS 4-13
4.8 RULES OF THUMB - FORMING AN EMBOSS 4-14
4.9 RULES OF THUMB - EDGE SPLITTING 4-15
4.10 RULES OF THUMB - PART DESIGN 4-16
4.11 RULES OF THUMB - DIE CONSTRUCTION 4-17
4.12 RULES OF THUMB - DEVELOPED BLANKS 4-18
4.13 RULES OF THUMB - TRIMMING 4-19
4.14 RULES OF THUMB - DIE SHEAR 4-20
4.15 GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW) 4-25
4.16 FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW) 4-28
4.17 RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING (RSW) 4-30
4.18 RESISTANCE PROJECTION WELDING (RPW) 4-30
4.19 RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING (RSeW) 4-34
4.20 RESISTANCE PROJECTION SEAM WELDING (RPSeW) 4-34
4.21 HIGH FREQUENCY AND INDUCTION RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING
(RSeW-HF&I) 4-37
4.22 UPSET WELDING (UW) 4-37
4.23 FRICTION WELDING (FRW) 4-41
4.24 LASER BEAM WELDING (LBW) 4-41
4.25 HARDNESS IN HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE OF ARC WELDS 4-47
4.26 RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING COMPARISON 4-48
5.1 DEFINITION OF SWEEP 5-2
5.2 DEFINITION OF DEPTH OF DRAW 5-5
5.3 EXAMPLES OF TAILOR WELDED BLANKS 5-6
5.4 ROLL FORMED BEAMS 5-9
5.5 STAMPED BEAMS 5-11
5.6 TYPICAL BUMPER DESIGN FOR 5mph LOW SPEED SYSTEM
NORTH AMERICAN PASSENGER CARS AND MINIVANS 5-35
vi
Figures
5.7 TYPICAL BUMPER DESIGN FOR 2.5mph LOW SPEED SYSTEM NORTH
AMERICAN PICKUPS, FULL SIZE VANS AND SPORT UTILITIES 5-38
5.8 AUTO/STEEL PARTNERSHIP BUMPER DESIGN FOR HIGH SPEED SYSTEM
NORTH AMERICAN PASSENGER CARS 5-41
5.9 EuroNCAP PEDESTRIAN TESTS 5-45
5.10 EuroNCAP LEG FORM IMPACTOR 5-46
5.11 EuroNCAP “LEG FORM” IMPACT CRITERIA (2010) 5-47
6.1 IMPACT PENDULUM 6-5
6.2 IMPACT PENDULUM 6-6
6.3 LOCATIONS OF PLANES A and B 6-7
6.4 SAMPLE IMPACT APPARATUS 6-7
6.5 RCAR FRONT CRASH PROCEDURE 6-14
6.6 RCAR REAR CRASH PROCEDURE 6-15
vii
Tables
2.1 STEEL GRADES FOR POWDER COATED, PAINTED AND CHROME PLATED
FACEBARS 2-3
2.2 STEEL GRADES FOR BRACKETS, SUPPORTS AND REINFORCING BEAMS 2-4
2.3 SAE J2329 LOW-CARBON COLD ROLLED SHEET — MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 2-22
2.4 SAE J2329 LOW-CARBON HOT ROLLED SHEET — MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 2-22
2.5 SAE J2329 LOW-CARBON HOT & COLD ROLLED SHEET —
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 2-23
2.6 SAE J2340 DENT RESISTANT SHEET STEEL 2-23
2.7 SAE J2340 HIGH-STRENGTH SOLUTION STRENGTHENED AND LOW-ALLOY
SHEET STEEL 2-24
2.8 SAE J2340 HIGH-STRENGTH RECOVERY ANNEALED SHEET STEEL 2-24
2.9 SAE J2340 ULTRA HIGH-STRENGTH DUAL PHASE & MARTENSITE SHEET STEEL 2-25
2.10 SAE J1562 COATING MASS FOR GALVANIZED SHEET STEEL 2-26
2.11 SAE J403 CARBON STEEL COMPOSITIONS FOR SHEET 2-27
2.12 SAE J405 CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS OF WROUGHT STAINLESS STEELS 2-27
4.1 SAE J2340 STEELS AND STRENGTH GRADES. 4-23
4.2 SAE J2340 CHEMICAL LIMITS ON UNSPECIFIED ELEMENTS. 4-23
4.3 RANKING OF WELDING PROCESSES BY BUMPER MATERIAL 4-44
5.1 SWEEP NUMBERS (CAMBER, X, INCHES). 5-3
5.2 SWEEP NUMBERS (CAMBER, X, MILLIMETERS). 5-4
5.3 LEADING BENCHMARK BUMPER BEAMS. 5-14
5.4 ROLL FORMED BUMPER BEAMS - THICKNESS, WEIGHT, MATERIAL,
COATINGS AND SWEEP - BEAMS PRODUCED IN THE
2004 CALENDAR YEAR 5-17
5.5 COLD STAMPED BUMPER BEAMS - THICKNESS, WEIGHT, MATERIAL,
COATINGS AND DEPTH-OF-DRAW - BEAMS PRODUCED IN THE
2004 CALENDAR YEAR 5-25
5.6 HOT FORMED BUMPER BEAMS - THICKNESS, WEIGHT, MATERIAL COATINGS
AND DEPTH-OF-DRAW - BEAMS PRODUCED IN THE 2004 CALENDAR YEAR 5-29
6.1 RELEVANT SAFETY STANDARDS IN NORTH AMERICA AND EUROPE. 6-2
7.1 COST OF STEEL FACEBAR SYSTEMS 7-3
7.2 COST OF STEEL REINFORCING BEAM SYSTEMS 7-3
7.3 COST OF REINFORCING BEAMS 7-3
7.4 WEIGHT OF REINFORCING BEAM SYSTEMS 7-4
viii
Preface
This publication is the third revision of Steel Bumper Systems for
Passenger Cars and Light Trucks. It is a living document. As
experience in its use is gained, further revisions and expansions
will be issued.
This publication brings together materials properties, product design

information, manufacturing information and cost information. It
has been prepared to suit the needs of OEM bumper stylists,
bumper engineers and bumper purchasers. It is also intended to
suit the needs of the Tier 1 and 2 bumper suppliers and steel
industry marketing personnel.
This publication was prepared by the Bumper Project Group of the

American Iron and Steel Institute. The efforts of the following
members are acknowledged:
Willie Bernert, Chairperson

Dofasco Inc.
Scott Bulych
A.G. Simpson Co. Limited
Jim Cran
Cran Associates Inc.
DeWayne Egle
Cosma
Karl Henseleit
SKD Automotive Group
Tony Hersberger
Benteler Automotive
Chris Kantner
Mittal Steel USA
Mark Koch
Shape Corporation
Conrad Kudelko
Ford Motor Company
Michael Mihelich
DaimlerChrysler Corporation
Raj Mohan
Severstal North America Inc.
Scott Stokfisz
General Motors Corporation
Ming Tang
Flex-N-Gate
Thomas Vikstrom
Pullman Industries, Inc.
Eric Welte
AK Steel Corporation
Ben Zabik
Meridian Automotive Systems

June 30, 2006
ix
Introduction
In the 1997 model year, almost 28 million bumper units were

supplied to the North American (Canadian and U.S.) original
equipment manufacturers (OEM’s). Of these, 76% were steel,
17.6% composite and 6.4% aluminum (Reference 1.1). About
11.5 million steel units were reinforcing beams covered by a plastic
fascia, about 5.7 million steel units were chrome-plated facebars
and the remaining 4.0 million steel units were painted facebars. By
manufacturing process, approximately 60% of the steel units were
stamped and 40% roll formed. In total, about 300,000 tons of steel
were consumed in the 1997 model year by the North American
bumper reinforcing beam and facebar market.
Bumper systems have changed drastically over the last 20 to 30

years. More demanding government safety regulations and different
styling concepts have resulted in new designs. For example,
reinforcing beams covered by plastic fascias entered the scene in
the early 1970’s. Styling fashion has changed appearance values
from almost 100% chrome-plated facebars to predominately fascia
systems that are color coordinated with the body. The growth of
light trucks, minivans and sport utility vehicles created two classes
of bumper systems in the eyes of the engineering world: one for
passenger cars and one for the broad grouping of light trucks.
Safety concerns have resulted in the bumper beam becoming a part
of the structural load path.
Materials have also changed dramatically. With emphasis on

vehicle performance, especially fuel economy, vehicle weight
considerations were on top of most automotive engineers’ project
lists. High-strength and ultra high-strength steels were developed.
These permitted designers to reduce sheet metal thickness, hence
weight.
Business management practices have changed. In the past, the

vehicle assemblers (OEM’s) produced most of the bumper systems,
with only a handful of relatively small independent stampers
supplementing the market’s total needs. Now, the OEM’s are a
minor manufacturing player, relying heavily on a growing industry
devoted in some cases to producing nothing but bumper
components and systems. In fact, most of these independent
manufacturers supply all of the design details and verification
testing. The OEM’s supply the big picture requirements, i.e., how
the bumper system fits into the overall vehicle appearance, how it
will be affixed to the vehicle, weight limitations, outer boundary
size limitations, etc.
Bumper systems, like all automotive components, are still subject to

constant change. The shift to fascia-covered reinforcing beam
systems from facebars continues in the light truck area. The shift
back to steel from more costly aluminum and composite systems
continues. The trend to higher yield strength steel continues. There
is more integration with fog lamps, head lights, turning lights and
grills. The OEM’s are increasingly relying on their bumper suppliers
to provide technical innovations.
x
For reasons of low cost and light weight, steel is well positioned in
the current bumper system market. Further, even though this
market is undergoing constant change, steel is strengthening its
position. As shown in the figure on page xii, steel’s market share
was forecasted to increase from 76.0% in the 1997 model year to
84.2% in the 2001 model year. Over this same period, aluminum’s
share dropped from 6.4% to 1.9% and the share held by
composites decreased from 17.6% to 13.9%.
The bumper market, at 300,000 tons per year of mainly high-

strength steel, is important to the North American steel industry.
For this reason, the Automotive Applications Committee of the
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) established a Bumper
Project Group. In view of the fact there is little, if any, published
information on bumper systems, the Bumper Project Group
prepared this technical information bulletin to provide fundamental
background information on North American bumper systems.
xi
NORTH AMERICAN BUMPER SYSTEM MARKET
SHARE BY UNITS FOR KNOWN SYSTEMS
7%
6%
5%
4%
3%
2%
1%
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
ALUMINUM
18%
15%
12%
9%
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
COMPOSITES
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
STEEL
Source: CSM Corporation (Reference 1.1)
xii
Objective
The purpose of this publication is to increase the reader’s

understanding of passenger car and light truck bumper systems.
It is an overview of an automotive component system, which has
undergone significant change in recent years. The information
provided is aimed at automotive industry design, manufacturing,
purchasing and safety related staffs; and steel industry sales and
marketing groups. The emphasis is on materials, design,
manufacturing, government regulations and cost. It is a living
document and revisions and additions will be made as experience
is gained. The AISI Bumper Project Group hopes this publication
will increase the reader’s knowledge of bumper systems and help
overcome engineering challenges.
xiii
1. Bumper systems and components
1.1 Bumper systems

1.1.1 System selection
There are several factors that an engineer must consider when
selecting a bumper system. The most important factor is the ability
of the bumper system to absorb enough energy to meet the OEM’s
internal bumper standard. Another important factor is the bumper’s
ability to absorb energy and stay intact at high-speed impacts.
Weight, manufacturability and cost are also issues that engineers
consider during the design phase. Both initial bumper cost and
repair cost are important. The formability of materials is important
for high-sweep bumper systems. Another factor considered is
recyclability of materials, which is a definite advantage for steel.
As shown in Figure 1.1, there are four bumper systems in common

use today:
1. Metal facebar
2. Plastic fascia and reinforcing beam
3. Plastic fascia, reinforcing beam and mechanical

energy absorbers
4. Plastic fascia, reinforcing beam and foam or

honeycomb energy absorber
1.1.2 Metal facebar system

A metal facebar system, as shown in Figure 1.1 A, consists of a
single metallic bumper that decorates the front or rear end of a
vehicle and acts as the primary energy absorber in a collison.
The bumper regulations in the United States require passenger cars

to withstand a 2.5 mph (4 km/h) impact at the curb position plus or
minus two inches (50mm) with no visual damage and no damage
to safety related items. The Canadian passenger car regulations call
for a 5 mph (8 km/h) impact, however limited damage is permitted.
The North American OEM’s voluntarily design their passenger car
bumpers to withstand a 5 mph (8 km/h) impact with no visual
damage and no damage to safety items. Current facebar systems
can only withstand a 2.5 mph (4 km/h) impact at the curb position
plus or minus 2 inches (50mm) with no visual damage and no
damage to safety items. For this reason, the use of current facebar
systems is restricted to light trucks. The aesthetics of facebars
match the styling trend for full size vans, pickups and sport
utilities. Thus, most facebars are presently being applied to these
vehicles.
If the design standard for light truck bumpers were to rise to the 5
mph (8 km/h) voluntary passenger car standard, then the facebar
systems used on full size vans, pickups and sport utilities would
have to be redesigned. For the reason of weight, such redesigns
would likely revert to systems that employ a reinforcing beam.
1-1
FIGURE 1.1
COMMON BUMPER SYSTEMS
1-2
1.1.3 Plastic fascia and reinforcing beam system
This system, as shown in Figure 1.1 B, consists of a plastic fascia
and a reinforcing beam that is fastened directly to the vehicle frame
or motor compartment rails. It is primarily used in Europe and
Japan, where bumper regulations are less stringent than those in
North America. On many vehicles in Europe and Japan, the
reinforcing beam in this system also serves as the first structural
cross-member. While this arrangement leads to a small sacrifice in
bumper performance, it increases vehicle crashworthiness. If the
reinforcing beam is part of the body-in-white, the favored material
is steel because of the structural requirements associated with a
cross-member. Also, steel is fully compatible with the body-in-
white E-coat and paint systems used by the OEM’s.
1.1.4 Plastic fascia, reinforcing beam and energy absorption system

Bumper systems with a plastic fascia, reinforcing beam and energy
absorption are used primarily in North America. These readily meet
the 5 mph (8 km/h) voluntary bumper standard set by the North
American OEM’s. While all passenger cars and most minivans in
the United States and Canada have this type of system, the method
of energy absorption varies. Energy can be absorbed by a
mechanical absorber (Figure 1.1 C), by foam or honeycomb (Figure
1.1 D), or by the reinforcing beam itself (Figure 1.1 B).
1.2 Bumper components

1.2.1 Fascia
Bumper fascias (Figure 1.1) are designed to meet several
requirements. They must be aerodynamic to control the flow of the
air around the car and the amount of air entering the engine
compartment. They must be aesthetically pleasing to the consumer.
Typical fascias are styled with many curves and ridges to give
bumpers dimension and to distinguish vehicles from competing
models. Another requirement of bumper fascias is that they be easy
to manufacture and light in weight. Virtually all fascias are made
from one of three materials: polypropylene, polyurethane or
polycarbonate.
1.2.2 Energy absorbers
Energy absorbers (Figure 1.1) are designed to absorb a portion of
the kinetic energy from a vehicle collision. Energy absorbers are
very effective in a low speed impact, where the bumper springs
back to its original position. Energy absorber types include foam,
honeycomb and mechanical devices. All foam and honeycomb
absorbers are made from one of three materials: polypropylene,
polyurethane or low-density polyethylene. Mechanical absorbers
are metallic and resemble shock absorbers. However, mechanical
absorbers have several times the weight of a foam or honeycomb
absorber and receive very limited usage. In some bumper systems,
the reinforcing beam itself is designed to absorb energy and
separate energy absorbers are not required.
1-3
1.2.3 Facebar
Facebars (Figure 1.1) are usually stamped from steel with lots of
plastic or stainless steel trim to dress them up. A small volume of
facebars is produced from aluminum. Steel facebars, for formability
reasons, are usually made from steels with a low to medium yield
strength. Thus, facebars are quite thick. This thickness (plus the
fact facebars are deep and have large wrap around ends) gives
facebars a relatively heavy weight. After stamping, steel facebars
are chrome plated or painted for appearance and corrosion
protection reasons.
1.2.4 Reinforcing beam

The reinforcing beams (Figure 1.1) are key components of the
bumper systems that employ them. Reinforcement beams help
absorb the kinetic energy from a collision and provide protection to
the rest of the vehicle. By staying intact during a collision, beams
preserve the frame. Design issues for reinforcing beams include
strength, manufacturability, weight, recyclability and cost.
Steel reinforcing beams are stamped, roll formed or made by the

Plannja process. Typical cross sections are shown in Figure 1.2.
A stamped beam is advantageous in high-volume production and
offers complex shapes. However, the stamping process is capital
intensive and the process itself requires good formability from the
steel. The Plannja process is a hot stamping process, which was
developed in Sweden. While it results in high-strength beams, it is
relatively expensive due to its low production rate. Roll formed
beams account for the majority of the steel reinforcing beams used
today. Common cross sections for roll formed beams are box, C or
channel, and hat. Typically, these cross sections are made of ultra
high-strength steels at very thin gauges. A back plate is sometimes
welded to an open channel or hat section to create a box section.
All steel reinforcing beams receive corrosion protection. Some

beams are made from hot-dip galvanized or electrogalvanized
sheet. The zinc coating on these products provides excellent
corrosion protection. Other beams are protected after fabrication
with a paint system such as E-coat.
1-4
FIGURE 1.2
COMMON REINFORCING BEAM CROSS SECTIONS
1-5
2. Steel materials
2.1 Introduction
Flat rolled steels are versatile materials. They provide strength and
stiffness with favorable mass-to-cost ratios, and they allow high
speed fabrication. In addition, they offer excellent corrosion
resistance when coated, high energy absorption capacity, good
fatigue properties, high working hardening rates, aging capability,
excellent paintability, ease of repair and complete recyclability.
These characteristics, plus the availability of high-strength and ultra
high-strength steels, have made sheet steel the material of choice in
the automotive industry.
Numerous steel types and grades offer designers a wide choice for
any given application. Bumper steels with elongations up to 60%
facilitate forming operations. Bumper steels with yield strengths up
to 1420 MPa (205 ksi) facilitate mass reduction.
High-strength steel grades are defined as those having a minimum

yield strength greater than or equal to 240 MPa (35 ksi) and/or a
minimum tensile strength less than or equal to 550 MPa (80 ksi).
Ultra high-strength strength steel grades are defined as those
having a minimum tensile strength greater than 550 MPa (80 ksi).
Low-carbon steels have excellent ductility. They are widely used

for body and underbody components that are formed by stamping,
roll forming or hydroforming. However, in order to reduce
component mass, low-carbon steels are gradually being replaced
by steels of greater strength. As the name implies, dent resistant
steels are commonly used for body panels such as quarter, door
and hood. Their relatively low as-received yield strength facilitates
forming. Cold work of forming and bake hardening during the
automotive paint cycle increase their yield strength and dent
resistance. Microalloy steels usually have less ductility than low-
carbon and dent resistant steels. However, they can be supplied
with the necessary ductility to produce most automotive parts.
Carbon-boron steel has good formability and high yield strength
after heat treating. Dual phase steel also offers good formability. Its
strength increases significantly through cold work during the
fabrication process. Recovery annealed and martensitic steels have
ultra high yield strengths. However, their formability limits their use
to roll formed sections and less severe stampings. Stainless steels
offer excellent corrosion resistance, excellent formability and high
yield strength.
2-1
2.2 Typical properties of steel grades for facebars
The steel grades that are commonly used for facebars are shown with
their typical properties in Table 2.1. Most facebars are made from high-
strength steel [minimum yield strength higher than 240 MPa (35 ksi)].
For comparative purposes, Table 2.1 also includes similar SAE grades.
It is important to note that the similar SAE grades are not equivalent
grades. That is, there are minor differences between the SAE grades
and the common grades to which they are similar. The differences
might be significant in some applications.
Facebars, due to their depth of draw and complex shape, are

produced by the stamping process. Steels of high formability are
required and all of the grades shown in Table 2.1 can be supplied to
meet the demanding requirements of a facebar stamping. Facebars are
either powder coated, painted or chrome plated so a high-quality sur-
face is required on the steel sheet. The steel mills use special processing
from casting, slab surfacing, hot rolling and tempering in the production
of facebar steel. In addition, the majority of the sheet steel used for
plated facebars is flat polished prior to the stamping operation.
2.3 Typical properties of steel grades for brackets, supports and reinforcing beams
The steel grades that are commonly used for brackets, supports and
reinforcing beams, are shown with their typical properties in Table 2.2.
Most reinforcing beams are made from ultra high-strength steel
[minimum tensile strength greater than 550 MPa (80 ksi)].
For comparative purposes, Table 2.2 also includes similar SAE grades.
It is important to note that the similar SAE grades are not equivalent
grades. That is, there are minor differences between the SAE grades
and the common grades they are similar to. The differences might be
significant in some applications.
All of the high-strength steel grades in Table 2.2 can be supplied with
sufficient formability for the production of stamped brackets, supports
and reinforcing beams. They can also be readily roll formed into
reinforcing beams.
Generally speaking, the ultra high-strength steel grades in Table 2.2

have less formability than the high-strength grades listed in Table 2.2.
However, they offer significant weight reduction opportunities and are
commonly used for less severe stampings and roll formed reinforcing
beams. Grades 120XF and 135XF have sufficient ductility to produce
stampings, including reinforcing beams, provided the amount of draw
is minimal. Grade 140T has a relatively low as-delivered yield strength,
which facilitates stamping and roll forming operations. An advantage
of this grade is the fact it work-hardens significantly during forming. In
fact, the yield strength after forming approaches 965 MPa (140 ksi).
Thus, 140T offers sufficient formability to produce roll formed beams
with a large sweep and it provides high yield strength in the finished
part. Grades 140XF and M130HT through M220HT have low formability
and their use is generally restricted to roll formed reinforcing beams
since roll forming is a process of gradual bending without drawing.
The Carbon-Boron grades can be used to produce complex parts
through the hot stamping process. After quenching, the parts have
yield strengths around 1140 MPa (165 ksi). The SS grades are readily
stamped or roll formed. Their excellent corrosion resistance obviates
the need for protective coatings.
2-2
TABLE 2.1
STEEL GRADES FOR POWDER COATED, PAINTED & CHROME PLATED FACEBARS
TYPICAL PROPERTIES AS-SHIPPED FROM THE STEEL MILL
MATERIAL GRADE DESCRIPTION TYPICAL TYPICAL TYPICAL TYPICAL SIMILAR SAE

(COMMON YIELD TENSILE ELONG "n" GRADE
NAME) STRENGTH STRENGTH (%) VALUE
MPa (ksi) MPa (ksi)
HR 1008/1010 Low-carbon 269 (39.0) 386 (56.0) 35 0.19 J403 1010

HR 35XLF Microalloy 331 (48.0) 407 (59.0) 35 0.17 J2329 Grade 2
HR 50XLF Microalloy 403 (58.5) 480 (69.6) 31 0.17 J2340 340X
CR 1008/1010 Low-carbon 296 (42.9) 331 (48.0) 35 0.20 J403 1010

CR DR210 Dent resistant 220 (31.9) 360 (52.2) 40 0.20 J2340 210A
CR 35XLF Microalloy 285 (41.3) 400 (58.0) 35 0.17 J2329 Grade 2
CR 40XLF Microalloy 315 (45.7) 425 (61.6) 33 0.16 J2340 300X
2-3
SS T301 Austenitic 276 (40) 758 (110.0) 60 0.45 J405 S30100

SS T204 Austenitic 370 (53.8) 689 (100.0) 59 0.44 J405 S20400
NOTES:
HR Hot rolled sheet
CR Cold rolled sheet
1008/1010 Low-carbon commercial quality (CQ). Mechanical properties are not certified.
DR Dent resistant quality. Strength increases due to work hardening during forming.
Designation number (e.g. 210) is minimum yield strength in MPa.
XLF Microalloy quality. Strength is obtained through small quantities of alloying elements such as vanadium and niobium.
Designation number (e.g. 50) is minimum yield strength in ksi.
SS Stainless steel
TABLE 2.2
STEEL GRADES FOR BRACKETS, SUPPORTS AND REINFORCING BEAMS
TYPICAL PROPERTIES AS-SHIPPED FROM THE STEEL MILL
MATERIAL GRADE DESCRIPTION TYPICAL TYPICAL TYPICAL TYPICAL SIMILAR SAE
(COMMON YIELD TENSILE ELONG "n" GRADE
NAME) STRENGTH STRENGTH (%) VALUE
MPa (ksi) MPa (ksi)
MPa (ksi) MPa (ksi)
HIGH-STRENGTH STEEL GRADES

HDG (CR) 50XLF Microalloy 379 (54.9) 453 (65.7) 30 0.17 J2340 340X
ULTRA HIGH-STRENGTH STEEL GRADES
HR 10B21(M) Carbon-Boron 320 (46.4) 480 (69.6) 18 N/A J403 10B21
CR 15B21(M) Carbon-Boron 330 (47.9) 500 (72.5) 27 N/A J403 15B21

CR 15B24 Carbon-Boron 330 (47.9) 500 (72.5) 27 N/A J403 15B24
Aluminized (CR) 15B21(M) Carbon-Boron 330 (47.9) 500 (72.5) 27 N/A J403 15B21
CR 120XF Recovery Annealed 869 (126) 883 (128) 12 N/A J2340 830R
CR 135XF Recovery Annealed 969 (141) 985 (143) 7.0 N/A --
CR 140XF Recovery Annealed 1010 (147) 1028 (149) 5.6 N/A --
HDG (CR) 120XF Recovery Annealed 876 (127) 889 (129) 11 N/A J2340 700R
CR 140T Dual Phase 634 (92) 1034 (150) 13 N/A J2340 950DL
CR 590T Dual Phase 371 (54) 634 (92) 24 N/A –
CR 780T Dual Phase 518 (75) 834 (121) 18 N/A –
CR M130HT Martensitic 923 (134) 1055 (153) 5.4 N/A J2340 900M
CR M220HT Martensitic 1420 (206) 1627 (236) 4.7 N/A J23401500M
EG (CR) M130HT Martensitic 923 (134) 1055 (153) 5.4 N/A J2340 900M
EG (CR) M220HT Martensitic 1420 (206) 1627 (236) 4.7 N/A J23401500M
SS T301 1/4 Hard Condition 517 (75) 862 (125) 25 0.25 J405 S30100
SS T204 20% Cold Worked 779 (113) 1193 (173) 25 0.22 J405 S20400
NOTES:
HR Hot rolled sheet

CR Cold rolled sheet
HDG (CR) Hot-dip galvanized (cold rolled base) sheet
EG (CR) Electrogalvanized (cold rolled base) sheet
Aluminized (CR) Hot dip aluminized (cold rolled base) sheet
SS Stainless steel
XLF Microalloy quality. Strength is obtained through small quantities of alloying elements such as
vanadium and niobium. Designation number (e.g. 50) is mimimum yield strength in ksi.
..B..(M) Carbon-boron quality (Modified). Properties are for the steel as-shipped from the steel mill. Strength
is achieved through heating and quenching. After quenching, the yield strength is about 1140 MPa
(165ksi)
..B.. Carbon-boron quality. Properties are for the steel as-shipped from the steel mill. Strength is achieved
through heating and quenching. After quenching, the yield strength is about 1140 MPa (165ksi)
XF Recovery annealed quality. Strength is achieved primarily through cold work during cold rolling at
the steel mill. Designation number (e.g. 120) is minimum yield strength in ksi.
140T Dual phase quality. Structure contains martensite in ferrite matrix. Properties are for the steel
as-shipped from the steel mill. Designation number (e.g. 140) is the minimum tensile strength in ksi.
M...HT Martensitic quality. Strength is determined by carbon content. Designation number (e.g. 130) is the
minimum tensile strength in ksi.
N/A Not applicable. The Carbon-Boron steels listed are intended for hot forming. The Recovery
Annealed and Martensitic steels are primarily used in roll forming operations. However, they may be
used for stampings provided the amount of draw is minimal. The “n” value for Dual Phase steels is
very dependent on the range over which it is calculated.
2-4
2.4 Elongation versus as-shipped (steel mill) yield strength
AHSS (advanced high-strength steel) Guidelines published by the
International Iron and Steel Institute (Reference 2.4) provide a
comparison between the various families of steel products in the
form of as-shipped yield strength versus formability (Figure 2.1).
The latter is represented by the total elongation of each material
class. Each bubble in the graph represents the typical properties
of all steel products in each category of steels, as produced by
most of the major steel makers around the world. The bubbles are:
• IF (interstitial free) products
• IS (isotropic) products
• Mild (mild steel) products
• BH (bake hardenable) products
• CMn (carbon-manganese and carbon-boron) products
• HSLA (high strength low-alloy) products
• TRIP (transformation induced plasticity) products
• DP, CP (dual phase, complex phase) products
• T204 austenitic stainless steel
• MART (martensitic) products
The above bubbles may be placed into three groups: Conventional

HSS (high-strength steel), stainless steel and AHSS.
The purpose of Fig. 2.1 is threefold:
a. To visually display the tradeoffs between strength and ductility.
b. To provide an indication of the current trends in new steel
product development, and
c. To allow for a first-cut material family selection for various
applications.
It is clear from the graph that most of the traditional steel products
obey an inverse relationship between strength and ductility.
Bucking this trend are the dual phase and complex phase families
of steel products. These products, although available for at least
twenty years, have just recently attracted the attention they
deserve for their excellent combination of higher strength and very
good ductility, making them suitable for energy-absorption
applications. Carrying this concept a step further are the TRIP
(TRansformation Induced Plasticity) steels. Although the principles
underlying these steel products were available and understood at
least thirty years ago, only now are these steels becoming available
for automotive body applications. TRIP steels provide further
enhanced potential for energy absorption at thinner gauges, thus
making it possible for a vehicle structure to provide improved
safety at lower mass.
2.5 Elongation versus after-fabrication yield strength

The above data are all based on tensile properties obtained from
undeformed materials. In actual service the steel sheets are
strained during fabrication, which is known to increase their
strength and decrease their ductility. Many of the formed parts are
also subsequently painted and baked to cure the paint. Although
not all steels respond to the straining and baking process many of
them do. Key among them are the so-called Bake Hardening (BH),
the Dual Phase (DP) and the TRIP steels. The net effect of this is to
further shift the bubbles to the right of the chart and a little lower
(Figure 2.2). This has no significant effect on forming of the steel
but it can certainly affect its performance in service. The effect is
usually beneficial as straining and baking increase the stress levels
at which permanent deformation begins.
2-5
FIGURE 2.1
ELONGATION VERSUS YIELD STRENTH: STEEL AS-SHIPPED FROM THE STEEL MILL
2-6
FIGURE 2.2
ELONGATION VERSUS YIELD STRENTH: STEEL AFTER-FABRICATION BY BUMPER SUPPLIER
Elongation (%)
T204 Stainless
CMn TRIP
DP, CP
HSLA
MART
Lower Yield Strength ( MPa)
Work performed by the member steel companies of the International Iron and Steel
Institute (IISI) quantified the effect of work hardening (WH) and bake hardening (BH)
on the yield strength of certain dual phase and TRIP steels and compared it to that of
HSLA 340 material. These results are provided below and shown graphically in
Figure 2.3.
STEEL INCREASE INCREASE TOTAL INCREASE

GRADE DUE TO WH DUE TO BH IN YIELD STRENGTH
TRIP 350/600 17% 21% 38%
DP 350/600 32% 13% 45%
HSLA 350/600 6% 0% 6%
2-7
FIGURE 2.3
INCREASE IN YIELD STRENGTH THROUGH WORK HARDENING (WH)
AND BAKE HARDENING (BH)
2-8
2.6 Yield strength versus strain rate
More recently, consideration was given to the impact of the rate of
straining of a particular material or component on its performance.
Since steel is a strain rate sensitive material, its yield strength
increases as the loading rate increases. This provides further
benefits in its ability to sustain and absorb higher loads and higher
input energy, such as in the case of deformation of a bumper or
other structural component. Again, this is not a new discovery but
it was only through the introduction of the advanced vehicle
concepts phase of the ULSAB (UltraLight Steel Auto Body)
development that this benefit of steel began to be introduced in
structural design of automobile components. Considerable effort
was then expended in various laboratories around the world to
generate tensile data at straining rates ranging from quasi-static
(10-3 s-1) to 103 s-1 for many of the above steel grades. The effect
of the higher strain rate on the strength and ductility for TRIP 600
and DP 600 steels is provided in Figures 2.4 and 2.5, respectively.
The data for these steels and other products of interest for bumper
construction are available from many steel producers and can be
made available for use in the design of bumpers and other
energy-absorbing components.
Use of the tensile properties of steels at higher rates of loading has

begun in automotive design and is expected to be universally used
as more data for more steel grades become available and as
automotive designers become more comfortable with the reliability
of these data.
2-9
FIGURE 2.4
STRESS VERSUS STRAIN AT DIFFERENT STRAIN RATES FOR TRIP 600.
THE DATA AT 1000 s-1 WERE OBTAINED USING THE
SPLIT HOPKINSON BAR (SHB) METHOD
FIGURE 2.5
STRESS VERSUS STRAIN AT DIFFERENT STRAIN RATES FOR DP 600.
THE DATA AT 1000 s-1 WERE OBTAINED USING THE
SPLIT HOPKINSON BAR (SHB) METHOD
2-10
2.7 Sheet steel descriptors
Sheet steel is a complex product and there are many methods
used to describe it. The following descriptors are often associated
with automotive sheet steel:
a) Type Chemical composition, microstructure

processing method or end use are all
used to describe the type of steel.
Examples include low-carbon, dent
resistant, microalloy, high-strength low
alloy, recovery annealed, dual phase,
bainitic and martensitic sheet.
b) Grade Physical properties such as yield strength,

tensile strength or elongation are used to
denote a grade. Examples include 180
MPa minimum yield strength and 1500
MPa minimum tensile strength.
c) Steel Product The final process that steel receives

before shipment from a steel mill is often
used to describe a steel product.
Examples include hot rolled, cold rolled
and coated sheet.
d) Metallic Coating The process used to apply a metallic

coating or the type of metal in the
metallic coating are used to describe
steel. Examples include hot-dip
galvanized, electrogalvanized and zinc
coated sheet.
e) Surface Condition Surface smoothness is used to describe

sheet steel. Examples are exposed,
semi-exposed or unexposed body sheet.
In practice, when specifying sheet steel, most (if not all) of the
above descriptors are required to fully describe the desired steel
product. Published documents, such as those of the Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE) greatly facilitate the correct
specification of sheet steel. In this context, the relevant SAE
documents are:
• Categorization and Properties of Low-Carbon Automotive Sheet

Steels, SAE J2329 (Reference 2.1)
• Categorization and Properties of Dent Resistant, High Strength
and Ultra High Strength Automotive Sheet Steel, SAE J2340
(Reference 6.4)
• Selection of Galvanized (Hot Dipped and Electrodeposited) Steel
Sheet, SAE J1562 (Reference 2.2)
• Chemical Compositions of SAE Carbon Steels, SAE J403
(Reference 2.3)
• Chemical Compositions of SAE Wrought Stainless Steels, SAE
J405 (Reference 2.5)
2-11
2.8 SAE J2329 Low-carbon sheet steel
This SAE Recommended Practice furnishes a categorization
procedure to aid in selecting low-carbon sheet steel. The system
employs four characters. The first two alphabetic characters
denote hot rolled (HR) or cold rolled (CR) method of manufacture.
The third character defines grade (one through five) based on yield
strength range, minimum tensile strength, minimum percent
elongation, minimum rm value, and minimum n-value.
The fourth alphabetic character (E,U,R,F,N or M) classifies the steel

type with regards to surface quality and/or aging character. An
optional fifth character may be used to restrict carbon content to a
minimum of 0.015%. If the sheet steel is a metallic coated
product, then thE-coating would be specified in accordance with
SAE J1562 (see Section 2.10).
Examples of typical specification and ordering descriptions for

automotive sheet steel are given in Section 2.13.
2.8.1 Steel grade

There are five grades of cold rolled sheet and three grades of hot
rolled sheet. Mechanical properties are shown in Tables 2.3 and
2.4, while chemical composition is shown in Table 2.5 (pages 2-23
and 2-24).
2.8.2 Types of cold rolled sheet

There are two types of cold rolled sheet, either in the bare or
coated condition:
•E Exposed. Intended for critical exposed applications where

painted surface appearance is of primary importance.
•U Unexposed. Intended for unexposed applications.
2.8.3 Types of hot rolled sheet

There are four types of hot rolled sheet, either bare or in the
metallic coated condition:
•R A coiled product straight off the hot mill, typically known

as hot roll black band.
•F A processed product in coils or cut lengths. The product
may be susceptible to aging and coil breaks.
•N A processed product in coils or cut lengths. The product
is non-aging at room temperature but is susceptible to coil
breaks.
•M A processed product in coils or cut lengths. This product
is non-aging at room temperature and free from coil
breaks.
When specifying a hot rolled sheet, the surface condition should

also be indicated (E or U as per Section 2.8.2).
2-12
2.9 SAE J2340 Dent resistant, high-strength and ultra high-strength sheet steel
This SAE Recommended Practice defines mechanical properties for
dent resistant, high-strength and ultra high-strength sheet steel. The
properties for dent resistant steels are shown in Table 2.6, the
properties for high-strength steels in Tables 2.7 and 2.8, and the
properties for ultra high-strength steels in Table 2.9 (pages 2-23 to
2-25).
It should be noted that the yield and tensile strength values for the
ultra high-strength steels covered by J2340 (Table 2.9) are those
commonly used in Europe. For example, J2340 and Europe use
values such as 600, 800, 1000 and 1200. On the other hand,
values such as 590, 780, 980 and 1180 are widely used in North
America and Japan. Currently, SAE’s Iron and Steel Technical
Committee is revising J2340 to cover ultra high-strength steel
grades widely used not only in Europe but also in North America
and Japan.
SAE J2340 also furnishes a categorization procedure to aid in

selecting dent resistant, high-strength and ultra high-strength steels.
The system employs several characters:
• The first two characters denote hot rolled (HR) or cold rolled
(CR) method of manufacture.
• The next three or four characters denote the grade of steel.
Minimum yield strength in MPa is used for dent resistant and
high-strength steels and minimum tensile strength in MPa is used
for ultra high-strength steels. Refer to Tables 2.6 - 2.9. The final
set of characters denotes the steel type. Refer to Section 2.9.2.
If the sheet steel is a metallic coated product, then thE-coating

would be specified in accordance with SAE J1562 (see Section
2.10).

automotive sheet are given in Section 2.13.
2.9.1 Steel grade
In Tables 2.6, 2.7 and 2.8 (dent resistant and high-strength steels)
grade is the minimum yield strength in MPa. In Table 2.9, (ultra
high-strength steels) grade is the minimum tensile strength in MPa.
2-13
2.9.2 Steel type
In Tables 2.6 to 2.9, type is defined by one or two letters as
follows:
•A A non-bake hardenable dent resistant steel in

which increase in yield strength due to work
hardening results from strain during forming.
•B A bake hardenable dent resistant steel in which
increase in yield strength due to work hardening
results from strain during forming and an
additional increase in yield strength that occurs
during the paint-baking process.
• AT, BT These types are similar to Types A and B
respectively, except that the steel is interstitial
free.
•S A high-strength steel, which is solution
strengthened using C and Mn in
combination with P or Si.
•X A high-strength steel typically referred to as HSLA.
It is alloyed with carbide and nitride forming
elements (commonly Nb (Cb), Ti and V) in
combination with C, Mn, P and Si.
•Y A high-strength steel similar to Type X, except the
spread between the minimum yield and tensile
strengths is larger (100 MPa versus 70 MPa).
• SF,XF,YF These types are similar to types S, X and Y
respectively, except they are sulphide inclusion
controlled.
•R A high-strength steel that has been recovery
annealed or stress-relief annealed. Its strength is
primarily achieved through cold work during cold
rolling at the steel mill.
• DL A dual phase ultra high-strength steel. Its
microstructure is comprised of ferrite and
martensite. The strength level is dictated by the
volume of low-carbon martensite. DL dual phase
has a low ratio of yield-to-tensile strength (less
than or equal to 0.7).
• DH A dual phase ultra high-strength steel similar to
Type DL, except it has a high ratio of yield to
tensile strength (greater than 0.7).
•M A martensitic ultra high-strength steel whose
carbon content determines the strength level.
2.9.3 Hot rolled, cold reduced and metallic coated sheet
The steels in Tables 2.6 to 2.9 can be specified as either hot rolled
sheet or cold rolled sheet in either the bare or metallic coated
condition. Hot-dipped or electrogalvanized coated sheets are
covered by SAE J1562 (Section 2.10). All of the steels shown in
Tables 2.6 to 2.9 may not be commercially available in all types of
coatings. Consult your steel supplier. Also, hot rolled sheet for the
steels shown in Tables 2.6 to 2.9 may not be commercially
available in thicknesses below 1.5-2.5 mm. Again, consult your
steel supplier.
2-14
2.9.4 Surface conditions for cold reduced and metallic coated sheet
Cold reduced and metallic coated sheet steel is available in three
surface conditions:
•E Exposed. Intended for critical exposed applications where

painted surface appearance is of primary importance.
•U Unexposed. Intended for unexposed applications.
•Z Semi-exposed. Intended for non-critical exposed
applications.
2.9.5 Conditions for hot rolled sheet

Four conditions of hot rolled sheet are available:
•P A coiled product straight off the hot mill, typically known

as hot roll black band.
•W A processed product in coils or cut lengths. The product
may be susceptible to aging.
•N A processed product in coils or cut lengths. The
mechanical properties do not deteriorate at room
temperature.
•V A processed product in coils or cut lengths. The
mechanical properties do not deteriorate at room
temperature. The product is free of coil breaks.
When specifying a hot rolled sheet, the desired surface condition

should also be indicated (E,U or Z as per Section 2.9.4).
2.10 SAE J1562 Zinc and zinc-alloy coated sheet steel

This SAE Recommended Practice defines preferred product
characteristics for galvanized coatings applied to sheet steel. A
galvanized coating is defined as a zinc or zinc-alloy metallic
coating.
2.10.1 Galvanizing processes

Two generic processes for metallic coated sheets are currently
used in the automotive industry:
• Hot-dip process. A coil of sheet steel is passed continuously

through a molten metal bath. Upon emergence from the bath,
the molten metal coating mass is controlled by air (or other gas)
knives or mechanical wipers before the coating solidifies. This
process produces a sheet with a coating on two sides.
• Electrodeposition process. This continuous coating process uses
cells in which the metallic coating is electrodeposited on a coil of
sheet steel. This process can produce a sheet with a coating on
either one or two sides.
2-15
2.10.2 Types of coatings
The types of commercially produced metallic coatings include:
• Hot-dip galvanized. Essentially a pure zinc coating applied by
the hot-dip galvanizing process.
• Electrogalvanized. Essentially a pure zinc coating applied by the
electrodeposition galvanizing process.
• Galvannealed. A zinc-iron alloy coating applied by the hot-dip
galvanizing process. The coating typically contains 8-12% iron
by weight.
• Alloy. Aluminum-zinc silicon alloy (55%, 43% and 2% by weight
respectively) and zinc-aluminum alloy (5% aluminum by weight)
coatings are applied by the hot-dip galvanizing process.
Zinc-iron alloy (<20% iron by weight) and zinc-nickel (<20%
nickel by weight) coatings are applied by the electrodeposition
process.
Zinc coated sheet (hot-dip galvanized and electrogalvanized) offers

superior corrosion resistance. Through sacrificial electrochemical
action, zinc coatings protect bare (cut) edges. Galvanneal, due to
its lighter zinc content, has less corrosion resistance than pure zinc
coatings. However, its iron content provides enhanced spot
weldability and paintability. Hot-dip galvanized, electrogalvanized
and galvanneal are, by far, the most commonly used coatings for
vehicle components. Zinc-aluminum and zinc-nickel coatings have
niche applications. For example, zinc-aluminum alloy offers
improved corrosion resistance to acids; hence, it is often used for
mufflers.
2.10.3 Coating mass
Coating mass is expressed in g/m2. The approximate thickness of

a coating in microns = g/m2 x 0.14. The approximate thickness of
a coating in mils = g/m2 x 0.006. The heavier the coating mass,
the greater the corrosion resistance of a metallic coated sheet.
However, spot weldability decreases with an increase in coating
mass.
2.10.4 Surface quality
Three surface qualities may be specified:
• Exposed
• Semi-exposed
• Unexposed
2.10.5 Coated sheet thickness

The thickness of metallic coated sheet steel is determined by
measuring, as a single unit, the combination of the base sheet steel
and all metallic coatings.
2-16
2.10.6 Coating designations
SAE J2329 uses a nine-character designation system to identify the
galvanizing process, thE-coating type and mass of each side of the
sheet and surface quality.
• The first and second characters denote the galvanizing process:
HD = hot-dip galvanized
EG = electrogalvanized (electrodeposition)
• The third and fourth characters denote the coating mass of the
unexposed side in accordance with Table 2.10 (page 2-26).
• The fifth character denotes thE-coating type of the unexposed

side:
G = pure zinc
A = zinc-iron
N = zinc-nickel
X = other than G, A or N
• The sixth and seventh characters denote thE-coating mass of the

exposed side in accordance with Table 2.10
• The eighth character denotes thE-coating type of the exposed

side:
G = pure zinc
A = zinc-iron
N = zinc-nickel
X = other than G, A or N
• The ninth character denotes surface quality:
E = Exposed
Z = Semi-exposed
U = Unexposed

automotive sheet steel are given in Section 2.13.
2.11 SAE J403 Carbon steel chemical compositions

This SAE Recommended Practice provides chemical composition
ranges for carbon steels supplied to certified chemical composition
rather than to certified mechanical properties. SAE J403 uses a
four or five character system to designate steel grade:
• The first two characters are the number “10”, which indicate that
the grade is carbon steel.
• The last two characters represent the nominal carbon content of

the grade in points of carbon. One point of carbon is 0.01%
carbon by weight. Five points would be shown as “05”, fifteen
points as “15”, etc.
• If boron is added to a carbon steel to improve hardenability, the

letter “B” is inserted between the first two characters and the last
two characters.

automotive sheet are given in Section 2.13.
2-17
2.11.1 Carbon sheet steel
SAE J403 provides compositions for carbon grade sheet steels.
Table 2.11 (page 2-27) shows the compositions for grades 1006
through 1025. SAE J403 provides compositions for grades 1006
through 1095. However, grades above 1025 have relatively low
formability and weldability due to their relatively high carbon
content. Thus, grades above 1025 are seldom used for automotive
sheet applications.
It is important to note that sheet steels specified or ordered to SAE

J403 are not supplied with certified mechanical properties. If
certified mechanical properties are required, automotive sheet
steel should be specified or ordered in accordance with SAE J2329
(Section 2.8) or SAE J2340 (Section 2.9).
2.11.2 Boron sheet steel
The addition of boron to carbon sheet steel improves its

hardenability. For this reason, boron sheet steel is an ideal material
for hot stampings. As an example, 10B21 (Modified) is used for
hot stamped bumper reinforcing beams. As received, this steel has
a yield strength in the range 345-515 MPa. Following hot stamping
and quenching in liquid-cooled dies, the yield strength is raised to
about 1140 MPa.
Currently, SAE’s Iron and Steel Technical Committee is revising

J403 to more appropriately cover sheet steel used for hot
stampings.
2.12 SAE J405 Wrought stainless steels

This SAE Standard provides chemical composition requirements for
wrought stainless steels supplied to chemical composition rather
than to certified mechanical properties. The standard uses three
series to designate stainless steel grades: S20000, S30000 and
S40000. S20000 designates nickel-chromium-manganese,
corrosion resistant types that are nonhardenable by thermal
treatment. S30000 designates nickel-chromium, corrosion resistant
steels, nonhardenable by thermal treatment. S40000 includes both
a hardenable, martensitic-chromium steel and nonhardenable,
ferritic-chromium steel.
Table 2.12 (page 2-27) shows the chemical compositions for two
stainless steel grades that are appropriate not only for bumper
facebars but also for bumper reinforcing beams.
2-18
2.13 SAE Specification and ordering descriptions
The following examples represent typical specification and
ordering descriptions for automotive sheet steel:
a) SAE J2329 CR2E Cold rolled sheet steel, grade 2

(Tables 2.3 & 2.5), exposed
surface condition.
b) SAE J2329 HR3MU Hot rolled sheet steel, grade 3

(Tables 2.4 & 2.5), non-aging at
room temperature and free from
coil breaks, unexposed surface
condition.
c) SAE J2329 CR4C EG60G60GE Cold rolled sheet

steel, grade 4 (Tables 2.3 & 2.5),
minimum carbon 0.015%, each
side electrogalvanized coated to
60g/m2, critical exposed surface
condition.
d) SAE J2329 HR2M 45A45AU Hot rolled sheet steel, grade 2

(Tables 2.4 & 2.5), non-aging at
room temperature and free from
coil breaks, each side
galvannealed coated to 45g/m2,
unexposed surface condition.
e) SAE J2340 CR 180A Cold reduced sheet steel, grade

HD70G70GZ 180 non-bake hardenable dent
resistant (Table 2.6), each side
hot-dip galvanized coated to
70g/m2, semi-exposed surface
condition.
f) SAE J2340 CR 250B Cold reduced sheet steel, grade

EG70G70GE 250 bake hardenable dent
resistant (Table 2.6), each side
electrogalvanized coated to
70g/m2, critical exposed surface
condition.
g) SAE J2340 HR 340XU Hot rolled sheet steel, grade 340

high-strength low-alloy (Table
2.7), unexposed surface
condition.
h) SAE J2340 CR 1300MU Cold reduced sheet steel, grade

1300 ultra high-strength
martensitic (Table 2.9),
unexposed surface condition.
i) SAE J1562 EG70G70GE Electrogalvanized sheet having a

70 g/m2 minimum zinc coating
(Table 2.10) on each side for an
exposed application.
2-19
j) SAE J1562 HD70G20AE Hot-dip galvanized sheet having
a 70g/m2 minimum zinc coating
(Table 2.10) on the unexposed
side and a 20g/m2 minimum
zinc-iron coating (Table 2.10) on
the exposed side for an exposed
application.
k) SAE J1562 HD90G90GU Hot-dip galvanized sheet having

a 90g/m2 minimum coating
(Table 2.10) on each side for an
unexposed application.
l) SAE J1562 HD45A45AU Hot-dip galvanized sheet having

a 45g/m2 minimum zinc-iron
coating (Table 2.10) on each side
for an unexposed application.
m) SAE J1562 EG30N30NE Electrogalvanized sheet having a

30g/m2 minimum zinc-nickel
coating (Table 2.10) on each side
for an exposed application.
n) SAE J1562 EG70G00XE Electrogalvanized sheet having a

70g/m2 minimum zinc coating
(Table 2.10) on the unexposed
side and no coating on the
exposed side for an exposed
application.
o) SAE J403 HR1010U Hot rolled sheet steel, grade

1010 (Table 2.11), unexposed
surface condition.
p) SAE J403 Hot rolled sheet steel, grade

HR1008HD90G90GU 1008 (Table 2.11), having a
90g/m2 minimum coating on
each side for an unexposed
application.
2-20
2.14 ASTM A463 Aluminized sheet steel
Aluminized sheet steel is intended principally for heat resisting
applications and for uses where corrosion resistance and heat are
involved. One application is hot formed bumper beams.
Aluminized sheet has an aluminum-silicon alloy on each side
applied by a continuous hot-dip process. The coated sheet has the
surface characteristics of aluminum with the superior strength and
lower cost of steel.
One specification, which describes aluminized steel, is ASTM

A463 (Reference 2.6). The quality of the sheet steel can be
commercial (CS Types A, B and C), forming (FS), deep drawing
(DDS), extra deep drawing (EDDS), structural (SS), high-strength
low-alloy (HSLAS), high-strength low-alloy with improved
formability (HSLAS-F) and ferritic stainless steel (FSS Types 409 and
439). Chemical and mechanical properties are given for all
qualities. A463 also defines the type of aluminum-zinc coating and
coating weights.
For hot formed bumper beams (see Section 3.4), boron steel with
a Type 1 coating is commonly used. The mechanical properties of
the boron steel are discussed in Section 2.11.2. The Type 1
aluminum coating contains about 10% silicon. The coating weight
(total both sides) is typically 120-160 g/m2 (0.4-0.5 oz/ft2).
2-21
TABLE 2.3
SAE J2329 LOW-CARBON COLD ROLLED SHEET
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
GRADE YIELD MINIMUM MINIMUM MINIMUM MINIMUM

STRENGTH TENSILE ELONGATION rm VALUE n-VALUE
(MPa) STRENGTH (%)
(MPa)
1 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R

2 140-260 270 34 N/R 0.16
3 140-205 270 38 1.5 0.18
4 140-185 270 40 1.6 0.20
5 110-170 270 42 1.7 0.22
N/R = Not Required
TABLE 2.4
SAE J2329 LOW-CARBON HOT ROLLED SHEET
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
GRADE YIELD MINIMUM MINIMUM MINIMUM

STRENGTH TENSILE ELONGATION n-VALUE
(MPa) STRENGTH (%)
(MPa)
1 N/R N/R N/R N/R

2 180-290 270 34 0.16
3 180-240 270 38 0.18
N/R = Not Required
2-22
TABLE 2.5
SAE J2329 LOW-CARBON HOT & COLD ROLLED SHEET
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
GRADE MAXIMUM MAXIMUM MAXIMUM MAXIMUM MINIMUM

CARBON MANGANESE PHOSPHORUS SULPHUR ALUMINUM
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
1 0.13 0.60 0.035 0.035 —

2 0.10 0.50 0.035 0.030 0.020
3 0.10 0.50 0.030 0.030 0.020
4 0.08 0.40 0.025 0.025 0.020
5 0.02 0.30 0.025 0.025 0.020
TABLE 2.6
SAE J2340 DENT RESISTANT SHEET STEEL
GRADE & AS RECEIVED AS RECEIVED AS RECEIVED YIELD YIELD

TYPE YIELD TENSILE n-VALUE STRENGTH STRENGTH
STRENGTH STRENGTH AFTER AFTER
(MPa) (MPa) 2% STRAIN STRAIN & BAKE
(MPa) (MPa)
180A 180 310 0.20 215

180B 180 300 0.19 245
210A 210 330 0.19 245
210B 210 320 0.17 275
250A 250 355 0.18 285
250B 250 345 0.16 315
280A 280 375 0.16 315
280B 280 365 0.15 345
Type A = Non-bake Hardenable

Type B = Bake Hardenable
2-23
TABLE 2.7
SAE J2340 HIGH-STRENGTH SOLUTION STRENGTHENED
AND LOW-ALLOY SHEET STEEL
GRADE & MINIMUM MAXIMUM MINIMUM COLD HOT

TYPE YIELD YIELD TENSILE REDUCED ROLLED
STRENGTH STRENGTH STRENGTH MINIMUM MINIMUM
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) ELONGATION ELONGATION
(%) (%)
300S 300 400 390 24 26

300X 300 400 370 24 28
300Y 300 400 400 21 25
340S 340 440 440 22 24
340X 340 440 410 22 25
340Y 340 440 440 20 24
380X 380 480 450 20 23
380Y 380 480 480 18 22
420X 420 520 490 18 22
420Y 420 520 520 16 19
490X 490 590 560 14 20
490Y 490 590 590 12 19
550X 550 680 620 12 18
550Y 550 680 650 12 18
Type S = Solution strengthened using C and Mn in combination with P or Si.

Type X = HSLA. Alloyed with carbide and nitride forming elements (commonly Nb, Ti and V) in combination with
C, Mn, P and Si.
Type Y = Similar to Type X, except the spread between minimum yield and tensile strengths is larger
(100 MPa versus 70 MPa).
TABLE 2.8
SAE J2340 HIGH-STRENGTH RECOVERY ANNEALED SHEET STEEL
GRADE & MINIMUM MAXIMUM MINIMUM MINIMUM

TYPE YIELD YIELD TENSILE ELONGATION
STRENGTH STRENGTH STRENGTH (%)
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
490R 490 590 500 13

550R 550 650 560 10
700R 700 800 710 8
830R 830 960 860 2
Type R = Recovery annealed or stress-relief annealed.
2-24
TABLE 2.9
SAE J2340 ULTRA HIGH-STRENGTH DUAL PHASE & MARTENSITE SHEET STEEL
GRADE & MINIMUM MINIMUM MINIMUM

TYPE YIELD TENSILE ELONGATION
STRENGTH STRENGTH (%)
(MPa) (MPa)
500 DL 300 500 22

500 DH 500 600 14
600 DL1 350 600 16
600 DL2 280 600 20
700 DH 550 700 12
800 DL 500 800 8
950 DL 550 950 8
1000 DL 700 1000 5
800 M 600 800 2

900 M 750 900 2
1000 M 750 1000 2
1100 M 900 1100 2
1200 M 950 1200 2
1300 M 1050 1300 2
1400 M 1150 1400 2
1500 M 1200 1500 2
Type DL = Dual phase with a yield-to-tensile ratio less than or equal to 0.7.
Type DH = Dual phase with a yield-to-tensile ratio greater than 0.7.
Type M = Martensitic.
2-25
TABLE 2.10
SAE J1562 COATING MASS FOR GALVANIZED SHEET STEEL
CATEGORY MINIMUM MASS MAXIMUM MASS MAXIMUM MASS

(DESIGNATION) PER SIDE1 PER SIDE1 PER SIDE1 FOR
FOR HOT-DIP OR FOR HOT-DIP ELECTROGALVANIZED
ELECTROGALVANIZED (g/m2) (g/m2)
(g/m2)
00 00 NA2 00
20 20 50 30
30 30 60 45
40 40 70 55
45 45 75 60
50 50 80 70
55 55 85 75
60 60 90 80
70 70 100 90
90 90 120 110
98 98 130 130
1. Single spot test. Approximate thickness in microns equals coating mass in g/m2
multiplied by 0.14. Approximate thickness in mils = coating mass in g/m2 multiplied
by 0.006.
2. Not applicable.
2-26
TABLE 2.11
SAE J403 CARBON STEEL COMPOSITIONS FOR SHEET
GRADE CARBON MANGANESE PHOSPHOROUS SULFUR

(%) (%) (Max %) (Max %)
1006 0.08 Max 0.45 Max 0.030 0.035

1008 0.10 Max 0.50 Max 0.030 0.035
1009 0.15 Max 0.60 Max 0.030 0.035
1010 0.08-0.13 0.30-0.60 0.030 0.035
1012 0.10-0.15 0.30-0.60 0.030 0.035
1015 0.12-0.18 0.30-0.60 0.030 0.035
1016 0.12-0.18 0.60-0.90 0.030 0.035
1017 0.14-0.20 0.30-0.60 0.030 0.035
1018 0.14-0.20 0.60-0.90 0.030 0.035
1019 0.14-0.20 0.70-1.00 0.030 0.035
1020 0.17-0.23 0.30-0.60 0.030 0.035
1021 0.17-0.23 0.60-0.90 0.030 0.035
1022 0.17-0.23 0.70-1.00 0.030 0.035
1023 0.19-0.25 0.30-0.60 0.030 0.035
1025 0.22-0.28 0.30-0.60 0.030 0.035
Max = Maximum
TABLE 2.12
SAE J405 CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS OF WROUGHT STAINLESS STEELS, %
(maximum unless a range is indicated)
DESIGNATION C Mn P S Si Cr Ni N
S20400 0.030 7.00-9.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 15.00-17.00 1.50-3.00 0.15-0.10
S30100 0.15 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 16.00-18.00 6.00-8.00 0.10
2-27
3. Manufacturing processes
3.1 Stamping
The art of science of sheet metal stamping processes are
challenged daily to accommodate higher strength and thinner
materials. Further, these materials must be transformed into more
complex shapes with fewer dies and increased quality in the final
part. And, of course, all must be accomplished while reducing
costs. Such pressures require a rigorous approach to assessing the
current state of a stamping process. A detailed discussion on
stamping operations is given in Reference 4.2. However, an
overview is outlined below.
3.1.1 Stretching
The concept of major and minor strain can be used to describe
different kinds of sheet forming processes. In cases where the sheet
is stretched over a punch, the major strain is always positive. For
stretching, the minor strain is usually positive as well. Different
punch and clamping configurations can create a variety of major
and minor strain levels.
For stretching, a pulling load in the major strain direction is paired

with a zero or positive load applied in the minor strain direction.
The minor strain can vary from slightly negative (no applied load in
the minor strain direction, as in stretching a strip by pulling on its
ends) to positive strain equal to the level of the major strain. A
minor strain of zero is a special case, which is often called plane
strain. In plane strain, all deformation takes place in only two
dimensions; the major strain direction and the thickness direction.
All stretching is accommodated by thinning of the material.
In circle grid analysis (CGA), small circles are etched on the surface of
the steel sheet prior to stamping (Figure 3.1). After stamping, the
deformed circles are compared to the original circles (Figure 3.2).
For the condition of plane strain, the deformed circle is an ellipse
with the minor strain diameter equal to the original diameter of the
underformed circle. A minor strain equal to the major strain is
indicated by an original circle, which remains circular after
deformation. However, the diameter of the circle after deformation
is larger than the diameter before deformation. This condition is
called equi-biaxial stretch because the amount of the stretch is
equal regardless of the direction in the plane of the sheet.
3-1
FIGURE 3.1
TYPICAL CIRCLE GRID PATTERN
3-2
FIGURE 3.2
REPRESENTATION OF STRAINS BY ETCHED CIRCLES
3-3
3.1.2 Drawing
When a sheet is pulled into a die cavity, and must contract to flow
into the cavity in areas such as at a corner or in the flange of a
circular cup, the sheet is said to be undergoing drawing. Drawing,
also known as deep drawing, generates compressive forces in the
flange area being drawn into the die cavity. Negative minor strains
are generated. In contrast to failures in stretching, failures in
drawing do not normally occur in the flange area where the
compression and flow of sheet metal is occurring. Instead, necking
and fracture occur in the wall of the stamping near the nose of the
punch. Failure occurs here because the force causing the
deformation in the flange must be transmitted from the punch
through this region. If the force required to deform the flange is too
great, it cannot be transmitted by the wall without overloading the
wall.
3.1.3 Bending
Bending differs from drawing and stretching, because the
deformation present in bending is not homogeneous through the
thickness of the material. For pure bending, where there is no
superimposed tension or compression on the bending process, the
center of the sheet has zero strain. The outer surface is elongated,
with a tensile strain equal to t/2r (t=steel thickness, r=bend radius to
the midpoint of the steel thickness). The inner surface is
compressed, with a compressive strain equal to t/2r. The strain
varies from compressive at the inner radius, through zero at the
midpoint of the thickness, to tensile at the outside radius. In pure
bending, the compressive and tensile strains are equal.
Because the strain varies through the thickness, forming limit

analysis (Section 3.1.5) does not directly apply. Materials with very
little capacity to be formed can frequently undergo bending
operations successfully. The tendency to thin locally, with necking
and fracture, is not present in bending. Cold working of the
material does take place. However, the amount of work hardening
depends on the radius of the bend and the thickness of the material.
A sharper radius (smaller r) or thicker material (greater t) causes an
increase in strain at the surface. Bending is a plane strain
operation. The length of the bend does not change during bending,
except for localized distortion at the edge of the sheet.
3.1.4 Bending and straightening

As material passes through a draw bead or over a die lip, it is bent,
straightened, and sometimes re-bent in the opposite direction. The
net strain at the end of this process is small, although cold work has
occurred and the material is harder than it was before the process
began. As a result, the ability to deform the material in subsequent
operations is decreased.
3-4
3.1.5 Forming limits
The measurement of strain provides an important tool for
determining the local deformation that occurs in a complicated
process. Sharply changing levels of strain usually indicate a
localization of deformation and a higher likelihood of necking and
failure during forming. For sheet metal, it has been found that a
limit to the major strain exists for each level of minor strain. This
phenomenon has been studied in the laboratory and has resulted in
the creation of forming limit diagrams.
First, flat sheets of a given material are etched with circles as shown
in Figure 3.1. The flat sheets are then deformed in a variety of
configurations to develop a large range of major and minor strains.
If the forming process for any given configuration is continued until
failure (as defined by localized necking), the major and minor
strains at failure, as shown in Figure 3.2, can be measured for that
configuration.
By plotting the failure strains of the various configurations, a

boundary line indicating the major strain limit for each minor strain
is obtained (Figure 3.3). While this limit is not absolute, there is a
very high probability of failure above this boundary line and a low
probability of failure below this line. The boundary line is
frequently called the forming limit curve, and the entire graph, the
forming line diagram (FLD). A second forming limit curve, plotted
with major strains 10% below those of the boundary line, is
sometimes used to provide a safety factor. Each combination of
material properties and thickness results in a different FLD.
3.2 Roll forming

Cold roll forming is a process whereby a sheet or strip of metal is
formed into a uniform cross section by feeding the stock
longitudinally through a roll forming mill. The mill consists of a
train with pairs of driven roller dies, which progressively form the flat
strip until the finished shape is produced.
The number of pairs of rolls depends on the type of material being

formed, the complexity of the shape being produced, and the
design of the particular mill being used. A conventional roll
forming mill may have as many as 30 pairs of roller dies mounted
on individually driven horizontal shafts.
Roll forming is one of the few sheet metal forming processes that is
confined to a single primary mode of deformation. Unlike most
forming operations that have various combinations of stretching,
drawing, bending, bending and straightening, and other forming
modes, the roll forming process is nothing more than a carefully
designed series of bends. In roll forming, metal thickness is not
changed except for a slight thinning at the bend radii.
3-5
FIGURE 3.3
TYPICAL FORMING LIMIT DIAGRAM
3-6
The roll forming process is particularly suited to the production of
long lengths of complex shapes held to close tolerances. Large
quantities of these parts can be formed with a minimum of handling
and manpower. The process can be continuous by coil feeding and
exit cutting to length. Entry material can be pre-painted or
otherwisE-coated. Operations such as notching, slotting, punching,
embossing and curving can easily be combined with contour roll
forming to produce finished parts off the exit end of the roll forming
mill. In fact, ultra high-strength steel reinforcing beams, with
sweeps up to 50, only need to have the mounting brackets welded
to them before shipment to the assembly line.
3.3 Hydroforming
There are two types of hydroforming - sheet and tubular. Sheet
hydroforming is typically a process where only a female die is
constructed and a bladder membrane performs as the punch. High
pressure fluid (usually water) forces the bladder against the steel
sheet until it takes the shape of the female die. Sheet hydroforming
has not been developed to the point it can be effectively utilized by
the automotive industry. It remains a process used for low volume,
large parts such as those encountered in aircraft and bus sheet
metal forming.
In tubular hydroforming, a straight or pre-bent tube is laid into a

lower die. The upper and lower dies are then clamped together.
Next, conical nozzles are inserted and clamped into each end of
the tube. Finally, a fluid (usually water) is forced at a high pressure
into the tube until it takes the shape of the die. While tube
hydroforming technology has been around for decades, the mass
production of automotive parts only became cost effective about
1984.
The benefits of hydroforming are usually found via part

consolidation and the elimination of engineered scrap. Box
sections, consisting of two hat sections welded together, lend
themselves to cost-effective replacement by a single hydroformed
part. Punches, mounted in the forming dies, are used to pierce
holes during forming, eliminating subsequent machine operations.
The structural integrity of a hydroformed part, made from a single

continuous tube, is superior to that of a part made from two or
more components. Weight savings of 10 to 20% can be achieved
via both reducing gauge and eliminating weld flanges. If flanges
are necessary for attachment, they can be created by pinching the
tube during the hydroforming process.
High volume tubular hydroformed parts are currently incorporated

into automotive components such as axles, exhaust manifolds,
suspensions, frames, drive shafts and shock absorbers. While
hydroforming technology has not been used to date for bumper
systems, it does have potential over the longer term due to the
many advantages it offers.
3-7
3.4 Hot forming
Generally speaking, as the strength of steel increases, its ductility
decreases. One method used to overcome the reduced formability
of ultra high-strength steel is hot forming. Hot formed bumper
beams have very high strength. They offer not only mass reduction
but also large and compound sweeps. Highly complicated beams
can be produced in one piece. The repeatability of dimensions is
very good and there is no springback, a phenomenon which is
common with cold forming processes. Weldability is excellent due
to the low carbon content.
The hot forming process involves the following steps:

• Blanking/Pre-forming
• Heating
• Forming/Quenching
• De-scaling (if required)
The typical material used for hot stamping is boron steel having
0.22% carbon, 0.002% boron, an as-delivered yield strength of
330 MPa (47.9 ksi), an as-delivered tensile strength of 500 MPa
(72.5 ksi) and a 27% elongation. The boron steel may be bare or
aluminized. If aluminized, a hot dip Type 1 coating (10% silicon)
and a coating mass of 120-160 g/m2 (0.7-1.0 mils) are common.
After heating and quenching, a hot formed part has very high
hardness (470 HV). Thus, it is best to punch any required holes
into the blank. In some processes, a pre-formed section is used
instead of a developed blank. For example, an open or tubular roll
formed section.
The developed blanks or pre-formed parts are continuously fed

into a furnace. They are heated to austenitizing temperatures,
approximately 900ºC (1650ºF). If bare steel is used, the furnace
usually has a non-oxidizing atmosphere to suppress scale
formation. However, on transfer to the forming/quenching press,
some scale will form. If aluminized steel is used, a Fe-Al alloy forms
in the furnace on the surface of the steel sheet and scaling is
avoided.
In the forming/quenching press, the blank/pre-formed section is

formed to its final shape using dies maintained at room
temperature. The part is held in the die until it is sufficiently
quenched. Some tempering is usually required. Tempering may be
accomplished by ejecting the part from the forming/quenching
dies while it is still fairly hot or by baking the quenched part in an
oven. The yield strength of the final hot formed part has increased
to about 1140 MPa (165 ksi) and the tensile strength to about
1520 MPa (220 ksi). Elongation has decreased to less than 12%.
A part made from aluminized sheet has a hard Fe-Al-Si coating

system and is scale free, eliminating the need for de-scaling.
Further, this coating system provides corrosion protection for the
finished part. A part made from bare sheet does have scale and
de-scaling is often employed. De-scaling by blasting with chromi-
um shot imparts a thin film of chromium and iron on the part
surface, which prevents oxidation.
3-8
3.5 Bumper beam coatings
Steel bumper beams are coated for one or more of the following
reasons:
• To improve appearance
• To slow or prevent corrosion
• To increase resistance to wear
The frontside of a facebar is an exposed automotive part and
appearance is critical. However, in addition to appearance, the
coatings applied to facebars made from hot or cold rolled sheet
must also provide adequate corrosion protection and resistance to
rock chipping. Zinc coated sheet is not commonly used for
facebars. One exception, though, is when the thickness of a
facebar is less than 1.00 mm (0.039 inches). In such cases, the zinc
provides the extra corrosion protection and rock-chip resistance
needed to meet design requirements. Successful trials have been
conducted on facebars made from stainless steel. An inherent
advantage of such facebars is their corrosion resistance. Thus,
stainless steel facebars need only be coated to meet appearance
and rock-chip requirements.
A reinforcing beam is an unexposed part and the main reason for

coating it is to improve corrosion resistance. Sometimes, however,
reinforcing beams are given a coating to provide not only
corrosion resistance but also appropriate underbody appearance.
Steel reinforcing beams are made from hot rolled, cold rolled or
zinc coated sheet. Due to its excellent corrosion resistance,
stainless sheet in the uncoated condition is a candidate for
reinforcing beams.
Bumper beam coatings may be applied by a steel mill, an

automotive supplier or an OEM. Steel mills supply sheet with
metallic coatings (e.g., zinc, zinc-iron) that have been applied by
hot dipping or electrocoating. Automotive suppliers apply metallic
(e.g., chromium), organic (e.g., E-coat, paint), autodeposition and
powder coatings. The OEMs often apply E-coat on their assembly
lines.
The coatings applied to current bumper beams are shown in

Tables 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6. It may be seen that facebars are typically
coated with chromium or paint, while reinforcing beams typically
receive E-coat. The percentage of front or rear reinforcing beams
with a given coating type is given in Figure 3.4 or 3.5. The
percentages are calculated by dividing the number of front or rear
reinforcing beams with any given coating in Tables 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6
by the total number of front or rear reinforcing beams in Tables
5.4, 5.5 and 5.6.
3.5.1 Zinc or zinc-iron coatings

These coatings are described in Section 2.10.
3.5.2 Aluminum coating
This coating is described in Section 2.14.
3-9
FIGURE 3.4
COATINGS
FRONT REINFORCING BEAMS
HR/CR Sheet + E-coat (81%)

Zn Sheet + E-coat (16%)
Zn Sheet (1.5%)
AI Sheet + E-coat (1.5%)
3-10
FIGURE 3.5
COATINGS
REAR REINFORCING BEAMS
HR/CR Sheet + E-coat (81%)

Zn Sheet + E-coat (16%)
Zn Sheet (1.5%)
AI Sheet + E-coat (1.5%)
3-11
3.5.3 Polishing
In order to achieve a high quality surface after painting or
chromium coating, the steel blanks used to stamp facebars must
be smooth and free of surface defects. Traditionally, hot rolled
sheet has been used for facebars and the following steps taken for
the blanks:
• Ordering to special surface and flatness requirements
• Pickling
• Polishing
• Phosphating and lubricating
Due to its excellent surface finish, there is a trend to the increased

use of cold rolled sheet for facebars. In most cases, cold rolled or
stainless sheet blanks do not need polishing and they can go
straight to the stamping press line.
3.5.4 Chromium coating
Chromium coatings are applied using the electroplating process,

which places a thin layer of metal on an object through the use of
electricity. Although there are variations, the following steps are
typically used to place a chromium coating on a fabricated facebar:
• Polishing manually or automatically to remove die marks, orange
peel and shock lines introduced during the stamping process.
• Cleaning to remove lubricants, polishing compounds and shop soils.
• Pickling to remove oxides, rust, scale and weld smoke.
• Rinse.
• Semi-bright nickel electroplating.
• Rinse.
• Bright nickel electroplating.
• Rinse.
• Decorative chromium electroplating.
• Rinse.
In the electroplating steps described above, the metal coating is
deposited onto the facebar by applying an electrical potential
between the facebar (cathode) and a suitable anode in the
presence of an electrolyte. The electrolyte usually consists of a
water solution containing a salt of the metal to be deposited and
various other additions that contribute to the electroplating
process. When the metallic salt dissolves in the water, the metal
atoms are freed to move about. The atoms lose one or more
electrons and become positively charged ions. The metallic ions
are attracted to the negatively charged facebar. They coat the
facebar and regain their lost electrons to become metal once again.
Typical coating thickness applied to the significant (visible)

surfaces of steel facebars is:
Total nickel 30 micrometers (1.2 mils) min.
Semi-bright nickel 40-60% of total nickel
Bright nickel 60-40% of total nickel
Chromium 0.25 micrometers (0.01 mils) min.

0.40 micrometers (0.016 mils) max.
3-12
During electroplating, the process is tightly controlled to place the
required thickness of nickel and chromium on the surfaces with
high visibility. The frontside of a facebar must have excellent
appearance and corrosion resistance. Often, a corrosion
resistance of 44 hours using the CASS test outlined in ASTM B368
is specified. To avoid unnecessary cost, the electroplating process
is designed to place an absolute minimum of nickel and chromium
on the hidden surfaces. For this reason, to provide corrosion
protection, the backside of facebars, which are hidden, are given a
paint coating.
3.5.5 Conversion coating
Phosphate conversion coatings are employed to enhance paint

adhesion. By enhancing paint adhesion, they indirectly enhance
corrosion resistance. There are several varieties of phosphate
coatings (e.g., iron, zinc or manganese).
Prior to the application of a conversion coating, the metal surface

must be free of shop soils, oil, grease, lubricants and rust. The
metal surface must be receptive to the formation of a uniform,
adherent chemical film or coating. Surfaces may be cleaned by
mechanical methods or, more commonly, by immersion or spray
cleaner systems.
A phosphate coating is applied by immersing a clean metal part in

a hot processing solution for 4-6 minutes, depending on bath
chemistry. The weight (thickness) of the conversion coating is
dependent on the manner in which the part is cleaned, the
immersion time, the composition of the processing bath and the
composition of the metal itself.
3.5.6 Electrocoating (E-coating)
E-coat is an organic coating applied by the electrocoating method.

Electrocoating has the ability to coat all areas of complex parts
including recessed areas and edges. E-coat is a durable, lasting
coating. It is used as a primer, top coat or both.
Parts are usually E-coated via a conveyor system in one continuous

process. Although there are variations, the usual steps in applying
E-coat to a steel part are: alkaline cleaner, water rinse, surface
conditioner, zinc phosphate coating (see Section 3.5.4), rinse, seal
coating, de-ionized water rinse, E-coat application, permeate rinse,
final de-ionized water rinse, and curing oven.
E-coating systems are known as anodic or cathodic depending on

whether the part is the anode or the cathode in the electrochemical
process. Cathodic systems are common since they require less
surface preparation and they provide better corrosion resistance.
The E-coat process requires a coating tank or bath in which to

immerse the part. The bath, containing water and paint, is given a
positive charge (cathodic system). The part, with a negative
charge, when immersed in the bath, attracts the positively charged
paint particles. The paint particles coalesce as a coating (E-coat)
on the part surface. E-coat thickness typically applied to bumper
beams ranges from 20 to 25 micrometers (0.8 to 1.0 mils).
3-13
3.5.7 Paint coating
Paint is a cost effective corrosion protection method. It acts as a

barrier to a corrosive solution or electrolyte and it prevents, or
retards, the transfer of electrochemical charge from a corrosive
solution to the metal beneath the paint.
Paint is a complex mixture of materials designed to protect the

substrate and to enhance appearance. It is composed of binders,
carriers, pigments and additives. Binders provide the major
properties to the paint while the carriers (solvents and/or water)
adjust the viscosity of the paint for the application. Pigments
impart specific properties such as corrosion resistance and color.
The type of pigment and its volume are critical to the optimization
of properties such as adhesion, permeability, resistance to
blistering and gloss. Additives include thickeners, flow agents,
catalysts and inhibitors.
Paints are often identified by the type of polymers employed.

Commonly used paint coatings include:
• Alkyd and epoxy ester (air dried or baked)
• Two-part coatings such as urethane
• Latex coatings such as vinyl, acrylic or styrene polymer
combinations
• Water soluble coatings (versions of alkyd, epoxy ester or polyester)
Baked enamel basecoat/rigid clearcoat systems are commonly

applied to the frontside of facebars. The process steps include:
• Conversion coating (see Section 3.5.3)
• E-coating (see Section 3.5.4)
• Enamel basecoating
• Enamel clearcoating
• Baking.
3.5.8 Autodeposition coating

Autodeposition is a waterborne process that depends on chemical
reactions to achieve deposition. The composition of an
autodeposition bath includes a mildly acidic latex emulsion
polymer, de-ionized water and proprietary ingredients. The
chemical phenomenon consists of the mildly acidic bath attacking
the steel parts being immersed and causing an immediate surface
reaction that releases iron ions. These ions react with the latex in
solution causing a deposition on the surface of the steel parts. The
newly deposited organic film is adherent yet quite porous. Thus,
the chemical activators can rapidly diffuse to reach the surface of
the metal, allowing continued coating formation.
The coating thickness is time and temperature related. Initially, the

process is quite rapid, but slows down as the film begins to build.
As long as the parts being coated are in the bath, the process will
continue. Typically, film thickness is from 15 to 25 micrometers
(0.6 to 0.8 mils).
Autodeposition will coat any metal the liquid touches. Thus, an

advantage of this coating is its ability to coat the inside of tubing
and deep cavities. Autodeposition does not require a conversion
coating and the coating cures at a relatively low temperature.
3-14
3.5.9 Powder coating
In the powder coating process, a dry powder is applied to a clean

object. After application, the coated object is heated, fusing the
powder into a smooth continuous film. Powders are available in a
wide range of chemical types, coating properties and colors. The
most widely used types include acrylic, vinyl, epoxy, nylon,
polyester and urethane. Modern application techniques for
applying powders fall into four basic categories: fluidized bed
process, electrostatic bed process, electrostatic spray process and
plasma spray process.
The electrostatic spray process is the most commonly used

method for applying powders. In this process, the electrically
conductive and grounded object is sprayed with charged,
non-conducting powder particles. The charged particles are
attracted to the substrate and cling to it. Oven heat then fuses the
particles into a smooth continuous film. Coating thicknesses in the
range of 25 to 125 micrometers (1 to 5 mils) are obtained.
3-15
4. Manufacturing considerations
4.1 Forming considerations

High-strength and ultra high-strength steels have less ductility, and
hence less formability, than lower strength steels. Thus, care must
be taken in part design and forming method selection. In addition,
springback increases with yield strength and it must be accounted
for in the process design. Sections 4.1.1 through 4.1.5 provide
“Guidelines” and “Rules of Thumb” for the roll forming and stamping
processes. The Guidelines and Rules of Thumb are based on practical
experience. Their use will help alleviate formability and springback
issues associated with the roll forming and stamping of high-strength
and ultra high-strength steels.
4.1.1 Guidelines for roll forming high-strength steel

All of the high-strength steels in Table 2.2 can be roll formed,
pre-pierced and swept after roll forming.
The following Guidelines apply (Reference 4.3):
Do:
• Select the appropriate number of roll stands for the material
being formed. Remember that the higher the steel strength,
the greater the number of stands required on the roll former.
• Use the minimum allowable bend radius for the material in

order to minimize springback.
• Position holes away from the bend radius to help achieve

desired tolerances.
• Establish mechanical and dimensional tolerances for

successful part production.
• Use appropriate lubrication.
• Use a suitable maintenance schedule for the roll

forming line.
• Anticipate end flare (a form of springback). End flare is

caused by stresses that build up during the roll forming
process.
• Recognize that as a part is being swept (or reformed after

roll forming), the compression of metal can cause sidewall
buckling, which leads to fit-up problems.
Don’t:
• Do not roll form with worn tooling, as the use of worn tools
increases the severity of buckling.
• Do not expect steels of similar yield strength from

different steel sources to behave similarly.
• Do not over-specify tolerances.
4-1
4.1.2 Guidelines for roll forming ultra high-strength steel.
All of the ultra high-strength steels in Table 2.3 can be roll formed,
pre-pierced and swept after roll forming.
The following Guidelines apply (Reference 6.1):
1. The minimum bend radius should be four times the

thickness of the steel to avoid fracture.
2. Springback magnitude can range from ten degrees for

120X steel to 30 degrees for M220HT steel, as compared
to one to three degrees for mild steel. Springback
should be accounted for when designing the roll
forming process.
3. Due to the higher spingback, it is difficult to achieve

reasonable tolerances on sections with large radii (radii
greater than 20 times the thickness of the steel).
4. Rolls should be designed with a constant radius and an

evenly distributed overbend from pass to pass.
5. About 50% more passes (compared to mild steel) are

required when roll forming ultra high-strength steel.
The number of passes required is affected by the
mechanical properties of the steel, section depth-to-steel
thickness ratio, tolerance requirements, pre-punched
holes and notches.
6. Due to the higher number of passes and higher material

strength, the horsepower requirement for forming is
increased.
7. Due to the higher material strength, the forming

pressure is also higher. Larger shaft diameters should
be considered. Thin, slender rolls should be avoided.
8. During roll forming, avoid undue permanent elongation

of portions of the cross section that will be compressed
during the sweeping process.
4.1.3 General guidelines for stamping high-strength and ultra high-strength steels.
All of the high-strength streels in Table 2.2 may be stamped into
bumper beams. Additionally, some ultra high-strength steels in Table
2.3, such as 120X, 135X, 140X and 140T, may be stamped, bend
stretched, drawn and flanged.
The following guidelines apply (Reference 6.2):
PRODUCT DESIGN
• Avoid designing parts that require a draw forming operation
(i.e., metal must flow or stretch off the binder).
• Maintain gentle shape changes and constant cross sections

wherever possible in part design. These factors become
more important as material strength is increased.
4-2
• Keep the depth of the part to a minimum when the part
has excessive sweeps in the plan view or elevation.
• Avoid designing parts with closed corners that require

draw die operations.
• Keep the flanges as short as possible when there is a

deep-formed offset flange.
DIE PROCESS
• Try to form the parts completely to the depth desired in
the first forming operation.
• Minimize stretch and compression of metal to reduce

residual strains that cause springback and twist in the part.
• Use high pressure on the draw binder and balancing blocks.

They allow the sheet metal to flow without wrinkling.
• Keep the side walls perpendicular (90 degrees to the base

of the die).
• Avoid open-angle forming. Overbend the flanges 6 to 10

degrees.
• On straight channel-shaped parts, consider a solid form die.
• Pre-forming the sheet steel is a method commonly used to

accumulate enough material to ensure that adequate
metal is available for forming without splitting or
excessive thinning.
DIE DESIGN
• Maintain die forming radii as sharp as possible. Try to
fold the metal rather then stretch it over a radius. Folding
reduces curl of the sidewalls and springback of the weld
flanges.
• Maintain an even draw depth and length of line.
• Design robust dies to minimize flexing of the die

components.
DIE CONSTRUCTION / TRYOUT

• Sidewalls should be as tight as possible to lessen
springback.
• To reduce shock and press tonnage requirements, a

minimum shear of four to six times metal thicknesses
is required for cutting dies. This minimum shear also
reduces noise on break through.
• Trim and pierce dies should have 7% to 10% die clearance.
4-3
FIGURE 4.1 a)
RULES OF THUMB - SPRINGBACK
The techniques shown in Figures 4.1 a) through 4.1 c) can help

compensate for springback when forming a 90-degree bend if
a sharp radius or a tight flange (see Figure 4.3) is not adequate.
Refer to Figure 4.1a)
1) Restrike the flange at an overbend angle between

3 and 7 degrees, depending on the material strength and/or
thickness.
2) Set up part in die to allow for overbend.
3) Undercut the lower die steel and let the metal overbend.
4) Pre-form the top part surface prior to flanging

and flatten the part using the die pad.
4-4
FIGURE 4.1 b)
Refer to Figure 4.1b)
5) The addition of stiffening darts helps maintain a 90-degree flange.
6) Coining a flange radius as the die bottoms will help maintain

form and helps prevent springback.
7) An extension of the upper flange steel allows for extra pressure

to be applied on the formed radius. This is a difficult process to
control, but it could help in special conditions, particularly on
heavier gauge steels.
4-5
FIGURE 4.1 c)
Refer to Figure 4.1c)
8) Providing a vertical step in the flange stiffens and straightens the

flange, stopping sidewall curl as well as springback.
9) Rotary benders are used by many manufacturers

to control springback, as the metal is rolled
around the radius instead of flanging. Positive comments on this
method promote its ability to overbend the flange.
10) Place a 90 durometer urethane behind flanging steels in a free

state (not compressed). Clearance holes through the flanging
steels allow the screws to hold the urethane in place. Please
note the urethane must stay 0.25 inches (6.4 mm) off the bottom
of the pocket. This space leaves room for the urethane deflection.
Tighten clearance until desired effect is achieved.
11) By adding a horizontal step along the flange, the flange is stiffened,
resulting in reduced springback.
4-6
FIGURE 4.2
RULES OF THUMB - DIE FLANGE STEELS
Refer to Figure 4.2
1) Flange steel clearance should be 90% of metal thickness, but

no greater than metal thickness. Maintaining a tight condition
helps to prevent springback.
2) Because of the tight clearance, the die steels should be as hard

as possible. Therefore, it is recommended that air-hardened
tool steel or harder material be used, and a surface coating be
applied to increase hardness and improve lubricity.
3) Air-hardened tool steel (D2) is recommended for flange steel

(Rockwell 58 - 62 on the C-scale). However, other materials may
be used as long as they have a surface coating applied which
resists scoring.
4) All flanging radii should be as sharp as possible without fracturing

the sheet metal during forming. The flange radii should be some-
thing less than metal thickness. Start by just breaking the sharp
corner and work from there until you can make the flange without
splitting the sheet metal.
4-7
FIGURE 4.3
RULES OF THUMB - HAT SECTION
Refer to Figure 4.3
1) Maintain a constant depth on hat sections, if at all possible.
2) The size of the radius is to be kept as small as possible, normally

less than metal thickness.
3) Form 90-degree side walls on the hat section whenever possible.
4) If the sidewall is not 90 degrees, try to balance the forming with

the same angle on the opposite side of the hat section.
5) Unequal residual strain and/or compression on opposite side-

walls has a tendency to twist the entire rail.
4-8
FIGURE 4.4
RULES OF THUMB - V-CHANNEL
Refer to Figure 4.4
1) Form part so that the V-channel runs with the grain of the steel.
This orientation will minimize springback.
2) The inside angle, or upper V-shape, controls the corner radius.

The angle of the V-shape is controlled by the lower steel.
3) The outside, lower female shape should have the smaller radius.
The side mating surfaces, however, must match those of the anvil
exactly in order to control the final angle of the V-shape.
4-9
FIGURE 4.5
RULES OF THUMB - RADIUS SETTING
When forming a hat section, the action of the die can aid the
retention of shape by setting the corner radii.
Refer to Figure 4.5
1) As the flange steels make contact with the sheet metal blank, an
initial crown is formed.
2) The flange steels then enter over the die-post radii and force the
metal to conform to the lower die. The crown remains in the
part. It is best if both sides enter simultaneously.
3) The die is now very close to its home position. The crown
remains and the lower flanges are starting to form.
4) As the die is closed, the lower flanges are formed with corner
radii as sharp as possible. The top corners are forced outward
as the crown is hit home by the upper die. If the part retains a
crown, then a negative crown can be incorporated to minimize
springback.
4-10
FIGURE 4.6 a)
RULES OF THUMB - COMBINATION FORM & FLANGE DIE
Using a combination form-and-flange die is basic to meeting

high-strength steel requirements. A general idea of how this die
works follows.
The die initially forms the contour in the developed blank using the
upper pressure pad. The metal is then locked, using the lock beads
to prevent feeding the metal in from the ends. The metal is allowed
to flow in freely from the sides without restrictions within the ring,
just a metal thickness apart to stop wrinkling.
The flange steels are maintained as sharp as possible, and the side
walls are tight. This procedure controls the springback and sidewall
curl in order to produce a quality part. If the part is straight, see
Figure 4.5 for more information.
The four-piece form and flange die shown above incorporates

features that lend themselves to the production of hat section
parts. Remember that in order for this type of die to work, the
finished part must be off the ring when the part is completely
formed in order to avoid upstroke deformation. The unique
features of this die are as follows:
Refer to Figure 4.6a)
1) The upper pressure pad gives the sheet metal blank its initial
contour and holds the blank in location.
2) The lower ring (known also as a lower pressure pad) controls

the flow of the metal and prevents wrinkling as the part is being
formed (See 5 and 6 on Figure 4.6 b).
4-11
FIGURE 4.6 b)
RULES OF THUMB - COMBINATION FORM & FLANGE DIE
AIR PINS
Refer to Figure 4.6a) and Figure 4.6b)
3) Flange steels should be kept tight to the lower post to help

prevent sidewall curl.
4) A smaller-than-metal thickness radius on the lower post helps

prevent springback.
5) Restraining beads are used to restrain the flow in at the ends of

the rail. The metal must flow off the ring and on to the die post to
prevent the panel from being deformed by the upstroke of the die.
6) Metal thickness clearance between the upper and lower ring

under high pressure is needed to allow the metal to flow in from
the sides without buckling.
7) Balancing blocks (leveling blocks, kiss blocks or spacer blocks)

are used to control the clearance between the upper form steels
and the lower ring surfaces in order to adjust for metal flow.
8) If the rail is open-ended, there is no need to restrict metal flow

unless stretch is required to help prevent twist.
4-12
FIGURE 4.7
RULES OF THUMB - FORMING BEADS
Refer to Figure 4.7
1) Half-round draw beads are used to control metal flow. They

restrict the flow and force the metal to stretch or control feed as
required to produce the draw shape of the part.
2) Lock beads are generally used to stop the metal from moving.
This condition is pure stretch. In general, it is recommended that
this type of bead be avoided in dies used to form high-strength
steel material.
3) Start lock bead configurations with radii small enough to shear

the sheet metal blank. Then uniformly dress the radii to eliminate
cutting, but still locking the metal flow. When the beads need
reworking, repeat this procedure.
4-13
FIGURE 4.8
RULES OF THUMB - FORMING AN EMBOSS
When forming an emboss or surface formation into a relatively flat

high-strength steel part, the break lines need to be sharp and crisp.
You must coin these lines into the part to set them and reduce any
springback or distortion. Sidewalls of the embossment must be
45 degrees or less from the surface.
Refer to Figure 4.8
1) This formation is totally within the part’s perimeter and does not
extend to the trim.
2) This example shows the formation open to the part’s trim edge.
This formation causes excess or loose metal along the edge.
Therefore, it is recommended that a short flange and/or small
bead be added to stiffen and eliminate this condition.
4-14
FIGURE 4.9
RULES OF THUMB - EDGE SPLITTING
It is important that the trim quality be maintained to prevent edge-

splitting from work hardening.
Refer to Figure 4.9
1) When forming an outside corner, the trim edge has a tendency

to wrinkle. In order to minimize this wrinkling condition, it is
recommended that the flange in the area of the wrinkle be as
short as possible.
2) Inside corners have a tendency to split. Therefore, try to make

the trim line as long as possible by scalloping the edge.
A combination of shortening the flange and lengthening the

trim line should help stop the splitting.
If not, a formation change has to be made to add material to the

split area.
4-15
FIGURE 4.10
RULES OF THUMB - PART DESIGN
Refer to Figure 4.10
1) The following are general characteristics of high-strength steel

(HSS) that should be taken into consideration during the part
design phase:
· HSS will stretch, generally in the range of 2% to 6%.

· HSS will resist compression due to the hardness of the material.
These characteristics of HSS generally require that parts be designed

for form and flange die processes rather than draw dies.
2) In some cases, it is necessary to compensate for these material

characteristics by designing in darts and/or notches to equalize
the length of line and to help maintain part dimensional integrity.
3) The above diagram shows how these darts and notches could be
applied to an HSS part.
4-16
FIGURE 4.11
RULES OF THUMB - DIE CONSTRUCTION
1) Due to the forces exerted during the forming process of

high-strength steel, dies must be built with extra strength.
Extra strength is necessary to prevent die flexing. The following
are ways to compensate for the unwanted flexing in the die:
• Block in or heel cam drivers.

• Use heavy-duty guide pins and bushings.
• Key in the sections and use large fasteners.
• Provide for positive returns.
• Provide heavy-duty die shoes with appropriate reinforcement.
2) Provide for die adjustability during construction. It is important

to provide these adjustments because it is undesirable to
machine the hardened and coated die details.
3) It is of prime importance to balance the forces exerted on the

die during forming. When practical, form two parts at a time, or
produce the right and left hand part in the same die.
4-17
FIGURE 4.12
RULES OF THUMB - DEVELOPED BLANKS
1) When using high-strength steel material for BIW (Body-In-White)

structural parts, testing has demonstrated that the recommended
type of forming is with a flange or form die. This type of die utilizes
a developed blank.
2) This blank should be as close to finish trim as possible. Only in

areas where the trim is critical should a finish trim operation be
added.
4-18
FIGURE 4.13
RULES OF THUMB - TRIMMING
1) Because high-strength steel (HSS) is more brittle and harder than

mild steel, and because it is not as ductile as a result of the
strengthening mechanisms in the metallurgy, it is more difficult to
trim. HSS requires approximately the same die clearance between
the upper and lower trim steels as mild sheet steel. This clearance
is approximately 7% to 10% of metal thickness per side. The range
of the hardness and the thickness determines the exact amount.
2) Dies must be sharpened more frequently when trimming HSS.

They also require rigidity to prevent the die from flexing, which
can cause dulling of the trim steels.
3) It is recommended that extremely hard cutting edges be provided

on trim steels. Therefore, use of S-7 or other shock-resistant steel
with a minimum of 58-62 Rockwell (C-scale) is recommended.
4-19
FIGURE 4.14
RULES OF THUMB - DIE SHEAR
1) Due to excessive shock during blanking or trimming of high-

strength steel, a full four times (4x) metal thickness shear is
recommended to protect both press and die.
In order to prolong the die life of either a blank or trim die, die
shear must be added.
Advantages of the die shear
1) Lessens tonnage requirements.
2) Saves the press; reduces shock on the press.
3) Lengthens the die life between tune-ups and sharpening.
4-20
4.1.4 Guidelines for hat sections stamped from high-strength or ultra high-strength steels.
Basic guidelines for designing and processing hat section parts of
high-strength or ultra high-strength steel are (Reference 6.3):
Do:
• Form channels as close to finished shape as possible.
• Avoid closed ends on channels.
• Utilize small die radii.
• A combination of low pad pressure and tight clearance

minimizes curl and springback.
• Allow for extra development time.
Don’t:
• Assume high-strength and ultra high-strength steel will
behave like mild steel.
• Depend on traditional die design criteria.
4.1.5 Rules of Thumb for high-strength steel stampings.
Common concerns associated with the use of high-strength steel in

a stamping operation include springback, splitting, tolerances, die
design, die life and blank design. The automotive industry routinely
produces stamped high-strength steel parts. Over the past several
years, many lessons have been learned through extensive practical
experience. These lessons have been summarized in the form of
Rules of Thumb in Figures 4.1 through 4.14 (Reference 6.2). The
application of the Rules of Thumb will alleviate issues associated with
high-strength steel at the part design and die design stages. They will
shorten die development time and help ensure production success
in the stamping of high-strength steel parts.
4.2 Welding considerations

High-strength and ultra high-strength steels are routinely welded on a
production basis. Most assemblies can be welded with conventional
equipment using weld cycles similar to conventional ones. In most
applications, high-strength or ultra high-strength steel is welded to
mild steel using gas metal arc or high-frequency welding. When
welding ultra high-strength steels, specific weld windows should be
developed. With nominal modification to standard weld procedures,
weight reduction may be achieved with high-strength and ultra high-
strength bumper beam assemblies.
4-21
4.2.1 Steel chemistry
Welding procedures must suit the chemistry of the steel grade being
welded. Steel specifications traditionally set limits on the main elements
in a steel grade (e.g., carbon, manganese). However, most steel
grades contain additional elements that have not been specified.
Thus, when selecting suitable welding procedures, it is important to
identify the levels of any unspecified elements in a bumper steel
grade. Recommended Practice, SAE J2340 (Reference 6.4), recognizes
this fact and places limits on unspecified elements. The high-strength
and ultra high-strength steels covered by SAE J2340 are shown in
Table 4.1. The unspecified elements permitted in the SAE J2340
grades are shown in Table 4.2.
4.2.2 High-strength and ultra high-strength steels.
When welding high-strength and ultra high-strength steels, it is

important to consider several factors usually not considered when
welding low-strength steels (e.g., welding process, welding parameters
and material combinations). Integration of these considerations can
result in a successful welding system. For instance, a low heat input
resistance seam welding method has been successfully employed for
commercial production of bumper beams made from M190HT steel.
Various welding methods (arc welding, resistance welding, laser

welding and high-frequency welding) all have unique advantages
for the welding of specific sheet steel combinations. Factors such
as production rate, heat input, weld metal dilution and weld location
access may make one welding system more desirable than another
system. For instance, a high-strength steel that is problematic for
spot welding may not exhibit the same difficulty in arc or high-
frequency welding.
It is important to consider material combinations when employing

welding processes that solidify from a molten pool, or that are
constrained by thickness ratio. In general, caution should be
exercised when spot welding a high-strength or ultra high-strength
steel to itself because of possible weld metal interfacial fracture
tendencies. However, even a problematic higher strength steel can
be spot welded to a mild steel.
4.2.3 Welding processes

On behalf of the Bumper Project of the American Iron and Steel
Institute, David Dickinson, The Ohio State University, conducted a
survey on bumper component welding (Reference 4.5). The survey
identified the welding processes that are currently used in bumper
manufacturing, or were used to produce prototype bumpers. The
processes are:
1. Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)

2. Flux cored arc welding (FCAW)
3. Resistance spot welding (RSW)
4. Resistance projection welding (RPW)
5. Resistance seam welding (RSeW)
6. Resistance projection seam welding (RPSeW)
7. High frequency and induction resistance seam welding
(RSeW-HF&I)
8. Upset welding (UW)
9. Friction welding (FRW)
10. Laser beam welding (LBW)
11. Laser beam and plasma arc welding (LBW/PAW)
A brief description of each welding process is given in Sections

4.2.3.1. to 4.2.3.11.
4-22
TABLE 4.1
SAE J2340 STEELS AND STRENGTH GRADES
Steel Description Grade Type Available Strength Grade - MPa
Dent Resistant Non Bake Hardenable A 180, 210, 250, 280
Dent Resistant Bake Hardenable B 180, 210, 250, 280
High-Strength Solution Strengthened S 300, 340
High-Strength low-alloy X&Y 300, 340, 380, 420, 490, 550
High-Strength Recovery Annealed R 490, 550, 700, 830
Ultra High-Strength Dual Phase DH & DL 500, 600, 700, 800, 950, 1000
Ultra High-Strength Low Carbon Martensite M 800, 900, 1000, 1100, 1200, 1300, 1400, 1500
TABLE 4.2
SAE J2340 CHEMICAL LIMITS ON UNSPECIFIED ELEMENTS
Maximum Percent Allowed

Element Type A, B & R Type S Type X & Y Type D & M
P 0.100 0.100 0.060 0.020
S 0.015 0.020 0.015 0.015
Cu 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200
Ni 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200
Cr 0.150 0.150 0.150 0.150
Mo 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.06
Notes: 1) P= phosphorus S= sulphur Cu= copper Ni= nickel Cr= chromium

Mo= molybdenum
2) Maximum phosphorus shall be less than 0.050 on grades 180A & 180B.
3) The sum of Cu, Ni, Cr and Mo shall not exceed 0.50% when none of these elements are specified.
When one or more of Cu, Ni, Cr or Mo are specified, the sum limit of 0.50% does not apply. However,
the individual limits for the unspecified elements apply.
4-23
4.2.3.1 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
This process, schematically illustrated in Figure 4.15a), utilizes a
direct current electrical power supply with the electrode positive
(DCEP). The positive electrode attracts electrons flowing in the circuit.
The electrons act to melt the electrode wire that deposits within
the weld metal, mixing with molten material from the base metal.
Shielding to prevent oxidation of the hot wire and molten weld
pool region is provided by an inert shielding gas directed into the
weld region by the gas nozzle. The consumable electrode material
is selected to match the strength (and other important characteristics)
of the base metal. The wire guide and contact tube must be
periodically replaced in order to maintain good electrical contact.
Also, the gas nozzle must be occasionally cleaned of spattered
material.
The welding current is varied by changing the wire feed speed.

Higher wire feed speeds produce higher welding currents. The arc
length can be varied by changing the voltage setting. Higher voltages
produce longer arcs.
As illustrated in Figure 4.15b), there are four basic methods in

which the wire is transferred to the molten weld pool: short-circuiting,
globular, pulsed spray and spray transfer. These transfer modes
have been used to describe the GMAW process itself. Terms such
as “short arc”, “dip transfer MIG” and “spray” are all common
non-standard terms used to describe the GMAW process and the
mode of operation.
Short-circuiting transfer characteristics At low current and voltage,

short circuit transfer occurs. The weld is a shallow, penetrating one
with low heat input. Using GMAW in this mode allows welding in
all positions since the weld puddle is small. In comparison to the
other three modes of transfer, this method is slowest (low productivity).
This mode produces large amounts of spatter if welding variables
are not optimized. This mode, also know as short arc or dip transfer,
is used primarily for sheet metal applications.
Globular transfer characteristics This mode of transfer is obtained

at intermediate current and voltage levels or at high current and
voltage levels with 100% CO2 shielding gas. It has higher heat
input and penetration than short circuit transfer. A larger weld pool
makes it more difficult to weld in the over-head position. It produces
significant amounts of spatter.
Pulsed spray and spray transfer characteristics Spray is achieved

at higher welding current and voltage with argon or helium based
shielding gas (over 80%Ar). This high-heat, deep-penetrating weld
limits the application to the flat position. This mode produces little
or no spatter and is known for the high deposition rate (higher
productivity). Pulsing the current where spray transfer occurs
allows for better control for out-of-position welding.
4-24
FIGURE 4.15
GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)
a) SCHEMATIC
b) METHODS OF WIRE TRANSFER
c) EFFECT OF SHIELDING GAS
4-25
In GMAW, the shielding gas (used for atmospheric shielding) also
affects the type of metal transfer in the process, penetration depth,
and the bead shape. These factors are schematically illustrated in
Figure 4.15c). The ionization potential of the gas is the ability of the
gas to give up electrons and is the characteristic that determines the
plasma characteristics of the arc. The ionization potential (IP) of the
gas can have an effect on welding characteristics such as arc heat,
stability, & starting:
• Helium, with high ionization potential, inhibits spray

transfer in steels.
• CO2, with moderate ionization potential also has limited
spray transfer.
• Argon, with low IP, promotes the spray mode - particularly
at higher currents.
Surface tension of the weld pool and metal droplets are also affected
by the type of shielding gas. Surface tension affects:
• The drop size.

• Puddle flow.
• Spatter
Argon results in high surface tension with shallower penetration.

CO2 results in low surface tension with deeper penetration.
The advantages and limitations of GMAW are:
Advantages Limitations
• High deposition rates • Equipment is more expensive and
• High Productivity complex than some manual welding
• No slag removal processes
• Continuous welding • Process variants/metal transfer
• Easily automated mechanisms make the process more
• Joint fit-up tolerance complex and the process window more
difficult to control
• Restricted access (the GMAW gun is
larger than other electrode holders)
• Spatter
• Porosity (especially with coated materials)
• Higher heat input than some processes
In summary, the GMAW process is ideally suited for many bumper

beam applications because of its high deposition rate that results in
high weld productivity. It is a process that is used on automated and
continuous welding lines and is often linked with robots and robotic
manufacturing cells. It is tolerant to moderate joint misalignment and
thus is suited for welding materials that might experience some
forming springback. It is a relatively clean process requiring no slag
removal from the weldment as do other types of welding processes.
It requires only occasional tip and gas cap maintenance.
4-26
GMAW equipment is more expensive than most manual welding
equipment. The complexity of process variants makes process
control more difficult, thus requiring experienced personnel. The
weld gun may have difficulty reaching into restricted spaces; thus,
design of parts and supplemental machinery must be considered.
Spatter and porosity discontinuities may occur if process parameters
are not fairly accurately controlled, leading to the need for weldment
inspection and possibly clean up and post weld repair. Finally,
heat input may need to be controlled, particularly when welding
high-strength and ultra high-strength bumper steels.
A useful reference document for GMAW is ANSI/AWS/SAE

Specification for Automotive and Light Truck Component Weld
Quality - Arc Welding (Reference 6.7).
4.2.3.2 Flux cored arc welding (FCAW)

As illustrated in Figure 4.16a), FCAW uses a tubular wire that is
filled with a flux. The arc is initiated between the continuous wire
electrode and the workpiece. The flux, which is contained within
the core of the tubular electrode, melts during welding, supplying
some cleaning action for the weld metal. It resolidifies as a slag
behind the weld shielding the hot weld from oxidation. Vapor
formant materials, contained in the flux core, decompose and
additionally shield the weld pool from the atmosphere. Direct
current, electrode positive (DCEP) is commonly employed as the
FCAW process.
There are two basic variants of the FCAW process as shown in

Figure 4.16b):
1. Self-shielded (without shielding gas).

2. Gas-shielded (with shielding gas).
Each variant uses different agents in the flux core. Usually, self-
shielded FCAW contains significant quantities of gas forming powder
that make this variant useful in outdoor conditions where wind
would blow away a shielding gas. The fluxing agents in self-shielded
FCAW are designed not only to shield the weld pool and metal
droplets from the atmosphere, but also to deoxidize the weld pool.
In gas-shielded FCAW, supplemental shielding gas is provided.
Thus, the flux generates only a secondary source of gas shielding
from the atmosphere. The main role of the flux is to support the
weld pool for out-of-position welds. Gas-shielded FCAW is often
used to increase the productivity of out-of-position welding and to
achieve deeper penetration welds.
The advantages and limitations of FCAW are:
• High deposition rates • Slag must be removed
• Deep penetration • More smoke and fumes than GMAW
• High-quality • Spatter
• Less pre-cleaning • FCAW wire is expensive
than GMAW • Equipment is more expensive and
• Slag covering helps complex than that for manual
with larger welding
out-of-position welds
• Self-shielded FCAW
is draft tolerant
4-27
FIGURE 4.16
FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW)
a) SCHEMATIC
b) PROCESS VARIANTS (Reference 4.6)
4-28
In summary, the FCAW process offers deeper penetration and
higher deposition rates than the GMAW process, particularly in
out-of-position welds. Perhaps one of the most important advantages
of FCAW, particularly in bumper welding, is a tolerance for material
that has not been rigorously cleaned as the flux aids in the cleaning
operation during welding. However, slag must be removed from
the weldment, and smoke must be removed from the
manufacturing environment. If weld parameters are not set properly,
spatter on the weldment may become a problem.
A useful reference document for FCAW is ANSI/AWS/SAE

Specification for Automotive and Light Truck Component Weld
Quality – Arc Welding (Reference 6.7).
4.2.3.3 Resistance spot welding (RSW)

Resistance spot welding is the most common of the resistance
welding processes. It is used extensively in the automotive,
appliance, furniture, and aircraft industries to join sheet materials.
In this process, water-cooled, copper electrodes, as illustrated in
Figure 4.17a), are used to clamp the sheets to be welded into
place. The force applied to the electrodes insures intimate contact
between all the parts in the weld configuration. A current is then
passed across the electrodes through the sheets. The contact
resistances, which are relatively high compared to the bulk material
resistance, cause heating at the contact surfaces. The combination
of heat extraction by the chilled electrodes and rapid contact
surface heating causes the maximum temperature to occur roughly
around the faying surface. As the material near the faying surface
heats, the bulk resistance rises rapidly while the contact resistance
falls. Again, the peak resistance is near the faying surface, resulting
in the highest temperatures in that region. Eventually melting
occurs at the faying surface, and a molten nugget develops. On
termination of the welding current, the weld cools rapidly under
the influence of the chilled electrodes and causes the nugget to
solidify, joining the two sheets.
Acceptable-sized weld nuggets can be produced over a range of

currents as illustrated in the operating window or “lobe curve” presented
in Figure 4.17b). At the lower end of the current range is the minimum
nugget size, which can be found in a resistance-welding manual and
is based on the diameter of the electrode face. At the upper end
of the current range is the expulsion limit. Expulsion is a condition
in which the weld nugget grows to a size that cannot be contained
by the electrode force; molten metal bursts out of the weld seam.
The current range over which an acceptable nugget size is

obtained is a measure of the robustness of the welding process. A
wide current range indicates that significant variations in the
process can occur while maintaining some minimum weld quality.
A narrow range, on the other hand, indicates that minor variations
in process conditions can result in unacceptable weld quality.
The lobe curve graphically represents the range of acceptable

welding currents as a function of welding time. The minimum and
expulsion currents are determined for a number of welding times
at a particular electrode force. Separate lines are drawn to connect
the minimum weld size currents and the expulsion currents.
The required current level for making a consistently sized weld

(presumably just below expulsion) is probably the simplest method
of defining weldability. This measure of weldability is an indication
of the size of welding transformers required to weld the materials
of interest.
4-29
FIGURE 4.17
RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING (RSW)
a) SCHEMATIC
b) LOBE CURVE
FIGURE 4.18
RESISTANCE PROJECTION WELDING (RPW)
SEQUENCE OF PROJECTION COLLAPSE
4-30
The advantages and limitation of RSW are:
• High speed, (<0.1 • Higher equipment costs than arc
seconds in automotive welding
spot welds) • Surface indentation
• Excellent for sheet • Nondestructive testing
metal applications • Low tensile and fatigue strength
[thickness <6.4 mm • Not portable
(0.25 inches)] • Electrode wear
• No filler metal • Lap joint requires additional metal
RSW is widely used in bumper manufacturing because of its high

speed and excellent adaptability for sheet materials. However,
RSW requires a sizable investment in equipment and the
equipment is mostly non-portable. RSW welds are difficult to
inspect nondestructively and they often have lower tensile and
fatigue properties than the base metal. Well-maintained
electrodes are required to ensure the highest quality spot-welds.
In addition, surface indentations are often observed at the location
where the welds are made. In many applications these are not
objectionable. However, in cases where surface appearance is
critical, the resistance projection welding process should be used.
Two useful references on the evaluation of resistance spot welds

are the Weld Quality Test Method Manual published by the
Auto/Steel Partnership (Reference 6.5) and the ANSI/AWS/SAE
Standard Recommended Practices for Test Methods for Evaluating
the Resistance Spot Welding Behavior of Automotive Sheet Steel
Materials (Reference 6.6). It should be noted that these standard
test methods are intended for yield strengths up to 420 MPa (60.9
ksi) and modifications may be required for higher yield strengths.
4.2.3.4 Resistance projection welding (RPW)

RPW, as illustrated in Figure 4.18, is a variation on resistance spot
welding. Basically, a protrusion (projection) is placed on one of the
two materials to be welded. This projection is then brought into
contact against the second material.
The welding sequence is similar to that for resistance spot welding.

The welding electrodes are used to apply both force and current
across the configuration. The projection constricts current flow (It
is a point of high resistance in the welding circuit, and heating
occurs preferentially at this point). As the material heats, it
becomes soft, and the projection collapses under the force applied
by the welding electrodes. Due to the amount of plastic flow
involved, melting is not always necessary to form a sound weld.
The sequence of events during the formation of a projection weld

is shown in Figure 4.18. In illustration (a), the projection is shown
in contact with the mating sheet. In illustration (b), the current has
started to heat the projection to welding temperature. The electrode
force causes the heated projection to collapse rapidly and fusion
takes place as show in illustration (c). The completed weld is
shown in illustration (d).
4-31
Projection welding is not limited to sheets. Any joint whose projection
(contact area) is small compared to the thickness of the parts being
welded is a candidate for projection welding.
The purpose of a projection is to localize the heat and pressure at a

specific location in a joint. The projection design determines the
current density required. Projections in sheet metal parts are
generally made by embossing, as opposed to projections in solid
metal pieces that are made by either machining or forging. In the
case of stamped parts, projections are generally located on the
edge of the stamping.
The advantages and limitations of RPW are:
• Satisfactory heat • Requires an additional operation to
balance for welding form projections
difficult combinations • Requires accurate control of projection
• Uniform results height and precise alignment of the
• Increased output welding dies with multiple welds
because welds are • Requires higher capacity equipment
being made than spot welding
simultaneously • Sheet metal thickness limited by ability
• Longer electrode life to form projections
• Welds may be closely
spaced
• Parts easily welded in
assembly fixture
• Improved surface
appearance
• Parts welded that
cannot be resistance
spot welded
RPW offers significant production advantages. The welding electrodes

are flat and contact a large surface area on the parts being joined.
Also, electrode life is improved and the electrodes require less
attention and maintenance that those used in resistance spot welding.
In resistance spot welding, if the welds are too closely spaced, the
welding current is shunted through a previously finished weld. In
RPW, multiple welds may be made simultaneously. Thus, shunting
is less of an issue and welds may be more closely spaced than in
resistance spot welding. However, if more that three projections
are welded simultaneously, the height of the projections must be
uniform to avoid some projections fusing before others have made
contact. Alternately, ample pressure in conjunction with a double
weld cycle (one schedule) may be run. The first weld should be
short in time and high in current. The first hit buries and evens out
the projections. The second weld should be longer in time and
lower in current. The second hit tempers the welds.
In conventional spot welding, parts may be located by an assembly

fixture and moved to make a second or third spot-weld. When
using projection welding, the parts are simply placed in a nest and,
with one operation of the machine; all welds are made at once.
One part may be located in relation to the other by punching holes
in one and matching them with semi-punchings from the other.
4-32
Small parts, such as brackets or handles, are difficult to locate in a
spot welding machine, which results in misplaced spots or extruded
metal. Neat embossing would be less unsightly and a fitted electrode
would not mark the exposed surface.
RPW has some limitations. The formation of projections may

require an additional operation unless the parts are press-formed to
design shape. With multiple welds, accurate control of projection
height and precise alignment of the welding dies are necessary to
equalize the electrode force and welding current. With sheet
metal, the RPW process is limited to the thickness in which projections
with acceptable characteristics can be formed.
4.2.3.5 Resistance seam welding (RSeW)

RSeW is a variation on resistance spot welding. In this case, the
welding electrodes are motor driven wheels, which produce a
“rolling” resistance or seam weld. There are three independent
parameters: power supply and control, welding wheel configuration
and sheet configuration.
Power supply and control governs the frequency with which current
is applied to the workpiece. Depending on this frequency and the
speed with which the material is being welded, the weld will be a
continuous seam weld, an overlapping seam weld or a roll spot
weld as illustrated in Figure 4.19a).
Seam welds are typically used to produce continuous gas-tight or

liquid-tight joints in sheet assemblies, such as automotive fuel tanks.
The process is also used to weld longitudinal seams in structural
tubular sections such as bumper beams. In fuel tanks, the use of
overlapping or continuous seam welds is mandatory. However,
bumper beams do not require leak-tight seams and roll spot welds
may be used.
Typical lobe curves for RSeW are presented in Figures 4.19b) and
c)(Reference 4.7). The major variables that control the quality of
seam welds are current (impulse or continuous), speed and force.
These variables are plotted for both uncoated and hot-dip galvanized
steels. It can be noted that as the speed increases, a limit is
reached where a non-continuous seam is produced. Likewise, as
the current is increased, a point is reached where surface eruptions
or expulsion occurs and the copper from the electrodes melts and
may cause additional cracking. In general, increased electrode
force tends to increase the acceptable lobe size and move it to
higher current levels. For coated steels, the speed tends to be
reduced and the current increased.
The advantages and limitations of RSeW are:
• High Speed • Higher equipment costs than arc welding
• Excellent for sheet • Power line demands
metal applications • Nondestructive testing
[<6.35mm • Low tensile and fatigue strength
(0.25 inches)] • Not portable
• No filler metal • Electrode wear
• Ability to produce • Lap joint requires additional metal
leak-tight joints
4-33
FIGURE 4.19
RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING (RSeW)
Surface Eruption, Cu Contamination Cracking Lower Speed

Higher Current
CURRENT, kA
CURRENT, kA
Non-Continuous Units
Seam as per
b
FO
FO
RC
RC
in.
E
in.
./m n./m
lb
E
D, i
FO
.
, in
lb
FO
E
.
D E
RC
E SP
SPE
RC
c
sec /se
E
, mm
E
m/
N
N
,m ED
ED SPE
SPE
a) SEAM VARIATIONS b) LOBE CURVE FOR UNCOATED c) LOBE CURVE FOR HOT-DIP
LOW CARBON STEEL GALVANIZED LOW CARBON STEEL
FIGURE 4.20
RESISTANCE PROJECTION SEAM WELDING (RPSeW)
a) SCHEMATIC b) SEAM GEOMETRY
4-34
The advantages of high speed, applicability to sheet materials and
no need for filler metal make RSeW ideally suited for the closure
welding of bumper beam tubes in a high speed automated fabrication
line. Often these lines consist of a steel coil (slit to the proper
width) being fed from a pay-off reel into a continuous roll forming
line. The line forms the required tubular cross section. The seam
welder then closes the open tube. The formed and welded tubular
section may then go through an induction heat-treating device or
into a sweep forming device, and finally into a cutter, which cuts
the beam to length.
The limitations of RSeW include higher initial equipment costs

compared to arc welding and higher power costs compared to arc
welding. In addition, electrode wear and maintenance and the lack
of non-destructive testing techniques to assure good welds must be
addressed. Finally, because RSeW is suited to lap joints (rather than
butt joints as used in arc welding), a slight increase in part weight
occurs.
4.2.3.6 Resistance projection seam welding (RPSeW)

In conventional projection welding (RPW), the current is concentrated
exactly at the weld location. A relatively new process, resistance
projection seam welding as illustrated in Figure 4.20a), does the
same thing in seam welding (Reference 4.8). In RSeW, a projection
is rolled into one of the sheets to be welded on a roll forming line.
The sheet with the projection, and the sheet to which it is to be
welded, are presented into the resistance seam-welding machine
where current is passed through two opposed rolls. The current
must flow through the projection thus concentrating its density as
in conventional projection welding.
The shape of the projection has been studied and both the continuous
projection geometry and the dimple projection geometry (as
illustrated in Figure 4.20b), have been successfully used. The
continuous projection makes a continuous weld, but requires more
total energy input. The dimple projection makes an intermittent
seam; but requires less total energy input.
The advantages and limitations of RPSeW are:
• Satisfactory heat • Requires an additional operation to form
balance for welding projections
difficult combinations • Requires accurate control of projection
• Uniform results height and precise alignment of the
• Reduced total energy welding dies
consumption • Sheet metal thickness limited by
• Longer electrode life ability to form projections
• Parts easily welded
in assembly fixture
surface
• Improved surface
appearance
• Parts welded that
cannot be resistance
spot welded
4-35
The advantages of RPSeW are: heat balance problems are solved,
the welds are uniform, welding speed is increased and total energy
consumption is reduced. The preparation of the projection, however,
requires an additional step. This issue may not be too great a
concern if the projection is formed on the same roll forming line
used to make a part. However, control of the projection size and
design is still an issue.
4.2.3.7 High frequency and induction resistance seam welding (RSeW - HF&I)
High frequency welding includes those processes in which the
coalescence of metals is produced by the heat generated from the
electrical resistance of the work to high frequency current, usually
with the application of an upsetting force to produce a forged
weld.
There are two processes (Reference 4.9) that utilize high frequency
current to produce the heat for welding: high frequency resistance
welding (HFRW), as illustrated in Figure 4.21a), and high frequency
induction welding (HFIW), sometimes called induction resistance
welding, as illustrated in Figure 4.21b). The heating of the work in
the weld area and the resulting weld are essentially identical with
both processes. With HFRW, the current is conducted into the
work through electrical contacts that physically touch the work.
With HFIW, the current is induced in the work by coupling with an
external induction coil. There is no physical electrical contact with
the work. A characteristic of high frequency current is that it travels
as close to the “vee” edge as possible, thus treating only the
surfaces that are to be welded.
Although the welding process depends upon the heat generated

by the resistance of the metal to high frequency current, other
factors must also be considered for successful high frequency welding.
Because the concentrated high frequency current heats only a
small volume of metal (just where the weld is to take place), the
process is extremely energy efficient, and welding speeds can by
very high. Materials handling, forming and cutting limit the
maximum line speed. Minimum line speed is set by material
properties and weld quality requirements.
The fit of the surfaces to be joined and the manner in which they
are brought together is important if high-quality joints are to be
produced. Flux is not usually used but can be introduced to the
weld area in an inert gas stream. Inert gas shielding of the welding
area is generally needed only for joining reactive metals such as
titanium and certain stainless steel products.
The advantages and limitations of high frequency welding processes

are:
• Produces welds with • Special care must be taken to avoid
very narrow heat- radiation interference in the plant’s
affected zones vicinity
• High welding speed • Uneconomical for products required
and low power in small quantities
consumption • Needs proper fit-up
• Able to weld very • Hazards of high frequency current
thin wall tubes
• Minimizes oxidation
and discoloration as
well as distortion
4-36
FIGURE 4.21
HIGH FREQUENCY AND INDUCTION RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING (RSeW-HF&I)
a) HIGH FREQUENCY RESISTANCE WELDING b) HIGH FREQUENCY INDUCTION WELDING
FIGURE 4.22
UPSET WELDING (UW)
a) SCHEMATIC b) PLATEN MOTION
4-37
High frequency welding processes offer several advantages over
low frequency and direct current resistance welding processes.
One characteristic of the high frequency processes is that they can
produce welds with very narrow heat-affected zones. The high
frequency welding current tends to flow only near the surface of
the metal because of the “skin effect” and along a narrow
controlled path because of the “proximity effect”. The heat for
welding, therefore, is developed in a small volume of metal along
the surfaces to be joined. A narrow heat-affected zone is generally
desirable because it tends to give a stronger welded joint than the
wider zone produced by many other welding processes. With
some alloys, the narrow heat-affected zone and absence of cast
structure may eliminate the need for post-weld heat treatment to
improve the metallurgical characteristics of the welded joint. The
shallow and narrow current flow path results in extremely high
heating rates and therefore, high welding speeds and low-power
consumption. A major advantage of the continuous high frequency
welding processes is their ability to weld at very high speeds. high
frequency welding can also be used to weld very thin wall tubes.
Wall thicknesses down to 0.13mm(0.005 inches) is presently being
welded on continuous production mills. The processes are
adaptable to many steels including low carbon, low-alloy and
stainless steels. Because the time at welding temperature is very
short and the heat is localized, oxidation and discoloration of the
metal as well as distortion of the part are minimal.
As with all processes, there are limitations. Because the equipment

operates in the radio frequency range, special care must be taken
in its installation, operation, and maintenance to avoid radiation
interference in the plant’s vicinity. As a general rule, the minimum
speed for carbon steel is about 7.6m/min(25 feet/min). For
products that are only required in small quantities, the high
frequency processes may be uneconomical unless the technical
advantages justify the application. Because the high frequency
processes utilize localized heating in the joint area, proper fit-up is
important. Equipment is usually incorporated into mill or line
operation and must be fully automated. The process is limited to
the use of coil, flat, or tubular stock with a constant joint symmetry
throughout the length of the part. Any disruption in the current
path or change in the shape of the vee can cause significant
problems. Special precautions must be taken to protect plant
personnel from the hazards of high frequency. The high frequency
processes have found applications in the seam welding of bumper
reinforcement beams on continuous lines.
4-38
4.2.3.8 Upset welding (UW)
UW is a resistance welding process that produces coalescence
over the entire area of faying surfaces, or progressively along a
butt joint, by the heat obtained from the resistance to the flow of
welding current through the area where those surfaces are in
contact. Usually DC current is used for the heating, with the
parts clamped in electrical contacting dies, one stationary and
the other movable as illustrated in Figure 4.22a). Pressure is used
to complete the weld.
The movable clamping die (or platen motion) is presented in

Figure 4.22b). At first, the motion brings the parts into intimate
contact. Then the weld current is energized. In joints with
normal fit-up, some thermal expansion may be seen as the parts
heat. Joints with poor fit-up tend to experience a joint seating
motion during this period. At a point in time when sufficient
heating has occurred, a rapid forging force is applied and the
abutting parts are rapidly forced into each other, causing some
outward material flow.
With this process, welding is essentially done in the solid state.

The metal at the joint is resistance heated to a temperature
where recrystallizaion can rapidly take place across the faying
surfaces. A force is applied to the joint to bring the faying
surfaces into intimate contact and then upset the metal. Upset
hastens recrystallization at the interface and, at the same time,
some metal is forced outward from this location. This tends to
purge the joint of oxidized metal.
Upset welding has two variations:
1. Joining two sections of the same cross section end-to-end

(butt joint).
2. Joining of sections with differing cross sections such as a
stud to a plate.
The first variation can also be accomplished by flash welding.

The second variation is also done with resistance projection
welding.
The advantages and limitations of UW are:

• Some flexibility in • Produces unbalance on three-phase
cross section shape primary power lines so often DC
• Rapid process, can current is used
be automated • Requires special equipment for
• Impurities can be removal of flash metal
removed during • Difficult alignment for workpieces
upset with small cross sections
• Can weld rings and • Requires part cross section
various cross sections consideration
The upset welding of butt joints is fast and can be automated.
There is some flexibility in joint design. However, control of the
joint tolerances is critical. The process requires large amounts of
current so DC rectified current is usually used to improve
efficiency. In some applications, the weld flash must be
removed.
The upset butt process involves relatively slow heating and no

measures are taken to protect the joint from air. Consequently, a
generous upset is required to exude oxidized metal. For this reason,
other butt welding processes such as flash, percussion or friction
welding are often preferred.
4-39
4.2.3.9 Friction welding (FRW)
FRW is a process that produces a weld under a compressive
force (Reference 4.10). As illustrated in Figure 4.23a), the work
pieces are brought into contact and rotated very rapidly to
produce heat. Usually one piece is rotated against a stationary
piece to produce the heat at the junction. The rotation time and
force are adjusted until the temperature in the joint reaches the
forging temperature of the material at which time the rotation is
stopped and an axial force is applied to forge weld the pieces
together. As such, the process is a solid-state bonding process.
Geometries that have a rotational symmetry are particularly

suitable for friction welding. Applications include round bars and
tubes to each other, as well as bars or tubes to sheet steel.
Linear friction welding is used for parts with non-rotational

symmetry. In this application, one part is oscillated back and
forth against the other (Figure 4.23b).
The advantages and limitations of FRW are:
• Faster than most • Start-up cost is high
other processes • Parts must be able to rotate about an
• Can join dissimilar axis of symmetry
material together • Free machining alloys are difficult to
(e.g.) Copper to weld
steel • Non-forgeable materials cannot be
• Easily automated friction welded
for high-volume
production
FRW is fast and can join many different materials. It is one of

only a few welding processes that has this material variability. It
is easily automated. However, part geometry can be a limitation;
and, in general, the materials to be joined must be hot forgeable.
4.2.3.10 Laser beam welding (LBW)
“LASER” is an acronym for “light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation.” A laser beam that becomes highly
focused is an excellent source of concentrated energy. This energy
is used for many welding applications and also for cutting and
heat treating.
Two basic types of lasers are used in welding: solid-state and gas
(Reference 4.10). Solid-state lasers are made of a single elongated
crystal rod. Nd:YAG (a doped crystal of neodymium with yttrium,
aluminum, and garnet) is the most common solid-state laser used
for welding today. The end surfaces of the rod are ground flat
and parallel. These ends usually have a reflectivE-coating placed
on them. While one end is totally reflective, the other end is partially
reflective, leaving a small area for photons to escape. The Nd
ions excite their electrons to a higher energy level. By doing this,
photons are emitted at a wavelength of 1.06 microns. After the
photons are emitted, the electrons are allowed to return to their
original state.
4-40
FIGURE 4.23
FRICTION WELDING (FRW)
a) PART ROTATION b) PART OSCILLATION
FIGURE 4.24
LASER BEAM WELDING (LBW)
a) CARBON DIOXIDE LASER
b) BEAM FOCUS
4-41
The most common gas laser is the carbon dioxide laser (see
Figure 4.24a). It is also the laser used for most welding applications.
An electrical charge excites the carbon dioxide molecules, which
on their return to their normal energy state emit some photons.
Much like solid-state lasers, reflective surfaces are placed at the
ends of the tube in which the gas is contained. The one end is
totally reflective, while the other allows a small amount of light to
pass. This light is emitted at a wavelength of 10.6 microns.
Factors affecting the choice between gas and solid-state lasers are:
Nd:YAG lasers: most metals absorb its wavelength better than

the CO2 laser wavelength, versatile fiber-optic delivery, easy
beam alignment, easier maintenance, smaller equipment, and
more expensive safety measures than CO2 because of its wave-
length.
CO2 lasers: higher power, better beam quality in terms of focus

ability, higher speeds and deeper penetration for materials that
don’t reflect its light, and lower start-up and operation.
In laser welding, the beam can be focused for different applications

as illustrated in figure 4.24b). Usually, a small focus size is used
for cutting and welding, while a larger focus is used for heat treatment
or surface modification. The focal spot of the beam can also be
varied based on the application.
The advantages and limitations of LBW are:
• Single pass weld • High initial start-up costs
penetration in • Part fit-up and joint tracking are
steel up to 19mm critical
(0.75 inches) thick • Not portable
• Materials need • High cooling rates may lead to
not be conductive material problems
• No filler metal
required
• Low heat input
produces low
distortion
LBW advantages include the very rapid weld travel speed and
the low heat input that results in very little distortion. However,
initial equipment costs for laser welding are high. Additional
costs to assure good part fit-up may be of some disadvantage.
Coatings on steel can be a problem in plume formation through
which the laser beam cannot adequately penetrate. Fume control
shielding gas may be required.
4.2.3.11 Laser beam and plasma arc welding (LBW/PAW)

There have been a number of experimental developments in
welding processes using the laser welding process as a base and
coupling a second welding process (such as plasma arc welding)
with it. The benefit is that the high travel speed associated with
the laser process is combined with the metal fill, the less stringent
part fit-up and the favorable bead shape associated with the plasma
arc process. Two variations of the LBW/PAW process are
described in two patents (References 4.11 and 4.12).
4-42
4.2.4 Weldability of bumper materials
The heat of welding causes changes in the microstructures and
mechanical properties in a region of heated steel that is referred
to as the heat-affected zone (HAZ). The resulting microstructure
in the HAZ will depend on the composition of the steel and the
rate at which the steel is heated and cooled. The degree of
hardening in the HAZ is an important consideration determining
the weldability of a carbon or low-alloy steel. Weldability and
resistance to hydrogen cracking generally decrease with increasing
carbon or martensite in the weld metal or the HAZ, or both.
Although carbon is the most significant alloying element affecting

weldability, the effects of other elements can be estimated by
equating them to an equivalent amount of carbon. Therefore,
the effect of total alloy content can be expressed in terms of a
carbon equivalent (CE). One empirical formula that may be used
for judging the risk of underbead cracking in carbon steel is:
CE = C + Mn + Cr + Mo + V + Ni + Cu
6 5 15
Generally, steels with low CE values (e.g., 0.2 to 0.3) have excellent
weldability; however, the susceptibility to underbead cracking
from hydrogen increases when the CE exceeds 0.40.
4.2.5 Ranking of welding processes
David Dickinson, The Ohio State University, used his experience

and the results of a State-of-the-Art Welding Survey (Reference
4.5), to rank the suitability of various welding processes for
joining bumper steels. His “poor”, “acceptable”, “better” and
“best” rankings are given in Table 4.3. Note: The rankings for
10B21 Modified were added to the Table by the American Iron
and Steel Institute’s Bumper Project Group. The rankings are
subjective and should not be taken as absolute. However, they
do provide a starting point for the selection of a welding process.
The welding processes in Table 4.3 were all identified in

Dickinson’s SOA Survey as ones that are currently used in
bumper manufacture, or were used to produce prototype
bumpers. The processes, described in Sections 4.2.3.1 to
4.2.3.11, are:
1. Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)

2. Flux cored arc welding (FCAW)
3. Resistance spot welding (RSW)
4. Resistance projection welding (RPW)
5. Resistance seam welding (RSeW)
6. Resistance projection seam welding (RPSeW)
7. High frequency and induction resistance seam welding
(RSW-HF&I)
8. Upset welding (UW)
9. Friction welding (FRW)
10. Laser beam welding (LBW)
11. Laser beam and plasma arc welding (LBW/PAW)
4-43
TABLE 4.3
RANKING OF WELDING PROCESSES BY BUMPER MATERIAL
WELDING PROCESSES 3, 4
RSeW-HF&1
LBW/PAW
BUMPER MATERIAL
GMAW
RPSeW
FCAW
RSeW
RPW
RSW
FRW
MATERIAL1 STANDARD2
LBW
UW
UNCOATED
CQ SAEJ2329 (Grade 1) B B B B B B B b b b b
DQSK SAEJ2329 (Grades 2 & 3) B B B B B B B b b b b
DQAK SAEJ2329 (Grades 2 & 3) B B B B B B B b b b b
35XLF SAEJ1392 (035XLF) B B B B B B B b b b b
55XLF SAEJ1392 Modified B B B B B B B b b b b
120XF SAEJ2340 (830R) b b B B B B B b b b b
135XF SAEJ2340 Modified b b B B B B B b b b b
140T SAEJ2340 (950DL) b b B B B b B b b b b
M190HT SAEJ2340 (1300M) b b b b b b b b b b b
10B21 (Modified) SAEJ403 (10B21 Modified) B B g g b g B b b b b
COATED
HDG/EG — b b g g g g g b b p p
1. Refer to Section 4.2.5 and Tables 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 5.4 and 5.5 for bumper material definitions and properties.
2. See References 4.13, 4.14, 4.15 and 6.4.
3. Refer to Section 4.2.3 for welding process definitions.
4. p = poor g = acceptable b = better B = best
4-44
All of the materials in Table 4.3 are commonly used for production
bumpers. Examples are given in Tables 5.4 and 5.5 along with a
description of each bumper material. In Table 4.3, the welding
processes are ranked for the following materials:
Hot rolled or cold rolled (uncoated) sheet steel
1. CQ Commercial quality
2. DQSK Drawing quality, special killed de-oxidation
practice.
3. DQAK Drawing quality, aluminum killed.
4. 35XLF High-strength low-alloy with sulphide inclusion
control, low carbon, 240 MPa (35 ksi) yield
strength.
control, low carbon, 345MPa (50ksi) yield
strength.
control, low carbon, 380MPa(55ksi) yield
strength.
control, low carbon, 550MPa (80ksi) yield
strength.
8. 120XF High-strength low-alloy with sulphide inclusion
control, low carbon 830MPa (120ksi) yield
strength.
9. 135XF High-strength low-alloy with sulphide inclusion
control, low carbon 920MPa (135ksi) yield
strength.
10. 140T Dual phase structure contains martensite in
ferrite matrix, excellent formability prior to strain
aging, 965MPa (140ksi) tensile strength.
11. M190HT Martensitic quality, 1310MPa (190ksi) tensile
strength.
12. 10B21 Carbon-boron steel, 1140MPa (165ksi) yield
(Modified) strength after hot forming and quenching.
hot-dip galvanized or electrogalvanized sheet steel
13. HDG/EG Includes materials one through 12 (above) that

have been hot-dip galvanized or electrogalvanized.
The ranking of the welding processes for
individual materials (one through 12) in the
galvanized condition becomes quite complex
because of the dual effect of steel grade and
metallic coating on weld ability. Thus, one
overall ranking is given for each of materials one
through 12 in either the hot-dip galvanized or
the electrogalvanized condition for each
welding process.
4-45
The following is an overall explanation of the rankings assigned in
Table 4.3:
Arc welding (GMAW and FCAW)
In general, all steel bumper materials may be arc welded without

difficulty. Selection of an appropriate filler metal with proper
strength is all that is required. Welding consumable manufacturers
can assist with this selection.
Consideration should be given to the heat-affected zone in arc

welded joints. The graphs in Figure 4.25 are diagrammatic
representations of the heat-affected zone for arc welded steel
bumper materials. Actual plots are available from steel suppliers
and welding consumable manufacturers.
Figure 4.25 indicates that as the carbon content in the steel

increases, the hardness at the fusion line increases. For example,
the carbon content of a martensitic steel depends on its strength
level. A higher strength level has a higher carbon content. Figure
4.25 indicates that a martensitic steel with a higher carbon content
has increased hardness at the fusion line. Dual phase steel is
another example. The carbon content of dual phase steel depends
on its production process - as rolled, batch annealed or continuous
annealed. All three have different carbon levels and different
fusion line hardness.
Figure 4.25 also indicates that some steel materials undergo softening
and a loss of strength in the heat-affected zone (e.g., microalloy,
dual phase, recovery annealed and martensitic materials). Lower
heat input during welding helps reduce the degree of softening.
Higher strength materials are slightly more difficult to weld than

lower strength materials because of the springback associated with
higher strength parts. Fixturing, to hold the parts firmly in place
during welding, is often required to get defect free welds.
Galvanized coatings on steel can cause minor difficulties with arc

welding. For example, zinc has a much lower melting and
vaporization point than steel. Thus, during welding, zinc fumes are
generated. They may be captured by a ventilation system. Also,
intermetallic zinc inclusions may be formed during welding.
However, inclusions may be minimized by using the FCAW
process. The flux scavenges the inclusions and they are removed
along with the flux.
Resistance welding (RSW, RPW, RSeW and RPSeW)
A comparison of resistance spot weldabilty is given in Figure 4.26

for hot rolled, cold rolled and galvanized sheets. Welding lobes
are given for representative bumper materials. The lobes are some-
what arbitrary. However, they do allow a rough comparison of the
spot weldability of steel materials. For a given material, a welding
lobe is expressed as weld time verses weld current at a constant
electrode force level.
4-46
FIGURE 4.25
HARDNESS IN HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE OF ARC WELDS
Hardness
Distance From Fusion Line
4-47
FIGURE 4.26
RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING COMPARISON
a) HOT ROLLED SHEET
b) COLD ROLLED SHEET
c) GALVANIZED SHEET
4-48
Each lobe is a three dimensional diagram. The larger rectangular
plane in a lobe represents the base line of weldability. This
base line diminishes into the depth of the page to a smaller
plane. The reduction in plane size represents sensitivity to
some weld parameter such as electrode force. Thus, when
the two planes are almost the same size, the material is weldable
over a wide range of parameters. On the other hand, if one
plane is considerably smaller than the other, weldability losses
are expected with a change in parameter. For galvanized sheets,
the coating has a marked effect on weldability. To represent
the effect of the coating, a square has been placed onto the
smaller plane.
The lobes in Figure 4.26 are sometimes referred to as operating

windows. Weld current and time must be within an operating
window to achieve a sound weld. A small operating window
means a high degree of control is required in the welding
process. Thus, materials with small operating windows are
regarded as less weldable than materials with large windows.
CQ and DQ hot and cold rolled materials are weldable over a

wide range of welding currents and times. Their excellent
weldability is often taken as the base against which other
materials are compared. CQ and DQ are only minimally
affected by electrode force (A high electrode force reduces
contact resistance. Thus, either more current or a longer weld
time is required). Weld nuggets in CQ and DQ materials are
ductile and strong.
The hot and cold rolled XLF materials have excellent weldability.
They closely match the weldability of CQ and DQ. The XLF
materials obtain their strength from microalloying elements
(precipitation hardening) and controlled rolling (fine grain
size). During welding, loss of precipitation hardening and
grain growth may occur, resulting in strength loss in the heat-
affected zone. Usually, the effect is minimal and does not hinder
the application of XLF materials.
120XF and 135XF hot and cold rolled sheets generally obtain
their strength through cold work and recovery annealing.
While there is no problem welding these materials, a reduction
in hardness and strength in the heat-affected zone can occur.
Using the lowest current and shortest weld time prevents over
welding and improves heat-affected zone strength.
Weldability tests on hot and cold rolled dual phase (e.g. 140T)
steels show they respond very similar to other steels at their
strength level.
Martensitic hot or cold rolled sheet (e.g., M190HT) obtains its

strength through the quench hardening of somewhat higher
carbon steel to martensitic steel. Resistance weld nuggets
tend to be brittle and subject to cracking failure. Also,
strength loss, through tempering of the base metal, can occur
in the heat-affected zone. Regardless, martensitic steels are
resistance weldable provided some precautions are taken during
welding.
4-49
Galvanized coatings add a complexity to welding. In general, as
the strength level of the base steel increases, weldability decreases.
Also, as strength increases, the required electrode force increases.
The effect of the coating on the electrode, plus the higher welding
force, cause reduced weldability as indicated by the smaller
operating windows for galvanized materials. Coatings also
reduce electrode life; thus, the condition of the electrodes must
be closely monitored during welding. Frequent dressing or
replacement of the electrodes is required.
High-frequency welding (RSeW-HF&I)
All of the current bumper materials are readily joined by high

frequency welding. High frequency welds have only a small
heat-affected zone because the welding current is concentrated
on the surfaces to be welded. In addition, the squeeze at the
point of weld consummation forces any inclusions in the molten
weld metal out of the weld zone. Galvanized coatings have little
affect on weldability since the heated region of a joint is small.
Also, there is little vaporization of the coating and fuming.
Upset and friction welding (UW and FRW)
Upset and friction welding both result in relatively low heating.

Thus, the heat-affect zone not only is small but also contains
minimal softening. It is very difficult to align sheet steel parts
with these processes. Thus, they are mainly used for bar stock
and thicker steel.
Laser welding (LBW and LBW/PAW)
A laser beam is finely focused and usually associated with higher

travel speed, therefore, a laser weld has a very small heat-affected
zone due to the higher cooling rate. Thus, any loss of strength in
the welded materials, even higher strength ones, is minimal. This
process requires excellent fit-up, which is sometimes difficult to
achieve during production, especially with higher strength materials
due to springback. The vaporization of galvanized coatings can
cause a plume, which blocks the laser beam. In such a case, a
fume control shielding gas may be used.
4-50
5. Design concepts
5.1 Sweep (roll formed sections) and depth of draw (stampings)

The current styling trend for vehicles is toward rounded,
aerodynamic shapes. This trend has impacted bumper design and
challenged bumper manufacturers to provide the highly rounded
shapes desired by vehicle stylists. Steel bumper manufacturers have
met the challenge and are providing the contours required for both
reinforcing beams and facebars.
A convenient way of defining the degree of roundness for a

stamped or roll formed reinforcing beam is to use the concept of
sweep. Sweep expresses the degree of curvature of the outer
bumper face, or the face farthest removed from the inside of the
vehicle. Sweep is defined in Figure 5.1 and Tables 5.1 and 5.2.
Sweep in the camber, X, for a 60 inch (1524 mm) chord length, L,
of a given circle of radius, R. Sweep in expressed as the number of
one-eighth inches (3.18 mm). For example, if X is 5 inches (127
mm) for an L of 60 inches (1524 mm), the sweep would be 40.
Tables 5.1 and 5.2 indicate that a sweep number of 40 corresponds
to a radius of curvature of 92.5 inches or 2350 mm. Tables 5.1 and
5.2 also list the cambers for chord lengths smaller than 60 inches
(1524 mm). For example, if the camber is 2.711 inches (68.9 mm)
and the chord length is 40 inches (1016 mm), the sweep number is
50. The concept of sweep applies well to a reinforcing beam
because it has a near constant radius of curvature and no wrap
arounds at the end of the reinforcing beam.
Depth of draw is often used to describe the amount of rounding

and wrap around on a bumper section, and in particular, a stamped
facebar. As shown in Figure 5.2, depth of draw is the distance, X,
between the extreme forward point on a bumper and the extreme
aft point on a bumper. This distance has a physical significance in
that it cannot exceed the opening available with a given stamping
press. X is usually stated in inches (millimeters).
5.2 Tailor welded blanks

A tailor welded blank is two or more pieces of flat material, having
dissimilar thicknesses, and/or physical properties, joined together
before forming to provide customized qualities in the finished
product. Examples are shown in Figure 5.3.
Talor welded blanks are commonly joined using one of the

following methods (Reference 7.1):
1. Laser beam butt seam welding

2. high frequency induction butt seam welding
3. Resistance roller mash lap seam welding
4. Electron-beam butt seam welding
5-1
FIGURE 5.1
DEFINITION OF SWEEP
5-2
TABLE 5.1
SWEEP NUMBERS (CAMBER, X, INCHES)
SWEEP CHORD LENGTH, L, INCHES RADIUS

NO. (inches)
30 35 40 45 50 55 60
1 0.031 0.043 0.056 0.070 0.087 1.105 0.125 3600.0
10 0.311 0.424 0.554 0.701 0.866 1.048 1.250 360.6
15 0.466 0.635 0.830 1.050 1.297 1.569 1.875 240.9
20 0.622 0.847 1.107 1.402 1.732 2.098 2.500 181.3
25 0.773 1.052 1.374 1.749 2.164 2.621 3.125 145.6
30 0.926 1.263 1.652 2.095 2.592 3.143 3.750 121.9
35 1.072 1.474 1.924 2.445 3.023 3.673 4.375 104.9
40 1.224 1.670 2.188 2.776 3.442 4.182 5.000 92.5
45 1.373 1.872 2.455 3.167 3.867 4.701 5.625 82.8
50 1.513 2.067 2.711 3.449 4.282 5.214 6.250 75.1
55 1.659 2.264 2.973 3.782 4.703 5.731 6.875 68.9
60 1.790 2.449 3.218 4.103 5.106 6.236 7.500 63.8
5-3
TABLE 5.2
SWEEP NUMBERS (CAMBER, X, MILLIMETERS)
SWEEP CHORD LENGTH, L, MILLIMETERS RADIUS

NO. (mm)
762 889 1016 1143 1270 1397 1524
1 0.79 1.09 1.42 1.78 2.21 2.67 3.18 91440
10 7.90 10.8 14.1 17.8 22.0 26.6 31.8 9159
15 11.8 16.1 21.1 26.7 32.9 39.9 47.6 6119
20 15.8 21.5 28.1 35.6 44.0 53.3 63.5 4605
25 19.6 26.7 34.9 44.4 55.0 66.6 79.4 3698
30 23.5 32.1 42.0 53.2 65.8 79.8 95.3 3096
35 27.2 37.4 48.9 62.1 76.8 93.3 111 2664
40 31.1 42.4 55.6 70.5 87.4 106 127 2350
45 34.9 47.5 62.4 80.4 98.2 119 143 2103
50 38.4 52.5 68.9 87.6 109 132 159 1908
55 42.1 57.5 75.5 96.1 119 146 175 1750
60 45.5 62.2 81.7 104 130 158 191 1619
5-4
FIGURE 5.2
DEFINITION OF DEPTH OF DRAW
5-5
FIGURE 5.3
EXAMPLES OF TAILOR WELDED BLANKS
5-6
Tailored blanks are being used in increasingly larger numbers for
various automotive applications. It has been estimated (Reference
7.2) that about 10 million tailored blanks were used in 1997 by the
North American automotive industry. The potential benefits of tailor
welded blanks are impressive:
Part integration/part elimination

Weight reduction
Tooling reduction
Lower manufacturing cost
Improved structural integrity
Optimized material property utilization
Reduced material use
Increased offal utilization and reduced scrap
Improved crashworthiness
Reduced design and development time
Improved dimensional accuracy
Increasingly, tailored blanks are being used for bumper

reinforcement beams. They allow the automotive designer to place
a material having the exact properties required in the exact portion
of the part where the properties are required. A good example is
the front reinforcing beam on the 1998 VW Jetta (Figure 5.5 and
Table 5.3). This beam is made from a three piece blank similar to
the bumper reinforcement blank shown in Figure 5.3. The blank is
joined using the resistance roller mash lap seam welding process.
The middle portion of blank is made from a formable grade of 552
MPa (80 ksi) yield strength hot-dip galvanized sheet to give high
strength in the beam where it is needed. However, this sheet steel
does not have the level of formability required for the sharp wrap
around at each end of the stamped beam. Thus, the end portions of
the blank are made from hot-dip galvanized sheet with a yield
strength of approximately 207 MPa (30 ksi). It provides the required
level of formability to successfully stamp the wrap arounds and
provides the level of strength required at the wrap arounds.
The thickness of all three pieces in the tailored blank is 2.36mm
(0.093 inches).
5-7
5.3 Leading benchmark bumper beams
Examples of leading edge bumper beams are given in Table 5.3 and
Figures 5.4 and 5.5. The examples clearly illustrate that steel bumper
beams readily meet the challenges faced by bumper designers -
styling, weight, cost and structural integrity. Often a designer faces
a particular problem with one of these criteria. The examples
indicate innovative methods that have been used to overcome a
particular design obstacle.
The current styling trend is towards rounded, aerodynamic shapes.

The front reinforcing beam on the Chevrolet Cavalier/Pontiac Sunfire
has an impressive No. 50 sweep. The Toyota Camry front reinforcing
beam, with a No. 35 sweep, is also impressive. The Cavalier/Sunfire
and Camry beams are roll formed from 140T steel, which provides a
final yield strength of approximately 634 MPa (92 ksi). The Crown
Victoria/Grand Marquis front reinforcing beam is roll formed from
120XF steel, which has limited formability. Even so, a significant No.
34 sweep is achieved. The Ford F150 pickup has an outstanding 559
mm (22 inches) depth of draw on its front facebar. The facebar is
stamped from 50XLF cold rolled sheet. The rear reinforcing beam of
the Chrysler NS Voyager is a fine example of a beam stamped from
120XF steel. Even with an elongation of 12%, a good 152 mm
(6 inches) depth of draw is achieved. The front reinforcing beam for
the Volkswagon Jetta is a most interesting example. A three piece
tailored blank (see Section 5.2 for details) is used to provide a sharp
wrap around at each end of the stamped beam. The depth of draw
is 210 mm (8.25 inches).
For fuel economy reasons, bumper weight is important. Steel, with

its high strength and stiffness, offers weight saving opportunities.
The Ford Taurus/Mercury Sable is a good example. The front
reinforcing beam on the Taurus D186 weighs only 6.08 kg (13.41
pounds). It is roll formed from M190HT electrogalvanized steel with
an elongation of about 5.1%. A significant property of the beam is its
1214 MPa (176.0 ksi) yield strength. Facebars, by nature, are significantly
heavier than reinforcing beams. Also, facebars are highly styled. In
order to reduce facebar weight while retaining styling, the Ford
Ranger front facebar is made from 50XLF high-strength steel (traditional
facebars are made from carbon steel).
Cost drives many bumper designs. Significantly, the lowest cost

bumper systems employ a steel beam. The reasons are twofold. First,
steel is the lowest cost bumper material. Secondly, steel bumper
beams have the lowest manufacturing cost, even at volumes as low
as 100,000 parts per year. Even more cost savings are achieved on the
front facebar of the Dodge Ram. The use of a blank incorporating
65% of the final trim line reduces material requirements and cost.
Part integration offers cost savings and ease of assembly. Two

good examples are the front facebar on the Chevrolet Silverado
and the rear reinforcing beam on the Toyota Avalon. The frame
attachment detail is incorporated into the facebar on the Silverado.
The reinforcing beam design on the Avalon minimizes mounting
bracketry.
5-8
FIGURE 5.4
ROLL FORMED BEAMS
A.) CROWN VICTORIA/GRAND MARQUIS

NO. 34 SWEEP IN NON-SYMMETRIC SECTION USING 120XF STEEL
B.) FORD TAURUS/MERCURY SABLE

NO. 19 SWEEP IN ENCLOSED B SECTION USING M190HT STEEL
5-9
FIGURE 5.4 (continued)
ROLL FORMED BEAMS
C.) TOYOTA AVALON

NO. 43 SWEEP USING 140T STEEL. MINIMAL BRACKETRY
D.) CHEVROLET CAVALIER/PONTIAC SUNFIRE

NO. 50 SWEEP IN BOX SECTION USING 140T STEEL
E.) TOYOTA CAMRY

NO. 35 SWEEP IN DOUBLE BOX SECTION WITH 140T STEEL
5-10
FIGURE 5.5
STAMPED BEAMS
F.) FORD F150 PICK UP

559mm (22 inches) DEPTH OF DRAW WITH 50XLF STEEL. AERODYNAMIC STYLING
G.) DODGE RAM

152 mm (6 inches) DEPTH OF DRAW WITH 50XLF STEEL
STAMPING BLANK INCORPORATES 65% OF TRIM LINE
5-11
STAMPED BEAMS
H.) CHEVROLET SILVERADO

191 mm (7.5 inches) DEPTH OF DRAW WITH 50XLF STEEL
FRAME ATTACHMENT INTEGRATED INTO FACEBAR
I.) VOLKSWAGON JETTA

210 mm (8.25 inches) DEPTH OF DRAW WITH 80XLF AND 45XLF STEELS
THREE PIECE TAILORED BLANK
5-12
STAMPED BEAMS
J.) FORD RANGER

483mm (19 inches) DEPTH OF DRAW WITH 50XLF STEEL.
ENERGY ABSORBING MOUNTING BRACKETS
K.) CHRYSLER VOYAGER

152 mm (6 inches) DEPTH OF DRAW WITH 120XF STEEL
5-13
TABLE 5.3
LEADING BENCHMARK BUMPER BEAMS
VEHICLE BUMPER PRODUCTION LEADING EDGE MATERIAL THICKNESS SWEEP NUMBER/ MAJOR
(Model Year BEAM METHOD FEATURE [ mm (inches)] DEPTH of DRAW ADVANTAGES
introduced/discontinued) [ mm (inches)]
A. Crown Victoria/ Front Roll Large sweep in UHSS 120XF 1.52 (0.060) No. 34 Styling
Grand Marquis Reinforcing Forming non-symmetric section. 60G60G EG
(1998/ —) Beam
B. Ford Taurus/ Front Roll Large sweep in UHSS M190HT 1.12 (0. 044) No. 19 Weight Savings
Mercury Sable Reinforcing Forming enclosed B-section. 30G30G EG Cost Savings
(1995/ —) Beam
C. Toyota Avalon Rear Roll Minimal mounting 140T 1.60 (0.063) No. 43 Part Integration
(2000/ —) Reinforcing Forming bracketry. CR Cost Savings
Beam Ease of Assembly
D. Chevrolet Cavalier Front Roll Very large sweep in 140T 1.50 (0.059) No. 50 Styling
Pontiac Sunfire Reinforcing Forming a box section. CR
(1995/ —) Beam
5-14
E. Toyota Camry Front Roll Large sweep in a 140T 1.40 (0.055) No. 35 Styling
(1997/ —) Reinforcing Forming double box section. CR
Beam
F. Ford F150 Front Stamping Aerodynamic styling. 50XLF 1.98 (0.078) 559 (22) Styling
Pickup (1996/ —) Facebar CR
G. T300 Dodge Ram Front Stamping Developed blank with 50XLF 2.01 (0.079) 152 (6) Cost Savings
Pickup (1993/ —) Facebar 65% of trim line. HR
H. GMT 800 Front Stamping Frame attachment detail 50XLF 2.01 (0.079) 191 (7.5) Part Integration
Chevrolet Silverado Facebar integrated into facebar. CR Cost Savings
Pickup (2000/ —) Ease of Assembly
I. Volkswagon Front Stamping Three-piece tailored 80XLF 2.36 (0.093) 210 (8.25) Styling
Jetta (1993/1998) Reinforcing blank. 75G75G HDG (middle and
Beam (middle portion) end portions)
45XLF
75G75G HDG
(end portions)
TABLE 5.3 (continued)
LEADING BENCHMARK BUMPER BEAMS
VEHICLE BUMPER PRODUCTION LEADING EDGE MATERIAL THICKNESS SWEEP NUMBER/ MAJOR
(Model Year BEAM METHOD FEATURE [ mm (inches)] DEPTH of DRAW ADVANTAGES
introduced/discontinued) [ mm (inches)]
J. Ford Ranger Front Stamping Energy absorbing 50XLF 2.26 (0.089) 483 (19) Part Integration
Pickup (1995/ —) Facebar mounting brackets. HR Weight Savings
Cost Savings
K. Chrysler NS Rear Stamping Good depth-of-draw 120XF 1.83 (0.072) 152 (6) Styling
Voyager Reinforcing with 120XF steel. 45A45A HDG
(1995.5/2000) Beam
DEFINITIONS
UHSS — Ultra high-strength steel.
XF — High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) with sulphide inclusion control to improve formability.

Designation number (e.g. 50) is yield strength in ksi.
5-15
XLF — High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) with low carbon content and sulphide inclusion control. Formability
of this quality is superior to XF quality. Designation number (e.g. 50) is yield strength in ksi.
T — Structure contains martensite in ferrite matrix. Excellent formability prior to strain aging.
Designation number (e.g. 140) is minimum tensile strength in ksi.
M..HT — Martensitic quality. Quenched martensite structure with reduced formability.

Designation number (e.g. 190) is minimum tensile strength in ksi.
CR — Cold rolled sheet.
HR — Hot rolled sheet.
EG — Electrogalvanized sheet. Designation 30G30G is a zinc coating on each side of the sheet with a coating weight
of 30 g/m2. Designation 60G60G is a zinc coating on each side of the sheet with a coating weight of 60 g/m2.
HDG — hot-dip galvanized sheet. Designation 75G75G is a zinc coating on each side of the sheet with a coating weight
of 75 g/m2. Designation 45A45A is a zinc-iron alloy coating on each side of the sheet with a coating weight of 45g/m2.
5.4 Bumper weights, materials and coatings
Beams produced by the roll forming production method are
shown in Table 5.4, beams produced by the cold stamping
method are shown in Table 5.5 and beams produced by the hot
forming method are shown in Table 5.6. These data may be used
to establish bumper beam benchmarks.
In Tables 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6, the bumper beams are grouped by
steel grade. The steel grades are defined in the Notes at the end
of each table (see also Tables 2.1 and 2.2). For any given steel
grade, the bumper beams are listed in decreasing order of steel
beam thickness. The vehicle make and model is given for each
beam. While Tables 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6 are based on the 2004
calendar year, the majority of the beams have been carried
forward. However, a vehicle redesign usually involves a bumper
redesign. Thus, any vehicle redesigned from 2005 onwards will
likely have a beam differing from that shown in Table 5.4, 5.5 or
5.6. The bumper beam location (front or rear of the vehicle) is
indicated. The bumper beam is a “facebar” if “frontside” and
“backside” coatings are shown. If only one coating is indicated,
the bumper beam is a reinforcing beam.
There are five weight columns in Tables 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6. The first
column indicates the weight of the roll formed, cold stamped or
hot formed beam itself. For facebars, the weight is that of a
painted beam. Chrome facebars are 0.37 kg (1.0 pound) heavier.
The second column is the weight of any reinforcements welded to
the plain beam. The third column is the combined weight of the
plain beam and attached reinforcements. The fourth column
tabulates the weight of mounting brackets. The fifth column is the
weight of a plain bumper beam, its reinforcements and its
mounting brackets. It should be noted that many spaces in the
five weight columns are left blank. A blank space indicates that
the weight being tabulated is unavailable.
The steel products used to manufacture the bumper beams are

listed in Tables 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6. Note that both hot rolled (HR)
and cold rolled (CR) sheets are delivered in the bare condition.
For hot-dip galvanized (HDG) and electrogalvanized (EG) sheets,
the coating type and weight are shown. See Section 2.14 for a
description of aluminized (CR) sheet.
Corrosion protection coatings may be applied by the bumper

supplier or by the OEM on the assembly line. The corrosion
resistance of a bumper beam depends on all of the coatings
applied to it. Thus, the coatings applied by both the bumper
supplier and OEM are included in Tables 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6.
Sweep or curvature is often imparted to bumper beams during

roll forming. For the roll formed beams in Table 5.4, the amount of
sweep is shown. A small sweep radius indicates a large amount of
curvature to help achieve a high degree of styling.
Depth-of-draw is included in Tables 5.5 and 5.6 for cold stamped

and hot formed beams. Depth-of-draw is an indication of the
amount of styling imparted to a cold stamped or hot formed
beam. A large depth-of-draw helps achieve a high degree of
styling.
5-16
TABLE 5.4
ROLL FORMED BUMPER BEAMS
THICKNESS, WEIGHT, MATERIAL, COATINGS AND SWEEP
BEAMS PRODUCED IN THE 2004 CALENDAR YEAR
STEEL THICKNESS MAKE MODEL FRONT OR WEIGHT [kg (pounds)] STEEL BUMPER SUPPLIER ASSEMBLY SWEEP SWEEP
GRADE1 [mm (inches)] REAR PRODUCT COATING LINE NUMBER RADIUS
Performance Mounting
BUMPER Beam Subtotal Total COATING [mm (inches)]
Reinforcements Brackets
50XLF 2.01 (0.079) Jeep Cherokee front 7.04 0.00 7.04 0.00 7.04 90G90G HDG E-coat plus paint none 15 6120
(15.53) (15.53) (15.53) (241)
2.01 (0.079) Jeep Cherokee rear 8.14 0.00 8.14 0.00 8.14 90G90G HDG E-coat plus paint none 15 6120
(17.94) (17.94) (17.94) (241)
4.70 (0.185) Dodge Durango rear 12.83 0.00 12.83 7.03 19.86 HR E-Coat none N/A N/A
(28.29) (28.29) (15.5) (43.79)
80XF 2.00 (0.079) Daimler 300M/Concord/ front 6.24 HR Primer 29 3172
Chrysler Intrepid/LHS (13.76) Dip B/W (125)
120XF 2.01 (0.079) Jeep Wrangler front 6.15 0.00 6.15 0.00 6.15 45A45A HDG E-coat plus powder coat none 0 0
(13.56) (13.56) (13.56)
2.01 (0.079) Jeep Wrangler rear 5.64 0.00 5.64 1.16 6.80 45A45A HDG E-coat plus powder coat none 0 0
(12.43) (12.43) (2.56) (14.99)
7.92 2.38 10.30 0.54 10.84 60G60G EG
5-17
1.91 (0.075) Mercury Grand Marquis rear E-coat none 18 5109
(17.46) (5.25) (22.71) (1.18) (23.89) (201)
1.91 (0.075) Ford Crown Victoria rear 7.92 2.38 10.30 0.54 10.84 60G60G EG E-coat none 18 5109
(17.46) (5.25) (22.71) (1.18) (23.89) (201)
1.90 (0.075) Lincoln Town Car rear 7.92 2.84 10.76 0.54 11.30 60G60G EG E-coat none 18 5109
(17.46) (6.27) (23.73) (1.18) (24.91) (201)
1.82 (0.072) Honda Acura CL rear 7.63 CR Primer 28 3310
(16.82) Dip B/W (130)
1.80 (0.071) Daimler Stratus/Cirrus front 6.03 CR Primer 43 2174
Chrysler (13.29) Dip B/W (86)
1.80 (0.071) Daimler Sebring Conv. rear 5.52 CR Primer 43 2183
1.80 (0.071) Daimler 300M rear 7.23 CR Primer 9 9679
1.80 (0.071) Daimler Intrepid rear 6.61 CR Primer 43 2174
1.80 (0.071) Daimler Concorde rear 6.18 CR Primer 43 2174
1.66 (0.065) Nissan Frontier front 8.00 CR E-coat 35 2700
(17.64) (106)
120XF 1.60 (0.063) Ford Escape front 3.20 0.00 3.20 0.65 3.85 60G60G EG E-coat none 28 3310
(7.05) (7.05) (1.44) (8.49) (130)
1.60 (0.063) Subaru Legacy front 4.49 0.00 4.49 0.00 4.49 CR E-coat none 46 2061
(9.90) (9.90) (9.90) (81)
1.60 (0.063) Ford Escape rear 4.15 60G60G EG E-coat none 48 1981
(9.16) (78)
1.50 (0.059) Chev. Corvette front 7.71 0.59 8.84 0.00 8.84 70G70G EG E-coat none 0 0
(17.0) (1.3) (19.49) (18.83)
1.50 (0.059) Cadillac XLR front 7.71 1.3 8.84 0.00 8.84 70G70G EG E-coat none 0 0
(17.0) (1.3) (19.49) (18.3)
1.50 (0.059) Chev. Corvette rear 9.05 0.00 9.05 0.00 9.05 70G70G EG E-coat none 0 0
(19.94) (19.94) (19.94)
5-18
1.50 (0.059) Cadillac XLR rear 9.05 0.00 9.05 0.00 9.05 70G70G EG E-coat none 0 0
(19.94) (19.94) (19.94)
1.50 (0.059) Daimler Stratus/Cirrus rear 4.76 CR Primer 43 2183
1.50 (0.059) Daimler Chrysler/Dodge front 7.04 CR E-coat 27 3509
Chrysler Minivan (15.52) (138)
1.50 (0.059) Daimler Neon rear 5.63 CR Primer 38 2476
1.46 (0.057) Mazda Mazda 6 front 6.5 3400
(14.32) (134)
1.40 (0.055) Mitsubishi Eclipse front 7.76 CR E-coat 26 3350
(17.11) (132)
1.40 (0.055) Chrysler/ Sebring/Avenger front 6.74 CR Primer 26 3350
Dodge (14.86) Dip B/W (132)
1.30 (0.051) Chev. Corvette front 5.50 70G70G EG E-coat 0 0
(12.13)
1.30 (0.051) Chev. Corvette rear 7.02 70G70G E-coat 0 0
15.48)
120XF 1.30 (0.051) Lincoln LS DEW98 front 7.14 0.04 7.18 0.00 7.18 60G60G HDG none E-coat 35 2668
(15.74) (0.08) (15.82) (15.83) (105.0)
1.30 (0.051) Ford Thunderbird front 6.88 0.04 6.92 0.00 6.92 60G60G HDG none E-coat 35 2668
M205 (15.16) (15.24) (15.24) (105.0)
1.30 (0.051) Jaguar S-type X400 front 6.57 (0.08) 6.57 0.00 6.57 60G60G HDG none E-coat 35 2743
X-type X200 (14.5) 0.00 (14.5) (14.5) (105.0)
1.20 (0.047) Buick LaCrosse front 6.08 CR 36 2623
(13.39) (103)
1.20 (0.047) Buick LaCrosse rear 9.60 CR 36 2623
(21.16) (103)
1.22 (0.048) Mitsubishi Galant front 6.89 CR E-coat 26 3350
(15.19) (132)
5-19
1.20 (0.047) Nissan Sentra front 5.10 CR Primer 39 2400
(11.24) Dip B/W (94)
1.20 (0.047) Nissan Sentra rear 5.56 CR Primer 39 2400
(12.26) Dip B/W (94)
135XF 2.00 (0.079) Honda Acura TL front 7.32 CR E-coat 38 2475
(16.14) (97)
2.00 (0.079) Honda Acura TL rear 8.57 CR Primer 38 2470
(18.89) Dip B/W (97)
2.00 (0.079) Honda Acura CL front 8.63 CR E-coat 41 2300
(19.03) (91)
140T 2.00 (0.079) Honda Odyssey front 7.94 CR Primer 32 2950
(17.50) Dip B/W (116)
2.00 (0.079) Honda Odyssey rear 14.74 CR Primer 50 1930
(32.50) Dip B/W (76)
2.00 (0.079) Honda MDX front 6.94 CR Primer 50 1930
(15.30) Dip B/W (76)
2.00 (0.079) Honda MDX rear 15.67 CR Primer 50 1930
(34.55) Dip B/W (76)
140T 2.00 (0.079) Honda Pilot front 6.68 CR Primer 50 1930
(14.73) Dip B/W (76)
2.00 (0.079) Honda Pilot rear 15.75 CR Primer 50 1930
(34.72) Dip B/W (76)
1.80 (0.071) Honda Civic rear 5.84 CR Primer 27 3488
(12.86) Dip B/W (137)
1.80 (0.071) Honda Accord front 3.30 0.00 3.30 0.89 4.19 CR none E-coat 65 1509
(7.28) (7.28) (1.96) (9.24) (59)
1.80 (0.071) Toyota Tundra front 7.92 CR E-coat 26 3520
(17.46) (139)
1.66 (0.065) Mazda Mazda 6 rear 8.0 CR 2740
(17.63) (34)
5-20
Wagon (17.19) (43)
(14.33) (31)
1.60 (0.063) Chev. Monte Carlo rear 8.60 0.90 9.50 2.81 12.31 CR none E-coat 10 9160
(18.95) (1.98) (20.93) (6.20) (27.13) (361)
1.60 (0.063) Buick Regal front 7.13 0.00 7.13 1.18 8.31 CR none E-coat 36 2597
(15.71) (15.71) (2.60) (18.31) (102)
1.60 (0.063) Buick Regal rear 7.13 0.90 8.03 2.72 10.75 CR none E-coat 36 2597
(15.71) (1.98) (17.69) (6.00) (23.69) (102)
1.60 (0.063) Buick Century front 7.13 0.00 7.13 1.18 8.31 CR none E-coat 36 2597
(15.71) (15.71) (2.60) (18.31) (102)
1.60 (0.063) Buick Century rear 7.13 0.90 8.03 2.72 10.75 CR none E-coat 36 2597
(15.71) (1.98) (17.69) (6.00) (23.69) (102)
1.60 (0.063) Honda Civic front 5.16 CR Primer 31 3000
(11.38) Dip B/W (118)
1.60 (0.063) Honda Acura EL front 5.38 CR Primer 31 3000
(11.86) Dip B/W (118)
1.60 (0.063) Toyota Sienna rear 6.18 Cr E-coat 32 2943
(13.62) (116)
140T 1.60 (0.063) Toyota Vibe rear 6.97 CR E-coat 28 3330
(15.37) (131)
1.60 (0.063) Toyota Tacoma front 2.29 CR E-coat 47 2040
(5.05) (80)
1.60 (0.063) Toyota Solara rear 6.72 CR E-coat 26 3580
(14.82) (141)
1.60 (0.063) Toyota Camry rear 7.76 CR E-coat 27 3385
(17.11) (133)
1.60 (0.063) Toyota Corolla rear 6.75 CR E-coat 42 2240
(14.88) (88)
1.60 (0.063) Toyota Matrix rear 6.26 CR E-coat 28 3330
(13.18) (131)
5-21
1.60 (0.063) Toyota Avalon rear 8.12 CR E-coat 43 2194
(17.90) (86)
1.60 (0.063) Toyota Solara rear 6.58 0.00 6.58 0.11 6.69 CR E-coat none 32 2908
(14.5) (14.5) (0.24) (14.74) (114.5)
1.60 (0.063) Toyota Sequoia 120N front 11.11 0.00 11.11 1.00 12.11 CR E-coat none 34 2743
(24.5) (24.5) (2.20) (26.70) (108.0)
1.60 (0.063) Toyota Tundra front 10.89 0.00 9.30 0.77 11.66 CR E-coat none 34 2668
(24.0) (20.50) (1.70) (25.7) (108.0)
1.56 (0.061) Mazda Mazda 3 front 6.0 CR 2700
(13.22) (34)
1.40 (0.055) Toyota Avalon Australian 6.40 CR E-coat 30 3003
front (14.11) (118)
1.40 (0.055) Toyota Avalon front 5.68 CR E-coat 32 2943
(12.52) (116)
1.40 (0.055) Toyota Camry front 6.32 CR E-coat 41 2290
(13.93) (90
1.40 (0.055) Toyota Solara front 5.80 CR E-coat 43 2185
(12.79) (86))
140T 1.40 (0.055) Toyota Corolla front 5.53 CR E-coat 26 3500
(12.19) (138)
1.30 (0.051) Chev. Cavalier front 5.26 CR Primer 43 2184
(11.60) Dip B/W (86)
1.30 (0.051) Chev. Cavalier rear 5.60 CR Primer 36 2591
(12.35) Dip B/W (102)
1.30 (0.051) Chev. Malibu rear 6.10 CR Primer 36 2591
(13.45) Dip B/W (102)
1.30 (0.051) Olds Alero rear 6.05 CR Primer 36 2591
(13.34) Dip B/W (102)
1.30 (0.051) Pontiac Sunfire front 5.26 CR Primer 43 2184
(11.60) Dip B/W (86)
5-22
1.30 (0.051) Pontiac Sunfire rear 6.10 CR Primer 36 2591
(13.45) Dip B/W (102)
1.30 (0.051) Pontiac Grand AM rear 6.10 CR Primer 36 2591
(13.45) Dip B/W (102)
1.20 (0.047) Toyota Vibe front 4.97 CR E-coat 18 5000
(10.96) (197)
1.20 (0.047) Toyota Matrix front 4.97 CR E-coat 18 5000
(10.96) (197)
M190HT 1.70 (0.067) Honda Accord 2dr rear 3.69 1.55 5.24 1.46 6.70 CR none 26 3558
(8.13) (3.42) (11.55) (3.22) (14.77) E-coat (140)
1.70 (0.067) Honda Accord 4dr rear 4.50 1.44 5.94 1.05 6.99 CR none 26 3558
(9.93) (3.17) (13.10) (2.31) (15.41) E-coat (140)
1.60 (0.063) Ford Explorer front 3.07 0.00 3.07 0.45 3.52 CR E-coat 42 1981
(6.76) (6.76) (1.00) (7.76) none (78)
1.60 (0.063) Mercury Mountaineer front- 3.63 0.00 3.63 0.65 4.28 CR E-coat 42 1981
(8.00) (8.00) (1.43) (9.44) none (78)
1.60 (0.063) Lincoln Aviator front 3.60 0.00 3.60 1.66 4.66 CR E-coat 42 1981
(7.90) (7.90) (3.66) (10.27) none (78)
M190HT 1.50 (0.059) Ford Crown Victoria front 10.50 0.00 10.50 1.89 12.39 CR E-coat none 30 3096
(23.15) (23.15) (4.17) (27.31) (122)
1.50 (0.059) Mercury Marquis front 10.50 0.00 10.50 1.89 12.39 CR E-coat none 30 3096
(23.15) (23.15) (4.17) (27.31) (122)
1.50 (0.059) Lincoln Town Car front 10.50 0.00 10.50 1.89 12.39 CR E-coat none 30 3096
(23.15) (23.15) (4.17) (27.31) (122)
1.12 (0.044) Ford Taurus D186 front 6.08 0.38 6.46 0.00 6.46 30G30G EG none E-coat 19 4843
(13.41) (0.84) (14.25) (14.25) (190.7)
1.12 (0.044) Ford Taurus D186 rear 5.39 0.50 5.90 0.00 5.90 50G50G EG none E-coat 19 4843
Sedan (11.89) (1.11) (13.00) (13.00) (190.7)
1.12 (0.044) Ford Taurus D186 rear 6.80 0.00 6.80 0.00 6.80 50G50G EG none E-coat 19 4843
Wagon (15.00) (15.00) (15.00) (190.7)
5-23
1.14 (0.045) Saturn VUE front 3.83 CR Primer 23 3988
(8.44) Dip B/W (157)
1.14 (0.045) Saturn VUE rear 3.97 CR E-coat 23 3988
(8.75) (157)
1.00 (0.039) Nissan Altima front 5.36 CR E-coat 25 3700
(11.82) (146)
0.99 (0.039) Ford Focus C170 rear 5.36 0.53 5.89 0.83 7.56 30G30G EG none E-coat 0 0
Sedan (11.82) (1.16) (12.98) (1.84) (14.82)
0.99 (0.039) Ford Focus C170 rear 5.10 0.53 5.63 0.73 6.36 30G30G EG none E-coat 0 0
Wagon (11.25) (1.16) (12.41) (1.62) (14.03)
0.99 (0.039) Ford Focus C170 3 dr. rear 4.80 0.53 5.33 0.78 6.11 30G30G EG none E-coat 0 0
(10.58) (1.16) (11.74) (1.72) (13.46)
0.94 (0.037) Ford Focus C170 front 4.88 0.82 5.70 0.00 5.70 60G60G EG none E-coat 0 0
(10.76) (1.80) (12.56) (12.56)
M190HT 1.55 (0.061) Buick LeSabre rear 4.50 0.45 4.95 1.9 6.85 CR E-coat none 27 3430
(9.92) (0.99) (10.92) (4.19) (15.10) (135)
1.55 (0.061) Cadillac DeVille rear 5.22 0.45 5.67 1.9 7.57 CR E-coat none 18 5109
(11.51) (0.99) (12.50) (4.19) (16.69) (201)
M220HT 1.55 (0.061) Pontiac Bonneville rear 4.91 0.45 5.36 2.2 7.56 CR E-coat none 38 2467
(10.83) (0.99) (11.82) (4.85) (16.67) (97)
1.55 (0.061) Buick Park Avenue rear 4.91 0.45 5.36 1.68 7.68 CR E-coat none 38 2467
(10.83) (0.99) (11.82) (3.71) (15.53) (97)
NOTES:
1. A blank cell means that data are unavailable for that cell.
2. Beam weight is for a painted beam. Add 0.37 kg (1.0 pound) for a chrome beam.
3. All bumper beams are reinforcing beams.
4. A zero (0) sweep number means the beam is straight/flat.
5-24
5. Sweep numbers are rounded to the nearest whole number. Sweep radii are actual radii.
6. The Primer Dip B/W coating would be termed E-Coat.
DEFINITIONS:
XF Recovery annealed quality. Strength is achieved primarily through cold work during cold rolling at the steel mill. Designation number (e.g. 50) is minimum yield
strength in ksi.
XLF Microalloy quality. Strength is obtained through small quantities of alloying elements such as vanadium and niobium. Designation number (e.g. 120) is mini-
mum yield strength in ksi.
T Dual phase quality. Structure contains martensite in ferrite matrix. Designation number (e.g. 140) is minimum tensile strength in ksi.
M..HT Martensitic quality. Strength is determined by carbon content. Designation number (e.g. 190) is minimum tensile strength in ksi.
CR Cold rolled sheet.
HR Hot rolled sheet.
EG Electrogalvanized sheet. The six-character descriptor designates coating type and weight. Two numeric characters (e.g. 60) denote coating weight in
g/m2. An alphabetic character denotes coating type. “A” is a zinc-iron alloy coating. “G” is a zinc coating. The first three characters denote coating
weight and type on one side of the sheet and the last three characters denote coating weight and type on the opposite side of the sheet.
HDG Hot-dip galvanized sheet. The six-character descriptor designates coating type and weight. Two numeric characters (e.g. 90) denote coating weight in
g/m2. An alphabetic character denotes coating type. “A” is a zinc-iron alloy coating. “G” is a zinc coating. The first three characters denote coating
weight and type on one side of the sheet and the last three characters denote coating weight and type on the opposite side of the sheet.
TABLE 5.5
COLD STAMPED BUMPER BEAMS
THICKNESS, WEIGHT, MATERIAL, COATINGS AND DEPTH-OF-DRAW
STEEL THICKNESS MAKE MODEL FRONT OR WEIGHT [kg (pounds)] STEEL BUMPER SUPPLIER ASSEMBLY DEPTH
GRADE1 [mm (inches)] REAR PRODUCT COATING LINE OF DRAW
1008/ 2.29 (0.090) Chev. Tahoe 410/20 rear 21.19 CR frontside chrome or paint none 135 (5.3)
1010 (46.71) backside none
2.29 (0.090) Chev. Suburban rear 21.19 CR frontside chrome none 135 (5.3)
(46.71) backside none
2.29 (0.090) Chev. C/K 400 rear 21.19 HR frontside chrome or paint none 135 (5.3)
2.29 (0.090) GMC Sierra 400 rear 21.19 HR frontside chrome or paint none 135 (5.3)
2.00 (0.079) Ford Ranger rear CR frontside chrome or paint none
backside paint or E-coat
1.80 (0.071) GMC Canyon rear 20.23 CR frontside chrome or paint none 165 (6.5)
(44.60) backside acrylic compound
5-25
1.80 (0.071) Chev. Colorado rear 20.23 CR frontside chrome or paint none 165 (6.5)
DR210 1.80 (0.071) Ford F-250/F-350 front 17.05 17.05 CR frontside chrome or paint none 203 (8.0)
backside thermoplastics
(37.59) (37.59) water based compound
35XLF 2.01 (0.079) Chev. Express 600 rear 10.94 HR frontside chrome or paint none 132 (5.2)
2.01 (0.079) GMC Savana 600 rear 10.94 6.38 HR frontside chrome or paint none 132 (5.2)
(24.12) (14.07) backside none
1.91 (0.075) Chev. S-Series 325 front 6.38 HR frontside chrome or paint none 140 (5.5)
1.91 (0.075) Mazda B Series Pickup front CR frontside chrome or paint none 99 (3.9)
1.91 (0.075) Ford Ranger front 7.26 3.57 10.83 1.19 12.01 CR frontside chrome or paint none 117 (4.6)
(16.00) (7.86) (23.86) (2.62) (26.48) backside paint or E-coat
1.80 (0.071) Ford F-250/F-350 rear 9.83 9.83 CR frontside chrome or paint none 165 (6.5)
(21.67) backside thermoplastics
(21.67) water based compound
35XLF 1.80 (0.071) Ford F-150 Flare-side rear 9.83 9.83 CR frontside chrome or paint none 165 (6.5)
(21.67) (21.67) backside thermoplastics
water based compound
1.80 (0.071) Ford F-150 Supercrew rear 9.83 9.83 CR frontside chrome or paint none 165 (6.5)
1.80 (0.071) Chev. Silverado rear 8.90 8.90 CR frontside chrome or paint none 200 (7.9)
1.80 (0.071) Chev. Tahoe rear 7.69 7.69 CR frontside chrome or paint none 180 (7.1)
1.80 (0.071) Chev. Suburban rear 7.69 7.69 CR frontside chrome or paint none 180 (7.1)
1.80 (0.071) GMC Sierra rear 8.90 8.90 CR frontside chrome or paint none 200 (7.9)
5-26
1.80 (0.071) GMC Yukon rear 7.69 7.69 CR frontside chrome or paint none 180 (7.1)
1.80 (0.071) Toyota Tundra rear 11.71 11.71 CR frontside chrome or paint none 200 (7.9)
1.80 (0.071) Toyota Tacoma front 7.71 7.71 CR frontside chrome or paint none
40XLF 1.40 (0.055) Toyota Tacoma rear 4.45 4.45 CR frontside chrome or paint none
50XLF 2.49 (0.098) Mazda B Series Pickup rear CR frontside chrome or paint none 147 (5.8)
2.06 (0.081) Subaru Baha rear 17.68 4.00 21.68 3.01 24.69 60G60G EG none none
(38.98) (8.82) (47.8) (6.63) (54.43)
2.01 (0.079) Dodge Ram 2 dr. front 17.24 5.67 8.35 CR frontside chrome or paint none 191 (7.5)
(38.00) (12.50) (18.40) backside acrylic compound
2.01 (0.079) Chev. Silverado front 17.91 25.17 CR frontside chrome or paint none 119 (4.7)
(39.48) (55.50) backside none
2.00 (0.079) GMC Sierra front CR frontside chrome or paint none 150 (5.9)
8.35 backside thermoplastics
(18.40) water based compound
1.91 (0.075) Ford F150 front CR frontside chrome or paint none
backside paint
50XLF 1.91 (0.075) Ford F-150 Styleside rear 29.94 0.00 29.94 CR frontside chrome or paint none 160 (6.3)
(5000 lb. tow) (66.00) (66.00) backside paint
1.91 (0.075) Ford F-150 Styleside rear 38.56 7.48 46.04 CR frontside chrome or paint none 160 (6.3)
(9900 lb. tow) (85.00) (16.50) (101.50) backside paint
1.91 (0.075) Ford F-150 Flareside rear 31.75 0.00 31.75 CR frontside chrome or paint none 160 (6.3)
(5000 lb. tow) (70.00) (70.00) backside paint
1.91 (0.075) Ford F-150 Flareside rear 40.37 7.48 47.85 CR frontside chrome or paint none 160 (6.3)
(9900 lb. tow) (89.00) (16.50) (101.50) backside paint
1.91 (0.075) Ford F-250/F-350 rear 12.25 13.52 25.76 0.00 25.76 CR frontside chrome or paint none 160 (6.3)
(27.00) (29.8) (56.8) (56.80) backside paint
190.(0.075) Chev. Colorado rear 9.98 1.54 11.52 0.00 11.52 CR frontside Zn + Cr or Zn + paint none 140 (5.5)
(22.0) (3.4) (25.4) (25.4) backside paint
5-27
1.80 (0.071) Dodge Durango front 6.51 3.01 9.52 1.68 11.20 CR E-coat none 90 (3.5)
(14.35) (6.64) (20.99) (3.70) (24.69)
1.80 (0.071) Dodge Durango rear 9.34 8.13 17.47 CR E-coat none 100 (3.9)
(20.59) (17.92) (38.51)
1.80 (0.071) Dodge Dakota front 6.51 3.01 9.52 1.68 11.20 CR E-coat none 90 (3.5)
(14.35) (6.64) (20.99) (3.70) (24.69)
1.80 (0.071) Dodge Ram Sport front 14.52 4.54 19.06 CR E-coat none 140 (5.5)
(32.01) (10.01) (42.02)
55XLF 2.26 (0.089) Chev. Suburban front 14.29 HR frontside chrome none 127 (5.0)
2.26 (0.089) GMC Suburban 430 front 14.29 HR frontside chrome none 127 (5.0)
2.26 (0.089) Chev. Tahoe 410/20 front 14.29 HR frontside chrome or paint none 127 (5.0)
2.26 (0.089) GMC Yukon 410/20 front 14.29 HR frontside chrome or paint none 127 (5.0)
55XLF 2.26 (0.089) Chev. C/K 400 front 14.29 HR frontside chrome or paint none 127 (5.0)
2.26 (0.089) GMC Sierra 400 front 14.29 HR frontside chrome none 127 (5.0)
1.60 (0.063) GM Astro front 9.00 0.00 9.00 0.50 9.50 HR E-coat none 152 (6.0)
(19.84) (19.84) (1.10) (20.94)
80XLF 2.79 (0.110) Saturn LS front 7.50 3.00 10.50 0.00 10.50 HR E-coat none 76 (3.0)
(16.53) (6.61) (23.15) (23.15)
2.06 (0.081) Ford Explorer front 8.50 8.50 4.00 12.50 HR E-coat none 114 (4.5)
Sport/Sport Trac (18.74) 0.00 (18.74) (8.82) (27.56)
1.65 (0.065) Ford Expedition/Nav front 6.92 6.92 0.36 7.28 HR E-coat none 171 (6.7)
U222/228 (15.25) 0.00 (15.25) (0.79) (16.04)
5-28
1.32 (0.050) Honda Element front 2.06 2.06 2.17 4.23 CR none E-coat
(4.54) 0.00 (4.54) (4.79) (9.33)
120XF 1.91 (0.075) Chrylser P/T Cruiser front 5.44 90G90G HDG none E-coat 50.8 (2.0)
(12.00)
1.91 (0.075) Chrysler P/T Cruiser rear 6.35 90G90G HDG none none 63.5 (2.5)
(14.00)
NOTES:
3. Bumper beams where “frontside” and “backside” are shown in “Bumper Supplier Coating” column are bumper facebars. All other bumper beams are reinforcing beams.
DEFINITIONS
1008/1010 — Low carbon quality. Mechanical properties are not certified.
DR210 — Dent resistant quality. Minimum yield strength of 210MPa (30 ksi) as-shipped from the steel mill. Strength increases due to work hardening during forming.
XF — Recovery annealed quality. Strength is achieved primarily through cold workduring cold rolling at the steel mill. Designation number (e.g. 50) is minimum yield strength in ksi.
XLF — Microalloy quality. Strength is obtained through small additions of alloying elements such as vanadium and niobium. Designation number (e.g. 50) is minimum yield strength in ksi.
T — Dual phase quality. Structure contains martensite in ferrite matrix. Designation number (e.g. 140) is minimum tensile strength in ksi.
M..HT — Martensitic quality. Strength is determined by carbon content. Designation number (e.g. 190) is minimum tensile strength in ksi.
CR — Cold rolled sheet.
HR — Hot rolled sheet.
EG — Electrogalvanized sheet. The six-character descriptor designates coating type and weight. Two numeric characters (e.g. 60) denote coating weight in g/m2. An alphabetic character
denotes coating type. “A” is a zinc-iron alloy coating. “G” is a zinc coating. The first three characters denote coating weight and type on one side of the sheet and the last three
characters denote coating weight and type on the opposite side of the sheet.
HDG — Hot-dip galvanized sheet. The six-character descriptor designates coating type and weight. Two numeric characters (e.g. 90) denote coating weight in g/m2. An alphabetic character
denotes coating type. “A” is a zinc-iron alloy coating. “G” is a zinc coating. The first three characters denote coating weight and type on one side of the sheet and the last three
characters denote coating weight and type on the opposite side of the sheet.
TABLE 5.6
HOT FORMED BUMPER BEAMS
10B21(M) 3.50 (0.138) VW A4 Jetta USA rear 6.00 6.00 HR E-coat none 65 (2.6)
(13.23) (13.23)
3.00 (0.118) VW C1 USA New rear HR E-coat none 80 (3.1)
Beetle
3.00 (0.118) VW C1 ECE New rear HR E-coat none 80 (3.1)
Beetle
2.70 (0.106) VW B5 USA Passat front 6.50 0.70 7.20 HR E-coat none 82 (3.2)
(14.33) (1.54) (15.87)
2.70 (0.106) VW B5 USA Passat rear 8.00 8.00 HR E-coat none 105 (4.1)
(17.64) (17.64)
2.50 (0.098) VW PQ24 Brasil rear 2.00 3.00 5.00 HR E-coat none 70 (2.8)
New Polo (4.41) (6.61) (11.03)
5-29
2.50 (0.098) VW PQ24 A04 rear 2.80 2.20 5.00 HR E-coat none 70 (2.8)
New Polo (6.17) (4.85) (11.03)
2.50 (0.098) VW-China PQ24 A04 rear 2.80 2.20 5.00 HR E-coat none 70 (2.8)
New Polo China (6.17) (4.85) (11.03)
2.50 (0.098) VW-Seat PQ24 S04 rear 2.80 2.20 5.00 HR E-coat none 70 (2.8)
New Ibiza (6.17) (4.85) (11.03)
2.14 (0.084) VW A4 ECE Golf rear 3.50 2.50 6.00 HR E-coat none 65 (2.6)
(7.72) (5.51) (13.23)
2.14 (0.084) VW A4 Jetta USA front 6.00 6.00 HR E-coat none 65 (2.6)
(13.23) (13.23)
2.14 (0.084) VW A4 ECE Hinten rear 6.00 6.00 HR E-coat none 65 (2.6)
(13.23) (13.23)
2.14 (0.084) VW/Skoda Fabia rear 3.30 1.80 5.10 HR E-coat none
(7.28) (3.97) (11.24)
2.00 (0.079) Ford C170 Focus rear 4.30 0.50 4.80 HR E-coat none 85 (3.3)
(9.48) (1.10) (10.58)
2.00 (0.079) Smart W456 ECE Brasil rear 4.09 3.13 7.22 HR Zinc coated none 40 (1.6)
former (SUV) (9.02) (11.62) (15.92)
2.00 (0.079) Smart W456 USA Brasil rear 4.09 5.10 9.19 HR Zinc coated none 40 (1.6)
former (SUV) (9.02) (11.24) (20.26)
10B21(M) 2.00 (0.079) PSA T5 New 307 rear 4.27 3.00 7.27 HR E-coat none 80 (3.1)
(9.42) (6.61) (16.03)
1.80 (0.071) GM/Opel Zafira rear 3.60 0.80 4.40 HR Zinc coated none 90 (3.5)
(7.94) (1.76) (9.70)
1.80 (0.071) VW PQ24 Brasil front 2.00 3.00 5.00 HR E-coat none 60 (2.4)
(4.41) (6.61) (11.03)
1.80 (0.071) VW PQ24 A04 front 2.80 2.20 5.00 HR E-coat none 60 (2.4)
New Polo (6.17) (4.85) (11.03)
1.80 (0.071) VW-Seat PQ24 S04 front 2.80 2.20 5.00 HR E-coat none 60 (2.4)
New Ibiza (6.17) (4.85) (11.03)
5-30
1.80 (0.071) VW-China PQ24 A04 front 2.80 2.20 5.00 HR E-coat none 60 (2.4)
New Polo China (6.17) (4.85) (11.03)
1.80 (0.071) VW-Seat SE241 rear 2.80 3.20 6.00 HR E-coat none 75 (3.0)
New Cordoba (6.17) (7.05) (13.23)
1.60 (0.063) GM/Saab 602 New 9-5 front 3.60 6.60 10.20 HR E-coat none 85 (3.3)
(7.94) (14.55) (22.49)
1.60 (0.063) GM/Saab 440 New 9-3 front 3.60 6.60 10.20 HR Raw/CB-Zinc yes 85 (3.3)
(7.94) (14.55) (22.49)
1.50 (0.059) PSA X4 (X41, X42) rear 2.10 2.00 7.27 HR Raw/CB-Zinc yes 55 (2.2)
New Xantia (4.63) (4.41) (16.03)
1.50 (0.059) Smart W456 Brasil front 2.85 7.20 10.05 HR E-coat none 50 (2.0)
former (SUV) (6.28) (15.88) (22.16)
VW C1 USA New front HR Zinc coated none 80 (3.1)
Beetle
VW C1 ECE New front HR E-coat none 80 (3.1)
Beetle
VW D1 (Phaeton) front 7.60 7.00 14.60 HR E-coat none 90 (3.5)
(16.76) (15.43) (32.19)
VW D1 (Phaeton) rear 4.15 3.00 7.15 HR E-coat none 70 (2.8)
(9.15) (6.61) (15.76)
15B21(M) 1.2 (0.047) Ford Mustang front 4.3 0.92 5.2 Aluminized (CR) none E-coat 85 (3.3)
(9.58) (2.04) (11.6)
1.2 (0.047) Ford Mustang rear 6.02 6.02 Aluminized (CR) none E-coat 85 (3.3)
(13.29) (13.29)
NOTES:
3. Bumper beams where “frontside” and “backside” are shown in “Bumper Supplier Coating” column are bumper facebars. All other bumper beams are reinforcing beams.
5-31
DEFINITIONS
10B21(M) — Carbon-boron quality (SAE 10B21 modified). Beams are hot formed. After quenching, the yield strength is about 1140 MPa (165ksi).
15B21(M) — Carbon-boron quality (SAE 15B21 modified). Beams are hot formed. After quenching, the yield strength is about 1140 MPa (165ksi).
5.5 Current steel bumper design - North American passenger cars and minivans
The bumper systems on passenger cars sold in the United States
must meet the NHTSA( National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration), Part 581, Bumper Standard (see Section 6.1).
Such bumpers are termed 2.5mph (4km/h) bumpers. The
bumper systems on passenger cars sold in Canada must meet the
Canadian Motor Vehicle Safety Regulations Standard 215 (see
Section 6.2). Such bumpers are termed 5mph (8km/h) Canadian
bumpers. In practice, the NHTSA and Canadian regulations are
not that far apart. Although Canada has higher test speeds, its
acceptance criteria are less stringent than NHTSA’s. Canada
allows damage to any non-safety or non-functional item. NHTSA,
however, restricts damage to the bumper system.
North American OEMs typically place 5mph (8km/h) bumper

systems on their passenger cars. One such system is the 5mph
(8km/h) Canadian bumper referred to above. Another system is
the so-called 5mph (8km/h) NHTSA bumper. This system is based
on NHTSA Part 581 in all respects except for test speeds, which
are doubled [5mph (8km/h) longitudinal pendulum and barrier
impacts and 3mph (4.8km/h) corner pendulum impacts]. It
should be noted that the NHTSA and Canadian bumper standards
apply only to passenger cars. However, most OEMs voluntarily
treat minivans the same as passenger cars from the bumper
perspective. Thus, most OEMs place a 5mph (8km/h) bumper
system on their minivans.
The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) and the

Consumers Union (CU) both test bumper systems (see Sections
6.4 and 6.5 respectively). Both IIHS and CU publish the “cost of
repair” for vehicles they have tested. Thus, for marketing reasons,
an OEM often sets a target “cost of repair” for a given vehicle.
5.5.1 Typical bumper design for 5 mph (8 km/h) low speed system
As explained above, most North American OEMs place either a
5mph (8km/h) NHTSA or a 5mph (8km/h) Canadian bumper
system on their passenger cars and minivans. For the reason of
low cost with light weight, about 90% of today’s bumper systems
have a steel beam. When designing a 5mph (8km/h) bumper,
the secret of success is to allow the steel bumper beam to yield
and deform within the allowable intrusion space.
The Flow Chart in Figure 5.6 outlines a typical design process for
5mph (8km/h) low speed bumper systems having a steel beam.
It is emphasized that the process shown in Figure 5.6 is a typical
process. Other processes are also used to design 5mph (8km/h)
low speed bumper systems.
The designer’s first step is to determine the OEM internal

acceptance requirements. For example, are the IIHS and CU
tests to be included in the design process? Are the Canadian or
the NHTSA criteria to be used? Are there OEM requirements
that are not incorporated into the Flow Chart? If the answer to
the latter question is yes, then the designer must modify the Flow
Chart to cover the additional OEM requirements.
5-32
Often, particularly if the IIHS or CU targets are zero or minimal
“cost of repair”, the IIHS and CU tests are more demanding than
the NHTSA or Canadian criteria. Thus, if the IIHS and CU tests
are to be included in the design process, it is logical to evaluate
them first. The designer enters the IIHS/CU design path. If the
IIHS and CU tests need not be considered, then the designer
enters the Canadian/NHTSA design path.

In the IIHS/CU path, the designer follows the front bumper
branch or the rear bumper branch. The first step in either branch
is to establish the IIHS “cost of repair” that is acceptable to the
OEM. It should be noted that there are two IIHS “cost of repair”
targets for either a front or a rear bumper. One is the “cost of
repair” following the corner or pole impact for the front or rear
bumper respectively. The other is the “cost of repair” following
the barrier impact. Of course, the two targets for a bumper
might well be the same.
The second step is to prepare a Base Design. Often, but not

always, the most demanding IIHS test requirement for a front
bumper is the impact into the corner barrier and for the rear
bumper the impact into the pole. Thus, it is suggested that the
Base Design for a front bumper be based on the corner impact
while the Base Design for the rear bumper be based on the pole
impact. After preparing a Base Design that satisfies the “cost of
repair” target, the designer checks the performance of the front
or rear bumper in the 90degree barrier test. If the “cost of
repair” under the 90degree barrier test does not meet the target,
the designer prepares a new base design. If it does, the designer
proceeds to the CU requirements.
First, the designer establishes the CU “cost of repair” desired by

the OEM. It should be noted that the “cost of repair” is calculated
after the three CU bumper basher tests have been completed.
Thus, there is only one “cost of repair” target for either a front or
a rear bumper. Next, the designer verifies that the Base Design
selected to satisfy the two IIHS “cost of repair” targets for a given
bumper satisfies the CU “cost of repair” target. If it does not,
then the Base Design must be modified. If it does, the designer
can proceed to the Canadian/NHTSA design path.
5.5.3 Canadian/NHTSA design path

By definition, a 5mph (8kh/h) North American bumper system
must meet either the Canadian or the NHTSA criteria. As a first
step, the designer determines whether the bumper system is to
be a 5mph (8km/h) Canadian one or a 5mph (8km/h) NHTSA
one (See the introduction to Section 5.5 above for a description
of a 5mph (8km/h) NHTSA bumper.).
If the Canadian criteria are to be used, a base design is prepared.

It is reasonable to start with the pendulum impacts and then
move to the barrier impact because this is the order used in
testing. The Canadian damage criteria are evaluated after all
impacts have been completed. That is, the cumulative damage
incurred during the longitudinal impacts, the corner impact and
the barrier impact is evaluated. If there is damage to safety and
functional items, the base design must be modified. If not, the
designer can move to the next step.
5-33
At this juncture, the base design meets the regulatory
requirements for the bumper to be placed on a vehicle for sale in
Canada. However, because the Flow Chart applies to North
American vehicles, the bumper must also meet the regulatory
requirements for a 2.5mph (4km/h) NHTSA bumper. Then, the
bumper and vehicle may also be sold in the United States.
Specifically, the base design must be checked to ensure that there
is no non-bumper visual damage and no damage to safety and
functional items after the accumulated effects of the 2.5mph
(4km/h) longitudinal pendulum impacts, the 1.5mph (2.4km/h)
corner pendulum impacts and the 2.5mph (4km/h) barrier impact.
Also, the vehicle shall not touch the test device, except on the
impact ridge shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2, with a force that
exceeds 2000 pounds (907kg) on the combined surfaces of
Planes A and B (see Figure 6.3) of the test device.
If the 5mph (8km/h) NHTSA criteria are to be used, a base

design is prepared. It is reasonable to start with the pendulum
impacts and then move to the barrier impact because this is the
order used in testing. The NHTSA damage criteria are evaluated
after all impacts have been completed. That is, the cumulative
damage incurred during the longitudinal pendulum impacts, the
corner pendulum impacts and the barrier impact is evaluated.
There must be no non-bumper visual damage and no damage to
safety and functional items. Also, the vehicle shall not touch the
test device, except on the impact ridge shown in Figures 6.1 and
6.2, with a force that exceeds 2000 pounds (907kg) on the
combined surfaces of Planes A and B (see Figure 6.3) of the test
device. If these two conditions are met, the designer has reached
a final design. The base design automatically meets the
regulatory requirements of a bumper to be placed on a vehicle for
sale in the United States because the NHTSA damage criteria
have been applied at speeds twice those required by NHTSA.
Also, because the NHTSA damage criteria are more severe
than the Canadian damage criteria, and because the impact
speeds used for the base design are the same as the Canadian
impact speeds, the bumper and vehicle may also be sold in
Canada.
5-34
FIGURE 5.6
TYPICAL BUMPER DESIGN FOR 5 mph LOW SPEED SYSTEM
NORTH AMERICAN PASSENGER CARS AND MINIVANS
DETERMINE OEM
INTERNAL ACCEPTANCE
REQUIREMENTS
IIHS/
YES CONSUMERS UNION NO
REQUIREMENTS?
FRONT
FRONT OR REAR
REAR
BUMPER?
ESTABLISH ESTABLISH
DESIRED IIHS DESIRED IIHS
COST OF COST OF
REPAIR REPAIR
CANADIAN CANADIAN OR NHTSA
NHTSA
BASE DESIGN BASE DESIGN CRITERIA?
• IIHS 5 mph • IIHS 5 mph
Corner Barrier Into Pole
BASE DESIGN
• IIHS 5 mph • IIHS 5 mph • 5 mph Longitudinal
Front Barrier Rear Barrier Pendulum
• 3 mph Corner
Pendulum BASE DESIGN
• 5 mph Barrier Impact
• 5 mph Longitudinal
ACCEPTABLE Pendulum
FRONT REAR • 3 mph Corner
COST OF Pendulum
NO REPAIR? NO
ANY DAMAGE • 5 mph Barrier Impact
TO SAFETY &
YES FUNCTIONAL
YES ITEMS?
CDN ANY NHTSA
ESTABLISH DESIRED YES NON-BUMPER YES
CONSUMERS UNION VISUAL OR SAFETY &
COST OF REPAIR NO FUNCTIONAL ITEM
DAMAGE?
• 5 mph Centre Impact NHTSA

• 5 mph Off-Centre Impact NO
• 3 mph Corner Impact • 2.5 mph Longitudinal
Pendulum
• 1.5 mph Corner
Pendulum
• 2.5 mph Barrier Impact A+B
ACCEPTABLE 2000 LBS.< PLANES
FRONT REAR FORCE
COST OF
NO NO CDN NHTSA
REPAIR? YES YES
NO
YES
FINAL DESIGN
5-35
5.6 Current steel bumper design - North American pickups, full size vans and sport utilities
Neither the United States nor Canada has mandatory bumper
regulations for light truck vehicles. However, most North
American OEMs voluntarily apply the United States (NHTSA)
passenger car regulations (see Section 6.1) to pickups, full size
vans and sport utilities with one significant difference. For passenger
cars, the longitudinal and corner pendulum impacts are conducted
at heights from 16 to 20 inches (400 to 500mm). However, the
pendulum impacts on a light truck bumper are conducted at
heights that are associated with the actual bumper height. A
bumper system designed in this manner, is termed a modified
NHTSA 2.5mph (4km/h) bumper system.
The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) and the

Consumers Union (CU) both test bumper systems (see Sections
6.4 and 6.5 respectively). Both IIHS and CU publish the “cost of
repair” for vehicles they have tested. Thus, for marketing reasons,
an OEM often sets a target “cost of repair” for a given vehicle.
For example, the OEM may wish a “cost of repair” that is near the
median “cost of repair” of the other vehicles in its class.
5.6.1 Flow chart for 2.5mph (4km/h) low speed system

As explained above, most North American OEMs place a
modified NHTSA 2.5mph (4km/h) bumper system on their pick-
ups, full size vans and sport utilities. For the reason of low cost
with light weight, about 90% of today’s bumper systems have a
steel beam. When designing a modified 2.5mph (4km/h) NHTSA
bumper, the secret of success is to allow the steel bumper beam
to yield and deform within the allowable intrusion space.
The Flow Chart in Figure 5.7 outlines a typical design process for
a 2.5mph (4km/h) low speed bumper system having a steel
beam. It is emphasized that the process shown in Figure 5.7 is a
typical process. Other processes are also used to design 2.5mph
(4km/h) low speed bumper systems.
The designer’s first step is to determine the OEM internal

acceptance requirements. For example, are the IIHS and CU
tests to be included in the design process? Are there OEM
requirements that are not incorporated into the Flow Chart? If
the answer to the latter question is yes, then the designer must
modify the Flow Chart to cover the additional OEM requirements.
Often, particularly if the IIHS or CU target is a minimal “cost of

repair”, the IIHS and CU tests are more demanding than the
NHTSA criteria. Thus, if the IIHS and CU tests are to be included
in the design process, it is logical to evaluate them first. The
designer enters the IIHS/CU design path. If the IIHS and CU
tests need not be considered, then the designer enters the
NHTSA design path.
5-36
In the IIHS/CU path, the designer follows the front bumper
branch or the rear bumper branch. The first step in either
branch is to establish the IIHS “cost of repair” that is acceptable to
the OEM. It should be noted that there are two IIHS “cost of
repair” targets for either a front or a rear bumper. One is the
“cost of repair” following the corner or pole impact for the
front or rear bumper respectively. The other is the “cost of
repair” following the barrier impact. Of course, the two targets for
a bumper might well be the same.
The second step is to prepare a Base Design. Often, but not

always, the most demanding IIHS test requirement for a front
bumper is the impact into the corner barrier and for the rear
bumper the impact into the pole. Thus, it is suggested that
the Base Design for a front bumper be based on the corner
impact while the Base Design for the rear bumper be based
on the pole impact. After preparing a Base Design that
satisfies the “cost of repair” target, the designer checks the
performance of the front or rear bumper in the 90degree
barrier test. If the “cost of repair” under the 90degree barrier
test does not meet the target, the designer prepares a new
base design. If it does, the designer proceeds to the CU
requirements.
First, the designer establishes the CU “cost of repair” desired

by the OEM. It should be noted that the “cost of repair” is
calculated after the three CU bumper basher tests have been
completed. Thus, there is only one “cost of repair” target for
either a front or a rear bumper. Next, the designer verifies
that the Base Design selected to satisfy the two IIHS “cost of
repair” targets for a given bumper satisfies the CU “cost of
repair” target. If it does not, then the Base Design must be
modified. If it does, the designer can proceed to the NHTSA
design path.
5.6.3 NHTSA design path

It is reasonable to start with the pendulum impacts and then
move to the barrier impact because this is the order used in
testing. As noted in the introduction to Section 5.6 above,
the pendulum impacts are conducted at heights associated
with the vehicle’s bumper height. The NHTSA damage criteria
are evaluated after all impacts have been conducted. That is,
the cumulative damage incurred during the longitudinal
pendulum impacts, the corner pendulum impacts and the
barrier impact is evaluated. There must be no non-bumper
visual damage and no damage to safety and functional items.
Also, the vehicle shall not touch the test device, except on
the impact ridge shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2, with a force
that exceeds 2000 pounds (907kg) on the combined surfaces
of Planes A and B (see Figure 6.3) of the test device. If these
two conditions are met, the final design has been reached.
5-37
FIGURE 5.7
TYPICAL BUMPER DESIGN FOR 2.5 mph LOW SPEED SYSTEM
NORTH AMERICAN PICKUPS, FULL SIZE VANS AND SPORT UTILITIES
DETERMINE OEM
INTERNAL ACCEPTANCE
REQUIREMENTS
IIHS/
YES CONSUMERS UNION NO
REQUIREMENTS?
FRONT
FRONT OR REAR
REAR BASE DESIGN
BUMPER? (MODIFIED NHTSA CRITERIA)
• 2.5 mph Longitudinal
ESTABLISH ESTABLISH Pendulum
DESIRED IIHS DESIRED IIHS • 1.5 mph Corner
COST OF COST OF Pendulum
REPAIR REPAIR • 2.5 mph Barrier Impact
BASE DESIGN BASE DESIGN

• IIHS 5 mph • IIHS 5 mph
Corner Barrier Into Pole ANY
NON-BUMPER
YES
• IIHS 5 mph • IIHS 5 mph VISUAL OR SAFETY &
Front Barrier Rear Barrier FUNCTIONAL ITEM
DAMAGE?
FRONT ACCEPTABLE REAR

COST OF NO
NO REPAIR? NO
YES
A+B
ESTABLISH DESIRED YES
2000 LBS.< PLANES
CONSUMERS UNION
COST OF REPAIR FORCE
• 5 mph Centre Impact

• 5 mph Off-Centre Impact NO
• 3 mph Corner Impact
FINAL DESIGN
FRONT ACCEPTABLE REAR

COST OF
NO REPAIR? NO
YES
5-38
5.7 Auto/Steel Partnership high speed steel bumper design - North American passenger cars
The Auto/Steel Partnership (A/SP) commissioned Quantech
Global Services to conduct a study on the front-end of a 4 door,
mid-size sedan. The objective was to reduce the cost and mass of
the front-end structure through the use of advanced high-strength
steels. The study included the development of a high speed
bumper system.
Current North American passenger cars have low speed bumper

systems. Thus, Quantech’s first task for the high speed bumper
system was to establish design criteria and a design process.
SectionS 5.7.1 and 5.7.2 outline the results of Quantech’s research
into these two areas.
5.7.1 Quantech design criteria for high speed steel bumper system
Quantech, in consultation with A/SP, established the design
criteria for a high speed bumper system as:
1. No bumper damage or yielding after a 5mph (8km/h)
frontal impact into a flat, rigid barrier. Note: This
criterion does not apply to low speed bumpers, where
controlled yielding and deformation are beneficial.
2. No intrusion by the bumper system rearward of the
engine compartment rails for all impact speeds less than
9mph (15km/h).
3. Minimize the lateral loads during impacts in order to
reduce the possibility of lateral buckling of the rails.
4. Full collapse of the system during Danner (RCAR),
NCAP, and IIHS high speed crash without inducing
buckling of the rails.
5. Absorb 1% of the total energy every millisecond.
6. Absorb 15% of the total energy in the NCAP crash,
including engine hit.
7. Use the front-end crush space efficiently.
8. Meet the air bag sensor requirements in low, medium
and high speed impacts.
9. No detrimental affect on baseline body-in-white static or
dynamic stiffness.
Bumpers should protect car bodies from damage in low

speed collisions - the kind that frequently occurs in congested
urban traffic. The IIHS Low Speed Crash Test Protocol (see
Section 6.4) addresses this issue. For marketing reasons,
many current bumper systems are designed to ensure no or
minimal “cost of repair” after the IIHS 5mph (8km/h) barrier
impact. A/SP believes all future vehicles should meet this
requirement. Thus, Criterion 1 was set to achieve zero
damage and no or minimal “cost of repair” after the IIHS
5mph (8km/h) barrier impact.
Criterion 4 addresses three high speed load cases:

1. 40%-9mph Danner (RCAR Test - see Section 6.6 and
Reference 6.10). This load is a 9mph (15km/h) impact at
a 40% offset into a rigid barrier. The A/SP objective is
to have no damage to the radiator and other costly
equipment in the front-end and to have no damage to
the rail beyond 300mm (12inches).
5-39
2. 35 mph NCAP (NHTSA New Car Assessment Program,
Reference 5.2). This load is a 35mph (56km/h) impact
into a rigid barrier. The A/SP objective is to maximize
the energy absorbed in the bumper system.
3. 40%-40mph IIHS (Reference 5.3). This load case is a
40mph (64km/h) impact at a 40% offset into a
deformable barrier. The A/SP objective is to ensure the
bumper system does not break and is capable of
transferring the load to the right rail, thereby minimizing
the damage.
A major objective of A/SP is to reduce vehicle weight using

steel as the material of choice. Criterion 6 addresses this
objective. Traditional bumper systems absorb about 8-11% of
the energy in the 35mph (56km/h) NCAP crash. If bumper
systems were to dissipate higher levels, there would be an
opportunity for mass savings in the front-end structure. To
capitalize on this opportunity, A/SP set 15% energy absorption
as a stretch goal for future bumper systems.
5.7.2 Flow Chart for high speed system

For the reason of low cost with light weight, steel is the material
of choice for future, as well as current, bumper beams. The
Flow Chart in Figure 5.8 outlines the design process developed
by Quantech for a high speed bumper system having a steel
beam. The process is a logical route to satisfying the design
criteria outlined in Section 5.7.1.
First, a Base Design is prepared. It is checked against the

IIHS low speed [5mph (8km/h)] flat frontal barrier load case.
If there is damage or yielding, the Base Design is modified. If
not, the three high speed load cases are analyzed in the following
sequence:
1. 40% offset - 9mph (15km/h) Danner.
2. 35mph (56km/h) NCAP.
3. 40% offset - 40mph (64km/h) IIHS.
The results from the analyses of the three high speed load
cases are compared to the design criteria in Section 5.7.1. If
all of the criteria are met, the designer assesses the amount of
energy absorption. Energy absorption should be maximized
because the higher the amount, the greater the opportunity
to reduce mass in the front-end structure. If the designer
believes energy absorption has been maximized, a viable
design has been captured. If not, the learning from the three
high speed load cases is used to improve the Base Design
and reach a viable design.
Usually, three or four viable design alternatives are developed

using the above process. The designer then selects one of
the alternatives as the Preferred Design. The Preferred
Design should be lightweight and easy to manufacture. Also,
it should be easy to assemble and integrate with the rails.
Cost is also a consideration when selecting the Preferred
Design.
5-40
FIGURE 5.8
AUTO/STEEL PARTNERSHIP BUMPER DESIGN FOR HIGH SPEED SYSTEM
NORTH AMERICAN PASSENGER CARS
AIR BAG SENSOR

REQUIREMENTS
AIR BAG G
BASE DESIGN
DANNER HIGH SPEED

LOW SPEED 35 mph (NCAP)
40% OFFSET
5 mph
15 km/h (9 mph) 40%-40 mph (IIHS)
NO/MINIMUM
DAMAGEABILITY
OF RAIL ENERGY YES
CAPTURE A
ACCEPTABLE? ABSORPTION
NO VIABLE DESIGN
MAXIMIZED?
YES NO
PREFERRED
DESIGN
USE LEARNING
FOR AN IMPROVED
DESIGN
Source: Auto/Steel Partnership and Quantech Global Services
5-41
5.8 Bumper design for pedestrian impact
Pedestrian safety is a globally recognized safety concern. Efforts
towards modifying vehicle designs to offer some protection for
pedestrians began in earnest in the 1970s. At the same time, test
procedures to evaluate the performance of new designs began to
be developed. Pedestrian safety has improved significantly since
then.
The American Iron and Steel Institute wished to learn how

pedestrian safety might affect steel bumper systems. Thus, it
retained Dr. Peter Schuster, California Polytechnic State University,
to study this topic. The following information is based on his work
(Reference 5.4).
5.8.1 Impact tests

The European Union has been subjecting select vehicles to a
battery of tests (frontal, side and pedestrian) as part of its
new car assessment program (EuroNCAP, Reference 5.5). The
EuroNCAP pedestrian tests (Figure 5.9) consist of:
• leg to bumper impacts with a “leg-form” impactor,
• upper leg to hood edge impacts with an upper “leg-form”
impactor,
• head to hood top impacts with two different “head-form”
impactors.
The European Union typically subjects a vehicle to three leg

to bumper impacts, three upper leg to hood edge impacts
and up to 18 head to hood top impacts. The results are
reported with a four-star rating system, similar to that used in
the United States NCAP program.
Japan’s NCAP program includes tests that simulate pedestrian

head to hood top impacts. However, leg to bumper and
upper leg to hood edge impacts are not included.
Currently, North American NCAP programs do not include

pedestrian requirements. However, the high number of
pedestrian accidents in North America and the trend to
global vehicle design, likely mean that pedestrian impact
requirements will come to North America in the longer term.
5.8.2 EuroNCAP leg to bumper impacts with a “leg-form” impactor

This test significantly influences bumper design. Thus, a brief
discussion of the requirements is in order. First, it should be
stated that the purpose of this test is to reduce severe lower
limb injuries in pedestrian accidents. The most common
lower limb injuries are intra-articular bone fractures, ligament
ruptures and comminuted fractures.
In this test, a “leg-form” impactor is propelled toward a

stationary vehicle at a velocity of 40 km/h (25 mph) parallel
to the vehicleís longitudinal axis. The test can be performed
at any location across the face of the vehicle, between the
30° bumper corners.
5-42
The “leg-form” impactor is shown in Figure 5.10. It consists of two
semi-rigid 70mm (27.6 inches) diameter core cylinders (the “tibia”
and “femur”) connected by a deformable “knee joint”. This core
structure is wrapped in 25mm (1 inch) of foam “flesh” covered by
6mm (0.24 inches) of neoprene “skin”.
The performance criteria proposed for 2010 are shown in Figure

5.11. The maximum acceleration of the tibia is intended to
prevent fracture of the tibia due to bumper contact. The
maximum knee bend angle and shear deformation are intended
to prevent severe knee joint injuries such as ligament ruptures and
intra-articular bone fractures.
5.8.3 Government regulations

As of June 2005 world-wide, there were no government
regulations for pedestrian impact. However, the European
Union and major vehicle associations have negotiated an
agreement (Reference 5.6). The agreement states that new
vehicles will achieve a limited level of pedestrian impact
performance starting in 2005, with an increased performance
in 2010. The limits shown in Figures 5.9 and 5.11 are the
targets for 2010. For 2005, the leg to bumper targets are:
• knee bending < 20°,
• knee shear < 6mm (0.24 inches),
• acceleration < 200g.
5.8.4 Design approaches

There are two general approaches to designing a front
bumper system for pedestrian safety:
• Provide front-end vehicle components to cushion the
impact and support the lower limb,
• Provide sensors and external airbags to cushion the impact
and support the lower limb.
5.8.4.1 Cushioning the impact

Cushioning reduces the severity of bone fractures. It is
directly related to the acceleration impact criterion shown in
Figure 5.11. Limiting the lower limb acceleration to 150g
requires a bumper stiffness lower than that usually provided
to satisfy the damageability criteria associated with low-speed
[8 km/h (5 mph)] vehicle impact. Thus, a pedestrian friendly
bumper system must be capable of limiting “leg-form”
acceleration without sacrificing vehicle damageability in a
low-speed impact.
5.8.4.2 Supporting the lower limb

Supporting the lower limb reduces the risk of knee joint
injuries such as ligament ruptures and intra-articular fractures.
It is directly related to the knee bend angle criterion in Figure
5.11. Enough support must be provided below the main
bumper to limit the bending angle to 15°. Any support
provided must not conflict with styling requirements or result
in unacceptable low-speed [8 km/h (5 mph)] impact damage.
5-43
5.8.5 Design solutions
As bumper systems meeting the requirements of pedestrian
leg impact are only beginning to hit the marketplace in
Europe, Australia and Japan, it is too early to identify the
most popular designs. However, a thorough review of articles
and patents does indicate the most popular design solutions
for passenger cars. There is limited production of vehicles
with exposed bumper beams (facebars) in these areas.
Hence, there has been little activity devoted to adapting
facebars to meet pedestrian impact requirements. For
passenger cars with reinforcing beams, the most commonly
proposed design solutions are:
1. Front-End Vehicle Component Solutions
a) Lower stiffener. A new component called a stiffener or
spoiler may be located below the bumper system to prevent
the lower part of the leg form from moving further toward
the vehicle than the knee. The stiffener may be a fixed
component or a component that deploys based on impulse
or speed.
b) Energy absorbers. To cushion impact, an energy absorber
may be placed between the bumper beam and the
pedestrian. Alternately, an energy absorber may be placed
behind the bumper beam. The most commonly proposed
energy absorbers are plastic foams (single or multi-density)
and molded plastic “egg crates”. However, several proposed
design solutions incorporate “spring steel”, composite
steel/foam and crush can absorbers.
c) Beam design. A tall front-view bumper height may be used
to provide leg support.
d) “Bull-bars”. Structures may be added to the front of an
existing bumper system to provide energy absorption and to
support the lower limb.
2. Sensor and Airbag Solution
Any current bumper system may be covered with an airbag.
In this way, the energy absorption capability of the bumper
becomes irrelevant. The key disadvantages to this design
approach are cost and sensor capability.
All of the Front End Vehicle Component Solutions listed

above may be used in conjunction with steel reinforcing
beam bumper systems. The Sensor and Airbag Solution
would appear to have the greatest potential for use with steel
facebar bumper systems such as those used on pickup trucks.
5-44
FIGURE 5.9
EuroNCAP PEDESTRIAN TESTS (2010 CRITERIA)
Leg Upper Leg Head

to Bumper to Hood Edge to Hood Top
Knee bending < 15° Total load < 5 kN HIC < 1000
Knee shear < 6 mm Bending moment < 300 Nm
Tibia acceleration < 150 g
5-45
FIGURE 5.10
EuroNCAP LEG FORM IMPACTOR
5-46
FIGURE 5.11
EuroNCAP “LEG FORM” IMPACT CRITERIA (2010)
5-47
6. Relevant safety standards in
North America and Europe
North American and European safety standards for vehicles are

summarized in Table 6.1. While most of the standards in Table 6.1
are enacted by legislation, several of the standards, where so
indicated, are voluntarily set by the OEM’s.
The North American bumper performance standards are more

severe than the European ones. Thus, the bumpers on North
American vehicles are considerably stronger than those on
European vehicles. Although the North American bumper
standards are set by legislation at the 2.5 mph (4 km/h) level for
passenger cars, the North American OEM’s voluntarily use a 5 mph
(8 km/h) performance standard for passenger cars. At this impact
speed, there must be no visual damage on a vehicle and there must
be no damage to any safety items. However, damage to hidden
components of the bumper system is acceptable.
Currently, there are no bumper performance standards for light

trucks. Most North American OEM’s use the voluntary 5 mph (8
km/h) passenger car standard for their minivans. In general, the
OEM’s use a voluntary 2.5 mph (4 km/h) performance standard for
the remainder of the light truck category (full size vans, pickups and
sport utilities). At this impact speed, there must be no visual
damage on a vehicle and there must be no damage to any safety
items. However, damage to hidden components of the bumper
system is acceptable.
Europe has a greater concern about bumper repair cost than North
American. Hence, the European insurance industry uses a 9 mph
(15 km/h) test (known as the Thatcham test in England and the
Danner test in Germany) to evaluate repair costs. This test
establishes insurance collision premiums for the first year of a new
model introduction. In North America, the Insurance Institute for
Highway Safety (IIHS) uses four tests at 5 mph (8 km/h). Europe
attaches more importance to the ease of bumper replacement
compared to North American. Thus, the European insurance industry
grants a credit, which is based on ease of replacement. This credit
is applied to the bumper repair cost. As a result, European bumper
designers strive to obtain ease of replacement. For example, they
may use bolts, rather then weldments, to facilitate ease of repair.
In current North American practice, the governing design condition

for a bumper system is the 2.5 or 5 mph (4 or 8 km/h) low-speed
impact requirement. Current bumper systems are not designed to
absorb energy under high-speed impact. However, systems are
being developed that can absorb about 15% of the energy under
high-speed impact.
6-1
TABLE 6.1
RELEVANT SAFETY STANDARDS IN NORTH AMERICA AND EUROPE
NORTH AMERICA EUROPE KEY DIFFERENCES

Bumper Performance Bumper Performance • 5 mph vs. 2.5 mph (8 km/h
• U.S. standard for passenger cars • No requirement standard, but vs. 4 km/h).
calls for no visual damage and no most countries follow ECE 42, which • Law vs. recommendation
damage to safety items at 2.5 mph calls for no serious damage (light • Greater damage allowed in
(4 km/h); Canada calls for limited bulbs may be changed) at 2.5 mph Europe.
damage at 5 mph (8 km/h) for pas- (4 km/h).
senger cars.
• Automakers have combined the
more stringent aspects of each stan-
dard - no visual damage and no
damage to safety items at 5 mph (8
km/h) for passenger cars.
Insurance Testing Insurance Testing • 5 mph vs. 9 mph (8 km/h vs.

• The IIHS (Insurance Institute for • European insurance agencies have 15 km/h).
Highway Safety) conducts 4 tests at a test that measures costs for • Europe gives credit for ease
5 mph (8 km/h) which measure bumper repair (a credit is given for of replacement.
repair costs for the bumper. The ease of replacement). The test is a 9
tests are front into barrier, rear into mph (15 km/h) impact at a 40 per-
barrier, front into angle barrier and cent offset. In England, it’s called the
rear into pole. Thatcham Test, in Germany, it’s
• Statistics are published in a called the Danner Test.
newsletter.
High-Speed Crash Tests CFR High-Speed Crash Tests • Rigid vs. deformable barrier.
571.208 Occupant Crash • 40% offset driver’s side • Head-on vs. offset collision.
Protection • Front-end collision
• Frontal rigid barrier collision • 35 mph (56 km/h)
applies to passenger cars, MPVs, • Deformable barrier/honeycomb
trucks and buses. aluminum structure (proposed)
• 30 mph (48 km/h) frontal colli- • ECE 33 head-on collision unladen
sion. No separation of any load vehicle hits barrier at 30 - 33 mph
bearing element of a seatbelt assem- (48 - 53 km/h)
bly or anchorage. • ECE 32 rear-end collision impact
• Lateral collision 20 mph (32 km/h) or pendulum 22 - 24 mph (35 - 38
and impact both sides.
km/h)
• FMVSS 301, combination of 30
mph (48 km/h) frontal/rear and 20
mph (32 km/h) side.
Pedestrian Safety Proposal

• ECE 222 Proposal (2001). 25 mph
(40 km/h). Knee angle limited to
15°. Thigh (hip) into hood.
6-2
There is a degree of speculation that the 2.5 mph (4 km/h) voluntary
design standard used by the North American OEM’s for full size
vans, pickups and sport utilities might rise to 5 mph (8 km/h). If
this change were to occur, then the bumper systems on these
vehicles would require a redesign. Such a redesign would likely
mean the facebar systems commonly used on these vehicles would
revert to reinforcing beam systems.
A pedestrian safety standard currently being proposed in Europe is

shown in Table 6.1. If enacted, this standard would have an effect
on front-end styling and, in turn, bumper system design.
6.1 United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (49CFR),

Part 581, Bumper Standard
This standard is summarized in Sections 6.1.1 through 6.1.4. The
reader is cautioned that these sections are only a summary. The
reader must refer to the actual regulatory document in order to
obtain a complete understanding of the standard.
6.1.1 Requirements
The Bumper Standard only applies to passenger vehicles. A
manufacturer may apply for an exemption of a special use
passenger vehicle if compliance with the standard would reasonably
interfere with the special use of the vehicle. For example, a
shuttle vehicle used within the confines of a retirement complex.
A passenger vehicle is subjected to three impact procedures:

1. The pendulum corner impacts - front and rear.
2. The pendulum longitudinal impacts - front and rear.
3. The impacts into a fixed collision barrier - front and rear.
Following the three impact procedures, the vehicle shall meet
the following damage criteria:
1. Each lamp or reflective device except license plate lamps
shall be free of cracks and shall comply with applicable
visibility requirements. The aim of each headlamp shall be
adjustable to within the beam aim inspection limits.
2. The vehicle’s hood, trunk and doors shall operate in the
normal manner.
3. The vehicle’s fuel and cooling systems shall have no leaks
or constricted fluid passages and all sealing devices and
caps shall operate in the normal manner.
4. The vehicle’s exhaust system shall have no leaks or
constrictions.
5. The vehicle’s propulsion, suspension, steering and braking
systems shall remain in adjustment and shall operate in the
normal manner.
6. A pressure vessel used to absorb impact energy in an
exterior protection system by the accumulation of gas or
hydraulic pressure shall not suffer loss of gas or fluid
accompanied by separation of fragments from the vessel.
6-3
7. The vehicle shall not touch the test device, except on the
8. The exterior surfaces shall have no separations of surface
materials, paint, polymeric coatings, or other covering
materials from the surface to which they are bonded, and
no permanent deviations from their original contours
30 minutes after completion of each pendulum and barrier
impact, except where such damage occurs to the bumper
face bar and the components and associated fasteners that
directly attach the bumper face bar to the chassis frame.
9. Except as provided in Criterion 8 (above), there shall be no
breakage or release of fasteners of joints.
1. See Figure 6.4.
2. Impact speed of 1.5mph (2.4km/h).
3. Impact one front corner at a height of 20 inches (500mm)
using Figure 6.1 pendulum.
4. Impact other front corner at a height from 16 to 20 inches
(400 to 500mm) using Figure 6.2 pendulum.
5. Impact one rear corner at a height of 20 inches (500mm)
6. Impact other rear corner at a height from 16 to 20 inches
(400 to 500mm) using Figure 6.2 pendulum.
7. The plane containing the pendulum swing shall have a
60 degree angle with the longitudinal plane of the vehicle.
8. Impacts must be performed at intervals not less than
30 minutes.
9. Effective impacting mass of pendulum equals mass of
vehicle.
10. Trailer hitches, license plate brackets, and headlamp
washers are removed. Running lights, fog lamps and
equipment mounted on the bumper face bar are removed
if they are optional equipment.

1. See Figure 6.4.
2. Impact speed of 2.5mph (4km/h).
3. Two impacts on front surface, inboard of corner.
4. Two impacts on rear surface, inboard of corner.
5. Impact line may be any height from 16 to 20 inches (400 to
500mm). If height is 20 inches (500mm), use Figure 6.1
pendulum. If height is between 20 and 16 inches (500 and
400mm), use Figure 6.2 pendulum.
6. Pendulum Plane A (see Figure 6.3) is perpendicular to the
longitudinal plane of the vehicle.
7. For each impact, the impact line must be at least 2 inches
(50mm) in the vertical direction from its position in any
prior impact, unless the midpoint of the impact line is more
than 12 inches (300mm) apart laterally from any prior
impact.
30 minutes apart.
vehicle.
6-4
FIGURE 6.1
IMPACT PENDULUM
TOP VIEW
610
406
25 R
102 R
SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW

457
Impact
ridge
78
152
3R
114
13 R
15°
Impact
305
5° line
78
NOTES:
1. Dimensions in mm
2. Not to scale
UNITED STATES REGULATIONS:

a) Longitudinal impact if height is 20 inches (500mm).
b) One front and one rear corner impact at a height of 20 inches (500mm).
CANADIAN REGULATIONS:
a) One front and one rear corner impact at a height of 500mm (20 inches).
Source: Canada: Motor Vehicle Safety Regulations, Standard 215, 1978
6-5
FIGURE 6.2
IMPACT PENDULUM
TOP VIEW
610
406
25 R
102 R
SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW

609
Impact
ridge
3R
114
13 R
15°
Impact
305
5° line
78
NOTES:
1. Dimensions in mm
2. Not to scale
UNITED STATES REGULATIONS:

a) Longitudinal impact if height is between 20 and 16 inches (500mm and 400mm).
b) One front and one rear corner impact at a height from 16 to 20 inches (400 to 500mm).
CANADIAN REGULATIONS:
a) Longitudinal impact at height from 500 to 400mm (20 to 16 inches).
Source: Canada: Motor Vehicle Safety Regulations, Standard 215, 1978
6-6
FIGURE 6.3
LOCATIONS OF PLANES A and B
SECTION A-A
PLANE B
IMPACT
LINE
A A
PLANE A
FIGURE 6.4
SAMPLE IMPACT APPARATUS
Sample impact apparatus Sample impact apparatus

with supports without supports
Weight equals
Plane B unloaded vehicle
• •
weight +0, -10kg
Impact
Surface •
Plane A
•
NOTES:
1. Drawing not to scale.
2. The arc described by any point on impact line shall be constant with a minimum
radius of 3.3m and lie in a plane perpendicular to Plane A.
Source: Transport Canada, Safety and Security
6-7
1. Impact speed of 2.5mph (4km/h).
2. Impact into a fixed collision barrier perpendicular to line of
travel while travelling longitudinally forward.
travel while travelling longitudinally rearward.
6.2 Canadian Motor Vehicle Safety Regulations Standard 215

This standard is summarized in Sections 6.2.1 through 6.2.4. The
reader must refer to the actual regulatory document in order to
obtain a complete understanding of the standard.
6.2.1 Requirements
A passenger vehicle is subjected to three impact procedures:
1. The pendulum corner impacts - front and rear.
2. The pendulum longitudinal impacts - front and rear.
3. The impacts into a fixed collision barrier - front and rear.
Following the three impact procedures, the vehicle shall meet
the following damage criteria:
1. Each lamp or reflective device except license plate lamps
shall be free of cracks and shall comply with applicable
visibility requirements. The aim of each headlamp shall be
adjustable to within the beam aim inspection limits.
2. The vehicle’s hood, trunk and doors shall operate in the
normal manner.
3. The vehicle’s fuel and cooling systems shall have no leaks
or constricted fluid passages and all sealing devices and
caps shall operate in the normal manner.
4. The vehicle’s exhaust system shall have no leaks or
constrictions.
5. The vehicle’s propulsion, suspension, steering and braking
systems shall remain in adjustment and shall operate in the
normal manner.
1. See Figure 6.4.
2. Impact speed of 4.8km/h (3.0mph).
3. Impact one front corner at a height of 500mm (20 inches)
4. Impact one rear corner at a height of 500mm (20 inches)
5. The plane containing the pendulum swing shall have a
60 degree angle with the longitudinal plane of the vehicle.
30 minutes apart.
vehicle.
8. Trailer hitches and license plate brackets are removed.
6-8
1. See Figure 6.4.
2. Impact speed of 8km/h (5mph).
3. Two impacts on front surface using Figure 6.2 pendulum,
inboard of corner.
4. Two impacts on rear surface using Figure 6.2 pendulum,
inboard of corner.
5. Impact line may be any height from 400mm to 500mm (16
to 20 inches).
6. Pendulum Plane A is perpendicular to the longitudinal
plane of the vehicle.
7. For each impact, the impact line must be at least 50mm
(2 inches) in the vertical direction from its position in any
prior impact, unless the midpoint of the impact line is more
than 300mm (12 inches) apart laterally from any prior
impact.
30 minutes apart.
vehicle.
1. Impact speed of 8km/h (5.0mph).
travel while travelling longitudinally forward.
travel while travelling longitudinally rearward.
6.3 Comparison between United States and Canadian Bumper Regulations

The reader is cautioned that the comparison in Sections 6.3.1
through 6.3.4 is only a summary. The reader must refer to the
actual regulatory documents in order to obtain a complete
comparison.
The United States and Canada use the same test apparatus. The
United States permits running lamps, fog lamps and equipment on
the bumper face bar to be removed if they are optional, while
Canada does not. The United States uses lower test speeds than
Canada. As a generalization, the United States requires no visual
damage to all non-bumper parts, while Canada requires no
damage to safety and functional items.
6.3.1 Requirements
The United States, but not Canada, has the following requirements:
1. A pressure vessel used to absorb impact energy in an
exterior protection system by the accumulation of gas or
hydraulic pressure shall not suffer loss of gas or fluid
accompanied by separation of fragments from the vessel.
2. The vehicle shall not touch the test device, except on the
3. The exterior surfaces shall have no separations of surface
materials, paint, polymeric coatings, or other covering
materials from the surface to which they are bonded, and
no permanent deviations from their original contours
30 minutes after completion of each pendulum and barrier
impact, except where such damage occurs to the bumper
face bar and the components and associated fasteners that
directly attach the bumper face bar to the chassis frame.
4. Except as provided in Criterion 8 of Section 6.1.1, there
shall be no breakage or release of fasteners of joints.
6-9
1. The United States has an impact speed of 1.5mph (2.4km/h),
Canada 4.8km/h (3.0mph).
2. Both the United States and Canada require a front and a rear
corner be tested using the Figure 6.1 pendulum. Only the
United States requires that the other front and other rear
corner be tested (The Figure 6.2 pendulum must be used.).

1. The United States has an impact speed of 2.5mph (4km/h),
Canada (5mph).
1. The United States has an impact speed of 2.5mph (4km/h),
Canada (8km/h (5.0mph).
6.4 Insurance Institute for Highway Safety: Low-Speed Crash Test Protocol (Reference 6.8)
This protocol is summarized in Sections 6.4.1 through 6.4.6. The
reader must refer to the actual protocol document in order to
obtain a complete understanding of the protocol.
6.4.1 Requirements
Following each of four tests (front into full-width flat-barrier, rear
into full-width flat-barrier, right front into 30 degree angle-barrier
and rear into pole), IIHS writes a damage estimate. Minor cosmetic
damage to the exterior bumper surface is excluded, even if there is
significant damage to other bumper parts. Although IIHS would
like to see a zero damage estimate, there is no criterion for an
acceptable or an unacceptable damage estimate.
6.4.2 Test vehicles
1. One vehicle is used for the front into full-width flat-barrier and
rear into pole impacts. A second vehicle is used for the right
front into 30 degree angle-barrier and rear into full-width
flat-barrier impacts.
2. Front and rear license plates, front license plate bracket (if
provided), and all associated fasteners are removed. The rear
license plate bracket (if present) is left in place unless it is
bolted or riveted directly to the external face of the rear
bumper, in which case both the bracket and fasteners are
removed. Bolt-on trailer hitch reinforcement members that
are supplied as optional equipment are removed, but their
fasteners are reattached to the vehicle where possible.
6.4.3 Full-width flat-barrier impact
1. Two tests - front into barrier and rear into barrier.
2. Impact speed of 5mph (8km/h).
3. The barrier is a 145.15t (160 tons) block of reinforced
concrete, faced with a steel plate 8.0cm (3 inches) thick. The
impact area on the steel plate is covered with 2cm
(0.75 inches) thick plywood.
4. The barrier is perpendicular to the vehicle’s line of travel
(forward or rearward).
6-10
6.4.4 Right front into 30 degree angle-barrier impact
2. A rigid steel fixture is bolted to the floor. It includes a steel
plate 214cm (84 inches) wide, 92cm (36 inches) high and
4.5cm (1.75 inches) thick. The steel plate is covered with
2cm (0.75 inches) thick plywood. The bottom edges of the
steel plate and plywood are 18cm (7 inches) above the floor
level. Thus, the top edges are 110cm (43 inches) above floor
level. The angle between the longitudinal centerline of the
vehicle and the plane of the plywood is 60 degrees (90 minus
30 degrees).
6.4.5 Rear into pole impact

2. Steel pole is 18cm (7 inches) in diameter and extends 92cm
(36 inches) above the floor.
3. Normally, the longitudinal centerline of vehicle is aligned with
the pole and becomes the target point. However, if some
aspect of the bumper design (e.g., a trailer hitch) prevents a
general assessment of the bumper’s performance, the
longitudinal centerline is moved left or right of the pole. The
target point is the midpoint of the span from the vehicle
centerline to the inboard edge of the rear frame sidemember
end.
4. The actual impact point on the bumper will not be more than
7.5cm (3 inches) either side of the target point.
6.5 Consumers Union bumper-basher tests (Reference 6.9)

These tests are summarized in Sections 6.5.1 through 6.5.5. The
reader must refer to actual test documents in order to obtain a
complete understanding of the tests.
6.5.1 Requirements
The front and the rear bumper of a vehicle are each impacted
three times — at the center, off-center and at a corner. Following
the three tests on a front or rear bumper, the total cost for parts
and labor to repair the damage to the body and bumper is estimated.
Minor cosmetic damage to the exterior bumper surface is usually
ignored if no other problems are found. Consumers Union does
not use bumper repair cost as a Ratings factor. However, it does
publish the repair cost for the front bumper, the rear bumper and
the total for both bumpers in Consumer Reports magazine.
6.5.2 Bumper-basher
Consumers Union uses an impact bar similar to that shown in
Figure 6.2 for all impacts. However, it is not swung as a pendulum.
Rather, it is hydraulically propelled, like a battering ram, in the
horizontal direction. Weights, equal to the weight of the vehicle,
are placed on the ram.
6.5.3 Center impact
1. The front bumper is impacted at a height of 20 inches
(500mm) and the rear bumper at a height of 16 inches
(400mm). An impact bar similar to that shown in Figure 6.2 is
used for both impacts.
2. 5mph (km/h) impact at vehicle centerline.
6-11
6.5.4 Off-center impact
1. The front bumper is impacted on the driver’s side at a height
of 20 inches (500mm). The rear bumper is impacted on the
passenger’s side at a height of 16 inches (400mm). An impact
bar similar to that shown in Figure 6.2 is used for both impacts.
2. 5mph (8km/h) impact with outside edge of impact bar at
outboard surface of the body (fender/front bumper cover or
quarter panel/rear bumper cover). Thus, the impact point is
usually about midway between the vehicle centerline and the
outboard surface of the vehicle.
6.5.5 Corner impact
1. The front bumper is impacted on the driver’s side at a height
of 20 inches (500mm). The rear bumper is impacted on the
passenger’s side at a height of 16 inches (400mm). An impact
bar similar to that shown in Figure 6.2 is used for both impacts.
2. 3mph (4.8km/h) impact at 30 degrees on the corner.
6.6 Research Council for Automotive Repairs (RCAR) Low-Speed Offset Crash Test (Reference 6.10)
This test is summarized in Sections 6.6.1 through 6.6.5. The reader
is cautioned that these sections are only a summary. The reader
must refer to the actual test document in order to obtain a
complete understanding of the test.
RCAR states its standard insurance test reflects the typical

low-speed impact, and provides the average level of damage,
insurers are paying for every day.
6.6.1 Requirements
Two impacts are conducted. The first is a 15km/h (9mph) impact
by the front of the test vehicle into a fixed barrier with a 40%
offset. The second is a 15km/h (9mph) impact by a mobile barrier,
with a 40% offset, into the rear of the test vehicle. After each
impact, the replacement parts required to reinstate the vehicle to
its pre-accident condition are recorded. Also, the number of hours
required to replace the damaged parts and to repair those items
capable of repair, such that the vehicle is reinstated to the pre-accident
condition are recorded. The cost of the replacement parts and the
number of hours are estimated. Thus, the results of the crash test
indicate the repairability and damageability status of the test vehicle.
6.6.2 Test vehicle
The test vehicle is previously undamaged and representative of the
series production. The test vehicle for the rear impact may be the
same vehicle used for the front impact, provided the damage
sustained during the front impact has no effect on the results of the
rear impact.
6-12
6.6.3 Front impact
1. One impact into a non-deformable barrier/former (see Figure
6.5). The former can be adjusted laterally to accommodate
various vehicle widths. The former may be secured to a fixed
barrier or placed on the ground with arresting devices to
restrict its movement. The front face of the former is
perpendicular to the direction of travel of the test vehicle.
The mass of the barrier/former exceeds twice that of the test
vehicle. The steering column side of the vehicle contacts the
former. The test vehicle overlaps the former by 40%.
2. The test vehicle impact speed is 15km/h (9mph).
6.6.4 Rear impact

1. One impact by a mobile barrier into the test vehicle (Figure
6.6). The mobile barrier has a mass of 1000kg (2205 pounds).
2. The mobile barrier contacts the side of the vehicle opposite
to the steering column side. The barrier overlaps the test
vehicle by 40%. The barrier impact speed is 15km/h (9mph).
6.6.5 Damageability and repairability

RCAR’s objective is “to improve the level of safety, security, quality,
design and method of repair of motor vehicles in order to reduce
costs to the insurance industry and to the motoring public”. To this
end, RCAR has prepared a Design Guide (Reference 6.11) aimed at
reducing the damageability and repairability cost incurred in
low-speed impacts.
Damageability is the measure of a vehicle’s ability to withstand the

forces of a low-speed impact. It denotes which body structure and
other components are damaged as a result of the impact.
Repairability measures how easily, quickly and cost-effectively the

damaged structure and components can be repaired or replaced.
The RCAR Design Guide lists optimum damageability and

repairability features of a bumper system as:
1. The system plays an important role in energy management
during vehicle accidents.
2. The system withstands impacts up to 15km/h (9mph) without
initiating damage to the body structure beyond the body
mounting system.
3. The main bumper mountings are capable of transmitting
impact forces into the rails for maximum energy absorption.
They are not an integral part of the bumper, but separate
items that can be replaced easily in the event of damage.
4. Any side mountings are of the quick-release type.
5. Bumper covers are thermoplastic. Hot air welding or
adhesives may repair them.
6. Wrap-around bumpers afford much greater protection during
minor parking incidents.
6-13
FIGURE 6.5
RCAR FRONT CRASH PROCEDURE
The height of the barrier shall exceed the height of the front of the test vehicle.
The test vehicle shall be free of any additional or propelling device at the moment of impact.
Test Vehicle Mass: Net curb weight +75 kg for driver and a full fuel tank or equivalent ballast.
Left Hand Drive vehicle shown
KEY:
U = Offset 40%
B = Overall width of test vehicle
VF = 15.0 + 1.0 - 0 km/h
R = 150mm constant radius
F = Test vehicle
6-14
FIGURE 6.6
RCAR REAR CRASH PROCEDURE
Test Vehicle Mass: Net curb weight + 75 kg for driver and a full fuel tank or equivalent ballast.
KEY:
MB = Mobile barrier
MMB = 1000 kg ± 5 kg mass
H = 700mm barrier height ± 10mm
h = 200mm barrier ground clearance ± 10mm
F = Test vehicle
r = 50mm constant radius
Left hand drive vehicle shown
KEY:
MB = Mobile barrier
U = Offset 40%
B = Overall width of test vehicle
VMB = 15.0 + 1.0 - 0 km/h
VF = 0 km/h (handbrake off)
R = 150mm constant radius
F = Test Vehicle
6-15
7. Steel versus aluminum and composite
bumper beams
7.1 Types of bumper beams

a) Steel Reinforcing Beams
Steel reinforcing beams are produced using the cold stamping, hot
forming or roll forming processes. The tensile strength of cold
stamped and roll formed beams ranges from 900-1500 MPa
(130-218 ksi). The tensile strength of hot stamped beams, after
heating and quenching, ranges from 1200-1400 MPa (174-203 ksi).
All steel beams have an elastic modulus of 207,000 MPa (30,000
ksi). Steel reinforcing beams are protected from corrosion by zinc
coatings, aluminum coatings or electrocoatings. After mounting
to a vehicleís frame, reinforcing beams are covered by cosmetic or
energy absorbing fascias.
b) Steel Facebars
Steel facebars are typically cold stamped from low-carbon and
high-strength steels having tensile strengths from 350-500 MPa
(50-72 ksi) and an elastic modulus of 207,000 MPa (30,000 ksi).
They are either chrome plated or painted for corrosion protection
and appearance before being mounted to a vehicle’s frame. Most
facebars are dressed up with plastic trim.
c) Plastic Reinforcing Beams

There are two types of plastic beams — glass reinforced plastic or
unreinforced plastic. Examples of glass reinforced plastic beams
include polypropylene (compression molded), unsaturated
polyester (compression molded) and polyurethane (reaction
injection molded). Examples of unreinforced plastic beams
include polycarbonate/polybutylene (injection or blow molded),
polyethylene (blow molded) and polypropylene (blow molded).
Plastic beams have tensile strengths up to 275 MPa (40 ksi) and
flexural moduli up to 15,000 MPa (2,200 ksi).
d) Aluminum Reinforcing Beams

Typically, aluminum beams are made by stretch or press forming
extruded shapes made from the 6000 and 7000 aluminum series.
After forming and heat treating, the beams have tensile strengths
up to 550 MPa (80 ksi) and an elastic modulus of 69,000 MPa
(10,000 ksi).
7-1
7.2 Cost of bumper beams
Tables 7.1 and 7.2 provide typical costs for steel facebar and
reinforcing beam bumper systems. The systems in both Tables
meet low-speed [8km/h (5mph)] impact test requirements.
However, it should be noted that the facebar system costs in
Table 7.1 should not be compared to the reinforcing beam
system costs in Table 7.2. The facebar systems in Table 7.1 are
used on pickups while the reinforcing beam systems in Table 7.2
are used on passenger cars. Pickups have up to twice the
weight of passenger cars. Thus, in an 8km/h (5mph) impact, the
facebar systems in Table 7.1 receive up to twice the force that
the reinforcing beam systems in Table 7.2 receive. Tables 7.1 and
7.2 indicate that the steel beam itself represents only 15 - 20% of
the bumper system cost.
Table 7.3 shows cost ranges for steel, plastic and aluminum
reinforcing beams. It may be seen that steel reinforcing beams
are $10- $15 less expensive than plastic beams and $15 -$20 less
expensive than aluminum beams.
7-2
TABLE 7.1
COST OF STEEL FACEBAR SYSTEMS
8km/h (5mph) Bumpers for Midsize and Full-size Pickups
(U.S. dollars per facebar)
Steel Beam Painting Chrome Plastic Energy System Cost System Cost
Stamping Plating Trim Absorbing (Painted (Chrome
Brackets Facebar) Plated
Facebar)
$15 - 25 $15 - 25 $25 - 35 $10 - 50 $10 - 30 $50 - 130 $60 - 140
TABLE 7.2
COST OF STEEL REINFORCING BEAM SYSTEMS
8km/h (5mph) Bumpers for Passenger Cars
(U.S. dollars per beam)
Steel Energy Painted System cost

Reinforcing Absorber Fascia
Beam
$15 - 20 $5 - 15 $80 - 100 $100 - 135
TABLE 7.3
COST OF REINFORCING BEAMS
8km/h (5mph) Bumpers for Passenger Cars
(U.S. dollars per beam)
Reinforcing Beam
Beam Cost
Material
Steel $15 - 20
Unreinforced Plastic $25 - 35
Reinforced Plastic $25 - 30
Aluminum $30 - 40
7-3
TABLE 7.4
WEIGHT OF REINFORCING BEAM SYSTEMS
8km/h (5mph) Beams for Passenger Cars
[kg (lbs.)]
Vehicle Reinforcing Beam Absorber Fascia Total

Mazda 626 PP 7.03 (15.5) None 0.00 (0.0) TPO 5.44 (12.0) 12.47 (27.5)
Buick Park Ave. Aluminum 5.76 (12.7) PUR 3.40 (7.5) TPO 4.99 (11.0) 14.15 (31.2)
Pontiac Sunfire Steel 5.76 (12.7) EVA 2.86 (6.3) PUR 5.40 (11.9) 14.02 (30.9)
Source: Phillip Townsend Associates, Inc.

PP = polypropylene
TPO = thermoplastic olefin
EVA = ethylene vinyl acetate elastomers
PUR = polyurethane
7-4
8. Conclusions
1. Weight
a) Steel reinforcing beams, especially ultra high-strength steel
beams, are fully weight competitive with aluminum and plastic
beams.
b) Vehicle weight reduction is being achieved by utilizing the front
bumper as a frame crossmember. Further weight savings may be
achieved by optimizing the front bumper to absorb up to 15% of
high-speed crash energy. Steel is the best material for both of these
design options.
2. Styling
Today’s steel bumpers provide the large sweeps and wrap-arounds
desired by stylists. Production stamped bumper beams have
depths-of-draw as large as 203 mm (8.0 in.). Production roll
formed beams have sweep numbers as high as 60.
3. Cost
a) For normal production volumes, steel reinforcing beams are
more cost effective than aluminum or plastic beams.
b) For low production volumes, utilizing the same steel beam on
several vehicles reduces tooling cost.
8-1
9. References
1.1 North American Bumper System Market, 1997-2001 Model Years,

September 19, 1997, private study, CSM Corporation, 2365
Woodlake Drive, Suite 150, Okemos, MI 48864.
2.1 SAE J2329, Categorization and Properties of Low-Carbon
Automotive Sheet Steels, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., 400
Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001.
2.2 SAE J1562, Selection of Zinc and Zinc-Alloy (Hot-Dipped and
Electrodeposited) Coated Sheet Steel, Society of Automotive
Engineers, Inc., 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-
0001.
2.3 SAE J403, Chemical Compositions of SAE Carbon Steels, Society of
Automotive Engineers, Inc., 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale,
PA 15096-0001.
2.4 www.worldautosteel.org., AHSS Guidelines, AHSS Descriptions,
Definitions
2.5 SAE J405, Chemical Compositions of SAE Wrought Stainless Steels,
Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., 400 Commonwealth Drive,
Warrendale, PA 15096-0001.
2.6 www.astm.org, ASTM A463, Standard Specification for Sheet Steel,
Aluminum-Coated, by the Hot Dip Process.
4.1 Sheet Steel Availability and Property Guide, insert to High-Strength
Steel Bulletin, Edition 10, Auto/Steel Partnership, 2000 Town Center,
Suite 320, Southfield, MI 48075-1123.
4.2 Automotive Steel Design Manual, American Iron and Steel Institute,
2000 Town Center, Suite 320, Southfield, MI 48075-1199.
4.3 High-Strength Steel Bulletin, Edition 5, Auto/Steel Partnership, 2000
Town Center, Suite 320, Southfield, MI 48075-1123.
4.4 Inland Ultra-High-Strength Steels Selection Guide, Inland Steel, Ultra
High-Strength Steel Marketing, telephone 1-800-422-9422.
4.5 David W. Dickinson, Final Report to AISI Bumper Group, Bumper
Component Welding, State-of-the-Art Survey, December 31,2000.
4.6 Linnert, Welding Metallurgy, American Welding Society, 1994.
4.7 American Welding Society, Welding Handbook, Volume 4, 1998.
4.8 Peterson High Speed Seam Welding, American Welding Society
Metal Welding Conference VI, 1994.
4.9 Appreciating high-frequency welding, Welding Journal, July 1996.
4.10 American Welding Society, Welding Handbook, 8th Edition, Volume 2.
4.11 Walduck, R., Enhanced Laser Beam Welding, U.S. Patent 5886870,
February 2, 1999.
4.12 Dykhno, I., et al, Combined Laser and Plasma Arc Welding Torch, U.S.
Patent 5700989, December 23, 1997.
4.13 Categorization and Properties of Low-Carbon Automotive Sheet
Steels, SAE J2329, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., 400
Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001.
4.14 Steel, High Strength, Hot Rolled Sheet and Strip, Cold Rolled Sheet
and Coated Sheet, SAE J1392, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.,
400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001.
4.15 Chemical Compositiions of SAE Carbon Steels, SAE J403, Society of
Automotive Engineers, Inc., 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale,
PA 15096-0001.
9-1
5.2 NHTSA New Car Approval Program, Frontal-crash Test, web site
NHTSA.gov/NCAP.
5.3 Crashworthiness Evaluation of Offset Barrier Crash Test Protocol,
(Versioin IX), May, 2002, Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, web
site carsafety.org
5.4 Schuster, Dr. Peter, “Current Trends in Bumper Design for Pedestrian
Impact”, December 31, 2004, www.autosteel.org
5.5 EuroNCAP (European New Car Assessment Program),
www.euroncap.com
5.6 European Union/Vehicle Associations Pedestrian Safety Agreement,
www.acea.be/ACEA/11072.001.pdf
6.2 High-Strength Steel (HSS) Stamping Design Manual, Auto/Steel
Partnership, 2000 Town Center, Suite 320, Southfield, MI 48075-1123.
6.4 SAE J2340, Categorization of Dent Resistant, High-Strength and
Ultra High-Strength Automotive Sheet Steel, Society of
Automotive Engineers, Inc., 400 Commonwealth Drive,
Warrendale, PA, 15096-0001.
6.5 Weld Quality Test Method Manual, Auto/Steel Partnership, 2000
6.6 ANSI/AWS/SAE Standard D8.9-97, Standard Recommended Practices
for Test Methods for Evaluating the Resistance Spot Welding Behavior
of Automotive Sheet Steel Materials, Society of Automotive
Engineers, Inc. 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA, 15096-
0001.
6.7 ANSI/AWS/SAE Standard D8.8-97, Specification for Automotive and
Light Truck Component Weld Quality - Arc Welding, Society of
Automotive Engineers, Inc. 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale,
PA, 15096-0001.
7.1 Tailor Welded Blank Design and Manufacturing Manual, Auto/Steel
Partnership, 2000 Town Center, Suite 320, Southfield, MI 48075-
1123.
7.2 Stuart F. Brown, Welding’s Big New Bag of Tricks, Fortune Magazine,
January 13, 1997
9-2
2000 Town Center, Suite 320
Southfield, Michigan 48075
1-877-STEELINDUSTRY
www.autosteel.org

Steel Bumper Systems

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Revision Number Three

American Iron and Steel Institute

This publication is for general information only. The information in it

First Edition, June 1998

1. Bumper systems and components

1.1.2 Metal facebar system

1.1.3 Plastic fascia and reinforcing beam system

1.1.4 Plastic fascia, reinforcing beam and energy absorption system

1.2.2 Energy absorbers

1.2.4 Reinforcing beam

2. Steel materials 2-1

2.8.2 Types of cold rolled sheet

2.8.3 Types of hot rolled sheet

2.9.2 Steel type

2.9.3 Hot rolled, cold reduced and metallic coated sheet

2.9.5 Conditions for hot rolled sheet

2.10.2 Types of coatings

2.10.3 Coating mass

2.10.4 Surface quality

2.10.5 Coated sheet thickness

2.10.6 Coating designations

2.11 SAE J403 Carbon steel chemical compositions 2-17

2.11.2 Boron sheet steel

2.12 SAE J405 Wrought stainless steels 2-18

3.1.4 Bending and straightening

3.1.5 Forming limits

3.2 Roll forming 3-5

3.5.2 Aluminum coating

3.5.4 Chromium coating

3.5.5 Conversion coating

3.5.6 Electrocoating (E-coating)

3.5.7 Paint coating

3.5.8 Autodeposition coating

3.5.9 Powder coating

5.8 Bumper design for pedestrian impact 5-42

5.8.2 EuroNCAP leg to bumper impacts with a “leg-form” impactor

5.8.3 Government regulations

5.8.4 Design approaches

5.8.4.1 Cushioning the impact

5.8.4.2 Supporting the lower limb

5.8.5 Design solutions

6. Relevant safety standards in North America and Europe 6-1

7. Steel versus aluminum and composite bumper beams 7-1

NORTH AMERICAN BUMPER SYSTEM MARKET SHARE

This publication brings together materials properties, product design

This publication was prepared by the Bumper Project Group of the

Willie Bernert, Chairperson

American Iron and Steel Institute

In the 1997 model year, almost 28 million bumper units were

Bumper systems have changed drastically over the last 20 to 30

Materials have also changed dramatically. With emphasis on

Business management practices have changed. In the past, the

Bumper systems, like all automotive components, are still subject to

The bumper market, at 300,000 tons per year of mainly high-

Source: CSM Corporation (Reference 1.1)

The purpose of this publication is to increase the reader’s

1.1 Bumper systems

As shown in Figure 1.1, there are four bumper systems in common

2. Plastic fascia and reinforcing beam

3. Plastic fascia, reinforcing beam and mechanical