Geographically, Latin America is a large area composed of many cultures and

peoples. It is also a complex society that has layers of differing theologies and forces at

work. One area that is influenced by these energies is in the use of contraceptives. This

paper will examine how theology and various movements impact contraceptive use in

Latin America. Observing the intersection of these various areas will help to understand

the culture, diversity and people of Latin America.

Latin America is mainly composed of countries that range from Mexico in North

America to the countries in South America. Latin refers to the fact that Spanish is the

dominant language of this area. Latin America was discovered and colonized by the

Conquistadors of Spain and Portugal. These men not only conquered the Americas

physically but with their language, culture and religion. The indigenous peoples of these

lands had their own language and culture. The Conquistadors perceived these religions as

devil worship. Spanish priests saw that their mission was to save the indigenous from

damnation. In pursuit of this noble goal, the indigenous peoples were forced to embrace

Roman Catholicism. The old ways and rituals were outlawed under pain of death.

However a metamorphosis occurred in this interaction of the old and new ways.

On the surface, the indigenous embraced Catholicism. But underneath this coercion, the

old ways were still observed. The old ways were combined with the new religion so that

it had the face of Catholic ways, but the spirit of the old religions. The Roman Catholic

priests combined Christian observances and rituals to coincide with native festivals.

Indigenous harvest festivals were performed in accordance to Spanish Roman Catholic

holy days and rituals. It has even been said that the worship of Our Lady of Guadalupe is

a remnant of the worship of the Aztec Goddess, Tonantzin (Carlsen 9).

 Over the centuries, Catholicism dominated the religious scene in Latin America.

Some Protestants groups were established in 1873(Carlsen 9), but against the dual

influences of Catholic religion and European political domination, they had a minimum

amount of authority.

For the large part, this has been the state of religious affairs until the late 1960’s

to 1970’s. At this time Protestants began to experience more growth (Carlsen 9)

Also at this time, traditional Catholicism began to change. With the advent of

Vatican II, many of the Catholic religious became more liberal in their thinking and

politics and began championing the rights of the poor and indigenous. This was the start

of Liberation Theology (Livingston 2).Catholic religious, priests, nuns and laity became

involved in the politics and movements to overthrow oppressive governments in the

hopes of giving more rights to their flocks. Rome grew alarmed at these movements,

mainly because the Liberation Theology movements were seen as extensions of Marxism

(Garrigues 2). The Pope appointed more conservative bishops who maintained a more

European Catholic conservative views. Rome effectively squashed Liberation theology

and maintained more conservative policies toward the theology and peoples of Latin

America(Garrigues 2)

However, global events have influenced these religious policies of the past.

Communism has lost its grip on the world and no longer seems as threatening as in the

past. The Catholic Church has lost much of its past political power. Fewer priests are

entering the priesthood. The world has become more global, more technological and in

some ways more democratic. One instance of democracy on the move is the growth of
Pentecostalism in Latin America In the past couple of decades Pentecostalism has

exploded on the Latin American religious scene (Carlsen 9).

All these faiths and beliefs make up a complex religious background for Latin

American life. How do these differing areas affect the attitudes toward and usage of

contraceptives? Various organizations have attempted to answer this question, especially

with the specter of HIV/AIDS hovering over society and sexuality. To start with, it would

be wise to look at how these differing theologies view sex and how they attempt to

regulate fertility and birth control.

The indigenous of Latin America are comprised of many ethnic groups with the

larger of these being the Aztecs of Mexico, the Maya of Central America, the Quechua

and Aymara of South America. They retain a worldview that they are intimately

connected with the world around them and they have a personal impact on the workings

of the universe. In addition to this personal view of the universe, the community is all

important to the indigenous society. Family and the extended family, combined with the

community is the center of indigenous spirituality (Carlsen, 1). The indigenous religions

viewed sex and fertility as important parts of their participation in the cosmos. Fertility

and children were equated with increased agricultural yields. Since these societies were

agriculturally based, children were vital to the indigenous ability to live and thrive. In

addition, some indigenous groups believe that a person is fated to have a certain number

of children and that by using contraceptives one is actually murdering a future child

(Terbourgh 144).

The arrival of Spanish Catholicism brought another layer of religious culture to

the regions. The present teaching of the Catholic Church regarding human dignity, the
family and procreation do not differ too greatly than that of the indigenous people. The

Church teaches that “In creating men ‘male and female,’ God gives man and woman

equal personal dignity” (U.S. Catholic Bishops 2331). “Sexuality affects all aspects of the

human person in the unity of his body and soul. It especially concerns affectivity, the

capacity to love and to procreate, and in a more general way, the aptitude for forming

bonds of communion with others” (U.S. Catholic Bishops 2332) Marriage and sex are

both unitive and procreative in the sense it brings together two individuals to become one

and have children. “Called to give life, spouses share in the creative power and

fatherhood of God” (U.S. Catholic Bishops 2367). Procreation should be within marriage

only because “the union of the man and woman in marriage is a way of imitating in the

flesh the Creator’s generosity and fecundity,” (U.S. Catholic Bishops 121). Today’s

Catholic teaching prohibits using artificial birth control because it violates the unitive and

procreative features of marriage and in doing so, violates human dignity. Using sex for

anything else but these actions thwarts God’s intention and mission for man. Exploiting

sex turns this sacred act into the mundane and also debases the participants.

As further definition to this prohibition, Pope Paul wrote;

“We must once again declare that the direct interruption of the generative process
already begun, and, above all, directly willed and procured abortion, even if for
therapeutic reason, are to be absolutely excluded as licit means of regulating birth.
Equally to be excluded, as the teaching authority of the Church as frequently declared, is
direct sterilization, whether perpetual or temporary, whether of the man or of the woman.
Similarly exclude is every action which, either in anticipation of the conjugal act, or in its
accomplishment, or in the development of it natural consequences, purposes, whether as
an end or as a means, to render procreation impossible” (Humane Vitae 14).

Catholic teaching differs from indigenous beliefs in that man’s procreative actions are

in imitation of Christ. Since the indigenous had not heard of Christ, this would not be a
part of their beliefs. The belief that both faiths have in common is man’s ability to

participate in the world through procreation and the importance of family and children to

the world and the family. It is easy to see how syncretism is at work in blending the

beliefs of the Catholic Church with those of the indigenous peoples in the panoply of

Latin American faith.

In the 1960s and 1970’s, Liberation Theology developed. However, it largely

ignored reproductive health issues in favor of land reform and rights for the native

peoples. They believed that “a true Christian should exercise ‘a preferential option for

the poor’” (Garrigues 1). Reproductive health and rights were shelved in favor of larger

issues. Due to discouragement from the Catholic Church, Liberation Theology became a

former shadow of itself. However in more recent years, Liberation Theology is

experiencing rebirth in altered forms. One form is that of Indigenous theology which

tries to incorporate power for the people with indigenous views. It is comprised of two

groups; one faction continuing their indigenous spirituality within the Catholic Church

and the other part rejecting Catholicism as a church forced upon them by European

conquerors in favor of solely native traditions (Garrigues 2). Nevertheless, contraceptive

issues have been put on the back burner in favor of working to free the poor and

oppressed.

In more recent years, both North and South America have experienced a rise of

Pentecostalism. Unlike their American cousins, Latin Americans have been traditionally

Catholic and fixed in their faiths. Whereas many Americans shift religious allegiances

regularly this has not been a part of Latin American religious life (Cleary 50).

Nonetheless, the past few decades have shown a change in this view toward altering
religions. This may be chalked up to Latin America becoming more open and diversified

(Cleary 50). Latin American Catholics are leaving their faith to become Pentecostals

(Carlsen 9). Pentecostalism may be defined as “an evangelical middle class church

enriched by speaking in tongues” (Hollenweger 125). They value Baptism with the Holy

Spirit, and its empowering authority (Hollenweger 130).However, they share many

common beliefs with Catholics such as free will, a pastor who is able to forgive sins, and

a view of the world that contains both the natural and the supernatural (Hollenweger

130). Like the Catholic Church, it has blended some aspects with indigenous spirituality

as in healing services and relationships with ancestors (Hollenger 131).

Feminism has become integral in the Pentecostal churches in that the women

prefer their men to become Pentecostals because it encourages hard work and morality

and discourages drinking, gambling and violence (Hollenweger 132). While not holding

any positions of power, women have become the power behind the throne, dictating who

will be the pastor, what he will say how social and educational programs are made.

Women are “the real shakers and movers in the church through prophecy, singing,

healing, liturgical and financial cooperation or lack of cooperation “(Hollenweger 132).

In view of this hidden feminist power, one might expect Pentecostal women to want to

improve their reproductive health and using more birth control. This is not the case. The

man is the head of the family and what he says, goes. Frequently, women need the

approval of the man to initiate artificial birth control. Often times they are discouraged

from contraceptive use with threats and violence (Feldman 1).

On the whole, Protestants vary in their beliefs toward birth control. Some believe

in no children and others believe as Catholics do, that all children are gifts from God. To
reject this gift through any type of contraception is to reject God. For the most part,

Pentecostals believe that contraception a personal choice made with the guidance of the

Holy Spirit (Wikipedia 5).

There have been many studies and articles dealing with the growth of

Pentecostalism and its impact on the population of Latin America. In order to determine

this influence, one needs to put into perspective the number of people who belong to the

various faiths. One study noted that 50 years ago, 90 percent of Latin Americans were

Catholic as opposed to 70 percent today (Clarke 27). It also has been estimated by the

Associated Press that the ratio of priests to Catholics in Latin America has fallen to 1

priest per 6,364 Catholics (Clarke 27). Fewer priests may lead parishioners to feel that

Rome and its policies are far from their daily troubles. This may lead them to seek out the

more personal message of Pentecostalism. However, are these conversions a one time

phenomena or a movement that has substance?

In 1993, 27.9 percent of Chileans claimed they were Protestants with 25.4

percent Pentecostal/charismatic. In the national census of 2002, these figures changed to

show only 16 percent were Pentecostals. Brazil and Guatemala are frequently cited as the

countries with the most Protestants as part of their populations. In 1993, 21.6 percent of

Brazilians were Protestant; in 2000 a census charted this figure as 15.4 percent (Cleary

52). Guatemala has shown that there has been no growth in the past 10 years (Cleary 52).

It may be that retention has become a problem for the Pentecostalists. In Mexico,

studies have shown that 43 percent of those raised Protestant have left the faith and 68

percent baptized in the 1980’s had left by the 1990’s (Cleary 52). It seems that many

Latin Americans are shifting faiths, going from Catholicism, to Pentecostalism to spirits
and indigenous faiths. In a survey of Mexican people, 43 percent of second generation

Pentecostals no longer had a religious affiliation at all. This percentage was perceived in

studies done in Guatemala, Costa Rica and Chile. The phenomenon of no religious

affiliation is common to the United States but uncommon to Latin America. (Cleary 53).

It appears that in Latin America, the face of faith may be changing. How these changes

impact contraception use may highlight the actual forces at work in Latin America

society.

A survey published in 2003 tried to discern Catholic attitudes toward birth

control. The survey questioned 1500 Bolivians, 1523 Columbians and 2,328 Mexicans

age 18 and older. From this sample, 91 percent of Columbians ,91 percent of Mexicans

and 79 percent of Bolivians believed that adults should have access to contraception

(Belden Russonell & Stewart 1). 84 percent of Mexicans, 81 percent of Bolivians and 87

percent of Columbians believed that it is possible for a person to use artificial birth

control and still be a good Catholic (Belden Russonell & Stewart 1). It should be noted

that this survey was sponsored by a pro contraceptive group, Catholics for a Free Choice

and its Latin American arm, Católico por el Derecho a Decidir en Bolivia, Colombia and

México.

Reuters highlighted some of these findings by saying that “the Catholic Church

has a lot of influence in Latin America, but voters are ‘plagued by economic worries’ are

ignoring church teachings on abortion, contraception and premarital sex and choosing to

elect ‘left leaning’ candidates whom they believe will help deal with poverty related

issues in the area” (Reuters 1). In explanation, Javier Restrepo who conducted the

surveys in Columbia said that the attitude of many of the Catholics interviewed was that
“’they tell us that they have a lot of practices that diverge from the church’s position.

Colombians are aware of contraception and the risk of HIV and about sexuality in young

persons, but most Catholics in Colombia are saying: ‘I believe in God but I live on the

earth and the church’s ideas are for heaven. We need contraception methods and ways to

prevent HIV/AIDS. You have to do what you think is the right thing and it is not

necessary to follow the ideas of the church’” (Catholics for a Free Choice 1).

It appears that Latin Americans in other countries agree with these sentiments.

In a survey of 2,176 Brazilians, 88 percent said they “’don’t follow church teachings on

birth control and abortion’” (Brooke 1). “’Brazil is also part of the modern world,’ said

Roberto de Matta, a Brazilian anthropologist. ‘Catholicism in Brazil was always based on

a dualism. Brazilian Catholics have no problems about going to Mass and then taking the

pill’” (Brooke 1). The same poll showed that Brazil is 75 percent urban and 80 percent

more literate.(Brooke 2). It also said that 2/3 of married women practiced some birth

control with 43 percent using oral contraceptives and 42 percent sterilized

(Brooke2).Many of the faithful are moving away for the Vatican’s teachings regarding

birth control (Kristof 1). “’I resent them,’ said Alessandra Katiane da Silva a 21 year-old

who goes to Mass and was wearing a necklace with images of Jesus and the Virgin Mary.

She said that she could better judge her contraceptive needs than elderly cardinals, then

added, ‘we have to take care of ourselves, because they’re not looking out for us.’”

(Krisof 1).

Yet it seems that local Latin American parishes are looking after their

parishioners and ignoring Church teachings about birth control. “’ There is the hierarchy

of the church, and then there’s the church that really functions at the local level. If the
church doesn’t have the courage to take these issues up and listen to science and the

world, then there’ll be a disaster,’ said the Rev. Valeriano Paitoni, a priest widely

admired in Sao Paolo of running first-rate shelters for AIDS orphans” (Kristof 2).

It appears in spite of opposition from the Catholic Church, Latin Americans seem

to still use artificial birth control. Additionally it appears that Latin American

governments have also persevered with family planning policies and programs (Rand

210). As an example of the success of these programs, Mexico has recorded a reduction

in average family sized from 7 to 3.5 and population rate decreasing from 3.5 to 1.88

over a 25 year span (Rand 223).

The Guatemalan government experienced different results at the hands of the

Catholic Church. The Church successfully blocked many laws pertaining to birth control

or reproductive health programs. Half of Guatemala’s population is Catholic Mayans, an

ethnicity which values fertility and procreation . The women of this group defied not only

Church teaching but their native traditions to pragmatically partake of family planning

programs and contraception to better their families and their lives (Rand 223).

Lastly, three forces in Haiti, not enough funding for government family planning

programs, a conservative political elite and a traditional culture have all impacted

women’s use of contraceptives (Rand 224). Haiti depends of foreign aid to subsidize

these programs because it is a poor country. In 2002, the Inter-American Development

Bank stopped 200 million in financial aid from coming to Haiti. The Bush administration

told Haitian ministers that it would not use its influence to acquire this money (Rand

224). In 1977 only 1 percent of women used a contraceptive and of this group, “43

percent of the married women said that they did not want more children”(Rand 224). This
study went on to show that although Church influence was at times a barrier to family

planning and contraceptive policies, the major influence was the neo-liberal economic

policies.(Rand 224).

Neo-liberalism encourages democracy in favor of a liberal marketplace, civil

rights and free trade (Rand 214). Mexican Jesuits criticized this outlook by saying

“The market, for example, which used to be a useful and even necessary instrument to
improve and increase supply and reduce prices, has become the means, the method, and
the goal that govern relationships among human beings’”(Rand 214).

Another force that has impacted Latin American life is globalization. The world

has become a smaller place thanks to technology. It is easier to communicate and travel .

People are no longer as isolated as in the past and are able to connect with each other

thanks to satellites, cell phones and computers. Globally, people use this technology to

travel. Migration from the country to the city and the underdeveloped to the developed

countries is common. In search of a better life, people are on the move. In the city and in

the more developed countries, the poor have more opportunities, including education.

(Romero 483).

This globalization affects contraceptive use and the modernization of Latin

American countries. With knowledge and education gained from technology and

globalization, many Latin American women have chosen to use contraceptives in order to

improve their lives. Studies have shown that education has an effect on fertility. Poorly

educated women tend to have six to seven children whereas better educated women have

family sizes analogous to those in the developed world, form two to three children

(Martin 7). This study also showed that better educated women tend to have higher

incomes, reside in urban areas and have a higher standard of living (Martin 8).
In regard to religion and globalization, Nancy Ammerman wrote;

“The meaning and effects of choice vary depending on the cultural situation in which
they are lodged-the degree of monopoly that has characterized the past, as well as the
present, and the degree to which the culture supports diversity and participation as twin
goods. Also critical are the interplay of population groups and the particular institutions
to be chosen” (Romero 487).

This statement by Ms. Ammerman highlights the dilemma in trying to understand

this issue. Latin America is a complex land with multiple forces at work. Artificial birth

control is not a black and white issue based on numbers and scientific studies alone. It is

based on a people who make choices to the best of their abilities while buffeted by

conflicting forces. The Latin American people dwell at the intersection of these energies

which may be the eye of the storm or either an eternal calm. It is difficult to say.

Nonetheless, examining the religious energies and other forces will enable one to not

only have a clearer view of how contraceptive usage is influenced but an insight into

Latin America. In this way, one can cobble together an understanding of Latin American

politics and its peoples.