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Vol.
II Issue-XII December 2012
Asian Journal of Research in Social Sciences & Humanities
ISSN 2250-1665
IMPACT OF URBANISATION ON LAND USE

CHANGE USING REMOTE SENSING AND GIS:
A CASE STUDY IN PATHSALA TOWN, BARPETA
DISTRICT,ASSAM,INDIA.
Swarup Jyoti Baishya
*Research Scholar, Department of Geography, Gauhati University, Ghy-14
ABSTRACT
Urbanisation is increasing in almost all countries, especially in third world countries. This could be due to migration, natural
increase and inclusion of new areas under the class Urban. With the high pace of social and economic development in Asia
and the resulting growth of city and town population, lack of infrastructure, congested traffic, environmental degradation and
a housing shortage became the major issues faced by cities and towns in their sustainable development. The study therefore
sought to investigate the effects of urbanisation on changing patterns of land use in Pathsala Town of Assam. The Pattern of
land use for different purposes in any area influences the local and anticipated future economy. The relationship between
changing urbanization and land use pattern is communicated by a number of socio-economic, cultural, political, industrial and
other aspects. An effort towards better education, health & nutrition as well as better scientific and technological education
will be a solid contribution to the appropriate use of land in a particular area. In the absence of the above said effort there
will be a threat to sustainability. During the last few decades, there is automatically a reduction in productive agricultural land
in the study area. The study area has become a complete built up area with few reserves or vacant land for future
development. SOI topographical maps, secondary data, field data, GIS and field observations will be used to carry out this
study.
Key Words: Urbanisation, Land use, Anticipated Future Economy, Demographic Structure, SOI Toposheets, GIS.
1. INTRODUCTION:
Urbanization refers to the process of becoming urban or
in other words urbanization is a cyclical process through
which the nation passes as they evolve from agrarian to
industrial societies. It is a spatial concomitant phenomenon
involving population concentration, structural transformation
and socio-psychological change affecting both people and
place. Urbanization has been the dominant demographic
trend, not only in the Asia, but also in the entire world. It is
progressive concentration (Davis, 1965) of population in
urban unit. Quantification of urbanization is very difficult. It is
a long term process.
Kingsley Davis has explained
urbanization as process (Davis, 1962) of switch from spread
out pattern of human settlements to one of concentration in
urban centers. It is a finite process--- a cycle through which a
nation pass as they evolve from agrarian to industrial society
(Davis and Golden, 1954. Assam is one of those states of
India, which is traditionally rural in character with agriculture
and allied activities being the primary occupation of its
population. Assam is one of the least urbanised states of the
country. While the share of urban population to total
population of Assam in 1951 was only 4.29%, it increased to
12.90% in 2001, which is still lower than the national average
of 27.78%. According to the Census 2011 Assam,

(Provisional) the decadal (2001-10) growth of urbanization at
27.61 percent is slower than the previous decade, even
though the share of the urban population increased from
12.90 percent to 14.08 percent as compared to 31.16 percent
in 2011.Another striking feature is the wide inequalities
observed in urbanization in terms of share of urban
population in the district of Assam.The relationship between
changing urbanization and land use pattern is communicated
by a number of socio-economic, cultural, political, industrial
and other aspects. An effort towards better education, health
& nutrition as well as better scientific and technological
education will be a solid contribution to the appropriate use
of land in a particular area. Land use changes are a dynamic,
widespread and accelerating process, mainly driven by
natural and anthropogenic factors, which in turn drives
changes that world impact natural ecosystem. The pressure
of population in Pathsala town, expressed both in terms of
absolute number of additional people every year, their
distributional pattern and the decadal growth rate of
population have resulted in several constraints in the
development process and have also resulted in unsustainable
exploitation of the existing resource base.
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ISSN 2250-1665
2. OBJECTIVES:
during the afternoons. Spring and autumn are usually
pleasant with moderate rainfall and temperature.
i) To analysis population change of the Pathsala town.
ii) To examine the land use pattern of the study area in
4.2: Settlement Structures:
different periods.
The sleepy town of once is now an awake, active and
iii) To study the socio-economic problems faced by the
restless town. In east direction the prestigious educational
study area due to urbanization.
institution Bajali College, in the south Satish Sarma Memorial
Hospital, in the west Sri Sri Hari Mandir and in the north the
3. METHODOLOGY:
Pathsala bus stand forms a star like pattern. Settlements are
Data and Maps :-The study on the dynamic phenomena
seen along the road sides. Haphazard and compact
such as Urbanisation, land use change and population growth
settlements are seen in the ward no.1 and ward no.2.The
pattern is based on the secondary data. Data for the purpose
increases in the amount of concrete and asphalt surface
of spatio-temporal behavior of urbanization, growth trend of
results in the decrease of natural vegetation. Increases in the
urban population and their resource potentiality have been
number of educational institution and migrated population
collected mainly through census publications, i.e. District
from surrounding villages and other areas changes in the
census Handbooks, Census of India Report, Assam Statistical
socio-economic characteristics of the towns population.
Hand book, Several statistical publications of the government,
Slums are also seen near the railway stations, marked by
Maps and Satellitte Imagery from town committee office and
deteriorating living conditions and environmental problems.
ARSAC, Guwahati., Report of Directorate of Statistics and
published articles and journals from government and other
organizations have also taken into consideration. Softwares
like ERDAS (Leica) and ArcGIS software (ESRI) have been
used to generate various thematic layers like boundary map,
roads, rivers, settlements and administrative boundary map
using the toposheets and other available maps. Land use
map have been prepared using different layers. Population
growth of the study area has been evaluated using the
demographic data of different decades, i.e.1971, 1991 and
2001 from Census of India. The trend of the population
change of the study area is obtained by plotting the data in
the suitable graph.
Fig.1: Location map of the study area
4. OVERVIEW OF PATHSALA TOWN
4.1: Physical Background:
The Pathsala Town is situated in the Barpeta District of
Assam. Pathsala Town lies at 26o2944N latitude to
91o945E longitude. The town covers an area of 3km2
according to 1991 census. The Pathsala town is divided into
four wards. The town is bordered by National Highway No-31
in the North and by N.F.Railway, rail line in the south. The
town is about 103km from Guwahati City and 37km from
Barpeta Town. It is a interstream area between Kaldiya river
in the east and Pahumara river in the west. The main
drainage in the town is Bishannalla. The town is floodplain for
both the Kaldiya and Pahumara river. The average
temperature is about 38oc in summer and 8oc in winter with
humidity of about 93%.The climate is characterized by heavy
monsoon downpours reducing summer temperatures and
affecting
foggy
nights
and
mornings
in
winters. Thunderstorms known as Bordoicila are frequent
4.3: Demographic Aspects:

In terms of area the pathsala town is over populated. In
1971 the population is about 5021. In 1991 the population
increases to 7171. About 2.26% of population of Bajali SubDivision lives in Pathsala. In Ward no.1-2185(HH-380), Ward
no.2-1421(HH-281), Ward no.3-1666 (HH-288)and in Ward
no. 4- 1901(HH-356). Sex ratio is about 830females per
1000males. . As of 2001 India census, Pathsala had a
population of 9974 persons.In Ward no.1-3237(HH-661),
Ward no.2-1642(HH-396), Ward no.3-2397 (HH-521) and in
Ward no. 4- 2698(HH-606). In 2001 sex ratio is about 950
females per 1000 males. As in 1991 census 6779 (94.16%)%
of the population are Hindu, 387(5.38%) are Muslim,
5(0.07%) are Christian, 13(0.18%) are Jains, 5(0.07%) are
Sikhs, and with the remainder belonging to other religions.
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ISSN 2250-1665
tertiary occupation. In 2001, the population engaged in
primary activities is about 11.18%, 25.1% engaged in
secondary activities, 63.72% engaged in tertiary activities.
Mobile Theatre: Pathsala is the heritage of theatre in
Assam. The mobile theatre groups of Assam have carved a
special niche as the mass entertainers in Northeast India.
These groups, popularly known as Bhramyaman Theatre
arrange shows throughout the Assam and some of its
neighbouring states. The groups, having some similarities
with the Yatra team of Bengal start a new session from
June/July every year. Normally, they start showing their plays
from the month August/September and conclude a session in
March/April. Every group has its own set of artists and
technicians with stages, pandal, other electric and sound
equipment, which it carries to the remotest parts of the
trouble torn region.In Pathsala, there are mainly two
prominent Bhramyaman groups, Namely The Kohinoor
Theatre and The Abahan Theatre.
5. POPULATION CHANGE OF PATHSALA TOWN:
Population change or population growth is used to imply the
change in the number of inhabitants of a region during a
specific period of time, irrespective of the fact whether
change is negative or positive. Such a change can be
measured in terms of absolute numbers and in terms of
percentage. The three basic components of population
change are fertility, mortality and migration. Growth of
human numbers and human activity in the Pathsala town has
resulted in large scale ecological degradation. Improper use
of surrounding agricultural land and environmental pollution
due to air, water and land pollution. According to 2001
census , the density of population is about 2801 persons/sq
km. A ward wise distribution of population density had
revealed that the density is highest in ward No.1 and 3.The
town facing the problems of over population due to increase
of educational institution, migrant labourers, job holders in
different sectors and also the businessman and rural folk. The
table shows the increase of population in different decades in
the Pathsala town.
Fig2: Map of Pathsala Town
4.4: Socio-Economic Functions of Town:

Administrative: The town of Pathsala is a urban place
under Bajali Circle of Barpeta district of Assam.
Literacy: As per 2001 census Pathsala has an average
literacy rate of 68%, higher than the national average of
59.5%: male literacy is 72%, and female literacy is
61%.Pathsala is also known as the Hub of Education in
Assam,as it produces almost all the toppers in every branch.
At present in Pathsala there is about 13 schools (both govt.
and private), 04 junior college and 02 colleges. From these
two colleges one of the college (Bajali College) will be very
soon given the affiliation of Rural University, so that students
from the rural areas get higher education. In recent days also
in Bajali College Assamese, Geography and Zoology
department run their P.G. classes fulfill the needs of students
(students from rural areas and also the students from North
Bengal)
Occupational Structure: In 1991, the population
engaged in primary activities is about 22.30%, 17.11 %
engaged in secondary activities and rest 59.13% engaged in
TABLE 1: DECADAL POPULATION GROWTH IN

DIFFERENT PERIODS
Source: Census of India Report, 1971,1991, 2001
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6. LAND USE CHANGE OF THE PATHSALA AREA:
FIG.3: GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF CLASSES IN
Land use relates to human activity or economic function
DIFFERENT PERIODS
associated with specific piece of land and land cover refers to
the extent and of the features present on the earth surface
(Lilles and et.al, 2007. The land use pattern of the study area
is characterized by so many physical and cultural features.
TABLE3: LAND USE PATTERN OF PATHSALA TOWN IN
DIFFERENT PERIODS
FIG.4: MAPS SHOWING LAND USE CLASSES OF

PATHSALA TOWN IN DIFFERENT PERIODS
Source: Based on topographical sheets and Satellite Imagery
The land use pattern of the Pathsala town area is

analyzed with the help of the available Toposheets and
Satellite Imageries of that area and the present observation
of the study area. Based on the analysis of toposheets and
satellite imageries of the study area, the land use can be
categorized into agriculture, settlement, market place, open
space and others. Rapid growth of urbanization in the study
area has totally changed the land use pattern of the area.
From different graphs and maps it is clear that agricultural
land is decreases from 2.04 km square in 1971 to 1.61km
square in 2008. Due to urbanization settlement increases to
1.8 km square in 2008 which is 1.12 km square in 1971.In
terms of open space it increases in 2008 due to conversion of
agricultural land for different entertainment purposes like
playground etc. In other class construction of National
Highway and other developmental activities severely affected
the agricultural land. There is no change or slight variation in
the market place.
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The general problems which
are the by product
of
urbanization in the Pathsala town are:
Shortage of Houses: The problem that perhaps

causes the most concern to a majority of urban dwellers is
that of finding an appropriate place to live in. Due to rapid
population growth in the study area the problem arises in the
study area.
Critical Inadequacies in Public Utilities: Massive

problem have emerged in the area due to rapid growth of
urban population without corresponding increase in urban
infrastructure like safe drinking water, preventive health
services, sanitation facility, adequate power supply and
provisioning of basic amenities. Poor infrastructure,
7. CAUSES OF URBANISATION IN THE PATHSALA
congested roads,improper treatment of sewage, uncollected
TOWN:
solid waste are the general feature of the area.
Pathsala is a small town in Assam, but because of its
Environmental Problems: In the study area the rapid

locational significance it spread tremendously.The major
growth in urban population, put pressure on the
factors of population change and land use change in the
environment.
Declining
of
agricultural
land,
study area are as follows:
wetlands,atmospheric
pollution,
severely
inadequate
Due to proper road and rail communication in the area

sanitation facilities and enormous quantities of solid and
migrant labourers, daily wage earners like barbers, goldsmith,
liquid waste disposal in the rivers are major problem in the
carpenters, shoe makers easily settled in the town from
study area.
nearby states and countries for their livelihood.
Slums Proliferation: Rapid urbanizations with lack of
The Pathsala town is surrounded by rural areas and rural

adequate
housing led to proliferation of slums across railway
folk were easily attracted by the urban facilities so the
line near railway station.
population density increases rapidly in the study area.
Social and economic inequalities: The urbanization
The Pathsala is also known as the Hub of Education in

in
the
study area degenerates social and economic
Assam, as it produces almost all the toppers in every branch.
inequalities
which warrants in social conflicts, crimes and
So concentration of educational institution and hostels were
social activities.
more in the ward no.-1.Students from other parts of the state
and also from west Bengal settled here for education

purposes.
The Pathsala is also known as a Gateway to the Bhutan

as it is well connected by the road. So, it is a important
market centre for the people of Bhutan and also for the
surrounding rural areas.
Due to urbanization different banks, firms, company,

institute grows up in the study area results in increase of job
holders in the study area.
The raw materials from the surrounding villages like

bamboo,suphari were easily transported to nearby states
which results in concentration of migrant labourer in the
study area.
Pathsala is the heritage of theatre in Assam. The mobile

theatre groups of Assam have carved a special niche as the
mass entertainers in Northeast India. So concentration of
artist in the study area is a common phenomena
9. CONCLUSION:
From the precise study of Pathsala Town it is revealed
that the rate of urbanization is rapid in the study area, due to
lack of proper planning strategy which also change the land
use pattern of the area. Various socio-economic and
environmental problems are seen in the area. Rapid rise of
high rise buildings, poor drainage facilities, poor road
conditions highly affected the town. Management system to
sustain urban amenities and administration highly affected by
the political conspiracy. Due to large migration of population
to the study area the threat to the environment becomes
inevitable and it not only leads to environmental degradation
but also the increasing vulnerability to infectious disease and
congestion.
Policy related to proper urban planning should be operated in
the study area. The main policies are:
Balanced urban planning in the study area
Development of strong economic base for urban

economy
8. CONSEQUENCES OF UNBALANCED URBANIZATION

IN THE STUDY AREA:
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Emphasis on agro-based industry. Raw material should

be processed in rural economy and then transferred to urban
economy which lessened the migration of rural folk in the
area.
Slum areas should be properly managed by the

concerned authorities, by verifying their identity.
Checked and control on mushrooming growth of

educational institute in the area.
People of the town must be aware of the environmental

problems created due to urbanization. Proper awareness
programmes ahould be organized in schools and colleges by
the authorities to aware the students as well as other
peoples.
Besides all these problems this small town is ideal place in
comparison to other urban places of the state. Proper
management system and planning make this urban place a
planned urban place. The rural environment from the
surrounding villages, agricultural fields, different culture make
this place the only one place to be loved after all.
References:
Asamoah, B, 14-Jul-2010, Urbanisation and changing

patterns of urban land use in Ghana: policy and planning
implications for residential land use in Kumasi.
Census of India Report, 1971
Census of India, 1991,(http://www.censusindia.net)
Census of India, 2001, (http://www.censusindia.net)
Chandna.R.C. (2001), Geography of Population, Kalyani

Publishers.
Datta,P.June,2006 ,Urbanisation in India , Popultion

studies unit, Indian Statistical Institute,Kolkata.
Manta,M, Borah,J and Borah,J, Urbanisation and Growth

of small Towns in Assam,India
Meyer, W.B. and M.G. Turner (1994), Changes in land

use and land cover: a global perspective Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press.
Prashant K. Srivastava, Saumitra Mukherjee, Manika

Gupta, Impact of Urbanization on Land Use/Land Cover
Change Using Remote Sensing and GIS: A Case Study
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ROHINGYA REFUGEE PARADOX:

CASTING AN INNER EYE
Emdadul Haque*
*Senior Lecturer,Department of Law and Justice,Southeast University, Dhaka
ABSTRACT
The persecution and sufferings of the Rohingya people are unabated demanding more humanitarian deals. Living with basic
human rights and dignity is a farce to them as they are struggling for survival and fighting the threat for existence. As a
consequence of deliberate persecution, cruelty and degrading treatment in Myanmar they are forced to leave the country for
many times seeking refuge in neighbouring countries especially in Bangladesh. In response to humanitarian appeal,
Bangladesh has been generous enough in couple of times to extend help but recently decided not to allow further entry of
them. The Rohingya living in Bangladesh are also in multi dimensional discrepancies and has been leading a restricted life in
captivity. Both states are with dilapidated economy and loaded with the curse of poverty and practically unable to resolve the
Rohingya crisis. The policies for patronizing the Rohingya in both states are frustratingly divorced from objective human
rights standard including basic human security. The specialized UN organization like UNHCR in association with different
human rights organizations are working for the welfare as well as for a holistic solution of Rohingya issue. However, both
states should stay away from their unbending mindset and strict position extending cooperation for its peaceful end. This
paper aims at portraying the scenario of Rohingya, their concerns, agonies and suggesting possible way outs paving the way
for a durable solution for the deplorable community who are seemingly born to suffer.
Key Words: Rohingya refugees, ethnic minority, persecution, legal obligation and durable solution.
1. INTRODUCTION:
The
historical
exclusion
and
contemporary
marginalization of Rohingya, an ethnic Muslim minority group
is an age old dichotomy (Ullah, 2011). The Rohingya asylum
seekers and refugees living in Bangladesh under
humanitarian grounds coupled with generosity and
humanistic magnanimity of the country are in double
jeopardy (Haque, 2012). The wrath of both Myanmar and
Bangladesh forced them living in the line of paradox. They
are one of the most vulnerable and down-trodden groups in
the world as they are relentlessly subjected to flagrant
human rights violations for decades (Hossain, 2012).
Myanmar forced them to leave the country through a series
of heinous persecution, maltreatment and discrimination
branding their ancestors as Bangladeshi economic immigrants
while Bangladeshi successive governments have refuted the
allegation recognizing them as Burmese (people from
Myanmar). The tussle of words between these two South
Asian states is worsening the situation for refugees resulting
dual setback. Bangladesh has allowed the entry of the
Rohingya into the country twice but refused their recent
effort for valued reasons including security concerns and
demographic burden. In comparison to Myanmar, Bangladesh
is always far more respectful towards international law, its
principles and policies, as per its compassionate attitude and
constitutional pledge. It is now hosting around 500,000
documented and undocumented Rohingya refugees and is

embittered of the adverse economic, social and
environmental consequences now and in the near future. But
the outflow of Rohingya people is the aftermath of state
patronized persecution of Myanmar and the burden is on
Bangladesh (Malik , 1998). There is no dearth of studies or
materials on refugees whereas the Rohingya have so far
received very little attention. This write-up strives to drill the
Rohingya refugee crisis in both the countries and attempts to
make some recommendations to ameliorate the situation for
the vulnerable community paving the way for finding out
justifiable, holistic and sustainable solution to this burgeoning
issue.
2. HISTORY OF ROHINGYA REFUGEES
2.1 Evolution of the Term Rohingya
The Rohingya are Muslim minority community living in
the Northern Rakhine state (formerly Arakan) in Western
Myanmar. However, there are controversies regarding the
origin of the Rohingya Muslim community and the term
Rohingya itself. The haggling of the historians has added
their sufferings like insult to injury. Some Rohingya historians
claim that the term Rohingya is evolved from the Arabic word
Rahma meaning mercy. They traced the term back to an
Arab shipwreck near Ramree in the 8th century when the Arab
traders were ordered to be executed by the Araknese king.
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During execution, they shouted 'Rahma' and treated as
fled into Bangladesh in 1784, 1942, 1978, 1991-192 and
Raham. Over the times, it changed from Raham to Rhohang
2012. They flowed from Myanmar to Bangladesh for the
and finally to Rohingya (Chowdhury, 1995). But some
ethnic and religious conflicts over the centuries (HRW, 2000).
historians argue that shipwreck Muslims are currently called
The first wave of Rohingya refugees fleeing from Arakan to
'Thambu Kya' Muslims, and now live along the Arakan sea
the area of Coxs Bazar occurred in 1784 when the Burmese
shore as the descendants Ruha in Afghanistan. Historian, MA
King Bodawpaya invaded and annexed Arakan to the then
Chowdhury argued that among the Muslim populations in
Kingdom of Ava in central Myanmar (Ahmed, 2010). The two
Myanmar, the term 'Mrohaung' (Old Arakanese Kingdom) was
major influxes of Rohingya people took place in Bangladesh
corrupted to Rohang and thus inhabitants of the region are
in 1978 and during 1991-92 to escape the systematic
called Rohingya (Chan, 2005). Professor Kei Nemote, a noted
genocidal, ethnic cleaning and onslaught. Amid scores of its
Japanese historian agreed with the Rohingya historians that
own discrepancies Bangladesh has been generous enough to
the Rohingya lived in Rakhine since the 8th century. Historian
host around 400,000-500,000 Rohingya refugees for more
Aye Chan confirmed the Muslim settlements existed since the
than three decades. Among them only around 30,000 are
arrival of Arabs there in the 8th century noting that the term
officially registered in two official refugee camps in the
Rohingya was not as old as the Muslim settlement in Arakan
southern part of Coxs Bazar while the rest of them are
and the term Rohingya was created by descendents of
undocumented and scattered in Coxs Bazar and Bandarban.
Bengalis in 1950s after their migration into Arakan during the
The recent attempt of Rohingya boat people fleeing sectarian
colonial era (Saw, 1993). Contrarily, Burmese historians like
violence to enter into Coxs Bazar was prevented by the
Khin Maung Saw have claimed that the term Rohingya was
government providing them emergency reliefs like food,
unknown before the 1950s. Another historian, Dr Maung
water, and medicine ruling out appeals from international
Maung, notes that the word Rohingya is not used in the 1824
communities. However, there are 800,000 Rohingyas living In
census, conducted by the British colonial regime (Moe, 2012).
Myanmar, 200,000 in Pakistan, 100,000 in Thailand and
However, he accepts that there may have been Muslim
24,000 in Malaysia and the thousands are living around the
communities in Arakan before 1824. Arakan history expert Dr.
world especially in Muslim countries as migrants and nomads
Jacques P. Leider points out that the term Rooinga was in
lacking human security and rudimental protection (Helton,
fact used in the late 18th century report published by the
2000).
British Francis Buchanan-Hamilton (Leider, 2012). In his 1799
article A Comparative Vocabulary of Some of the Languages
3. LEGAL OBLIGATION OF BANGLADESH
Spoken in the Burma Empire, he stated that among the
This part focuses on the obligation of refugee protection
three dialects spoken in the Burma Empire, evidently derived
under national law and international law. Bangladesh, a
from the Hindu Nation. Among three dialects one was spoken
darling child of the nature is always respectful towards
by the Mohammedans, who have settled in Arakan, and who
international law, norms and practices keeping with its
call themselves Rooinga, or natives of Arakan.
constitutional mandate of cooperation of international peace,
2.2 The Plight of Rohingya Refugees
security and solidarity. In fact, the poverty stricken and
According to UN report, the Rohingya are the most
natural disaster prone country is devoid of having any special
persecuted and abused minorities in the earth only owing to
law for asylum seekers and refugees but few constitutional
their ethnicity and religious ground (UN, 2012). These people
provisions bestowing legal obligations upon its shoulder. Para
were forced out by state-sponsored persecution and threat of
III of the Preamble pledges to uphold rule of law,
being persecuted by the rulers of Myanmar. Like the
fundamental human rights, freedom, equality and justice for
Rohingya other minority ethnic groups including Karen,
all. Article 11 echoed the state respect of fundamental human
Karenni, Kachin, Shan, Mon, and Chin are also the victims of
rights, freedoms and dignity of all human being. The pledge
systematic ethnic, political, and religious persecution of the
of the Preamble along with Article 11 is not obligatory to the
military regimes of the country for centuries. The Rohingya
state because these constitutional provisions are not directly
community constitutes some 3.5 million people both at home
enforceable as per Article 8(2) of the Constitution. A bundle
and abroad and out of it, about 1.5 million have been
of rights including right of protection of law, right to life and
uprooted from their motherland and those displaced
personal liberty, safeguard as to arrest and detention is
Rohingya people are leading a gypsy life in different countries
guaranteed to be protected by the Constitution (Bangladesh
of the world mostly in Bangladesh, Pakistan, Thailand,
Constitution, 1972). As like other countries in South Asia
Malaysia, Middle East and other countries in the world.
(Except Afghanistan) the country is not a party to the 1951
Because of intolerable persecution, thousands of Rohingya
Convention and its 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of
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Refugees. So, in strict sense, the country is not legally
refugees. The Rohingya refugees and undocumented
obliged to hosting of any refugee tacitly or explicitly. Even the
nationals are posing a serious threat to the security, stability
demographic vulnerability and socio-economic condition of
and image of the country through their involvement in
the country do not suggest taking over extra responsibility
serious crimes including drug and human trafficking,
but the principle of non refoulement as a part of customary
smuggling, robbery and other organized crimes. These illegal
international law reminds us to stay beside those persecuted
Myanmar nationals are obtaining Bangladeshi passports to go
or believed to have well founded fear of persecution.
to Saudi Arabia and other states in the Middle East through
Although Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is
fraudulent means, falsification of national ID cards and birth
not legally enforceable, it is a soft law entailing moral
certificates which are causing huge embarrassment for the
obligation for all states for recognizing, promoting and
Bangladesh community living in those states (Islam, 2012).
protecting life, liberty, equality and dignity of all people
So, owing to fraudulent and illegal activities of the Rohingya
irrespective of race, colour, creed and religion. Showing
people, Bangladesh may lose its labour market in the Middle
respect to Article 14 of the UDHR, Bangladesh has extended
Eastern countries where more than 75% of the total migrant
its cooperative hand as a de facto host country of Rohingya
workers are working with dignity. Notably, the inflow of
refugees. The country being a key member of UN Human
remittances in the 2011-12 financial year reached a record
Rights Commission has so far ratified eight out of nine core
high of about $ 13 Billion witnessing a 10% growth in the
international human rights documents including ICCPR,
flow of remittance from the last fiscal year.
ICESCR, UNCRC, CEDAW and CAT except the UN Convention
Moreover, the Rohingya people living in Coxs Bazar and
on the Rights of Persons on Enforced Disappearance. These
other areas offer services at a much lowered level than the
human rights instruments do not bind the country to take
local population and such practices are upsetting the job
direct responsibility of such refugees because, the Supreme
market in the region. About 90% of the low skilled labourers
Court of the country in the case of HM Ershad v. Bangladesh
and staff employed in local hotels, motels, ports and small
and Others, 7 BLC (AD) 67 held that any international treaty
business are all of Rohingya origin. They also work as
or document after signing or ratification is not directly
rickshaw pullers and day labourers. As a result, Bangladeshi
enforceable unless and until the parliament enacts similar
workers are losing their jobs. They are adding extra pressure
statute, however, how sweet the document is. But the
on the existing crisis of the land and forests in the Bandarban
country should not deny the right to protection of the
and Coxs Bazar areas. Bangladesh has lost considerable area
Rohingya refugees as per the inner commitment of being
of reserve forest for providing land to the refugees for
party to these human rights Conventions. As a member of the
construction of their shelter. The Rohingya are cutting off
UNHCRs Executive Committee since 1995, it is already under
valuable trees and destroying woods in the reserve forests in
obligation to extend protection to asylum seekers and refuges
the Bandarban and Coxs Bazar areas causing serious harm to
in the country. It is also bound as a member of the UN since
environment and bio-diversity. Also, various NGOs in the
17 September, 1974 after its independence on 26 March,
name of human rights for refugees are hyper active against
1971. As a part of the protection of Refugees, the
the country through false and fabricated propaganda and
government should take steps to either to recognize them or
motivated report tarnishing the image abroad. Border Guards
to raise the issue in the international forum with a view to
of Bangladesh (BGB) and members of Coast Guard are facing
find a durable solution to this end. The state also should
difficulties for the surveillance of 271 km border areas of
remember that asylum is a right to homeless person not a
Bangladesh with Myanmar because many Rohingyas are
charity (Hyndman, 1993).
involved in illegal trading of arms and drugs. Despite adverse
impact on the country it is obliged to adopt measures for the
4. IMPACTS ON BANGLADESH
refugee protection (Akhtaruzzaman, 2006).
The country is covering only 147,570 square km with an
overwhelming population of around 160 million people out of
5. LEGAL OBLIGATION OF MYANMAR
which 70 million live below the poverty level and out of them
After the independence on 4 January, 1948 from 63
45 million live on below a dollar in a day. The Rohingya issue
years of the British and Japanese occupation, Myanmar has
is as an extra burden and has turned into a matter of great
become the 58th member state of the United Nations on 19
April in 1948. For reverberating same tune with the UN
concern for the government. As a demographically over
mandate to maintain global peace, security and cooperation,
populated
nation,
it
is
encountering
multifaceted
Myanmar was granted as the UN member. As a result, it is
complications including law and order, political, economic,
obliged respect the norms and principles of the UN Charter to
demographic and of environmental for the presence of
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ISSN 2250-1665
reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, equality or non
6. LAWLESSNESS AND RECKLESS STAND OF MYANMAR
After independence in 1948, the Rohingya dreamt to be
discrimination, dignity and worth of the human being. Legal
enjoying all rights as citizens. But their dream was shattered
obligation of Burma has morally increased from 1961, when U
Thant, the then Burma's Permanent Representative to the UN
from the military takeover of state power in 1962, when the
and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected
country was enveloped in a deep rooted crisis of rule of law,
Secretary General of the UN holding the position for ten years
human rights and fundamental rights including right to life
(Zaw, 2006). But, in practice the state is isolated and not
and personal liberty. Later in 1982, ethnic Rohingya Muslims
involved in maintaining international peace, security and
were declared stateless by passing a law. The Rohingya as
harmony. Rather it is itself, a perpetrator of human rights
poor and jobless, were trapped by local mafias and brought
violation. Also, it is cautious enough to be a party to the core
in the business of drug smuggling and other illegal activities.
international human rights legal instruments except the UN
Its new transition to democracy from the 48 years of
Child Rights Convention (UNCRC) and the Convention on the
autocracy after November 2010 election is still a disguise
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
form of militarism resulting hype for people. A week after the
(CEDAW) sensing its direct and indirect obligations. It has
election, the military junta Thein Sein's government released
ratified the four Geneva Conventions in 1992, but not the
pro-democracy leader Suu Kyi after 21 years of detention and
Additional Protocols. However, the country is duty bound as
also freed 14,600 prisoners. Otherwise there is no hallmark of
per Fourth Geneva Convention Relating to the Protection of
visible change as a progress (Poverter, 2011). The
Civilian Persons of 1949 in Times of War which aims to
government accompanied by anti-Rohingya demonstrators
protect civilian victims covering refugees and displaced
and Buddhist Monks are in favour of deporting of Rohingya
persons. It has accessed the UNCRC, 1990 on 15 July 1991.
Muslim minority community in the name of lame excuse of
In accordance with the UNCRC, child shall be registered
national security and national sovereignty espousing an
immediately after birth acquiring nationality and the states
anachronistic view of blood-based citizenship as opposed to
Parties shall ensure the implementation of certain rights in
the notions of multicultural citizenship. The Rohingya account
accordance with their national and relevant international laws
for approximately 4% of Myanmars population although
for the protection of refugees, stateless and displaced
exact numbers cannot be cited owing to the regimes refusal
children. The UNCRC is based on four guiding principles of
to allow independent observers and negligence of the
non-discrimination, the best interests of the child, the right to
Rohingya (Khan, 2012).
life, survival and development, and the right to participation
Arbitrary mass arrest and detention are of common
(UNCRC, 1990). Burma's military government ratified the
phenomenon and even they are not allowed to travel to other
CEDAW in 1997. The Convention obliges signatory
towns without a permit. Color, ethnicity and Islam are seen
governments not only to promote and protect women's
as a danger to the Myanmar regime. Forced labour, extortion,
human rights through appropriate programs in the public
eviction, limited access to higher education and even
sphere, but also to eliminate discrimination and work to
restrictions on marriage are imposed on the Rohingya. No
change gender stereotypes that disadvantage women
family is allowed to have more than two children. Access to
(Brenda, 2012). According to Article 15 of the Universal
their basic human rights such as food, shelter and education
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), 1948 everyone has
are all controlled by the central government. They are not
right to nationality and no one shall be arbitrarily deprived of
allowed to get posts in the government or in the private
his nationality nor denied to change nationality. Accordingly,
sector, and no Muslim minority is allowed to be employed in
the state who is a member of the UN should enact law with
the police or army. The Buddhist extremists dubbed the
the basic norms of UDHR. According to the Preamble of the
Muslims as terrorists and compared any violent activity of
Constitution of Myanmar, 2008 the country will adhere to the
Muslim as that of 9/11 and the Mumbai attacks. Flouting the
eternal principles of justice, liberty, equality and perpetuation
principles of national and international law especially the
of peace and prosperity of the National people and always
principle non refoulement, certain monk organizations have
endeavour to uphold the principles of peaceful co-existence
been reportedly issuing pamphlets describing the Rohingya as
among the nations. Myanmar sets up a National Human
cruel by nature and claiming that the community had plans to
Rights Commission in 2011 as a watchdog to safeguard the
exterminate other ethnic groups.
rights of its citizens but this human rights defender is a
In recent years, monks have emerged in a leading role
toothless tiger.
to enforce denial of humanitarian assistance to Muslims, in
support of policy statements by politicians. The Rohingya
have lived in Myanmar for centuries, but were stripped of
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ISSN 2250-1665
citizenship in 1982 by military ruler Ne Win terming them as
arrival sparked intense debate over Canadian Asylum and
living purgatory for this community. Due to 1982 draconian
Immigration laws referring boat people will help deteriorate
citizenship law, Muslims in Myanmar are subjected to terrible
future human trafficking. Australian Government refused to
and enhanced persecution and they are excluded from the list
accept 438 asylum seekers of Norway at sea in 2001. After
of 135 races entitled to citizenship. The government carried
rescuing asylum-seekers in distress at sea, the Norwegian
out a large scale crackdown in 1962 and in 1978 and the
ship MV Tampa was not allowed to enter Australian territorial
massive onslaught in 1991. Recently, Mosques in Arakan
waters and port. As a reason of no entry into Australian
were torched in amid wider sectarian unrest. Truly, the
territory the government said the boat people intended to
Rohingya are the victims of ethnic cleansing and genocide
enter the country illegally which violates provisions of
but the wests icon of democracy and the easts poster lady
Immigration and Coastal law.
for democracy, Aung San Suu Kyi is silent about their plight.
Thailand also denied to accept Rohingya boat refugees
The Citizenship Law introduced by General Ne Win in 1982 is
and in case of intrusion by boat refugees the Thai
not compatible with the Universal Declaration of Human
government either detained indefinitely or intercepted at sea
Rights, UNCRC, and CEDAW or even the 2008 Constitution of
pushing the risk back to sea for many times arguing that
the country.
Thailand is not a signatory to the 1951 Refugee Convention
and 1967 Protocol and also devoid of having domestic laws
7. ADVOCACY OF WORLD BODIES
on refugee or asylum issues (Danish Report, 2011). Cited
World communities, human rights organizations and
national security concern, regional tension and environmental
even Pro Rohingya regional and national NGOs while
damage as reasons, if these states blocked to accept no more
advocating the issue, refer the liberation history of the
refugees, then why, Bangladesh a small state crippled with
country in an emotional way, although the context of being
manifold deficiencies and concerns with limited resources will
refugee of Bangladeshi people in 1971 is not same as
allow mass influx of refugees from Myanmar (Rashid, 2008).
Rohingya people. Creation of independent Bangladesh was
On the other hand, the gravity of persecution on Rohingya
accompanied by a historical availing of refuge opportunity of
Muslim minority by the successive military governments of
10 million people out of 70 million in neighbouring India
Myanmar has been intensified after its independence. Basic
(Khan, 2004). Even the incumbent Prime Minister of
human rights of these people are under the black claw of
Bangladesh took refuge first in Germany, then Britain and
military rulers causing humanity suffering. In 1989, the
later in India after a brutal killing of Bangabandhu Sheikh
military junta changed the name Burma to Myanmar but the
Mujibur Rahman, the father of the nation along with his
fate of them is unchanged. Regrettably, the present stance of
family members by some disgruntled army personnel on
Suu Kyi, an icon of democracy and human rights is a
August 15, 1975. Despite not being a party to 1951 Refugee
mismatch between her firm commitments of lifelong struggle
Convention and 1967 Protocol and amid ample of limitations,
and sacrifice for expediting democracy, rule of law and
Bangladesh is hosting around 500,000 Rohingya refugees for
human rights in Myanmar and the persisting ethnic Rohingya
more than 30 years. But recent refusal in June 2012 for not
issue. She and her National League for Democracy (NLD)
allowing further Rohingya boat people in the territory has
seem tight lipped. Unluckily, many human rights NGOs are
sparked wider criticism around the world, though the
pointing finger of accusation wantonly to Bangladesh and
persecuted boat people were treated humanely with food,
pressurizing the country as it is poor and predominantly
water, medicine and care (Rahman, 2012). In opposed to the
dependent on donor agencies while they should put pressure
stand of Bangladesh, the richest countries including the
on Myanmar or take tough stance against the country to
United States of America, Canada and Australia in the world
convince or compel for a peaceful solution rather than lifting
are more cruel and inhuman in treating boat refugees and
of embargos on the country.
related endangered section of people. During the 1980s more
than 20,000 Haitian boat people were interdicted by U.S.
8. CASTING A THIRD EYE TO THE CRISIS
officials at sea and only one in a thousand was permitted to
Former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan once says it is
apply for asylum seekers. From 1995, the US wet feet, dry
difficult for anyone who has never been forcibly displaced to
feet policy has usually allowed Cubans who reach dry land in
imagine what it is like to be a refugee (UN Report, 2006).
the US to stay while those intercepted at sea by the US Coast
Arakani Muslim minorities in Myanmar struggle to survive in
Guard are returned to Cuba. Canada has sent back about 90
their homestead for decades and are born to be persecuted.
Chinese boat people to China amid tight security under an
Similarly, the Rohingya refugees living in Bangladesh for
agreement with Chinese authorities in 2000 because their
about 30 years are without recognition of their basic human
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ISSN 2250-1665
rights and protection. Again in June 2012 around 80000
these economic powers are lifting embargo gradually. Despite
Rohingya people were forced out by state-sponsored
its routine violation of basic human rights of its citizens in
persecution in Myanmar and they are forced to be returned
contravention of the United Nations Charter, Burma as a UN
back by Bangladesh. In fact, Bangladesh is among the
member is in good standing position and regularly receives
worlds least developed countries with density of population
assistance from the U.N. and its affiliated funds and programs
over 1000 per km. It is one of the poorest nations on this
(Schaefer, 2007).
planet and the recipient of US$ 2 billion worth of international
aid last year 2011 alone to feed its half-starving populace of
9. CONCERTED WAY OUTS
160 millions. Also, security concern, resource constraints and
The Rohingya refugee issue is a case of serious concern
unbearable burden practically makes the country bound to
for Bangladesh. In order to get rid of the Rohingya refugee
take such decision recently. In contrast, Myanmar is five
problem, the government has already started to tighten its
times bigger than Bangladesh but housing only 65 people in
measures to stop the influx of the Rohingya refugees. And
per km. So, in reality Myanmar has more land to for the
one of the major problems which the Rohingya
housing and treatment of the Rohingya people rather forced
undocumented refugees have been facing over the last one
them to leave through persecution (Haque, 2011).
year is with passport. Since the Rohingya are not recognized
International Human Rights organizations are expressing
as citizens of Myanmar, so there is no way for them to get
waves of concern for the violation of rights of Rohingya
any passport. Since long, the Rohingya undocumented
people and Rohingya refugees demanding a peaceful solution
refugees were using Bangladesh passport to travel abroad
and urging not to treat them as a cancer but searching for a
managing local politicians, police and other government
holistic and durable solution through repatriation,
officials. But since the last one year, there is no scope for
reintegration and resettlement. The challenges in dealing
Rohingyas to get any passport due to strict process of
with the Rohingya problem include lack of coordination
scrutiny or verification as to whether an applicant is in fact a
between various agencies of the governments of Myanmar
bona fide citizen of Bangladesh. A progressive and optimistic
and Bangladesh, stubborn attitude of the Myanmar
national policy on Rohingya Refugee should be taken up
government and diplomatic weakness of Bangladesh to put
immediately by both the governments. Measures should be
the issue in global forums to portray the realities of the
taken by the government of Myanmar so that no further
country. The Rohingya are a particular ethnic tribal group of
persecution is carried out yielding new refugees. Efforts
Myanmar who speak a local dialect of Bengali and all are
should be taken urgently to organise seminar, symposium at
Muslims. These two reasons make the Myanmar government
national and international level to familiarize the issue
claim that the Rohingya are actually Bangladeshi immigrants
worldwide and, thus achieve global support for a sustainable
who have settled there for centuries and as result their
solution. Bangladesh should expedite its diplomatic effort to
citizenship is denied keeping them widely segregated outside
bring the regional powers in confidence as regards to this
the wider Buddhist communities. Bangladesh government in
issue. Involvement of United Nations (UN), European Union
turn says that they are all Burmese because due to repeated
(EU), South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
persecution they entered into the territory of the country in
(SAARC), and Association of South East Asian Nations
five times starting from 1784. However, during the partition
(ASEAN) along with international as well as regional non state
of India and Pakistan in 1947, the Rohingya asked Jinnah,
actors may be sought to materialize the long desired holistic
the leader of the Muslim League, to include Arakan in
solution. Bangladesh can take lesson from Nepal who was
Pakistan because of their Muslim identity (Nakib, 2012). In
successful for a time-bound comprehensive and large-scale
June 2012, more than 80 Rohingya Muslim people have been
resettlement of a total of 108,000 Bhutanese refugees in
reportedly killed and about 80000 turned homeless by the
various countries, principally in the US on a five year time
state inflicted terrorism in Myanmar. According to
plan. So, coordination of both states with the UNHCR, the UN
international journalist and Myanmar specialist Francis Wade,
mandated agency for refugee protection and IOM can bring a
more Muslims are being persecuted than reported by the
durable solution to the dilemma. Governments and the UN
should support such reform and provide technical assistance
media. Despite being the second largest country next to
in the drafting of a new law. The country should replace the
India in Southeast Asia, it is the 24th most populous country
1982 Citizenship law with a new one based on the principles
in the world with over 60.28 million people. Myanmar is a
of human rights, equality and non-discrimination along with
resource-rich country but its economy is one of the least
the principle of non refoulement, a core principle of
developed in the world. For long, the EU, United States and
international refugee law (Goodwin-Gill, 1996).
Canada have imposed economic sanctions on Burma, though
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ISSN 2250-1665
In fact, mudslinging by the stakeholders cannot bring a
sustainable solution to their plights. The stand of Bangladesh
durable solution rather can deepen the crisis. The diplomatic
towards international law and international relation especially
failure of Bangladesh to raise voice against Myanmar in
for the protection of rights of Rohingya refugees promoting
International forums and arrogance of Myanmar is also
regional peace, security and fraternity is well acclaimed
responsible for its stagnated position. Both must not forget a
before the world community with few exceptional criticisms
quote from a clergyman that, Every problem has in it, the
but Myanmar is lagging behind in both aspects. These two
seeds of its own solution. If you dont have any problem, you
poverty stricken countries should jointly create a platform in
dont get any solution. The solid stand of both states needs
South Asia for pursuing a regional legal document for the
to be changed for finding a sustained solution of the dispute.
protection of rights of refugees and also can consider
World communities including regional and international
accessing the 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1951
bodies must be involved for a compromised solution of the
Additional Protocol so that they can draw the attention of
crisis. Law always cannot solve the problem and so rights
international community for a desired and sustained solution.
based approach as a solution to the problem is unrealistic
Both should shun the excuse of security concerns and stay
desiring an equitable solution. While approaching holistic
away from the misconception that accession of the
settlement of the crisis, the initiators may remember the
international refugee law documents will impose extra burden
quotation of a priest, Oh Judge! Your damn laws: the good
upon both the states.
people dont need them and bad people dont follow them so
what good they are? The recent settlement of long standing
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maritime dispute between these two states is a sign of
Ahmed, Imtiaz. (2010). The Plight of the Stateless

goodwill gesture for the further reconciliation any dispute
Rohingyas: Response of the State, Society and the
including the Rohingya issue responding the needs of
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Dhaka University.
European, the initiators must keep in mind that human rights
Akhtaruzzaman. (2006). Legal Protection of Refugees

treaties are mostly drafted by either Americans or Europeans
under Bangladesh Laws, ELCOP, pp. 175-190.
but they are born for preaching and teaching human rights
Annan, Kofi. (2006). The Secretary General Preface to

outside of their countries but not for practicing.
the State of World Refugees.
Brenda, Balek. (2012). Double Jeopardy: Abuse of Ethnic

10. CONCLUSION
Womens Human Rights in Burma.
The Rohingya people have been described as among the
[5] Chan, Aye. (2005). The Development of a Muslim

worlds least wanted and one of the worlds most persecuted
Enclave in Arakan (now Rakhine) State of Burma (now
minorities. They had a bleak past and uncertain future. As
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Chowdhury, MA. (1995). The Advent of Islam in Arakan
there is no panacea for a durable solution to this
and the Rohingya, Chittagong University.

disadvantaged group overnight, concerted but gradual steps
Danish Immigration Service Report. (2011). Rohingya

involving regional and international bodies by both the states
Refugee in Bangladesh and Thailand. pp. 1-63.
are the demand of time deescalating the tension. Both states
Goodwin- Gill, Guy S. (1996). The Refugee in

bear it in mind that a person becomes stateless, asylum
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seeker or refugee because of circumstances beyond his
Haque, Emdadul. (2012). Lines of Paradox Rohingya

personal control but they are all human being requiring basic
Refugee: Casting a Third Eye, the Daily Star, Law & Our
civil amenities to survive and leading a dignified life. The
Rights, p.22.
notion of refugee rights and human rights is inextricably
Haque, Mahbubul. (2011). Undocumented Rohingya

linked in the sense that both involve common purpose of
Refugees in Bangladesh: Government Justification of the
safeguarding, elevating and protecting human dignity. Not
Policies on Their Basic Rights and Human Security,
only the Rohingya refugee crisis but also the global crisis of
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Helton, C Arther. (2000). The Future of Refugee

challenge for the world community for quite a long time
Protection. Bayefsky, F, Anne & Fitzpatrick, J ed. Human
because of multifaceted complications of this humanitarian
Rights and Forced Displacement, The Haque: Martinus
issue. Many attempts based on discussions together with
Nijhoff Publisheres, Ch, 16.
existing international and regional legal as well as institutional
framework have been designed and adopted to drill pathways
for effective protection Rohingya refugees and to search for
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Refugee Crisis, A Key Note Paper Presented in a Seminar
at Dhaka University, pp. 1-22.
Human Rights Watch. (2000). Vol. 12 No 3(C
Hyndman, P. (1993). Developing International Refugee

Law in the Asia Pacific Region: Some Issues and
Prognoses, Asian year Book of International Law, p. 28.
Islam, Zahirul. (2012). Rohingya Refugee Problem: A

Burden on Bangladesh, The Daily Sun.
Khan, Borhan Uddin. (2004). Towards a Refuge Law

Regime in Bangladesh, Dhaka University.
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Massacre, The Pakistan Observer.
Leider, Jacques P. (2012). Interview: History Behind

Arakan State Conflict. The Irrawaddy.
Moe, Kyaw Zya. (2012) Why is Western Burma Burning,

The Irrawaddy.
Nakib. (2012). The Plight of Statelessness: The Rohingya

Diaspora.
Poverter, David Henry. (2011). Myanmars Roadmap

Comes Full Circle, The Asia Times.
Rahman, Sadiqur. (2012). The Rohingya Exodus, The

New Age.
Rashid, Harun ur. (2008). Refugee Law with Case Laws

and Materials, Anupam Gyan Bhandar, pp. 39-44.
Saw, U Khin Maung. (1993). The Rohingya, Who are

They? The Origin of the Name Rohingya, cited in Uta
Gartner and Jens Lorenz (eds), Tradition and Modernity
in Myanmar.
Senator Kennedy, E. (1980). Introduction in US

Committee for Refugees, World Refugee Survey, New
York, p. 5.
Schaefer, Breet D. (2007). The UN Must Stop Enabling

the Burmese Regime, The Heritage Foundation.
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(1972). Preamble, Article 8(2), 31, 32, 33, 35.
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Tuhin, Malik. (1998). International Refugee Law, A

Lexicon of Principles and Issues, Legal Education and
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Bangladesh: Historical Exclusions and Contemporary
Marginalization, Journal of Immigrants and Refugee
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Zaw, Aung. (2006). Can Another Asian Fill U Thant's

Shoes?, The Irrawaddy.
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SOCIAL CAPITAL AS AN EFFECTIVE MEANS

AGAINST MEDICAL EXPLOITATION:
WHAT CIVIL SOCIETY CAN DO
Jennifer Meyer-Ueding, M.A.*, Marko Meyer, Dr. Med**
*Division of Cooperative Sciences, Department of Agricultural Economics, Humboldt-Universitt zu Berlin
Unter den Linden 6, 10099 Berlin, Germany
**Department of Trauma and Reconstructive Surgery, Klinikum im Friedrichshain
Landsberger Allee 49, 10249 Berlin, Germany
ABSTRACT
The costs of medical treatment are increasing worldwide. In low-income countries adequate health insurance systems are
lacking and the average person is forced to pay for medical services out of pocket, oftentimes going into debt. At the same
time certain sectors of the medical industry are expanding the health care market and prescribing unnecessary drugs and
treatments. Here we look at this problem of medical exploitation in India and introduce social capital as one potential
countermeasure. The relationship between health care and social capital has not yet been sufficiently explored and the
oftentimes scientifically vague concept of social capital has been criticized. In response to this criticism we have undertaken a
literature review using the ideas of Robert Putnam as a reference point. By means of a qualitative case study we proceed to
illustrate how social capital can be employed against medical exploitation. Our case study focuses on a federation of
neighborhood associations in Hyderabad which campaigns for medical fairness. We discuss how this community employs
bonding and bridging forms of social capital. Although collective action against medical exploitation depends on an array of
resources, we conclude that social capital is a resource that communities already possess, and deserves recognition.
Key Words: Medical exploitation, medical industry, social capital, collective action, civil society
1. INTRODUCTION:
The costs of medical treatment are increasing worldwide.
Especially in countries without an established health
insurance system such as India, the average person is
suffering enormously under the burden of oftentimes
unbearable medical costs. Increases in out-of-pocket
expenses for public and private services are already driving
many families into poverty (Witehead et al., 2001: 833). The
poor are remaining untreated, and those who can afford
medical treatment often face long-term impoverishment due
to high and unexpected costs (Ibid: 834).
The medical industry is making a significant contribution
to the increasing overall cost of health care. Besides
providing basic medical care, the medical industry is
progressively working on expanding the health market.
Strategies for earning additional money from sick patients or
from those who think they are sick are becoming more and
more common. There is increasing evidence, for example,
that the pharmaceutical industry sponsors certain diseases,
promoting them to both prescribers and consumers, and
thereby attempting to convince healthy people that they are
sick (Moynihan et al., 2002). New diseases such as hair loss
are being invented, and drugs to cure them sold.
Unfortunately, not only the pharmaceutical industry
contributes to the explosion of health care costsmedical

professionals themselves are accounting for a significant
share of the increase. Doctors, for example, often prescribe
unnecessary drugs and unnecessary diagnostic tests and
treatments.
Investigations
in
Delhi
revealed
high
expenditures in the private sector on unnecessary drugs,
while in the public sector education subsidies and salaries
translated into little (and in small clinics, very little) effort or
care (Das & Hammer, 2007). An effect called supplier induced
demand reflects the asymmetrical information and economic
interests of health care providers (Ibid: 28) and leads to a
range of health care products far exceeding the essential. In
a tremendous finding, investigations revealed that up to 70%
of all pharmaceutical drug expenditures in India are
considered unnecessary (Iyer & Sen, 2000). Interwoven with
supplier induced demand is a phenomenon known as
expansion of boundaries of treatable diseases, which, in
addition to the invention of new diseases, reflects the strong
commercial interests of health care providers and can result
in individual patients being exposed to potential harms with
little expectation of benefit (Doran &Henry, 2008).
These accumulating effects of health marketing and
disease mongering, resulting in unnecessary overtreatment
with partly hazardous side effects (Witehead et al., 2001),
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ISSN 2250-1665
are an often overlooked socioeconomic problem. In India,
a powerful resource in the hands of civil society for joining
expenses for medicines account for 5080% of the cost of
power and acting collectively to gain access to the skills and
treatment, with both the poor and the affluent confronting a
knowledge necessary in the fight against medical exploitation.
powerful pharmaceutical industry (Srinivasan, 2011). Here it
We base this hypothesis on an extensive literature review on
is important to note that the problem of medical exploitation
the topic of social capital and collective action, focusing
affects the various strata of society differently. Whereas the
primarily on the ideas of Robert Putnam. With respect to the
middle class has the privilege of worrying about the quality of
scientific debate, we attempt a clear and well-defined
treatment and about unnecessary treatments, the poor have
description of social capital, which is of major importance in
to fight to afford basic medical care. Without profound
addressing skepticism regarding the scientific value of the
medical knowledge, the average person in India, whether
concept for public health. The empirical application of a
middle class or poor, is at the mercy of the medical industry,
clearly distinguished and defined concept of social capital can
with tremendous economic pressure on doctors of any
deliver verifiable findings to enhance our understanding of
discipline. In light of this deadlock it seems that civil society
public health. We agree with Kawachi who states that social
should help itself. This can be done via civil society-based
capital provides a useful framework for identifying the
initiatives as well as collaborations between civil society and
potential resources available within a community to improve
agents of the medical profession, as we show here. In the
the health of its members (Kawachi, 1999: 128). In order to
course of this paper we introduce social capital as one
focus on the interlinkages between social capital and
instrument in the hands of civil society that can counteract
collective action, this short literature review focuses on social
the problems presented.
capital on the macro-level following the internal perspective
In the first part of the paper, we classify the significance
or collective perspective adopted by Robert Putnam (Putnam
of social capital within public health research and explain the
et al., 1993; Putnam, 1995; Putnam & Goss, 2001b). This
concept of social capital in detail. In doing so, we focus on
perspective looks at social capital as a community resource.
Robert Putnams ideas. In the second part of the paper, we
The micro-level, which is highlighted among others by
move on to outline a real-world example in which a
Bourdieu, where social capital functions as an individual
federation of neighborhood associations in Hyderabad has
resource (Bourdieu, 1983; Kunz et al., 2008: 20f; Riemer,
employed both bonding and bridging forms of social capital in
2005: 89ff, 115) plays a lesser role in our review1.
We define our concept of social capital in reference to
running a campaign for increased medical fairness. In our
Putnam as comprising cultural and structural aspects,
conclusion we point to further resources affecting the
features of social organization, such as trust, norms, and
potential for collective action while stressing that civil
networks, that can improve the efficiency of society by
societys position in confronting medical exploitation can be
facilitating coordinated actions (Putnam et al., 1993: 167)
considerably strengthened by the use of social capital.
and enable participants to act together more effectively to
pursue shared objectives (Putnam, 1995: 56). Social capital
2. SOCIAL CAPITAL AND HEALTH
in Putnams approach has both cultural and structural
The health of the individual as well as society as a whole
aspects2. The cultural aspects encompass norms of
is largely affected by the availability of resources (Israel et
generalized reciprocity and trust. Generalized norms of
al., 1994). The connections between social and economic
reciprocity include general courtesy and assistance without
status and health outcomes have been extensively elaborated
direct payment or conditions. They have long-term value but
upon (Hawe & Shiell 2000, 874). However, the relationship
require a certain length of socialization to grow (Putnam et
between health and social capital, and more precisely
al., 1993: 171ff). With respect to trust, Alejandro Portes
between health and community networks, trust and norms of
emphasizes that it provides reliability of reciprocity to the
reciprocity, has not yet been sufficiently explored. Scientific
cooperators and can serve as a substitute for formal rules.
analysis of the interrelation between health and social capital
Social capital in this respect maintains discipline (Portes,
is also largely lacking scientific accuracy. Precise definitions of
1998: 10). Horizontal networks form the structural aspect of
the applied concept of social capital are needed, as are their
precise application to particular aspects of public health. In
this paper we try to fulfill both requirements. We look at the
1
For more details on the differentiation between social capital on the
problem of medical malpractice and explore the utilization of
micro and macro level see Kunz et al. 2008, p. 18; Kunz 2006, pp.
a particular communitys social capital as one instrument in
337338; and Haug 1997, p. 39.
2
For more details on the differentiation between cultural and
the hands of civil society that can counteract medical
structural social capital see again Kunz et al 2008 Kunz et al. 2008,
exploitation. We claim that a large amount of social capital is
p. 21 and Kunz 2006 Kunz 2006, p. 335
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social capital; they encompass formal and informal networks
action and how bridging social capital can amplify a
(Putnam & Goss, 2001a: 25). According to Putnam, networks
communitys medical skills.
can be differentiated into bridging and bonding networks.
How has social capital been incorporated into the field of
Putnam and Goss define bridging networks as those networks
public health so far, and to what extent can it be used to
that team heterogeneous people and bonding networks as
counteract medical exploitation? Public health literature has
those that team homogenous people (Ibid 29; Rodeutscher
debated on both the direct and indirect implications of social
& Westle, 2008: 167). Most networks are characterized by
capital in health care. Even though there is agreement among
bridging and bonding aspects simultaneously. John Field
scientists that social affiliations influence health (Hawe &
argues that both forms include benefits and risks. Bonding
Shiell, 2000: 876; Kawachi, 1999: 121), the extent of this
social capital fosters in-group solidarity and bridging social
influence has been controversially discussed. It has been
capital fosters the diffusion of information, the generation of
cautioned not to neglect the concepts of power and
broader identities and reciprocity (Field, 2003: 32). For
inequality, and objections have been raised to the oftentimes
facilitating inner-group collective action, we assumed that
scientifically vague concept of social capital (Hawe & Shiell,
closure and a high amount of bonding social capital are
2000: 880). Empirical reports providing evidence of the
profitable, but bridging social capital can also be useful for
interrelations between social capital and health outcomes are
communities, allowing the addition of new resources. The
still rare (Kawachi, 1999: 122), with some of the limited
negative aspects of social capital as mentioned by Portes
empirical studies available having been produced by Kawachi
(1998) and Woolcock (1998), include downward leveling
et al. On the basis of US data their studies deliver some
norms and the exclusion of outsiders, and have only lately
correlative evidence linking social capital with mortality
been taken into account by Putnam himself in Gesellschaft
(Kawachi et al., 1997) and with self-rated individual health
und Gemeinsinn (Putnam & Goss, 2001a: 24). These aspects
(Kawachi et al., 1999). Kawachi views social capital as
of course should be kept in the back of ones mind when
affecting health outcomes via processes of informal social
analyzing the interrelation between social capital and health
control, maintenance of healthy norms, and the provision of
care.
access to various forms of social support (Kawachi, 1999:
Putnam highlights the positive effects of social capital
124). In these studies social capital is explored as having two
remarking that networks of civic engagement advance trust
major implications. The first implication involves social capital
and norms of reciprocity, and thereby facilitate coordination
at the community level in what Putnam would call its bonding
networks, facilitate coordination and communication, amplify
forms: Communities with a high amount of social capital
reputations, and thus allow dilemmas of collective action to
exercise social control and act as watch dogs against deviant
be resolved (Putnam, 1995: 67). Other authors, too, refer to
behavior such as drug abuse. Kawachi admits that in this
this interrelation. Social capital has been viewed as a decisive
form social capital can also have adverse health effects when
social affiliation cultivates behavior such as smoking or
factor in fostering cooperation because it reduces reciprocal
drinking (Kawachi, 1999: 128). Regarding the fight against
uncertainty, incentives to defect and transactions costs (Baud
medical exploitation, this watchdog function of a communitys
& de Wit, 2008: 17; Pretty & Ward, 2001: 210; Putnam et al.,
social capital can be used for community monitoring of the
1993: 177; Putnam & Goss, 2001a: 21). Trust among actors
medical profession, as we will presently illustrate using a case
is seen as enabling collective actions (Ostrom & Ahn, 2008).
from India. The second implication of social capital observed
The Nobel laureate Elinor Ostrom even puts trust at the core
by Kawachi and others deals with social capital at the
of an evolving theoretical explanation of successful or
individual level. A particular individuals supply of social
unsuccessful collective action (Ostrom, 2007b: 200).
capital seems to increase that individuals access to health
Social capital and collective action mutually amplify each
support, which we also take into account in our Indian case.
other. Our own approach to social capital does not attempt to
However, we primarily focus on social capital at the
solve the hen-and-egg question of social capital and collective
community level. Here we point out how a communitys
action. It is assumed that social capital is in most cases not
supply of bridging social capital can enhance the amount of
generated deliberately but evolves as a by-product of other
medical knowledge available to the community, which is
activities (see the argumentation of James S. Coleman here
essential in offsetting medical exploitation. Referring to
for individual social capital, Coleman, 1991: 412; Coleman,
Putnams basic ideas on social capital, we emphasize a third
1988: 118). We restrict our statements to specific, defined
major implication of social capital in health outcomes in
and bounded communities and to a few directional functional
general and in the fight against medical exploitation in
chains, i.e. how bonding social capital advances collective
particular: We claim that the social capital of a community
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increases the probability of collective action in health care
and the neighborhood, and with public services for their
issues, including the fight against medical overtreament. This
neighborhood, e.g. water or solid waste management.
interrelation increases a communitys potential to join hands
Neighborhood associations are usually referred to as middle
against the pharmaceutical lobby. Referring back to the
class associations. Their main purpose is the improvement of
exploration of public health and social capital so far, and
the quality of life of their residents. RWAs act directly by
relying on Putnams concept of social capital, we therefore
organizing activities such as park maintenance or daycare,
posit social capital as a useful resource for civil society in
and also indirectly by lobbying, monitoring and bargaining
counteracting medical exploitation by facilitating awareness
with public authorities. The scope of activities pursued by
building, sharing and the accumulation of knowledge and
individual RWAs differs greatly, as does the amount of
skills, and setting up a counterforce. We empirically account
resident participation (Huchon & Tricot, 2008: 89; Kamath &
for our theses using a case of neighborhood engagement
Vijayabaskar, 2009: 369; Kennedy, 2009: 67; Tawa Lamaagainst medical exploitation in the South Indian city of
Rewal, 2007). The growing strength of RWAs has been
Hyderabad.
criticized for the hazards of withdrawing power from elected
representatives and promoting exclusionary politics (Coelho &
FIGURE 1. HOW CIVIL SOCIETY CAN EMPLOY ITS
Venkat, 2009: 361; Harriss, 2010, pp. 12ff). The case
SOCIAL CAPITAL AGAINST MEDICAL EXPLOITATION
presented here from Tarnaka in Hyderabad in part reflects
these hazards. However, the federations campaigning for a
wider participation base distinguished this case from others.
The information on SCOTRWA outlined here is based on field
research for the project Sustainable Hyderabad3.
Whereas several existing RWAs seem to function more
or less as service agencies to which residents as users pay
fees, the SCOTRWA RWAs, based in Tarnaka, Hyderabad,
have been cited as an example of citizen participation and
urban self-management. Tarnaka is the 100th ward in East
Hyderabad, with a population of nearly 80,000, dominated by
middle-income families. SCOTRWA comprises 19 colony
welfare associations and 220 apartment building welfare
associations throughout Tarnaka and its surroundings.
SCOTRWA is the federation of these RWAs, formed in 2001
and registered under the Society Act in 2002. Its formation
was motivated by increases in the fees assessed by cable TV
operators in 2000. With the support of an NGO called
Illustration by authors
International Foundation for Human Development (IFDH),
3. CASE SCOTRWA IN HYDERABAD AGAINST MEDICAL
many RWAs united themselves to successfully resist the fee
EXPLOITATION
increases and simultaneously become a permanent
Located in the South Indian city of Hyderabad,
committee to unite the RWAs of Tarnaka. The formation of
SCOTRWA (Standing Committee of Tarnaka Residents
SCOTRWA and its persistence has been credited to the
Welfare Associations) is a federation of neighborhood
leadership of Dr. Rao Chelikani, former president of the
associations that is very active in the fields of care for the
UNESCO-NGO Standing Committee and a political activist
elderly and health care, and is currently organizing a large
striving for enhanced civic participation and direct democracy
campaign against medical exploitation. We will present this
case as an example of a communitys utilization of social
3
Incorporated material: 1. Focus group and interviews with members
capital in antagonizing medical exploitation.
and office bearers of SCOTRWA in November 2009 and February
During the last few decades the phenomenon of
2012 (protocols can be requested by the authors) 2. Document
analysis of the SCOTRWA By-Laws, of the reports on the 5th Tarnaka
neighborhood associations in India, mostly called Resident
Ward Sabha in 2009 and on the 4th Tarnaka Ward Sabha in 2006,
Welfare Associations (RWA), has been of growing prevalence
and of the newsletter Tarnaka Times (issues 2009, 2010, 2011) 3.
(Coelho & Venkat, 2009: 361). RWAs are associations of
Fuhrmann, Raban Daniel; Fuhrmann, Naemi Maria (2011):
Sustainable Hyderabad Through a Sustainable Civil Society
residents living in houses or apartment buildings. They are
Organisation. Structure analysis of SCOTRWA as a good practice of a
concerned with the maintenance and security of their housing
sustainable Indian CSO. Hyderabad and Berlin
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ISSN 2250-1665
in Hyderabad. Including Mr. Chelikani, the group of
and medical distributors are to be sensitized. SCOTRWA can
SCOTRWA office bearers and actively responsible members is
advocate for 19 colony welfare associations and 220
dominated by male and retired inhabitants. SCOTRWA is
apartment building welfare associations. This greatly
currently trying to activate other social groups. Despite its
enhances its bargaining power. Both instruments, i.e.
shortcomings, SCOTRWA has realized several collective
awareness building and sensitization, are largely designed
action-based projects in the fields of food, water and sewage,
with the help of SCOTRWAs bonding social capital, its
green spaces, and health. SCOTRWA activities have
networks and the trust among its population. However, these
generated a high amount of social capital, which the
initiatives could not be successfully initiated or implemented
federation is also currently using to counteract medical
without sufficient medical knowledge. SCOTRWA is provided
exploitation. The RWAs and apartment building associations
with a large amount of medical knowledge via the bridging
belonging to SCOTRWA stay independent as registered
social capital inherent in its networks with the medical
neighborhood associations covering certain territories in
profession. During the last several years SCOTRWA has
Tarnaka, and have their own, independent organizational
initiated an annual dialogue between its community and the
structures, including regular meetings and elections. Within
medical profession on Doctors Day, July 1st. The dialogue is
their respective areas the individual SCOTRWA RWAs deal
intended to overcome the distance in terms of medical
with their problems independently. Participation in and
knowledge, skills and interests that separates citizens and
commitment to SCOTRWA varies among different RWAs. In
doctors. SCOTRWA also has cooperation with the Innova
order to pool resources and influence, SCOTRWA enlarged its
Children's Heart Hospital in Tarnaka. Innova acts as one of
structure in 2006 to form several horizontal committees on
the community hospitals of Tarnaka, with facilities available
specific issues and with specific target groups. These
for use for meetings on preventive health education. Innova
structures enlarged the networks among Tarnaka residents,
organizes health education sessions and trains candidates
thereby increasing bonding social capital. One of the most
sponsored through SCOTRWA in domestic nursing care and
active committees is the Senior Citizens Forum for Tarnaka.
bedside assistance. In a joint effort SCOTRWA and Innova
Its activities span from the organization of free health camps
want to facilitate an Ethics and Peace Committee for
in conjunction with the Red Cross to the organization of social
counseling and reconciliation in cases of strained relations
events. Other active committees are the Tarnaka Consumer
between doctors and patients. These bridging interlinkages
Council, which strives for a dialogue between consumers and
with the medical profession provide SCOTRWA with the
providers, and the recently formed Community Radio
necessary medical skills to campaign against medical
Committee, which intends to set up a community radio
exploitation.
station for Tarnaka.
In its health campaigns SCOTRWA can now rely on
FIGURE 2. HOW TARNAKA EMPLOYS ITS SOCIAL
bonding forms of social capital to organize the collective
CAPITAL AGAINST MEDICAL EXPLOITATION
action of Tarnaka residents against medical exploitation. In
October 2011 the Consumer Council yielded a new initiative,
DoctorsDiagnostic Centres, which is supposed to fight
medical exploitation in Tarnaka. This civil society initiative
uses two basic instruments: awareness building and
sensitization. These methods are low in material and financial
costs. The first instrument, awareness building among the
population concerning medical exploitation, is simplified and
accelerated in its implementation by the large amount of trust
and networks already available in Tarnaka on which
campaign initiators can rely. Awareness building is done via
the RWAs and committees meetings, via face-to-face
communication, via the organizations newsletter Tarnaka
Times, and is planned over Community Radio, which is to be
established in 2012. The second instrument against medical
Illustration by authors
exploitation that SCOTRWA has undertaken involves winning
over doctors in Tarnaka and sensitizing them to their
responsibilities. Similarly, medical shops, diagnostic centers
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ISSN 2250-1665
4. CONCLUSION
need to be aware that it can be employed against medical
This article assesses the increasing problem of medical
malpractice and unnecessary overtreatment. Our article
exploitation as being especially troublesome for societies in
provides only brief insight into how bonding and bridging
countries lacking adequate health insurance systems, such as
forms of social capital can be of use in counteracting medical
India. Medical exploitation in this context has been found to
exploitation. More research is needed. Social capital remains
pressure average people in all strata of these societies. Based
an interesting topic for public health as well as health
on findings from an extensive literature review and an Indian
activists.
case study, this article introduces social capital as a tool for
counteracting medical exploitation. Since doctors are
Acknowledgements:
oftentimes facing economic pressure and are incorporated
We would like to thank the members and officials of the
into the system of medical exploitation, we assert that civil
Standing Committee of Tarnaka Resident Welfare
society itself needs to promote counteractive measures.
Associations (SCOTRWA) in Hyderabad who allowed us to
Given civil societys disadvantages in terms of economic
follow their work from 2009 to 2012. We also greatly
power and medical knowledge, we suggest employing social
appreciate the incorporation of our research into the Megacity
capital as a counterforce. We assert that bonding forms of
Hyderabad Project (Climate and Energy in a Complex
social capital, which team community members together, are
Transition Process towards Sustainable Hyderabad), funded
poised to facilitate collective action and awareness building in
by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research
the community, and thereby to exert pressure on the medical
(BMBF). We would especially like to thank Professor Dr.
industry. Bridging forms of social capital, providing linkages
Markus Hanisch of the Division of Cooperative Sciences,
between civil society with the medical profession, allow for
Department of Agricultural Economics, Humboldt-Universitt
the medical skills and knowledge necessary in counteracting
zu Berlin, and Dr. Angela Jain of the Nexus Institute for
medical exploitation. This articles argumentation thus
Cooperation Management and Interdisciplinary Research in
provides aggrieved actors belonging to the sphere of civil
Berlin for their support.
society with a template for how to use their social capital in
striking out against medical exploitation.
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Declaration:
in Robert D. Putnam (ed.) Gesellschaft und Gemeinsinn.
This manuscript has been read and approved by both
Sozialkapital im internationalen Vergleich (Gtersloh:
authors, Jennifer Meyer-Ueding and Dr. med Marko Meyer.
Verlag Bertelsmannstiftung):1543.
We declare that this paper is the result of our own, unaided
(Putnam, Robert D.; Goss, Kristin A. (2001a):

work. All sources have been duly acknowledged and no other
Introduction in Robert D. Putnam (ed.) Community and
sources or applications have been used other than those
public spirit. Social capital in international comparison
presented in the references and the paper.
(Gtersloh: Verlag Bertelsmannstiftung):1543)
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Jacobs): 5568.
Riemer, Kai (2005): Sozialkapital und Kooperation in

Theresia Theurl (ed.) Economics of interfirm networks
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Theresia Theurl (ed.) Economics of interfirm networks
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Politikwissenschaft): 157187.
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PERCEPTION OF PERFORMANCE IN
ORGANIZATION: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE
FROM NIGERIA
Omojola Abiola Abiodun*, M.S.B. Siddiq**
*Graduate School of Business, Tun Abdul Razak University, Malaysia.
**Graduate School of Business, Tun Abdul Razak University, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
Organizational culture, leadership, ethical decision making and organizational performance have been researched in theory by
scholars, and have also attracted considerable interest from practitioners. Studies have shown that by developing
organizational culture and leadership, organization can achieve effective performance. A review of literature revealed that
much of studies are based on the relationship between organizational culture, leadership and performance. However, while
the relationship between organizational culture, leadership and performance have been examined, none have investigated
the ethical decision making dimension of the relationship. This paper helps to fill the gap in the literature. This paper
examines the moderating effect of ethical decision making on the relationship between organizational culture, leadership and
performance and present empirical evidence which suggests that the relationship between leadership and performance is
mediated by organizational culture, and that the relationship between organizational culture and performance as well as the
relationship between leadership and performance is moderated by ethical decision making.
Key Words: organizational culture, leadership, performance, ethical decision making
1. INTRODUCTION:
The increasing vast business potential in the emerging
market of Nigeria can no longer be ignored by the global
world of business activities. With rapidly growing population
offering huge commercial potential, the country also offers
huge untapped natural resources and raw materials. These
have caused enormous economics opportunities to a number
of organizations to invest into the emerging market.
Therefore, an increasing number of multinationals companies
from developed countries are attracted by their huge
untapped natural resources. The performance of these
investments is always questionable as a result of unethical
leadership and cultural factors. Culture and leadership can
influence organizational business goal, therefore, business
organization must strive to be ethically transparent in it
activities and operations, moral and ethical in managerial
decision making processes. The organizational culture and
leadership are both imperative and crucial in achieving strong
business management and operation, creating awareness
that they have responsibility other than profit and financial
gains. The importance of ethical decision making in the
relationship between organizational culture, leadership and
performance in a developing country with high rating for
corruption cannot be overemphasized. The issue underlines
the rationale for this study and it is expected that the
outcome will provide guideline for establishment of
frameworks for organizations that would not only exist for
generations but would also improve continuously on its

organizational performance.
The relationships between organizational leadership and
performance, organizational culture and performance have a
long tradition in the field of organizational studies. Their roots
can be traced back to Hawthorne studies around 1930, and
more importantly to the study of Galcier Metal Works
(Wilderom et al., 2000). Success of a firm was attributable to
strong emphasis on certain humanistic values, such as
leadership.
Deal
and
Kennedy
(1982)
suggested
organizational performance is enhanced by shared values
because such values act as an informal system that shows
employees what is expected of them; according to them, an
organization with a strong culture is not only able to respond
well to its environment, but also able to adapt to diverse and
changing situations. Quinn (1991), presented a competing
value approach to organizational analysis, his work has
significantly influenced subsequent culture-performance
research (Yukl, 2002). Denison further developed this theory
into a model (Denison et al., 1995). The Denison
organizational culture survey and Denison leadership
development survey highlight four generic traits which are
adaptability, mission, involvement, and consistency. Further
broken down into three specific indices for a total of twelve
indices, this model links organizational culture and leadership
to organizational financial and non financial performance such
as market share, sales profit, sales growth, customer and
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employee satisfaction and innovation. Denison model will
further lead to the idea for the need to further evaluate the
form the basis for the survey that will be conducted in this
ethical justification of any organizational performance.
research.
Organizations are expected to be ethical in decision making.
In order to address the research empirically, a
The emphasis on this has increased because of the numerous
conceptual foundation that will help appreciate the relative
corporate scandals globally, and bad organizational practices
importance and possible relationship among variables, the
by multinational companies in developing countries. These
current research, thus, draws upon theoretical contributions
concerns are not new, but they attract more attention than
from the field of organizational culture, leadership,
they have done in the past. The relationship between
performance and ethical decision making. This study rests
leadership and organizational performance; culture and
within the model developed by Denison and Mishra (1995).
organizational performance are important topic for both
The Denison organizational culture survey and Denison
academician and practitioners. Organizational culture and
leadership development survey highlight generic traits which
leadership have been independently linked to organizational
are adaptability, involvement, mission, and consistency.
performance by scholars; likewise studies have also sought
Denison model links organizational culture and leadership to
the association between the tree concepts. Most of the
financial and non financial performance sales profit, sales
studies on leadership, culture, and performance have been
growth, market share, innovation, customer and employee
conducted outside Nigeria. Literature suggests that by
satisfaction. This model forms the basis for the survey that
developing leadership and culture, organizations can achieve
was conducted in this research. In addition, Rests (1986)
performance. The ethical justifications of this link and
framework as well as Trevinos (1986) models of ethical
relationship have always been an unanswered question. To
decision making have also helped to shape the theoretical
answer this question and to fill this existing gap in current
foundation for this research. It is very important to
literature, the aim of the study is to provide evidence, of the
understand the contribution and significance of this study to
moderating effect of ethical decision making on the
those in academics and in practice. Researchers have shown
relationship between organizational culture, leadership and
that leadership, organizational culture, performance and
performance. Ethical decision making in organization is a
ethical decision making within an organizational context are
responsibility organizational culture and leadership should
very crucial to researchers, managers, and practitioners.
impact above profit maximization and financial gain
Explorative research aims at the moderating effect of ethical
objectives.
decision making in the workplace will always contribute to the
Reviews of literatures have revealed the need to
practice of management, leadership and will also be a
examine the relationship between culture, leadership and
significant endeavor in promoting ethical decision making in
organizational performance in an increasingly complex global
the workplace, and will also provide recommendation on how
world of business dominated by greed and declining moral.
to evaluate organizational performance. Langrehr (2007)
Though these needs are not new or strange, but they attract
argues that the need to develop an ethical mindset and
more concern and attention than they have done in the past
implement ethical decisions has not changed. Despite the
because the relationship between leadership and
growing literature on management in the western countries,
performance; culture and performance are important aspect
there is dearth of local studies on management practices in
of any organization. Organizational culture and leadership
Nigeria. Therefore, developing the model in this study and
have been linked to organizational performance by scholars,
assessing it with empirical measurement will yield
but the ethical justifications of this link and relationship have
considerable insight into the moderating effect of ethical
always been an unanswered question. The rationale of the
decision making on the relationship between organizational
study is to fill this existing gap in current literature. Literature
culture, leadership and performance of multinational
suggests that by developing leadership and culture,
companies in Nigeria.
organizations can achieve performance, but more
importantly, ethical decision making in organization is a
responsibility organizational culture and leadership should
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
impact above profit maximization and financial gain
Scholars and researchers in the field of organizational
objectives. The study will therefore investigate the
behavior have always been concerned about factors that
moderating effect of ethical decision making on this
affect organizational performance. These factors may be
relationship. An explanation of the research methodology
viewed at the individual and organizational level.
employed to satisfy the aims and objectives of the study is
Organizational culture and leadership are among the
given in the chapter that follows.
elements that are commonly considered, these two elements
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3. LEADERSHIP AND PERFORMANCE
hypotheses are therefore proposed in order to analyze the
Leadership has gained the attention of researchers
mentioned relationship:
worldwide, a review of literature on leadership shows that
H2: There is a significant relationship between leadership and
there is a wide variety of different theoretical attempts to
organizational culture.
describe the complexities in the process of leadership (Bass,
H3: There is a significant relationship between organizational
1990; Rost, 1991). The relationship between leadership and
culture and performance.
organizational performance have been studied by
H4: There is a mediating effect of organizational culture on
Thorlindsson (1987), Avolio, Waldman, and Einstein, (1988),
the relationship between leadership and performance.
Howell and Avolio (1993), Avolio and Bass (1993; 1995),
5. MODERATING EFFECT OF ETHICAL DECISION
Bycio et al., (1995), Behling and McFillen (1996), Ogbonna
MAKING
and Harris (2000), Xenikou and Simosi (2006), and Zehir et
Reviews of literature on the moderating effect ethical
al., (2011). In organizational management, cases of direct
decision making reveal that much of the research has been
leadership-performance relationship may be found in several
directed toward measuring organizational, personal and
accounts of organizational performance and improvements
demographics moderators such as ethical climate, ethical
due to changes in leadership. Based on the relationships
leadership, locus of control, gender, spirituality and level of
proposed in the theoretical works and findings from empirical
management. Locus of control, values, ethical climate, level
research, the following hypothesis is therefore formulated:
of management, and spirituality have been examined
H1: There is a significant relationship between leadership and
separately in a number of studies and found to be a
performance.
significant moderator by Barnett and Vaicys (2000), OKeefe
4. LEADERSHIP, ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND
and Hing (2006), Liaw, (2011), Fischer and Smith (2004),
PERFORMANCE
Obalola, (2004), Holland et al., (2010), Koo, (2009), Marshall,
Organizational culture has come of age as critical
(1995), Clark, (2004) Adawiyah et al., (2011), Young et al.,
variable to defining the success or failure of an organization.
(2000), Nair and Kamalanabhan, (2010), Avolio et al., (2009).
The concept of culture has been the subject of considerable
Based on the above review, it is hypothesized in this study
debate for many years because there are commonly used
that:
words which emphasize its critical aspects. A review of
H5: There is a moderating effect of ethical decision making
literature revealed culture as the collective programming of
on the relationship between leadership and performance.
the mind that distinguishes the members of one organization
H6: There is a moderating effect of ethical decision making
from another organization (Hofstede, 1980). Scholars have
on the relationship between organizational culture and
studied the relationships and effects of leadership on
performance.
organization culture (Hood, 2003; Kouzes and Posner, 2002;
Review of literatures on organizational culture and
Verschoor, 2006; Karadag, 2009). Bass (1985) in his study
leadership revealed that the two areas have been
demonstrated the relationship between leadership and
independently linked to organizational performance by
culture by examining the impact of different styles of
scholars. Howell and Avolio, (1993) and Bycio, Hackett &
leadership on culture. When an organizational culture
Allen (1995) in their individual studies, explored the link
develops, the organization also needs to be managed and
between leadership style and organizational performance.
controlled through effective leadership in order to achieve
The link between organizational culture and performance
performance. The survival of an organization depends on
have also been explored by Ouchi, (1981); Zehir, Ertosun,
shaping the culture by effective leadership. The mediating
Zehir & Muceldili, (2011), Deal and Kennedy, (1982);
effect of organizational culture on the relationship between
Denison, (1990). The links between the three variables of
leadership and performance have also been studied (Ogbona
leadership, organizational culture and performance have also
and Harris, 2000; Zehir et al., 2011). The relationship
been studied by Ogbonna and Harris, (2000); and Zehir et
between organizational culture and performance have been
al., (2011). Regardless of several researches in organizational
studied by Denison (1990), Rousseau (1990), Calori and
behavior linking leadership, culture and performance; little
Sernin (1991), Kotter and Heskett (1992), Gordon and Di
research attention has been devoted to understanding the
Tomaso (1992), Marcoulides and Heck (1993), Denison and
ethical dimension of the relationship. There are also not
Mishra (1995), Wilderom and Van den Berg (1998), Ogbonna
enough literature exploring the link and interrelationship of
and Harris (2000, 2002), Zehir et al., (2011). The following
organizational performance with dimensions or traits of
organizational culture and leadership given the numerous
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references to the importance of the two concepts in the
the primary data necessary for the testing of relevant
functioning of organizations. The aim of this research is to
hypotheses. The questionnaire was set in English, in Nigeria
provide empirical evidence of the moderating effect of ethical
this is the official language and the primary business
decision making on the links between the traits of
communication language. The convenience sampling method
organizational culture, leadership, and performance. This is
will be employed in this study. Questionnaires for data
achieved through the analysis of the results of a sectional
collections will be distributed in the offices in Nigeria. The
study of leadership, organizational culture moderated by
main items in the questionnaire include a revised version of
ethical decision making on perceptions of organizational
the Denison (1990) instrument known as Denison
performance of the multinational corporations operating in
Organizational Culture Survey and Denison Leadership
Nigeria. The focus in this research is on four organizations
Development Survey; and ethical decision making vignettes.
operating
in
four
industries
(banking,
food,
To solve the research problem using objective statistical
telecommunication and oil & gas) in Nigeria. The
analysis in the study, an important quantitative approach to
methodology used in this study is based on a research design
data collection was adopted. Primary data collection will
that employs quantitative technique in examining the
involve the use of survey instrument by mean of a self
relationship among the variables. This study proposes a
administered questionnaire. The questionnaires employed the
conceptual framework that examines the moderating effect of
Likert scales. The scaling technique is a widely used rating
ethical decision making on the relationship between
scale which requires the respondents to indicate a degree of
organizational culture, leadership and performance of
agreement or disagreement with each of a series of
multinational companies operating in Nigeria.
statement or questions (Albaum, 1997). This type of scale
enabled the respondents to answer the questions easily, and
6. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
also enabled the researcher measure the degree of
The preliminary empirical results of this pilot study was
agreement or disagreement by the respondents to
built on data collected from a convenience sample of 54
statements made on organizational culture, leadership, and
managers drawn from 4 multinational companies operating in
performance issues; and on the ethical decision making
4 industries. The characteristics of the population were
vignettes with the use of statistics for data interpretation. The
determined by limiting the study to managers who are
rating scale will use seven point Likert type from totally
integral part of the company based on their level of
disagree (1) to totally agree (7). Likert scale used in this
experience in managerial and organizational issues, and the
study is odd numbered, balanced the number of favorable
perceived level of their participation in company decision
and unfavorable categories. Indicating that the higher the
making process. The 4 multinational companies were selected
mean score the higher the degree of agreement.
by simple random sampling of 22 most respected companies
The organizational culture model highlights four key
in Nigeria in 2009 (Businessday and PricewaterhouseCoopers
traits that an organization should master in order to be
2009).
effective, an approach to measuring organizational culture
The objective of the survey is to obtain essential
that has been developed from a stream of research on
information and insight into the correlation and relationship
organizational culture and performance (Denison, 1990;
that exist between variables of organizational culture,
Denison & Mishra, 1995; Denison & Neale, 1996; Denison,
leadership, performance and ethical decision making in
Haaland, & Goelzer, 2004). Rooted in a strong research
Nigeria. The essence is to structure the investigation in such
foundation the model measures four traits of culture. The
a way as to identify the variables and their relationship. A
four traits are: mission, adaptability, involvement and
well articulated design is desirable for the objective of data
consistency; documented to be related to organizational
collection that will assist to address the research question as
performance. The focus on these four traits has also been
well as test the stated hypotheses. The research design
supported by other researchers interested in organizational
appropriate for this study is descriptive design. The research
culture and effectiveness (Kotter and Heskett, 1992; Gordon
and DiTomaso, 1992). Leadership model was developed from
design serves as a veritable guide for primary data
a general model of organizational culture and effectiveness
generation. This study adopts a quantitative approach to
developed by Denison (Denison, 1990; Denison and Neale,
research; the quantitative approach to research is typically
1996); and was geared toward assessing a broad array of
used to answer questions about the nature of phenomena
leadership skills and competencies that are related to building
with the purpose of describing and understanding them from
effective organizations. The model measures four traits of
participants point of view and judgment. This descriptive
research uses a questionnaire survey methodology to obtain
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leadership that are mission, adaptability, involvement and
competitors employee, insider dealing, product deceit,
consistency.
accounting malpractice, environmental pollution, employment
The importance of organizational performance is widely
discrimination, padding expenses, and software piracy.
recognized. Performance was primarily assessed using
Questions were giving after each of the vignettes, respondent
accounting based indicators. Prone to manipulation and lack
were requested to give their responses that represented their
of consistency in accounting methods are major points of
perceived evaluation or judgment and their behavioral
criticism. Discontent with these indicators and a growing
intentions in the situation of the individual or organizations
awareness that multiple and partially conflicting goals exist
decision depicted in the given vignettes. The rating scale
within profit organizations have challenged the dominance of
ranging from strongly acceptable to strongly unacceptable
this approach to organizational performance. Non-financial
wherein the responses at the lower end of the scale are
and perceptual performance indicators have recently met
termed unethical and the responses at the higher end are
with wide approval in conceptual performance literature
termed ethical.
(Wilderom et al., 2000; Wall et al., 2004). Many researchers
Given that care was taken to use mostly well-known
have used managers subjective perceptions to measure
standardized measures the survey instrument was applied to
beneficial outcome for firms (Abu-Jarad et al., 2010). Dess
managers from different organizations, segments, and levels
and Robinson (1984) argued that when objective measures of
of management. All the respondents were personally
performance are unavailable, subjective measures can
contacted to obtain their consent to participate in the pilot
represent a reasonable proxy. In this study performance was
study. In the pilot study sixty questionnaires were distributed
assessed through subjective and perceptual method.
and fifty four questionnaires were returned, the high
Respondents were requested to rate the performance of their
response rate was due to direct personal contact and followfirm relative to competitors on the scale ranging from
up of the respondents. The respondents were from four
strongly disagree to strongly agree. The subjective
different organizations, the respondents were all managers.
perceptions of mangers were used to evaluate the following:
The participants all agreed that the scope covered by the
sales or revenue growth, after tax net income, profitability or
questionnaire is very comprehensive, and none of them faced
return on asset, quality of products and services, degree of
any problem in understanding the language and the
innovation, company image, employee satisfaction, staff
requirement of the questionnaire, they also agreed with the
turnover, and employee morale. These performance metrics
structure and content of the questionnaire.
have documented over time a strong relationship to the
generic traits applied in this study (Denison, 2011).
7. DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
Ethical decision making vignettes/scenarios were used to
The SPSS version 18 was used to analyze the data,
determine respondents evaluation of questionable behaviors.
results showing the frequencies, mean, standard deviation
Vignettes consist of short and precise stories describing a
and skewness values of the variables of the pilot data
particular situation to which participants respond in a variety
collected through questionnaire were analyzed to check for
of formants (Lampe and Finn, 1992). Vignettes allow the
errors in coding and recording; and the results associated
researcher to focus on a specific area of interest, and learn
with each of the variables described in the questionnaire. An
more about specific behaviors in a particular area of interest,
internal consistency analysis was carried out to assess the
and also allow the participants opportunity to honestly
reliability of the survey instrument. The coefficient of
respond to the ethical dilemma. Accordingly, vignettes have
reliability or internal consistency means getting the same
been developed and effectively used in studying marketing
result repeatedly. Coefficient of reliability is a statistic that
ethics research (Hunt and Vitell, 1986) and accounting ethics
reflects homogeneity of the scale. According to Gatewood
research (Sweeney and Roberts, 1997). Vignettes allow
and Field (1990) reliability refers to the instruments ability to
researchers to present concrete decision making situations
provide consistent results in repeated uses. The internal
close to real life situations (Bass et al., 1999; Weber, 1992).
consistency is an indicator of how well the different items
Vignettes or scenarios are a commonly used method in
measured the same concept, it is therefore important since a
business ethics research (Erdener, 1996). Vignettes provide
group of items theoretically to measure one variable should
significant advantages over other instruments; they elicit
indeed be clearly focused on that variable. The basic measure
higher quality data (Hoffma, 1998). The moderating variable
of reliability is the Cronbach coefficient alpha (). Cronbach
in this study, ethical decision making was measured using ten
coefficient alpha measures internal consistency among a
vignettes. The following briefly summarizes the contents of
group of items combined to form a single scale. The study
the vignettes: bribery and corruption, favoritism, hiring
adopts the Cronbachs coefficient alpha to verify the internal
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consistency. Therefore a reliability test to determine the
Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics, notable the measures
internal consistency and the value of the Cronbach coefficient
of organizational culture, leadership, performance, and ethical
alpha was performed for the items corresponding to each
decision making all exhibited mean score above their
construct.
respective mid-points with reasonable dispersions of central
Table 1 shows the Cronbach alpha for different scale in
tendency, while the minimum and maximum scores indicate
the pilot study, indicating that the reliability coefficient
the range. The variables exhibit significant deviation for a
ranged from 0.7 to 0.9, which implies that some scales were
normal distribution. The variables distribution also indicates a
more reliable than others. Generally, Cronbach coefficient
negatively skewed distribution with skewness levels below 1,
alpha of 0.7 or more are considered good (Nunnally, 1978).
therefore indicating that the collected data was normal,
All the variables showed a reliability test result of more than
robust and representative of the sample.
0.7, the lowest value is organizational culture with 0.793,
The research adopts the correlation and regression
while the highest value is leadership with 0.911, and both
analyses to test the relationship between independents
with 60 items respectively. Organizational performance with
leadership and organizational culture traits and the
11 items have Cronbach coefficient alpha 0.854, and ethical
dependent variable; and to assess how much of the variance
decision making with 12 items have Cronbach coefficient
in the dependent variable is explained by these independent
alpha 0.814. These values established that each factor is
leadership and organizational culture traits. The objectives
sufficiently reliable; the results also proved that the
are to test regression coefficient and analysis of variance
questionnaire was well designed, useful and able to get
(ANOVA). The results present the coefficient of multiple
reliable results.
determinations (R square), level of significance of the
The detail demographics data related to respondents
equation, and the standardized regression coefficients (Beta).
age, gender, work industry, employment status and work
The results give both practical and statistical support for the
experience are reported with frequencies and percentages.
research model.
These major characteristics of respondent demographic have
Regression analysis of leadership on performance as
been established to exert effect on organizational behavior
shown in table 3 indicates that 46.9% of the variance (R
construct. In the study, a high percentage of the respondents
square) is explained by the model, that is 46.9% of the
were the economically active young age between 30-39 years
change in the dependent variable is explained by this
who were about 46.3%, followed by those in the age group
independent variable, the F value indicates that model can
of 29 years or less with about 24.1%, while the other
explain 46.00 times more variance than using the average
contributions came from 40-49 years with 20.4%, and 50-59
independent variable (not likely to happen by chance). The
years with 5.6%. The lowest contribution came from the
variance explained is significant for the model. The result
adult age 60 years or above with 3.7%. There was a good
shows that leadership has significant relationship with
representation of both genders in the sample. The male with
performance, beta value is 0.685, and at .000 significant
59.3% were more than the female with 40.7%. On the work
level. The regression analyses of the four leadership traits
industry selection, many of the respondents (35.2%) work as
(involvement, consistency, adaptability and mission) on
managers in the telecommunication industry, while 37.0%
performance were done separately. The result shows that
work in the manufacturing industry, about 14.8% work in oil
leadership involvement has significant relationship with
and gas industry, and 13.0% work in IT industry. Majority of
performance at .000 significant level. With beta value 0.589,
the respondents, about 55.6% have work experience
it contributes 34.6% of the variance (R square). The result
between 6-9 years, while 24.1% have work experience of 10
also shows that leadership consistency has significant
years or above, and 20.4% were relatively young managers
relationship with performance at .000 significant level. The
having worked for 5 years or less. In terms of employment
regression
analysis
of
leadership
adaptability
on
organizational performance indicates that leadership
status of the respondents as shown in figure4.5, the
adaptability has significant relationship with organizational
distribution of the respondents employment status shows
performance at .000 significant level. The regression analysis
that 70.4% worked in middle level management of their
of leadership mission on organizational performance also
respective organizations, while 22.2% were top level
indicates that leadership mission has significant relationship
management, and 7.4% were lower level management.
with organizational performance at .000 significant level. With
The initial analysis of data was undertaken by the
beta value 0.569, the R square and adjusted R square values
examination of the descriptive statistics of measures of
show a good level of the ability of leadership mission to
leadership, organizational culture, performance and ethical
explain performance by 32.3%. The correlation coefficients
decision making. The items were measured on 7-point scales.
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indicate a significant relationship between independent
standard approach of estimating three regression equations
leadership, the four leadership traits and the dependent
using ordinary least square (Baron and Kenny, 1986) was
variable. The results correspond with result reported by
applied here. Organizational culture mediates the relationship
Denison et al., (2006).
between leadership and organizational performance if the
The analysis of organizational culture on performance
independent variable X (leadership) affects the dependent
indicates that a contribution of 35.9% of the variance (R
variable Y (performance); and X (leadership) affects another
square) is explained by the model, the F value indicates that
variable M (organizational culture), and M (organizational
model can explain 29.06 times more variance than using the
culture) in turn affects Y (performance). The path = 0 if the
average independent variable (not likely to happen by
entire effect goes through M (organizational culture), the
chance). The variance explained is significant for the model.
path 0 if the entire effect does not go through M
The result shows that organizational culture has significant
(organizational culture), indicating full and partial mediating
relationship with performance at .000 significant level. The
effect respectively. From the regression analysis result,
regression analyses of the four organizational culture traits
organizational culture mediates the relationship between
(involvement, consistency, adaptability and mission) on
leadership and performance if YX.M, the effect of M
performance were done separately. The result shows that
(organizational culture) on Y (performance) in the present of
culture involvement has significant relationship with
X (leadership) is statistically significant, given that MX, the
performance at .000 significant level. The result also shows
effect of X (leadership) on M (organizational culture) is
that culture consistency has no significant relationship with
statistically significant. YM.X is represented by multiple
performance. With beta value 0.220, it contributes only 4.8%
regression equation: y = a + b1X + b2M + e
rganizational culture fully mediates the relationship if
of the variance (R square). Also from the analysis culture
YM.X, the effect of X (leadership) on Y (performance) in the
adaptability has significant relationship with organizational
present of M (organizational culture) is non-significant, and
performance at .001 significant level. With beta value 0.427,
partially mediates if the value is significant. YM.X is
the R square and adjusted R square values show a good level
represented by multiple regression equation: y = a2 + b1X +
of the ability to explain performance by 18.2%. The analysis
b2M + e2The regression analysis tables 5 shows that the
of culture mission on performance indicates that culture
direct effect of leadership on performance when
mission has significant relationship with performance at .000
organizational culture is absent is significant at 0.0000,
significant level. With beta value 0.494, the R square value
coefficient of estimate is 0.7796; the direct effect of
shows a good level of the ability of leadership mission to
leadership on organizational culture is also significant at
explain performance by 24.4%. The correlation coefficients
0.0000, coefficient of estimate is 0.5304; the total effect of
indicate a significant relationship between independent
leadership on performance in the present of organizational
organizational culture, organizational culture traits (except
culture is not significant at 0.1567, coefficient of estimate is
consistency) and the dependent variable. The results almost
0.3300; and the total effect of organizational culture on
correspond with result reported by Frey and Denison (2003)
performance in the present of leadership is significant at
and Denison et al., (2006). The regression analysis of
0.0007, coefficient of estimate is 0.6045; fully mediating
leadership on organizational culture as shown in table 3
effect of organizational culture on the relationship between
indicates that leadership has significant relationship with
leadership and performance is found here.
organizational culture at .000 significant level. With beta
The moderating or intervening variable influences or
value 0.731, the R square value shows a good level of the
changes the effect of independent variable on the dependent
ability of leadership to explain organizational culture by
variable either by decreasing or increasing it, with an
53.4%. It means that 53.4% of the change in dependent
interaction effect, it changes, modifies, or impacts the
variable is explained by this independent variable.
strength of the relationship, and it affects the direction of the
Table 4 shows the initial exploration of data to examine
relationship or link. The hierarchical multiple regression
the descriptive statistics of measures of performance,
analysis was used here. Moderating or interaction can be
leadership and culture. Developing and testing mediating
tested by creating an interaction term, if this interaction
effect is to understand the drivers of a dependent variable or
variable results in a significant increase in R square when it is
outcome, testing what influences outcome or dependent
added, a moderating effect can be asserted. The regression
variable, rather than accepting the independent variables are
analysis result table 6 shows the interaction of ethical
significantly related to the dependent variable. Testing
decision making on the relationship between leadership and
mediating effect helps evaluate if the relationship is direct or
performance. The result shows a significant interaction (p<
indirect through another variable, (the mediator). The
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ISSN 2250-1665
0.05) when ethical decision making variable was added, the R
on the relationship of organizational culture involvement on
square change is 0.0598 (5%), the change is significant, F (1,
performance, there was a significant interaction when ethical
50) = 6.67, p = 0.0127, hence ethical decision making have a
decision making variable was added, the R square change is
moderating effect on the relationship between leadership and
0.0710 (7%), the change is significant at F (1, 50) = 5.33, p
performance.
= 0.0251, hence ethical decision making have a moderating
The analysis result also show the interaction of ethical
effect on the relationship between organizational culture
decision making on the relationship of leadership involvement
involvement and performance. The result shows the
on performance, There was a significant interaction (p <0.05)
regression analysis of the interaction of ethical decision
when ethical decision making variable was added, the R
making on the relationship of organizational culture
square change is 0.1295 (12%), the change is significant, F
consistency on performance. The R square change and
(1, 50) = 13.03, p = 0.0007, hence ethical decision making
significant F change values after the interaction of ethical
have a moderating effect on the relationship between
decision making as the moderating variable are significant,
leadership involvement and performance. The result also
the R square change is 0.0969, the change is significant at F
shows the regression analysis of the interaction of ethical
(1, 50) = 5.87, p = 0.0190, ethical decision making was
decision making on the relationship of leadership consistency
found to have a significant moderating effect on the
on performance. From the R square change and significant F
relationship between organizational culture consistency and
change values after the interaction of ethical decision making
performance. The result shows the interaction of ethical
as the moderating variable, the R square change is 0.1577,
decision making on the relationship of organizational culture
the change is significant at F (1, 50) = 15.44, p = 0.0003,
adaptability on performance. From the R square change and
ethical decision making was found to have a significant
moderating effect (p<.05) on the relationship between
decision making as the moderating variable, the R square
leadership consistency and performance. The analysis also
change is 0.0032, the change is not significant at F (1, 50) =
shows the regression results of the interaction of ethical
0.19, p = 0.6594, ethical decision making was found not to
decision making on the relationship of leadership adaptability
have a significant moderating effect on the relationship
on performance. From the R square change and significant F
between organizational culture adaptability and performance.
The analysis result also shows the interaction of ethical
as the moderating variable, the R square change is 0.0790,
decision making on the relationship of organizational culture
the change is significant at F (1, 50) = 6.20, p = 0.0161,
mission on performance. The R square value before the
ethical decision making was found to have a significant
interaction is 0.421 (42%). The R square change and
moderating (p<0.05) effect on the relationship between
leadership adaptability and performance. The result shows
decision making as the moderating variable are significant,
the regression analysis of the interaction of ethical decision
the R square change is 0.1658 (16%), the change is
making on the relationship of leadership mission on
significant at F (1, 50) = 14.32, p = 0.0004, ethical decision
performance. The R square value before the interaction is
making was found to have a significant moderating effect on
0.4194 (41%). From the R square change and significant F
the relationship between organizational culture mission and
performance.
as the moderating variable, the R square change is 0.0677
8. CONCLUSIONS
(6%), the change is significant at F (1, 50) = 5.83, p =
Rsearchers have argued that there is an interaction
0.0194, ethical decision making was found to have a
between leadership, organizational culture and organizational
significant moderating effect (p <0.05) on the relationship
performance (Ogbonna and Harris, 2000; Denison, 1990).
between leadership mission and performance.
Results for this pilot study in Nigerian context of the
he analysis result also shows the interaction of ethical
moderating effect of ethical decision making on the
decision making on the relationship between organizational
relationship between leadership, organizational culture and
culture and performance. The interaction effect is significant
performance show that leadership and four traits of
(p <.05) when ethical decision making variable was added,
leadership (involvement, consistency, adaptability, and
the R square change is 0.0662 (6%), the change is significant
mission) are significantly related to organizational
at F (1, 50) = 5.81, p = 0.0196, hence ethical decision
performance, this is consistent with the findings of Denison
making have a moderating effect on the relationship between
(1990). Likewise, organizational culture and three traits of
organizational culture and performance. Likewise on the
organizational culture (involvement, consistency, and
analysis results of the interaction of ethical decision making
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ISSN 2250-1665
mission) are significantly related to organizational
Behling, O., & McFillen, J. (1996). A syncretical model

performance, this is consistent with the findings of Denison,
charismatic / transformational leadership, Group and
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Organization Management, 21(2): 120-160.
adaptability is however not significantly related to
Bycio, P., Hackett, R.D., & Allen, J.S. (1995). Further

performance. The results also show that organizational
assessments of Bass (1985) conceptualization of
culture mediates the relationship between leadership and
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Applied Psychology, 80(4), 468-78.
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Calori, R., & Sarnin, P. (1991). Corporate Culture and

making moderates the relationship between leadership and
Economic Performance: A French Study, Organization
performance; four traits of leadership and performance;
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organizational culture and performance; and three traits of
Clark, N. L. (2004). The moderating effect of spirituality

organizational culture and performance.
on the relationship between stressful life events and
depression and anxiety among adolescents. ETD
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Table 4: Descriptive Statistics and Pearson
Correlations
Table 5: Direct and total effects
Table 6: Model Summary
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ISSN 2250-1665
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A STUDY OF LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY TRENDS IN

ORGANISED MANUFACTURING SECTOR
OF ODISHA, INDIA.
Satya Ranjan Nayak*, Dr. Sudhakar Patra**, Mrs. Madhusmita Samal***
*Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Gandhi Institute for Technological Advancement, Bhubaneswar
At: Badaraghunathpur, Po: Madanpur Dist: Khordha, Odisha., India, Pin: 752054
**Professor of Economics, Ravenshaw University, Cuttack, Odisha, India
***Asst. Professor. of Economics, Gandhi Institute for Technological Advancement, Bhubaneswar,
Odisha., India, Pin: 752054
ABSTRACT
This paper attempts to measure the trends of labour productivity in organised manufacturing sector of the state of Odisha,
India during 1998-99 to 2008-09 and to know the structure and growth of registered manufacturing factory sector in the
state. We have taken total factor productivity as the observed value which is defined as the ratio between the output and
combined inputs. For the purpose of analyse the labour productivity index, a null hypotheses have been tested with
alternative hypotheses with the help of chi-square test. We found from the study that the index of labour productivity is
approximately as a straight-line trend in case of organised manufacturing sector of the state of Odisha, India but the growth
rate of TFP (Total factor productivity) is fluctuating during the study period.
Key Words : Labour productivity, Total factor productivity, Technical change and Net value added.
JEL: L60, J01, D24
1. INTRODUCTION:
Productivity analysis has been proved to be very useful
at the various level of economic organization and productivity
measurement which is also an important tool for economic
and social analysis. It is the best way for the studying the
rate of growth of an economy and for judging the stage of
economic development attained by a nation. Through interregional and international comparisons of productivity, efforts
have been made to locate the factors responsible for rapid
growth and competitive strength.
More recently, labor
productivity growth has been recognized as an important
indicator of economic progress and as a means to higher
income levels. Productivity is a measure of the capacity to
create goods and services from a given amount of labour,
capital, materials, land, knowledge, time, or any combination
of these. It is measured, basically, as output per unit of input,
where the input could be land, labour, capital, etc. The term
Labour Productivity is generally defined as the ratio of
physical amount of output achieved in a given period to the
consequent amount of labour spent. Changes in Labour
productivity reflect the joint influence of changes in capital,
intermediate inputs, as well as technical, organizational and
efficiency change within and between firms, the influence of
economies of scale, varying degrees of capacity utilisation
and measurement errors.
There are various types of methods for calculating the
labour productivity. Very simple method describe in the above
definition. Output divided by input another method the

output per man-years of man-hour and the input per manyears or per man-hour. In the present research study labour
input calculated by cost/expenses labour productivity and
capacity of utilization could be general indices, which are
easily understandable and could be the basis for
measurement labour productivity.
The industrial topology of the state of Odisha varies
widely, but most of them are mineral based and engaged in
primary manufacturing activities. The state industrial scenario
is dominated by iron and steel, power, cement, Ferro alloy,
sponge iron, pulp and paper and fertilizer industries. In small
scale sector rice mills, stone crushers and brick kilns have a
significant presence in the state. This study aims to evaluate
the trends of labour productivity in organised manufacturing
sector of the state of Odisha, India from 1998-99 to 2008-09
with the help of a statistical tool i.e. chi- square test from the
data source provided below.
- 35 -
TABLE-1
(NO. OF REGISTERED INDUSTRIES, VALUE OF OUTPUT, VALUE OF INPUT AND NET VALUE ADDED &
DEPRECIATION IN ORGANISED MANUFACTURING SECTOR OF ODISHA, INDIA)
Source: Economic Survey, Odisha: 2010-11
2. PURPOSE BEHIND THE STUDY:

The purposes of productivity measurement include:
Technology: A frequently stated objective of measuring

productivity growth is to trace technical change. Technology
has been described as the currently known ways of
converting resources into outputs desired by the economy
(Griliches, 1987)5 and appears either in its intangible form
(such as new blueprints, scientific results, new organizational
techniques) or embodied in new products (advances in the
design and quality of new vintages of capital goods and
intermediate inputs).
Efficiency: The quest for identifying changes in

efficiency is conceptually different from identifying technical
change. Full efficiency in an engineering sense means that a
production process has achieved the maximum amount of
output that is physically achievable with current technology,
and given a fixed amount of inputs (Diewert and Lawrence,
1999)3. Technical efficiency gains are thus a movement
towards best practice, or the elimination of technical and
organizational inefficiencies. Not every form of technical
efficiency makes, however, economic sense, and this is
captured by the notion of allocative efficiency, which implies
profit-maximising behaviour on the side of the firm. One
notes that when productivity measurement concerns the
industry level, efficiency gains can either be due to improved
efficiency in individual establishments that make up the
industry or to a shift of production towards more efficient
establishments.
Real cost savings: A pragmatic way to describe the
essence of measured productivity change. Although it is
conceptually possible to isolate different types of efficiency
changes, technical change and economies of scale, this
remains a difficult task in practice. Productivity is typically
measured residually and this residual captures not only the
above-mentioned factors but also changes in capacity

utilisation, learning-by-doing and measurement errors of all
kinds. Harberger (1998)6 re-stated the point that there is a
myriad of sources behind productivity growth and labeled it
the real cost savings. In this sense, productivity measurement
in practice could be seen as a quest to identify real cost
savings in production.
Benchmarking production processes: In the field of

business economics, comparisons of productivity measures
for specific production processes can help to identify
inefficiencies. Typically, the relevant productivity measures
are expressed in physical units (e.g. cars per day, passengermiles per person) and highly specific. This fulfils the purpose
of factory-to-factory comparisons, but has the disadvantage
that the resulting productivity measures are difficult to
combine or aggregate.
Living standards: Measurement of productivity is a key

element towards assessing standards of living. A simple
example is per capita income, probably the most common
measure of living standards: income per person in an
economy varies directly with one measure of labour
productivity, value added per hour worked. In this sense,
measuring labour productivity helps to better understand the
development of living standards. Another example is the
long-term trend in multifactor productivity (MFP). This
indicator is useful in assessing an economys underlying
productive capacity (potential output), itself an important
measure of the growth possibilities of economies and of
inflationary pressures.
1.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE:
Sarbapriya Ray(2012)10 in a study of Measuring and
Decomposing Sources of Productivity Performance in Indias
Paper and Pulp Industry under Liberalized Regime: A

ISSN 2250-1665
Nonparametric Approach developed a methodology in
D.H.Manjappa, and M. Mahesha (2008)9 in a study of
measuring productivity growth by decomposing it into
Measurement of productivity growth, efficiency change and
technical change and technical efficiency change in Indias
technical progress of selected capital-intensive and labourpaper industry. He applied Malmquist Productivity Index
intensive industries during reform period in India. examined
method to different sub-sectors of Indias Paper and pulp
the total factor productivity growth (TFPG) and its
industry at aggregate level in order to have trend in
components TE (technological progress) and TEC (technical
productivity growth covering a period of 28 years
efficiency change) in ten manufacturing industries, classified
commencing from 1979-80 to 2006-07.Finally, he found that
them into capital-intensive and labour-intensive industries
decline in growth rate of TFP in Indian paper and pulp
(five in each segment) using annual time series data for the
Industry during post-reforms (1991-92 to 2006-07) period
period 1994 to 2004. The TFP growth is estimated by
showing adverse impact of liberalization at aggregate level
applying Malmquist Productivity Index (MPI) on the panel
only due to Non-responding technical efficiency change and
data of aforesaid segments separately. The study finds that
the deteriorating technical change.
the average TFP growth in the capital-intensive industry
Dr.A.Palaniappan, (2010)1 in his study Performance of
segment grew at a moderate rate of 1.7 per cent per annum
small scale industries in India in the post-liberalization era
during the entire study period, whereas, its counterpart,
studied that the relative efficiency of different inputs by using
selected labour-intensive industries have shown a productivity
partial factor productivity of labour and capital for the small
regress, it is -0.9per cent. The decomposition of TFP
scale industry in India during the post liberalization period.
improvement into technical efficiency change (catching-up
Further an attempt has been made to estimate the influence
effect) and technological progress (frontier shift) reveals that
of output and technology on factor productivities with the
the TFP growth is primarily contributed by technological
help of multiple regression frame work. The study also aimed
progress rather than by technical efficiency change in capitalto examine and analyze production function in small scale
intensive industries whereas in labour intensive industries low
industry in India during the liberalization era. It includes the
growth of technical efficiency (0.5 per cent) has been offset
estimation of partial elasticity of output with respect to labour
by a higher rate of decline in technological progress.
and capital, returns to scale, technological progress and the
Jesus Feliep(2008)4 in a study of What policymakers
should know about Total factor productivity emphasized on
sources of output growth at India. Lastly, the labour elasticity
the improvement of total factor productivity for the
of output is found to be a more important factor than capital
development of any countries across developing Asia. He also
in terms of factor elasticity, marginal productivity and
discussed some of the important issues and problems
relative contribution to the output growth at India for small
regarding TFP calculation. Finally, he concluded that if higher
scale Industry. Further increase in labour productivity is
labour productivity growth is indeed a desirable productivity,
attributed to capital deepening.
a policy agenda towards higher productivity growth should be
Ravindra H. Dholakia,Astha Agarwalla,Amir Bashir Bazaz
2
carefully designed so as to avoid government failure and
and Prasoon Agarwal (2009) in their study Trends in
Technical Progress in India Analysis of Input-Output Tables
reduce institutional failure.
from 1968 to 2003 used the 8 Input Output (I-O) tables
Sadhan Kumar Chattopadhyay (2004)11 in a study of
Trends in Total Factor Productivity of Manufacturing Sector
for the Indian economy available over a period of 36 years
in West Bengal: A Sectoral and Temporal Analysis studied
from 1968-69 to 2003-04. The technical progress (TP) in the
the productivity of capital and labour for the two digit
context of the I-O tables is based on the concept of a
industry groups and the total factor productivity (TFP) of the
production function defining the relationship between gross
manufacturing sector of West Bengal as a whole vis--vis alloutput and material inputs as well as value added at the
India and also for some selected groups of industries for
disaggregated sectoral level. Then, they studied that on the
West Bengal. He found that growth of labour productivity in
whole, considering that international trade in general and
the manufacturing sector as a whole increased from 1.6 per
export growth in particular is treated on par with technical
cent in 1970s to 2.6 per cent in the 1980s and further to 5.7
change in the economy, the latter phase of outward looking
per cent in 1990s. Moreover, the total factor productivity of
growth strategy would be having positive impact on the
the manufacturing sector of the State declined during the
technological change in the economy. They have also found
period, whereas it has gone up at the all-India level.
that almost 80 per cent of the sectors in the Indian economy
Ulrich Kohli(2004)8 in a study of Labour Productivity vs.
experienced statistically constant rate of technical change
Total Factor Productivity examined the relationship between
over the whole period of 36 years.
two important measures of labour productivity i.e. labour
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Null Hypothesis: - The labour productivity indices may be
productivity and total factor productivity. He used beyond the
represented by the straight line based on least square
usual and rather restrictive two-input, one output production
method.
function setting. Finally he came to a conclusion that behind
Alternative Hypothesis: The line of the fit cant describe
labour productivity there are number of forces as:
Labour productivity indices.
technological changes, capital deepening, terms of trade
Level of significant: 5 percent
changes and changes in the real exchange rate.
Statistical tool used: chi-square test
Vidya Rajaram Iyer(2001)7 in a study of A comparative
analysis of sources of output growth, factor substitution and
CHI-SQUARE (2) =
technical progress in the manufacturing industries of India
Critical value: - 18.3
vis--vis the USA made an attempt to trace the sources of
If the calculated value of chi-square remains less than
output growth, factor substitution and estimates of Hicks
the critical value, the null hypothesis would mean that the
neutral technical progress for twenty-four three digit level
computed value of the indices is based on the least square
disaggregation of industries for India vis--vis the USA during
straight line trend. It may represent the pattern and growth
the period 1985-86 to 2006- 2007. Studies also have
of the labour productivity
examined the role of technical progress on output expansion.
Since, there are constraints on resource expansion in
5. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION:
developing economies, studies have stressed the need to
Table No. 2 and 3 describe the labour productivity ratio
improve factor use patterns and technical efficiency in the
and index of labour productivity average of labour indices,
use of resources in accelerating the phase of output
co-efficient of variation and value of chi-square for the
expansion in the industrial manufactures.
organised manufacturing sector of Odisha. Table No.-2
reveals that throughout the study period the output increases
4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:
with the increase in input but important point is to note that
4.1 Hypotheses:
TFP ( Total factor productivity) i.e. productivity ratio is
For the purpose of measuring the labour productivity,
fluctuating during the study period. In the year 1998 the TFP
null hypotheses have been tested with alternative hypotheses
is 1.3598 but in 2001-02 it is 1.2630 where as in the year
for the purpose of analysis labour productivity indices. The
2006-7 the value of TFP is 1.4123.The average TFP is 1.3574
firth hypothesis shows A Study of Labour Productivity Trends
which is greater than the values of the year 1999 to 2003-04
in organised manufacturing sector of Odisha, India whether
and the average is also less than in the year 2004-05 to
the labour productivity indices can be approximately as a
2008-09. The coefficient variance is 5.127 and the standard
straight-line trend. The second hypothesis is whether there is
deviation also indicated 0.0696. So, it is clear from the
any significant difference in the labour productivity of the
analysis that the trend is fluctuating during the study period.
selected industries of Odisha, India.
4.2 Hypothesis Based on Chi-square
TABLE-2 ANALYSIS OF LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY IN ORGANISED MANUFACTURING SECTOR OF ODISHA
Productivity index = X
Trend value: YC = a +bx
Yc = 99.82+ 1.103 X (By using the Least Square method of Time Series Analysis.)
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TABLE-3 Calculation of Chi- square Value

Productivity Index = Observed Value (O),
Trend Value = Expected Value (E)
FIGURE-3(TREND OF TOTAL FACTOR PRODUCTIVITY)
The computed value of chi-square is 4.007 which is less

than the critical value of 18.3, therefore the null hypothesis is
accepted and alternative hypothesis is rejected. It means that
the labour productivity index follow the trend value but the
trend of TFP value is fluctuating during the study period. The
above analysis may be supported by the following figure-1
and 2 and 3
FIGURE-1 (TREND OF OUTPUT & INPUT)
FIGURE-2 (TREND VALUE OF LABOUR

PRODUCTIVITY INDEX)
ISSN 2250-1665
5. CONCLUSION:
In the study the null hypotheses is accepted and
alternative hypotheses is rejected .On the basis of these
findings, it can be said with reasonable degree of confidence
that the pattern and growth of the labour productivity in the
organised manufacturing sector of Odisha follows the trend
value. It indicates that with the increase of inputs, the level
of output is increasing only due to the effect of efficiency
parameter that is technological changes which has been
adopted in the said industries from time to time. It is also
known that labour productivity depends on a technological
process, reliability of units of machine and structure of the
machine. The contributions of this paper are in developing of
the new approach for calculating of labour productivity.
Reference:
Dr.A.Palaniappan, (2010) , Performance of small scale

industries in India in the post-liberalization era IJBEMR
Volume 1, Issue 2 (December, 2010) PP 100-118
Dholakia, Ravindra H. Agarwalla,Astha, Bazaz, Amir

Bashir and Agarwal ,Prasoon (2009) Trends in Technical
Progress in India Analysis of Input-Output Tables from
1968 to 2003 IIMA INDIA Research and Publications W.P.
No. 2009-11-02 Page No.1- 22
Diewert, Erwin W. and Denis Lawrence (1999),

Measuring New Zealands Productivity, Treasury Working
Paper 99/5, http://www.treasury.govt.nz/workingpapers/995.htm
Feliep, Jesus (2008), What policymakers should know

about Total factor productivity, Malaysian Journal of
Economic Studies, Vol.45 No.1 PP 1-19
Griliches, Zvi (1987), Productivity: Measurement

Problems, in J. Eatwell, M. Milgate and P. Newman (eds.),
The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics.
Harberger, Arnold C. (1998), A Vision of the Growth

Process, American Economic Review, March.
- 39 -

Iyer, Vidya Rajaram (2001) A comparative analysis of

sources of output growth, factor substitution and technical
progress in the manufacturing industries of India vis--vis the
USA Journal of Asian Research Consortium, AJRBF, Volume
1, Issue 1, PP 50-78
Kohli Ulrich (2004) Labour Productivity vs. Total Factor

Productivity Paper prepared for the annual Irving Fisher
Committee conference, Bank for Settlements, Basel, 9-10
Septmber-2004, PP 01-21
Manjappa,D.H., and Mahesha.M. (2008) Measurement

of productivity growth, efficiency change and technical
progress of selected capital-intensive and labour-intensive
industries
during
reform
period
in
India.
Indian Journal of Economics and Business,
2008
Source
Volume: 7 Source Issue: 1 PP 1-14
Sarbapriya Ray (2012) Measuring and Decomposing

Sources of Productivity Performance in Indias Paper and Pulp
Industry under Liberalized Regime: A Nonparametric
Approach International Journal of Economic Sciences and
Applied Research Vol 5 (1): PP147-171
Sadhan Kumar Chattopadhyay(2004) Trends in Total

Factor Productivity of Manufacturing Sector in West Bengal: A
Sectoral and Temporal Analysis Reserve Bank of India
Occasional Papers Vol. 25, No. 1, 2 and 3, Summer, Monsoon
and Winter 2004, PP 75- 103
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ISSN 2250-1665
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EFFICIENCY PARAMETERS OF COMMERCIAL

BANKS IN INDIA- AN EMPIRICAL STUDY
Dr. R.K. Uppal*, Amit Juneja**
*Principal Investigator, UGC Financed Major Research Project, D.A.V. College, Malout (Punjab)
**Research ScholarDept. of Economics, Panjab University, Chandigarh.
ABSTRACT
Banking sector reforms in India has introduced the concept of efficiency and productivity on a larger scale than before. Banks
now a day are mainly worried and concerned about their performance on the parameters that determine their profitability
and only those bank groups are considered as successful which are capable in accelerating their pace of profit making. For
this purpose a comparative study is done between public, private and foreign sector bank group w.r.t. their total income,
total expenditure, net profits, business per employee and profit per employee. t-Ratio was computed to see significant
difference on selected parameters between different bank groups. The study concludes that there is significant difference
exists on four out of five selected parameters except profit per employee between public sector and private sector bank
group. There is significant difference on all the selected parameters between public and foreign sector bank group. There is
also significant difference exists on all the selected parameters between private and foreign sector bank group.
Key Words : Business per Employee, Efficiency, Net Profits, Profit per Employee, Total Expenditure, Total
Income.
1. INTRODUCTION:
in 1992. These reforms are expected to have an impact on
The importance of financial system for the economic
the operations of commercial banks. Also, one of the
development of the any nation is well recognized in the
important objectives of financial sector reforms was to
modern day scenario. Banks are the real backbone of
improve the efficiency of banking system on almost all the
financial systems and play a significant role in economic
parameters concerned with its efficiency.
development of the country. They act as intermediaries in
Deregulation of the Indian financial system in 1991
channelizing funds from surplus units to deficit units. An
followed by various financial sector reforms during the period
efficient banking system has significant positive externalities,
1990 through 1998 led to a major restructuring of the Indian
which increases the efficiency of economic transaction in
banking industry. This includes reductions in the CRR and
general.
SLR which were as high as 15 % and 38.5% respectively in
As far as the Banking sector in India is concerned, it is
1991, and preempted 53.5 % of incremental deposits. These
broadly classified into three categories namely Public Sector
rates were reduced in a series of steps. Today CRR and SLR
Bank Group which include Nationalized Banks and SBI and its
are 4.50pc and 23.00pc respectively. Also the ceiling on
associates, Private Sector Bank Group which include Old
interest rate structure has been removed, freedom is
Private Sector Banks and New Private Sector Banks and
provided to Private Banks and Foreign Banks in order of their
Foreign Sector Bank Group. All these bank groups are doing
banking operations, IT Act was implemented and e-Banking
banking operations for different objectives to achieve. These
system has been launched etc. All these measures and
bank groups always compete with each other on different
modifications have positively affected the financial system as
grounds and parameters. But one thing should be kept in
respect to their efficiency. But on the other side, with
mind that the public sector banks continue to dominate the
increased competition, declining margins on current business
banking industry, in terms of lending and borrowing, and it
operations, higher costs and greater risks, banking industry in
has widely spread out its branches which help greatly in
general, had to face a two pronged challenge. They had on
pooling up of resources as well as in revenue generation for
the one hand, to enhance their productivity and on the other,
credit creation. But it doesnt mean that the other two groups
increase their ability to serve the nation in new ways with
are lagging behind than public sector banks as far as the
greater efficiency and effectiveness.
efficiency is concerned, though in some areas they are more
Scheme of the Paper
profitable and efficient than the public sector banks.
The plan of research report has been framed under six
The Indian banking sector saw a major shift in the policy
sections:atmosphere after the introduction of financial sector reforms
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ISSN 2250-1665
Section-I gives the introduction of the problem taken for
to hold a Savings and/or Current Account in any of the retail
study.
banks in Malaysia. A sample of 117 respondents was taken
Section -II deals with review of related literature.
for the study. The findings reveal that assurance has positive
Section -III objectives, hypothesis, data base, statistical
relationship but it has no significant effect on customer
techniques and research methodology.
satisfaction. Reliability has negative relationship but it has no
Section -IV deals with the analysis and interpretation of data.
significant effect on customer satisfaction. Tangibles have
Section-V deals with conclusions and implications of the
positive relationship and have significant impact on customer
study.
satisfaction. Empathy has positive relationship but it has no
Section-VI deals with future areas of research.
significant effect on customer satisfaction. Responsiveness
2. Review of Related Literature
has positive relationship but no significant impact on
Das, S.K. (2010) conducted a study on the Indian banking
customer satisfaction. The study highlights implications for
industry with regard to financial liberalization and banking
marketers in banking industry for improvement in delivery of
sector efficiency for a time period of 1980-2007. Using
service quality.
Stochastic approach and RBI data for 60 Indian commercial
Das, A. and Ghosh, S. (2009) conducted a study on
banks on the basis of empirical investigation, the study
financial deregulation and profit efficiency of Indian banks for
concludes that after financial liberalization there has been no
a time period of 1992 to 2004. Using Non-Parametric DEA
significant change in the cost efficiency of the public sector
Methodology and Univariate analysis and determinants of
banks and the domestic private sector banks are becoming
efficiency, the study indicate high level of efficiency in costs
more efficient in comparison to the public sector and the
and lower levels in profits, reflecting the importance of
foreign banks.
inefficiencies on the revenue side of banking activity. The
Kumar, S & Gulati R. (2010) examines whether the effect
proximate determinants of profit efficiency appear to suggest
of ownership on the efficiency of Indian domestic banks is
that big state owned banks performed reasonably well and
significant. The efficiency scores for public and private sector
more likely to operate at higher levels of profit efficiency. A
banks were computed using a deterministic, non-parametric
close relationship is observed between efficiency and
and linear programming based frontier technique, which is
soundness as determined by banks capital adequacy ratio.
popularly known as Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA). Using
Musonda, A. (2008) conducted a study on the
the cross-sectional data of the public and private sector
determinants of cost efficiency in the Zambian Banking Sector
banks, which operated in the financial years 2005-06 and
for a time period of 1998 to 2006. Using translog stochastic
2006-07, the study finds that (1) The new private sector
frontier cost function, conditional mean inefficiency model,
banks dominate the formation of efficient frontier of Indian
stochastic frontier approach, data envelopment analysis, the
domestic banking industry; (2) The overall technical
study concludes that the efficiency gap between domestic
inefficiency stems primarily from managerial inefficiency (as
banks and foreign banks remains wide. Bank continue to
reflected by pure technical inefficiency) rather than scale
exhibit poor risk assessment technique as exemplified by
inefficiency; and (3) Though the efficiency differences
higher loan loss provisions.
Vimi Jham & Kaleem Mohd Khan(2008) conducted a
between the public and private sector banks have been
study among five Indian banks, aimed at identifying customer
noted, these differences are statistically insignificant in most
satisfaction variables which lead to relationship building, and
of the instances. On the whole, the study concludes that
developing a conceptual framework of relationship marketing
ownership does not matter in the Indian domestic banking
practices in Indian banks by capturing the perspectives of
industry.
customers with respect to their satisfaction with various
Munusamy, J. et al. (2010) conducted this research
services. It also sought to identify whether demographics
focused on the measurement of customer satisfaction
have a role to play in customer satisfaction. A questionnaire
through delivery of service quality in the banking sector in
designed from a literature review and in-depth interviews
Malaysia. A quantitative research was used to study the
were utilized to arrive at the 16 variables which determined
relationship between service quality dimensions and customer
the satisfaction of 555 customers of the five banks. The
satisfaction. The methodology employed in obtaining
findings suggest that while private banks have been able to
information about customer satisfaction in banking via a
attract the younger customers with higher educational levels,
survey conducted at a sample of the general consumer
who are comfortable with multi channel banking, the
population. The survey questionnaire is design and
customers of the national bank are older and more satisfied
distributed to target respondent randomly. Targeted
with the traditional facilities. The results from this study could
respondents are the general public who are at the legal age
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ISSN 2250-1665
provide managerial lessons on assessment of strengths and
3. Objectives
improvement of services and in evolving a research strategy
To find out significant difference in Total Income of

that will benefit the management of banks.
Public, Private and Foreign sector bank groups in India.
Madhavankutty (2007) concludes the banking system in
To find out significant difference in Total Expenditure of

India has attained enough maturity and is ready to address
Public, Private and Foreign sector bank groups in India.
prudential management practices as comprehensively as
To find out significant difference in Net Profits of Public,

possible, which an integral part of policy is making. Banking
Private and Foreign sector bank groups in India.
in India is poised to enter yet another phase of reforms once
To find out significant difference in Business per

the door opens further to foreign players in 2009. This
Employee of Public, Private and Foreign sector bank groups in
requires further improvement in technology management,
India.
human resource management and the ability to foresee rapid
To find out significant difference in Profit per Employee

changes in the financial landscape and adopt quickly. At
of Public, Private and Foreign sector bank groups in India.
present, there is a huge hiatus between the top management
earnings of state owned banks and private, as well as foreign
Hypothesis
banks. Banks have to lay down sound risk management
There is no significant difference between Total income

strategies and internal capital adequacy assessment
of Public and Private Sector Bank Groups in India.
committees to ensure that they do not diverge from the
There is no significant difference between Total

prudential requirements.
Expenditure of Public and Private Sector Bank Groups in
Uppal and Kaur (2007) analysis the efficiency of all the
India.
bank groups in the post banking sector reforms era. Time
There is no significant difference between Net Profits of

period of study is related to second post banking sector
Public and Private Sector Bank Groups in India.
reforms (1999-2000 to 2004-05). The paper concludes that
There is no significant difference between Business per

the efficiency of all the bank groups has increased in the
Employee of Public and Private Sector Bank Groups in India.
second post banking sector reforms period but these banking
There is no significant difference between Profit per

sector reforms are more beneficial for new private sector
Employee of Public and Private Sector Bank Groups in India.
banks and foreign banks. This paper also suggests some

measures for the improvement of efficiency of Indian
of Public and Foreign Sector Bank Groups in India.
nationalized banks. The sample of the study in Indian

banking industry which comprises five different ownership
Expenditure of Public and Foreign Sector Bank Groups in
groups and the ratio method is used to calculate the
India.
efficiency of different bank groups. New private sector banks
Public and Foreign Sector Bank Groups in India.

are compelling with foreign banks for continuous

improvement in their performance.
Employee of Public and Foreign Sector Bank Groups in India.

Research Gap
Employee of Public and Foreign Sector Bank Groups in India.
It is a true saying that Financial sector reforms has

completely changed the face of Indian Banking industry from
of Private and Foreign Sector Bank Groups in India.
social banking to a banking system that entirely depends

upon maximizing its profits and profitability. Today profits are
Expenditure of Private and Foreign Sector Bank Groups in
the bread and butter for any bank or bank group. As we
India.
know that profit is the difference between total income and

total expenditure, so in order to maximize profits, the banks
Private and Foreign Sector Bank Groups in India.
are finding new sources of their income and trying to reduce

their expenditure. Employees are providing training, so that
Employee of Private and Foreign Sector Bank Groups in India.
their marginal productivity can be increased. Thus in an era

of this type of banking environment, it is necessary to
Employee of Private and Foreign Sector Bank Groups in India.
evaluate the performance of various type of bank groups, so
that an estimate can be made about the progress and
efficiency of all the bank groups. So this study is an attempt
in this area.
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Focus Area
Sampling Plan
The present paper focuses on the study of selected
In carrying out a data firstly selected the factors and then
parameters related to the performance of different type of
study the performance of each factor with respect to every
bank groups in India and their profitability.
type of bank group.
Data Collection Work
Secondary data had been used in present study.
i. Performance Highlights, IBA, 2012.
Statistical Techniques
For the analysis of data and to find out significant difference
between the performances of various bank groups on the
selected parameters, t-Ratios were computed by using the
following formula:
t= Mean1-Mean2
SED
For the calculation of t-Ratios, mean, standard deviation and
standard error of difference is calculated.
Parameters of the Study

In the present study, the analysis and comparison of the
performance of various bank groups is done with reference to
the following parameters:
1. Total Income
2. Total Expenditure
3. Net Profits
4. Business Per Employee
5. Profit Per employee
I. Findings and Discussion
The major findings of this research and the analysis of data is
shown the following tables:
Table 1 showing t-Ratios between Total Income of
Public and Private Sector Bank Group in India
(Mean in Crore Rs.)
Research Methodology
Research Design
A descriptive comparative research design was used in the
present study. The study has been conducted about the
performance of different bank groups on selected parameters
related to their profitability and efficiency.
Sample Design
The present paper is concerned with Indian banking industry
in whole and it is further divided into three bank groups to
analyze and compare their performance in terms of the
selected parameters. Bank groups are defined as follows:
G-I comprises SBI & its associates and Nationalized

Banks known as Public Sector Banks (PSBs)
G-II comprises Private Sector Banks includes Old Private

Sector Banks and New Private Sector Banks
G-III comprises Foreign Banks (FBs)

Time Period
As far as the time period for the present study is concerned,
it can be said that the year 2011-12 is taken for the
comparison and analyses of performance of various kind of
bank groups. This year is selected mainly because it is a
recent year and the changes that have occurred in the
banking operations and activities can be better understood in
this year and their influence on the efficiency and profitability
of different type of bank groups can be made much clear.
Source: Performance Highlights IBA, 2012.
Table 1 shows that t-ratio between the means of total

income of public and private sector bank group is 2.65. The
t-value in order to be significant at .05 level and at .01 level
should be 1.96 and 2.58 respectively (Garrett pp.216-217).
Obtained t-value is greater than this level. Hence results infer
there is significant difference in total income of public and
private sector bank group, where the mean of total income of
public sector bank group is much more than private sector
bank group. Thus type of bank does play a significant role in
total income earning of various kinds of bank groups. Thus
hypothesis 1, there is no significant difference between total
income of public and private sector bank group, is rejected.
Table 2 showing t-Ratios between Total Expenditure
of Public and Private Sector Bank Group in India
(Mean in Crore Rs.)
Source: Same as Table 1

expenditure of public and private sector bank group is 2.65.
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ISSN 2250-1665
The t-value in order to be significant at .05 level and at .01
of bank does play a significant role in average business per
level should be 1.96 and 2.58 respectively (Garrett pp.216employee of various kinds of bank groups. Thus hypothesis 4,
217). Obtained t-value is greater than this level. Hence
there is no significant difference between business per
results infer there is significant difference in total expenditure
employee of public and private sector bank group, is rejected.
of public and private sector bank group, where the mean of
Table 5 showing t-Ratios between Profit per Employee
total expenditure of public sector bank group is much more
of Public and Private Sector Bank Group in India
than private sector bank group. Thus type of bank does play
(Mean in lacs Rs.)
a significant role in total expenditure incurred by various
kinds of bank groups. Thus hypothesis 2, there is no
significant difference between total expenditure of public and
private sector bank group, is rejected.
Table 3 showing t-Ratios between Net Profits of
Public and Private Sector Bank Group in India
(Mean in Crore Rs.)
Table 3 shows that t-ratio between the means of net

profits of public and private sector bank group is 1.24. The tvalue in order to be significant at .05 level and at .01 level
Obtained t-value doesnt reach this level. Hence results infer
there is no significant difference in net profits of public and
private sector bank group. Thus type of bank doesnt have
any significant impact on net profit earning of various kinds
of bank groups. Thus hypothesis 3, there is no significant
difference between net profits of public and private sector
bank group, is accepted.
Table 5 shows that t-ratio between the means of profit

per employee of public and private sector bank group is 0.62.
level should be 1.96 and 2.58 respectively (Garrett pp.216217). Obtained t-value doesnt reach this level. Hence results
infer there is no significant difference in profit per employee
of public and private sector bank group. It means that in case
of both the bank groups, their employees are earning almost
same amount of profits, but private sector bank group
employees are earning more profit than public sector bank
employee. Thus type of bank doesnt play any significant role
in profit per employee of various kinds of bank groups. Thus
hypothesis 5, there is no significant difference between profit
per employee of public and private sector bank group, is
accepted.
Public and Foreign Sector Bank Group in India
(Mean in Crore Rs.)
Table 4 showing t-Ratios between Business per

Employee of Public and Private Sector Bank Group
in India (Mean in Crore Rs.)
Table 4 shows that t-ratio between the means of business

per employee of public and private sector bank group is 3.89.
level should be 1.96 and 2.58 respectively (Garrett pp.216217). Obtained t-value is greater than this level. Hence
results infer there is significant difference in business per
employee of public and private sector bank group, where the
average business per employee of public sector bank group is
significantly more than private sector bank group. Thus type

income of public and foreign sector bank group is 4.04. The
that there is significant difference in total income of public
and foreign sector bank group, where the mean of total
income of public sector bank group is much more than
foreign sector bank group. Thus type of bank does play a
significant role in total income earning of various kind of bank
groups. Thus hypothesis 6, there is no significant difference
between total income of public and foreign sector bank
group, is rejected.
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ISSN 2250-1665
of Public and Foreign Sector Bank Group in India
Employee of Public and Foreign Sector Bank Group in
(Mean in Crore Rs.)
India (Mean in Crore Rs.)


expenditure of public and foreign sector bank group is 4.64.
results infer there is significant difference in total expenditure
of public and foreign sector bank group, where the mean of
total expenditure incurred by public sector banks is much
more than incurred by foreign sector bank group. This may
be due to large branch expansion and huge staff employed
by public sector banks as compared to foreign sector bank
group. Thus type of bank does play a significant role in total
expenditure incurred by various kind of bank groups. Thus
hypothesis 7, there is no significant difference between total
expenditure of public and foreign sector bank group, is
rejected.
Public and Foreign Sector Bank Group in India
(Mean in Crore Rs.)
Table 9 shows that t-ratio between the means of

business per employee of public and foreign sector bank
group is 2.65. The t-value in order to be significant at .05
level and at .01 level should be 1.96 and 2.58 respectively
(Garrett pp.216-217). Obtained t-value is greater than this
level. Hence results infer there is significant difference in
group, where the average business per employee of foreign
sector bank group is much more than public sector bank
group. Thus type of bank does play a significant role in
business per employee of various kinds of bank groups. Thus
hypothesis 9, there is no significant difference between
group, is rejected.
Table 10 showing t-Ratios between Profit per
Employee of Public and Foreign Sector Bank Group
in India (Mean in Lacs Rs.)

profits of public and foreign sector bank group is 3.57. The tvalue in order to be significant at .05 level and at .01 level
that there is significant difference in net profits of public and
foreign sector bank group, where the average net profits of
public sector bank group is much more than foreign sector
bank group. Thus type of bank does play a significant role in
net profit earning of various kinds of bank groups. Thus
hypothesis 8, there is no significant difference between net
profits of public and foreign sector bank group, is rejected.

per employee of public and foreign sector bank group is 3.94.
results infer that there is significant difference in profit per
employee of public and foreign sector bank group, where the
profit per employee of foreign sector bank group is many
times more than public sector bank group. Thus type of bank
does play a significant role in profit per employee of various
kinds of bank groups. Thus hypothesis 10, there is no
significant difference between profit per employee of public
and foreign sector bank group, is rejected.
Private and Foreign Sector Bank Group in India
(Mean in Crore Rs.)
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ISSN 2250-1665
that the average net profits of private sector bank group is
income of private and foreign sector bank group is 2.59. The
much more than foreign sector bank group. Thus type of
bank does play a significant role in net profit earning of
various kinds of bank groups. Thus hypothesis 13, there is no
significant difference between net profits of private and
that there is significant difference in total income earnings of
foreign sector bank group, is partially accepted.
private and foreign sector bank group, where the mean of
total income of private sector bank is many times more than
Employee
of Private and Foreign Sector Bank Group in
the foreign sector bank group. Thus type of bank does play a
India (Mean in Crore Rs.)
significant role in total income earning of various kinds of
bank groups. Thus hypothesis 11, there is no significant
difference between total income of private and foreign sector
bank group, is rejected.

of Private and Foreign Sector Bank Group in India
(Mean in Crore Rs.)

expenditure of private and foreign sector bank group is 2.78.
results infer that there is significant difference in total
expenditure of private and foreign sector bank group, where
the mean of total expenditure of private sector bank group is
much more than foreign sector bank group. Thus type of
bank does play a significant role in total expenditure incurred
by various kind of bank groups. Thus hypothesis 12, there is
no significant difference between total expenditure of private
Table 14 shows that t-ratio between the means of

business per employee of private and foreign sector bank
group is 4.19. The t-value in order to be significant at .05
level and at .01 level should be 1.96 and 2.58 respectively
(Garrett pp.216-217). Obtained t-value is greater than this
level. Hence results that infer there is significant difference in
group, where the business per employee of foreign sector
bank group is much more than private sector bank group.
Thus type of bank does play a significant role in business per
employee earning of various kind of bank groups. Thus
hypothesis 14, there is no significant difference between
group, is rejected.
Table 15 showing t-Ratios between Profit per
Employee of Private and Foreign Sector Bank Group
in India (Mean in Lacs Rs.)

Private and Foreign Sector Bank Group in India
(Mean in Crore Rs.)

profits of private and foreign sector bank group is 2.13. The
Obtained t-value is greater than the significance level as
showed by .05 level, but less than the significance level as
showed by .01 level. Hence results infer there is significant
difference in net profits of private and foreign sector bank
group only at .05 level, but not at .05 level. The data reveals

per employee of private and foreign sector bank group is
3.85. The t-value in order to be significant at .05 level and at
.01 level should be 1.96 and 2.58 respectively (Garrett
pp.216-217). Obtained t-value is greater than this level.
Hence results infer that there is significant difference in profit
per employee of private and foreign sector bank group,
where the profit per employee of foreign sector bank group is
many times more than private sector bank group. Thus type
of bank does play a significant role in profit per employee of
various kind of bank groups. Thus hypothesis 15, there is no
significant difference between profit per employee of private
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ISSN 2250-1665
V. Conclusions and Implications of the Study
v. If we take total expenditure parameter of different bank
Concluding Remarks
group, it can be concluded that there is significant difference
The major findings of this research work can be concluded
between total expenditure incurred by all the bank groups
with the help of following table:
i.e. public and private, public and foreign and private and
foreign bank groups.
Table 16 showing comparison between various bank
vi. If we take net profit parameter of different bank group,
groups w.r.t. different selected parameters
it can be concluded that there is no significant difference
between net profits of public and private sector bank groups,
but there is significant difference between net profits of
public and foreign sector bank group and private and foreign
sector bank groups.
i
vii. If we take business per employee parameter of different
.
As far as the performance of public sector bank group is
bank group, it can be concluded that there is significant
concerned, it can be concluded that its total income, total
difference between business per employee of all the bank
expenditure and net profits are more than the other two bank
groups i.e. public and private, public and foreign and private
groups. But as far as business per employee is concerned, it
and foreign bank groups.
is though more than private sector bank group, but less than
viii. If we take profit per employee parameter of different
foreign sector bank group and on profit per employee, it
bank groups, it can be concluded that there is no significant
comes at last position which means ta the employees of
difference between profit per employee of public and private
public sector bank group are not earning much profit for the
sector bank group, but there is significant difference
bank, which is not a good sign for the progress of this bank
between profit per employee of public and foreign and
group. If this bank group wants to grow in this competitive
private and foreign bank groups.
era, it has to make its employees productive enough, so that
they can be proved beneficial for the bank group.
Conclusion
ii. As far as the performance of private sector bank group is
Any bank or bank group is known for its efficiency,
concerned, it can be concluded that this bank groups total
productivity, success story and profitability. Any bank group
income, expenditure and net profits are more than foreign
can face the fierce competition of modern day scenario, if it
sector bank group, but less than public sector bank group. As
can make itself profitable enough in order to maintain its
far as business per employee is concerned, this bank group
position in the market. For this purpose, a comparative study
comes at last position, which means that the employees of
is done w.r.t different parameters concerning profitability of
this bank group are far lagging behind in terms of per
the bank performance. The study concludes that there is
employee business for the bank as compared to other two
significant difference exists on four out of five selected
bank groups. But in terms of profit per employee this bank
parameters except profit per employee between public
group performance is better than public sector bank group,
sector bank group and private sector bank group. There is
but far behind than foreign bank group.
significant difference on all the selected parameters between
iii. As far as the performance of foreign sector bank is
public and foreign sector bank group. There is also
concerned, it can be concluded that this bank group comes
significant difference exists on all the selected parameters
at last position as far as total income, total expenditure and
between private and foreign sector bank group.
net profits are concerned. But its business per employee and
profit per employee is many times more than the other two
Implications
bank groups. So, we can say that this bank groups
This study is mainly concerned with the analysis of
employee are proved to be more fruitful for the bank group
comparative performance evaluation of various bank groups
in terms of per employee business and profits. So, this bank
on the basis of their performance in the year 2011-12 in
group is more successful than the other two bank groups on
terms of various selected parameters. As the study reflects
these parameters.
the various bank groups that shows significant performance
iv. If we take total income parameter of different bank
on the selected parameters, so provides important tool to
groups, it can be conclude that there is significant difference
the bank groups to reexamine their policies and procedures
in total income earnings of all the bank groups i.e. between
to appropriately run their operations. The study will be
public and private, public and foreign and private and
helpful to the academicians and researchers for further study
foreign bank groups.
in this respect.
- 48 -

I. Future Areas of research
Comparative performance evaluation of each bank
group w.r.t. some other parameters related with bank group
efficiency.
Comparative performance evaluation of some other
bank groups like between Nationalized and SBI and its
Associates, Old Private Sector Bank group and New Private
Sector Bank group etc. on the selected parameters.
References
Das, Abhiman & Gosh, Saibal (2006). Financial

Deregulation and Efficiency: An empirical analysis of
Indian Banking during the Post-Reform Period, Review
of Financial Economics, 15, Pp:193-221.
Das, S.K.(2010). Financial Liberalization and Banking

Sector Efficiency: The Indian Experience, 12th Money
and Finance Conference, 11-12th March IGIDR, Mumbai
(India).
Kumar, S., Gulati, R., (2008). An Examination of

Technical, Pure Technical and Scale Efficiency in Indian
Public Sector Banks using Data Envelopment Analysis,
Eurasian Journal of Business and Economics, Vol.1 (2),
Pp:33-69.
Madhavankutty, G. (2007). Indian Banking

Towards Global Best Practices, Bankers Conference
Proceedings (Nov.), pp. 84-86.
Muniappan, G. P. (2002). Indian Banking: Paradigm

Shift A Regular Point of View IBA Bulletin, Vol. 24, No.
3, pp. 151- 155.
Musonde, Anthony (2008). An Investigation Into

the Determinants of Cost Efficiency in the Zambian
Banking Sector, 13th Annual African Econometric
Society Conference, 9-11 July.
Munusamy, J. et al. (2010). Service Quality Delivery

and its Impact on Customer Satisfaction in the Banking
Sector in Malaysia, International Journal of Innovation,
Management and Technology, Vol. 1, No. 4, October,
pp. 398-404.
Uppal, R. K. and Kaur, R. (2007). Indian Banking

Industry: Comparative Performance Evaluation in the
Liberalized and Globalized Era, Gyan Management, Vol.
2, No. 2, pp. 3-24.
Vimi Jham and Kaleem Mohd Khan (2008).

Customer Satisfaction in the Indian Banking Sector-A
study, IIMB Management Review, Vol. 20, No. 1,
March.
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ISSN 2250-1665
ISSN 2250-1665
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND WORKPLACE

DEVIANT BEHAVIORS
Othman Mohd Yunus, Hasnun Anip Bustaman, Khalizani Khalid, Nur Baizura Abdullah
Universiti Teknologi MARA (Perak) Malaysia
ABSTRACT
This study explored the relationship between emotional intelligence and workplace intelligences. One hundred and sixty-two
participants completed the Self-Administered Schutte Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSREIT) and workplace
deviance test. The findings showed a negative but significant relationship between emotional intelligence and workplace
deviant behaviors. Also discussed were the level of respondents emotional intelligence and workplace deviance according to
demographic factors. Possible implications for intervention and treatment efforts are discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION:
Workplace deviance has become an increasingly
prominent concern of both academicians and practitioners.
The prevalence of deviant employee behaviors is especially
disturbing considering their detrimental effects on
organizations and employees. Organizations stand to lose
millions of dollars through employees theft and sabotages.
Those employees who are targets of workplace deviance are
more likely forced to quit, suffer stress-related problems, has
decreased productivity, low morale, and lose work time
(O'Leary-Kelly et al., 1996). Studies have shown that causes
of workplace deviance can be the organization itself (Fox et
al., 2001) and the individual employees in the contexts of his
or her personality (Gough, 1987). The purpose of this study
was to explore the relationship between the personality trait
of emotional intelligence and workplace deviance.
2. LITERATURE
Workplace deviance is employees voluntary behaviors
that violate company norms, policies, or rules and threaten
the well-being of the organization and/or its members. These
behaviors, when directed towards the organization, may be in
the form of theft, sabotage, and putting little effort into work.
When directed towards individual employees (supervisors or
coworkers alike), it is in the form of making fun of others,
playing mean pranks, acting rudely, and arguing (Robinson &
Bennett, 1995).
Organizational factors such as job stressors (Fox et al.,
2001), organizational frustration (Spector, 1975), lack of
control over the work environment (Bennett, 1998), weak
sanctions for rule violations (Hollinger & Clark, 1983), and
organizational changes such as downsizing (Baron &
Neuman, 1996) have been associated with workplace
deviance.
Individual employees personality traits like socialization

and impulsivity constructs have also been identified as causes
of workplace deviant behaviors. Socialization is the process of
internalizing societal and cultural norms (Gough, 1987); a
construct based on Gough's role-taking theory of sociopathy
which ranges from asocial to social personality types.
Individuals with high asocial personality are low in social
maturity, integrity, righteousness, and morality and are often
perceived as rebellious, dissatisfied, and defensive (Gough &
Peterson, 1952). According to Gough (1987), individuals with
this personality constructs not only find it difficult to conform
but tends to resist rules and regulations. Individuals high in
socialization on the other hand are considerate, dependable,
well-balanced, patient, tactful, and easily able to conform.
Empirical research thus far showed a link between
socialization and deviant behavior. Megargee (1972) found
that there is a relationship between socialization and
deviance behavior of delinquency while Collins and Schmidt
(1993) associated it with white-collar crime. Research by
Collins and Rader (1996), as cited in Collins and Griffin
(1998), also found a relationship between socialization with
theft and disciplinary problems while, Sarchione et al. (1998)
found relationship between socialization and sexual
misconduct, substance abuse, and embezzlement.
Impulsivity, on the other hand, is the tendency to act
with little forethought as to the consequences of one's
actions (Eysenck, 1967). Individuals scoring high on
impulsivity measures are characterized as rash, reckless,
uninhibited, incautious, and foolhardy (Jackson, 1984).
Impulsive individuals are also likely to act on the spur of the
moment and to freely express their emotions. Individuals
scoring lower on measures of impulsivity are thought to be
self-disciplined and able to control their emotions (Megargee,
1972). In their study, Gottfredson and Hirschi (1993) have
implicated impulsivity with deviant behaviors such as drug
- 50 -
use, theft, workplace violence, and employment instability.

According to Petrides (2009) socialization and impulsivity are
among the distinct features of the traits of emotional
intelligence.
Salovey and Mayer (1990) define emotional intelligence
as the subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to
monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to
discriminate among them and to use this information to guide
one's thinking and actions. Thus, emotional intelligence (EI)
is the ability to perceive, control and evaluate emotions.
Emotional intelligence also enables one to know when and
how to express emotion as it does with controlling it. As such,
constructs within emotional intelligence trait enable
individuals to manage feelings and handle stress; the abilities
considered important for success in life (Lusch & Serpkenci,
1990).
While some researchers claim that emotional intelligence
is an inborn characteristic, others suggest it can be learned
and strengthened. Emotional intelligence, to some extent,
may be learned through life experience (Bar-On, 2000);
training programs (Marrow, Jarrett & Rupinski, 1997); and
executive education (Boyatzis, Cowen, & Kolb, 1995). All
suggestions and research findings thus far has provide
evidences that individuals' social and emotional competencies
can be improved through sustained effort and a systematic
program.
The famous Sommerville study showed the importance
of EI traits in individuals. This 40 year longitudinal research
studied 450 boys who grew up in Sommerville, Massachusetts
where two-thirds of the boys were from welfare families, and
one-third had IQs below 90. Finding of the study showed
that boys who acquired childhood abilities such as being able
to handle frustration, control emotions, and get along with
other people do well at work or in other aspects of their lives
(Snarey & Vaillant, 1985).
Feist and Barron (1996) who tracked 80 doctorate
students in science who studied at Berkeley and had
undergone a battery of personality tests, IQ tests, and
interviews in the 1950s; found that those who became more
successful 40 years later were those with strong social and
emotional abilities. Feist and Barron (1996) went on to
conclude that social and emotional abilities are important in
determining professional success and prestige.
Trinidad et. al (2004) study on American adolescents
aged between 10 and 13 found that those with high EI has a
protective association with psychosocial risk factors for
smoking. Accordingly, their findings showed that high EI is
related to an increase perception of the negative social
consequences on smoking, an increased perceived ability to
ISSN 2250-1665
refuse a cigarette offer, as well as lower likehood of intending

to smoke in the future.
In a study on the relationship between emotional intelligence
and tobacco and cannabis use among university students,
Joaquin, Joaquin, and Jordi (2006) find that there is no
statistically significant difference between males and females
in term of their level of emotional intelligence. However, their
study did find that adolescents high in emotional intelligence
placed a higher value on the negative repercussions of such
consumption to ones health.
Based on the above discussions while EI in itself does
not relate directly with individual success, it provides the
necessary emotional competencies to enable one to be
successful. Ultimately it is these social and emotional
competencies that help individuals cope with challenges,
perform, and succeed at work or in the rest of their personal
lives. As such, this study tries to look at EI trait and
workplace deviance orientations among Malaysian workers
and the relationship between these two variables. These
objectives were achieved through the following questions:
1.
2.
3.
Is there a difference in the level of EI trait among

employees based on demographic factors of gender and
age?
Is there a difference in the level of workplace deviance
orientation among employees based on demographic
factors of gender and age?
Is there a relationship between EI trait and workplace
deviant behaviors?
3. METHODOLOGY
A total of 162 employees in a government-owned
company were randomly selected and responded to both selfadministered Schutte Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test
(SSREIT) and workplace deviance questionnaire. SSREIT
measures a persons self-perceived ability to monitor private
feelings or the feelings of others. The test consists of 33
items. The internal consistency reliability (Cronbach's Alpha)
was reported as 0.90 (Schutte et al., 1998). As the SSREIT
consisted of 33 items evaluated by respondents on a Likert
scale of 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree) the score
when averaged would yield a summary score of between 33
and 165, hence reflecting respondents level of EI. In order to
categorize respondents level of EI the score is divided into
three. A score of between 33 and 77 was considered as low
EI. Between 78 and 121 as moderate while between 122 and
165 was considered as high EI.
The workplace deviance test developed by Bennett and
Robinson (2000) was used to measure employees frequency
- 51 -
(never to daily) in engaging in deviant behaviors targeting

the organization and individuals within the organization. This
questionnaire was reported to have internal consistency
reliability (Cronbach's Alpha) of coefficient alpha .86 (Fox &
Spector, 1999). As this 19-item scale questionnaire evaluated
respondents on a Likert scale of 1 (never) to 5 (very often),
the averaged summary score is between 19 and 95, hence
reflecting respondents orientation toward being deviant at
workplace. In order to determine the level of deviant
orientation the score was divided into three. A score of
between 19 and 31 was considered as low deviant
orientation, between 32 and 81 as moderate, while between
82 and 95 was considered as high deviant orientations.
In analyzing the research questions, the overall mean score
was used as a basis to determine level of EI and workplace
deviance. Independent sample comparison of means is used
to see the differences, and to test for significant differences,
t-test analysis and ANOVA test were used. Correlation
analysis was used to see the relationships between the two
variables.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Overall the result of this study showed that the respondents
(n =162) recorded a moderate means score of 113.09
(SD=16.33) on emotional intelligence. Therefore, it could be
concluded that the respondents have moderate EI.
Table 1 shows respondents EI based on gender and age
differences. Both female and male respondents scored
moderately on the self-report EI; M=113.85 (SD=15.67) and
M=112.03 (SD=17.26) respectively, and that the difference
was not significant [t(160) = - .700, p = 0.49]. In terms of
independent sample comparison of means between age
groups, the results indicated that respondents in all age
groups (2130 years, 3140 years, 4150 years, and 51
years and above) also scored moderately on the self-report
EI. Results of the ANOVA test on age groups sample size
(n=162) showed that the differences was not significant [F
(3, 158) = 2.30, p=0.08].
Overall, the findings of this study showed that regardless of
gender and age differences, the respondents had a moderate
EI. In the contexts of gender differences result of this study
is in support of Joaquin, Joaquin, and Jordi (2006) finding
that, there is no statistically significant difference between
males and females in term of their level of EI.
ISSN 2250-1665
Finding of this study that there is no significant difference in

EI among respondents from different age groups is also in
support of findings of Trinidad et. al (2004) and Joaquin,
Joaquin, and Jordi (2006) studies. Both groups of researchers
respectively found that high EI adolescents and young adults
are able to shield themselves from psychosocial risk factors.
TABLE 1: RESPONDENTS EI MEAN SCORE
ACCORDING TO DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS (N=162)
In the context of workplace deviance, it was found that

the respondents (n=126) overall mean score was 57.40
(SD=11.84). The result shows that respondents have
moderate orientation toward workplace deviance.
Table 2 shows the respondents workplace deviant
behaviors based on gender and age differences. The results
showed that both female and male respondents scored
moderately on the workplace deviance test [M=57.03
(SD=11.99); and M=57.90 (SD=11.71) respectively, and that
the difference was not significant [t(160) = .458, p = 0.65].
In terms of independent sample comparison of means
between age groups, the results revealed that respondents in
all age groups (2130 years, 3140 years, 4150 years, and
51 years and above) also scored moderately on the
workplace deviance test. Results of the ANOVA test on age
groups sample size (n=162) showed that the difference was
not significant [F (3, 158) = 2.49, p=0.06]. These results
indicated that regardless of gender and age differences, the
tendency of respondents engaging in deviant behaviors was
moderate. Organizational factors, as suggested by Bennett
(1998) and Hollinger and Clark (1983), may account for the
moderate
orientation
towards
workplace
deviance.
Government agencies are well known for their strict
supervision over their staffs and strong disciplinary
procedures. Therefore, with the organization having full
control over the work environment and strong sanctions for
rule violations, it leaves little room for employees to display
workplace deviant behaviors.
As for the relationship between emotional intelligence
and workplace deviance, the results of this study revealed
that the relationship, while negative and weak, was
significant (r = -.33, p < .05). Thus the result shows that the
- 52 -
degree of dependency between the two variables is not

strong, or in other words, the degrees to which the two
variables vary oppositely were weak. The correlation when
squared is .10, which means that among the respondents
constituting the sample 10 percent of their variance on the
two variables is in common (or 90 percent is not in common).
As such the finding showed that the corresponding variables
did not closely vary together in opposite directions.
TABLE 2: RESPONDENTS WORKPLACE DEVIANCE
MEANS SCORE ACCORDING TO DEMOGRAPHIC
FACTORS (N=162)
While the finding of this study shows a weak inverse

relationship between EI and workplace deviance but it did
show that EI did provide the necessary emotional
competencies [for example, socialization (high) and
impulsiveness (low)] that enable employees to refrain
themselves from workplace deviance. Thus, to a certain
extend finding of this study lends support to findings of other
researchers [Bennett (1998); Hollinger & Clark (1983);
Megargee (1972); Gottfredson & Hirschi (1993)] that causes
of workplace deviance can be the individual employees
themselves that is, their personality trait.
4. LIMITATION
Since this study involved a small sample size and was
confined to respondents from only one of the many
government agencies therefore, its generalisability is limited.
As such, this study cannot truly reflect that these
respondents represent the whole population of Malaysian
employees. However, the results were reflective of the
relationship between employees EI and workplace deviance.
Further, since the data being reported came from
questionnaire surveys, therefore, limitations such as; general
issues of questionnaire understandability and readability,
scaling issues, and measurement errors must also be taken
into account.
5. CONCLUSION
The exploration of EI and workplace deviance among
employees is intended only to show a general idea of the
ISSN 2250-1665
relationship between these two variables. As stated earlier,

workplace deviance can have substantial financial, physical,
and psychological consequences. Since organizations consist
of individual employees, therefore, understanding their
personality and its relationship with deviant behaviors
become all the more important. Finally, as much as it is good
for EI test to be included as a screening test in employees'
selection program it should however be used with caution by
organization because of the shortcoming of a self-report test.
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DRAMATIC PERFORMANCES IN ASSAM:

REPRESENTING POLITICISED IDENTITIES AND
NEGOTIATING IN-BETWEEN SPACES
Anusuya Malakar
Ph.D Scholar, Department of English, School of Humanities, University of Hyderabad
ABSTRACT
Dramatic performances in Assam have acquired much less recognition in the realm of modern Indian theatre as a distinctive
category representing matters of politicised identities and negotiating spaces for those identities based on class, religion and
gender. The tradition of dramatic performances in Assam initiated by Srimanta Sankaradeva was devised as kind of
resistance against the politicised religious practices in Assam during the fifteenth century. Under the influence of the Bhakti
movement in North India Sankaradeva started the practise of Vaishnavism in namghors where he began presenting
episodes from the lives of Krishna and Rama. Sankaradevas pedagogical interest was to enlighten people with the fact that
man can have a direct relationship with God in Vaishnavism and this ideology finally troubled the existing power
relationships in the society obstructing Brahmanical rituals and subverting class structures in society based on caste
differences. Sankaradeva created the play Cinha Jatra during his pedagogical experiments with dramaturgy. This play is
believed to have inspired the jatra of Bengal and later the popular mobile theatres of Assam. Contemporary dramatic
performances in Assam however, are diverse ranging from pedagogical to political showing the dynamics of power
structures in the society. Mobile theatres performed in the native language reaches out the mass in remote areas reflecting
the taste of the popular whereas plays performed by groups like Stage Fusion in English or Seagull in town halls reveal
the savour of the elites and the intellectuals respectively. Metaphorically, these performance spaces comprehend to the
larger dialectics of ubiquitous politicised identities based on class, religion and gender. Synthesising the traditional and the
modern, incorporating the indigenous forms with the European, strategic enactments of power relationships are played out
providing both respite and negotiating spaces for those within the layers of those power structures.
1. INTRODUCTION:
The dramatic performances in Assam are performances
within performance. To be more lucid, the spaces of dramatic
performances in Assam execute resistance against the
hegemonic power relations propagated through the political
matrices of gender, class and community. The spaces of
performance become both a site of contestation by the
enactment of experiences of marginalisation and a site for
the display of the desire of the marginalised to subvert the
power permeated through the hegemonic relations in the
society. Ironically, this desire at large manifests the
aspirations of the lower middle class to merge in with the
upper middle class and alter its identification as the
oppressed or marginalised. Drama performances in Assam
have been reflecting this desire for centuries now. The
necessity to protect one's identity and break through the rigid
class structures in society initiated the basic forms of
performances in Assam. Performances of drama endeavour to
destabilise the structure produced through the constructed
identities based on gender, class and community which
permeate power relations.
Dramatic performances in Assam evolved vehemently at
moments when the region witnessed intense political
discords. The ankiya nats that are performed as bhaonas in

the namghors composed by Srimanta Sankaradeva (1449
1568) in the fifteenth century metaphorically stood as
pedagogical tools functioning to enlighten the folk and
simultaneously, to resist the brahmanical ritualistic practices.
The seminal idea behind the propagation of Vaishnavism was
to curb the caste system prevalent in the society. The
performances based on the lives of Rama and Krishna taken
from the Bhagavad Gita and the Puranas in the floor of the
namghors metaphorically deconstructed the brahmanical
ritualistic stage. Undoubtedly, the inventions of Sankaradeva
and his acumen as a dramatist and performer symbolised
resistance to the hierarchies maintained in society through
caste discrimination. I would like to put what Rawle Gibbons
has said in relation to the force that mobilises drama or
theatre. It is the product of the energy coming from the
subterranean level as Rawle Gibbons puts it. Sankaradeva's
pedagogic efforts mobilised the people and congregated
them. But, the consciousness of the moment was still
surrendered to the patriarchal structures of gender
difference. All the female roles in the performances were
played by the male actors corresponding to the absence of
women as performers on the stage.
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Oral history and more recent writing claim the birth of

another form of performance festival in Assam i.e., the
Baresahariya bhaona festival. This festival also highlights the
same subterranean energy that led to its birth. The festival
had its genesis at a very critical time in the history of Assam.
In the late eighteenth century, when a civil strife broke out, it
forced a large number of people living on the south bank of
the river Brahmaputra to migrate to the fertile areas of
Jamuguri on the north bank. The Vaishnavaite settlers on the
banks of the river Brahmaputra cemented their common bond
by organizing bhaonas and it gave the people an opportunity
to display group solidarity, which was essential at a time
when sporadic encounters with the tribes living in the orders
threatened the peace of the Vaishnavaite community.
Eventually, the inhabitants of ten villages organized a festival
of bhaona at Jamuguri in 1797 or 1798 to emphasize the
solidarity of their sect. In time, more villages of greater
Jamuguri joined the festival. It came to be known as
baresahariya bhaona from about 1921.
The internal disparities of the region based on caste and
community further expanded to the form of revolt after the
British came to Assam around 1829. Its magnitude rose to
that of a rebellion placing the colonised against the coloniser.
The necessity of educating the natives in English that the
British saw for meeting their needs led to the outcome of
Macaulay's Minute in 1835. This minute circuitously changed
the future of dramatic performances in Assam besides
changing the academic future of the people of Assam. The
intention of the Minute clearly specified the colonialist
tendencies for the need to create a class of interpreters
between the colonialists and those colonised, a class of
persons Indian in blood and colour, but English in tastes, in
opinions, in morals and in intellect (Bhaba: 1994, 87) The
education of the youth from the upper middle class families
of Assam in Bengal ignited in them the internalisation of
English canons and a desire of reproducing them in the form
of literature as well as performance. The canons symbolised a
desire for conquering the imperial power through the newly
acquired English language. One such example can be seen in
the adaptation of Shakespeare. In 1888, four Assamese
playwrights Ratnadhar Barua, Gunjanan Barua, Ghanashyam
Baruah and Ramakanta Barkataki adapted Shakespeare's The
Comedy of Errors in Assamese. The play was also staged by
Assamese students in Calcutta under the auspices of
Assamese Language Improvement Society but it did not
become very popular due the different cultural background it
had adopted. This also marks the initial stages of performing
the Other but simultaneously getting rejected. Yet, the
attempts only began rather than dying out.
Drama entered the region as a means of entertainment
for the British but it had to change its fate by becoming a
weapon in the hands of the colonised. The jatras from Bengal
proved deeply impacting in this case. There were several
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jatra groups established in the Kamrup district of Assam.

More than a score of jatra groups came up. Besides providing
entertainment, they were also responsible for uniting men
and women for the nationalist cause. Women actors were
encouraged into acting. And for the first time, women were
prominently seen on stage. Some of the plays of Jyoti Prasad
Agarwalla Sonit Kunwari, Karengor Ligiri, Lobhita, Joymoti
and Rupalim portrayed strong women characters sometimes
negotiating with the urge to assert their presence and
sometimes resisting subjugation through their silences.
Positively, women's entry on the stage in Assam can be
attributed to the cause of nationalism.
Significantly, the entry of women on stage in
performances in Assam, provide a scope of studying woman
as the site of contesting forces like gender and class
differences. The woman's body becomes a site on stage
where another kind of binary is attempted for subversion i.e.,
the coloniser/colonised. The woman's emancipation that in
the time of nationalism in India got sidelined due to achieving
the nationalistic goals merges out later in post independent
India. Woman's participation in performances allowed them
to retrieve their spaces in the world and come out of the
home. For example, the woman acting the character of
Desdemona in a play in a mobile theatre of Assam is the
racial other of Desdemona. Firstly, she is the other of
Desdemona, the other with respect to Othello (the black), the
other with respect to the other white men characters in the
play. She is performing her racial/colonial counterpart in a
language that is local and trying to do justice with the
character of Desdemonaa character with whom her
identification itself is problematic because she is
geographically distanced and because she is the one who as
a once colonised and now a middle class is an aspirant of
Desdemona. The place of identification of the Assamese
female actor here is a place of splitting that lies between the
conflict of demand and desire. To quote Bhaba, The fantasy
of the native is precisely to occupy the master's place while
keeping his place in the slave's avenging anger. (1994:44).
What has resulted over the years through the teaching of
Shakespeare to the natives is the coloniser's invitation that
instantly recognised the educated colonised as different
from the uneducated natives. Thus, performance brings out
the complexities of the ambivalent identity of the postcolonial
performer. This ambivalence is rather disturbing as the fact of
being different actually underlies the fact of being similar with
the colonised. This disturbing space is the in-between space
where the identity of the actor and the working class
proletariat audience rests in the post colonial world.
Secondly, she is the embodiment of gendered racial other on
the stage who is being looked at by the audience that is
largely composed of the proletariat and is distanced from
Shakespeare both temporally and spatially. She performs inbetween these politicised identities of the race, class and
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gender when she is performing the text of Shakespeare.

Thus, her performance also performs her attempt of
subversion and she becomes the locus through which the
director/producer reproduces the colonial text to the middle
class society in Assam.
The space that the postcolonial actors occupy on the
stage during performance fragmentarily transcends the inbetween state of the actor through the energy of her
subversion. At the first instance, by adapting the colonial text
in the native language a destabilisation of the colonial
language is made. Secondly, there is always a distortion of
the original text to meet the demands of the space where it is
performed. The director appropriates the whole text to be
performed in a way that it is enjoyed by audience which is
largely the proletariat. Thus, the enactment of Shakespearian
texts is not a direct imitation of it but an appropriation made
through subversion of the original text.
Contrary to this, the character of Rabeya in Baharul
Islam's play Jatra (2001) portrays the life of a woman who is
the oppressed sexual object of her dominant and ruthless
husband Habib in a locality in Assam. Rabeya, narrates her
story in flashback and the whole drama is flashback of the
sufferings that Rabeya had to undergo during her stay with
her husband. Not only Rabeya but the other women in the
neighbourhood reflect the suppression that women go
through as objects of desire in a phallocentric society. The
playwright critiques the Maulvi who has lustful eyes on the
women besides highlighting the malicious nature of Habib.
Habib chases Rabeya from home because he desires to marry
another girl. But when that girl leaves Habib, he again goes
out in search of Rabeya. Finally, when he finds Rabeya he
asks her to purify herself by marrying the Maulvi which
Rabeya rejects and goes away. When Rabeya is performed, it
is the local character that is not distanced like Desdemona
from the audience. Her presentation in Assam or at the most
in India wherever it was performed was at a close
approximation with the audience for the fact that Rabeya is
not a distanced coloniser who is being enacted. She is the
Muslim woman in India who has much closer experiences of
patriarchy though not similar like her and is hence identifiable
in a less complex way than Desdemona.
Islam's
performances are mostly devices of destabilising the
hegemonic cultural forms. The dramatisation of women in his
plays is the locus of questioning the socially constructed
matrices of gender, class and community. The intervening
voice of the playwright emerges as the voice of the subaltern
in his plays.
This kind of problematic is further seen in the attempts
being made by the popular mobile theatres of Assam through
their adaptation of popular Hollywood movies in recent times.
The adaptations of Hollywood movies like Ben Hur, Titanic,
Jurassic Park also display the desire of getting merged into
the mainstream. The reproduction of such movies in the form
ISSN 2250-1665
of theatre caters to the large number of audience that the

mobile theatre of Assam today has gathered. Today, the
mobile theatre of Assam has more number of audiences than
the Assamese films. Not only this, the popular movie actors
are investing much of their time in performing in the stage
on wheels. The show began with the adaptation of the
Shakespearian canon and today it has diverged itself to
adapting popular films. In a sense, these attempts show the
absorption of Assamese theatre with the mainstream films of
Hollywood and Bollywood giving an equivalent savour to the
audience in the rural areas and small towns of Assam as the
original movies give to the audiences in the metropolises.
Westernisation of the Indian audience has taken place years
ago. The new phase of Westernisation that is taking place in
the remote areas of Assam through the popular stage on the
wheels embodies how performance as a commodity is
patterned and dissipated through the economy of labour
power in a way that the bourgeoisie ideology gets assimilated
within the rural and lower middle class in those remote
places. Malini Bhattacharjee rightly points out how theatre
performances in Bengal have a dominant tendency towards
producing a performance as a commodity with wide
circulation. (1998:22) Familiar is the case with Assam's
production of the mobile theatre. Through the various
techniques it has tried all through one to make itself popular,
theatre in Assam also display the fetish of the large working
class audience who frequent the theatre profiting it with the
turnover of 10 crores a year.
Noteworthy is the fact how the dominant tastes of the
Western bourgeoisie gets dissipated to the proletariat in the
regions of Assam. Bharucha criticises the West for taking
from the traditional performances in India and representing it
in the context of their own. He finds Peter Brook's
Mahabharata as a deforming of the whole Indian epic. But
there is a vast difference in Brook's adaptation of the
Mahabharata than the adaptations of the English plays found
in the referred performances which reveal an indirect control
of one culture by the other. The presentations of English
plays are reproductions of the original keeping inherent the
ideologies that permeated through the original. The
difference that emerges out of the shift of the cultural
contexts often remain blurred in the spaces where the
performers perform and the audiences watch unless there is
the presence of an eye that is distanced through his/her
information of knowledge about the positionality of the act of
watching. This eye can catch the slippages, excesses and
differences that are presented through the imitation of the
original. This imitation informs the latent mimicry of the
coloniser through which a desire for becoming the Other is
manifested. (Bhaba, 1994:86)
Quite apart from the mimicry that is latent in the
reproduction of the colonial texts; the acumen of handling
stagecraft deconstructs the limitations of the proscenium
- 57 -
stage. The experimentation with stagecraft is one of the

aspects where the decolonisation of the stage becomes
apparent. The stage on wheels have experimented with the
diverse themes from both Hollywood and Bollywood movies
but doing them on stage needs greater skill and precision. A
single actor in double role appearing more than once is one
example of the stage acumen that transcends the limitations
of a proscenium stage.
In addition to the kind of cultural imperialism that is
gradually spreading its tentacles in the region through this
popular medium of entertainment, there is another
manifestation of it that distinctly displays the hierarchical
structure of class. Stage Fusion, stages English plays and
plays written by Indian English playwrights in town halls in
Assam and across the country. The group is keen in
experimenting with their rational and their futuristic goals.
They attract the crowd from the elite class which is basically
the upper middle class in Assam that also cover the
intelligentsia and the academic circle. Thus, the performance
spaces display the class differences.
The dramatic performances in Assam have started with
the assertion of resistance against dominance permeated
through the hegemonic relationship structures in the society
that have been prevalent in the society since earlier times.
The performances thus portray a subversive tendency on
behalf of the dominated class who by reiterating the
questions of their identity try to make their presence visible.
1
Ankiya Nats are one act plays composed by Srimanta
Sankaradeva. These one act plays were enacted as bhaonas
in the namghors.
ISSN 2250-1665
Sarma, Madan M. and Parasmoni Dutta (2009).

Baresahariya Bhaona: Community Drama Festival of Assam:
A Living Tradition Asian Theatre Journal, Volume 26, Number
2, Fall 2009, pp. 303-319. Published by University of Hawai'i
Press
1
Chatterjee, Partha."The Nation and Its Women," Subaltern
Studies Reader 1986-1995 Ed. Ranajit Guha. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press 1997. 240-262.Print.
1
Famous Assamese Mobile Theatre takes Centre Stage. An
IANS report. Saturday, April 24, 2010. 09:09 IST Accessed
from
http://www.siliconindia.com/shownews/Famous_Assamese_
mobile_theatre_takes_centre_stage_-nid-67392-cid-29.html
Works Cited
Ashcroft, Bill and Gareth Griffiths. The Empire Writes Back:
Theory and Practice in Post-colonial Literatures. Routledge.
London and New York. 1989.
Bhaba. Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge. London
and New York. 1994.
Bharucha, Rustom.Theatre and the World Performance and
the politics of culture. Routledge. London and New York.
1993.
Bhattacharya, Malini. Performance as Protest: Cultural
Strategies in the Era of 'Globalisation' Social Scientist, 26.
7/8 (1998): 21-31. JSTOR. Web. 9 Nov 2011.
Chatterjee, Sudipto. The Colonial Staged. Theatre in Colonial
Calcutta.Calcutta, Seagull Books. 2007.
Mulvey, Laura. Visual and Other Pleasures Second Edition.
Palgrave Macmillan. England. 200
Bhaona is a traditional form of entertainment, always with

religious messages, prevalent is Assam. It is a creation of
Mahapurusha Srimanta Sankardeva, who created the form to
convey religious messages to villagers through entertainment.
It is a simple drama which shows the victory of truth at the
climax, generally using fictitious or mythological kings,
queens, demons, Gods, soldiers etc. The story generally
depicts some initial superficial triumph of evils over good, but
it shows the ultimate victory of good with intercession by the
Gods.For this, he dramatized the episodes from the lives of
Rama and Krishna from the Bhagavad Gita or the Purana.
Neither Sankaradeva nor his disciple Madhavdeva (1489
1596) encouraged womens presence in such performances.
1
Namghor is a social rendezvous used for various spiritual

activities such as common prayer(Different types of Naam),
Bhaona(Kind of Spritual Drama with traditional costumes and
musical dance form) used by Assamese people Vaishnavite
Hindus in Assam.
An interview of Rawle Gibbons with EYE TO EYE-Pan

Caribbean.com. A Banyan and Gayelle Production 2010/11.
/www.pancaribbean.com/
- 58 -
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STRESS IN HEALTHCARE PROFESSIONALS

WORKING WITH PATIENTS WITH HIV/AIDS: A
STUDY OF DOCTORS, NURSES AND LABORATORY
TECHNICIANS WORKING IN SELECTED PUBLIC
HOSPITALS IN MUMBAI
Nandini Narayanan*, Nirmala Almeida**
Research Scholar, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, India
Associate Professor and Head of Specialization, Nirmala Niketan, College of Home Science, Mumbai, India.
ABSTRACT
The aim of the paper is to throw light upon the stressors experienced by healthcare professionals working with patients with
HIV/AIDS in selected public hospitals in Mumbai. The sample consisted of 48 participants (16 doctors, 16 nurses and 16
laboratory technicians). A scale to measure the levels of stress was developed by the researchers and in-depth interviews
were used to gain a better understanding of the nature of the stress experienced by the participants. Overall the participants
had low levels of stress (M=103.31, SD=63.16). There was a significant difference between doctors, nurses and laboratory
technicians on the stress scale (Kruskal-Wallis 2=14.876, p=.001). While doctors (M=140.31) and nurses (M=111.88) were
more stressed than laboratory technicians (M=57.75, p=.002), there was no significant difference between the stress levels
of doctors (M=140.31) and nurses (M=111.88). It was seen that stress in relation to equipment/ medical supplies (M= 15.9,
SD= 8.428) and fear of contagion (M= 13.35, SD= 9.672) were two areas that triggered stress in many of the participants.
The findings of the study will help mental health professionals to plan intervention programmes for HCP in need of the same
and act as a basis for studying the coping strategies they use.
1. INTRODUCTION:
With each passing year, more and more individuals are
getting infected with HIV/AIDS. Indeed HIV infections have
reached almost epidemic proportions. The UN estimates that
between 1980 and 2000, there were 2.7 million deaths due to
AIDS in India and that this figure will go up to 12.3 million
during 2000- 2015 and 49.5 million during 2015-50 (HIV and
AIDS in India, 2007). While valiant attempts are being made
to prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS, reaching out to those
who are already infected is a primary concern and a need of
the hour. The adverse impact of HIV infection cannot be
exaggerated. Individuals, who receive a diagnosis of HIV
positive, react with a myriad of emotions, which include,
shock, depression, hopelessness, grief, anger and fear
(Living with HIV, 1998). In addition, their condition may
trigger off a host of negative reactions from others around
them, particularly discrimination and stigmatization (UNAIDS,
2000).
While family members and relatives are the primary
support figures for these patients, healthcare professionals
play an equally important role in their lives. As they are the
primary care givers and have regular contact with them, they
are in a position to influence the patients positively or
adversely. As the HIV/AIDS epidemic matures, the demand
for care for those living with HIV/AIDS rises, as does the toll
among health workers. Healthcare service providers face
different levels of strain, depending on the number of people
who seek services, the nature of their need, and the capacity
to deliver that care (The impact, 2005). Due to the
demanding nature of the care provided by health care
workers to people living with HIV/AIDS, many healthcare
professionals are experiencing occupational stress, fatigue
and symptoms of occupational burnout (Gueritault- Chalvin et
al., 2000; Nursing Standard, 2002, as cited in Smit, 2004).
Chandra, Jairam and Jacob (2004) conducted a study on 52
palliative caregivers in HIV/AIDS in Bangalore. This sample
consisted of doctors (46%), counsellors (17%), nurses
(14%), social workers (10%) and others (13%). They found
that 92% of these healthcare workers had average to high
scores on at least one domain of the Maslach Burnout
Inventory. Callaghan et al. (2000) are of the opinion that the
lack of emotional support, heavy workloads and frequent
patient deaths may also contribute to nurses experience of
occupational stress (as cited in Smit, 2004). A lot of the
current focus of research in the field of healthcare is on the
quality of services provided in our country. However before
we speak of quality of the service it is vital to develop a
better understanding of the stressors healthcare providers
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ISSN 2250-1665
experience, which directly affects the quality of the services

they provide. Paucity of research in this area, especially in
the Indian context served as an impetus for the current
research.
pathogens, while working with the patients and/or in

the laboratory. Healthcare professionals, for the
purpose of this study, are doctors, nurses and
laboratory technicians.
2.OBJECTIVES
1. To study the stressors healthcare professionals in
selected public hospitals in Mumbai experience while working
with adult patients with HIV/AIDS.
2. To compare doctors, nurses and laboratory technicians in
terms of the stressors they experience while working with
adult patients with HIV/AIDS.
D) Tool for Data Collection

The interview schedule, developed by the researchers,
consisted of 13 sections and a total of 55 items. The tool
consisted of both closed-ended and open-ended items. These
items tapped 3 dimensions of stress; intensity (how much),
frequency (how often) and botheration (degree to which the
stress interferes with ones functioning) which were to be
rated on a 3-point scale where 1 indicated the least level of
stress and 3, the highest level of stress. The minimum
obtainable score on the entire stress scale was 0 and the
maximum was 486. Higher scores were indicative of higher
levels of stress. With respect to the open-ended questions,
for each item, the participants were asked to indicate the
nature of the stress, with examples and reason/s for the
same. This data helped in understanding their stress in a
better way.
The interview schedule was constructed in English and then
translated into Hindi and Marathi. The tool was found to have
a high degree of internal consistency, = .928.
3. METHODOLOGY
A) Research Design
An exploratory research design was used, as the current
study focussed on a relatively new and untapped area of
interest in relation to HIV/AIDS healthcare in India.
B) Sample
i) Sample Size
The sample consisted of a total of 48 participants (16
doctors, 16 nurses and 16 laboratory technicians), from three
public (two municipal and one Government) hospitals in
Mumbai.
ii) Sampling technique
Purposive sampling was used for the selection
of both, hospitals and participants. Fulfilment of the
inclusion criteria and consent were the basis for
selection of these hospitals and participants.
iii) Sample characteristics
The age of the participants (17 males and 31
females) ranged from 22 years to 57 years. They were
working in various departments, namely, laboratory services
(n =15), surgery (n =12), medicine (n =8), nephrology (n
=7), obstetrics and gynaecology (n =5) and casualty (n =1).
Their experience in the hospital ranged from one to 30 years
and that of working with patients with HIV/AIDS ranged from
one to 18 years.
C) Measurement
Operational Definitions
Healthcare Professionals
Healthcare professionals are primary care providers,
who have regular, clinical contact with patients and/
or who have direct contact with potentially infectious
clinical specimens and may additionally be exposed to
E) Method of Analysis
Means and standard deviations were computed for the stress
scale. The qualitative data derived from the open-ended
items were organised in terms of major themes and
frequencies and percentages were computed. The KruskalWallis 2 was employed to compare scores of doctors, nurses
and laboratory technicians on the stress scale.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Overall the mean stress score of the healthcare professionals
was 103.31 (SD = 63.16). Their scores ranged from 5 to 271.
Classification of the scores into five categories (refer to Table
1), based on the degree of stress experienced, revealed that
54.17% of the healthcare professionals fell in the very low
degree of stress category and 39.58% in the low degree of
stress category. These results are indicative of overall low
stress experienced by the healthcare professionals working
with adult patients with HIV/AIDS. What was also rewarding
was that no healthcare professional fell in the high or very
high degree of stress categories.
5.NATURE OF STRESS
An examination of the stress areas (see Table 2)
indicated that although in most of the areas healthcare
- 60 -
professionals revealed a low or very low degree of stress,

with respect to two areas, a moderate amount of stress was
experienced, namely, stress in relation to equipment/ medical
supplies (M= 15.9, SD= 8.428) and fear of contagion (M=
13.35, SD= 9.672).
In the open-ended items, healthcare professionals were
asked to give reasons for experiencing or not experiencing
the stress. Analysis of the reasons provided by them revealed
that nearly 80% of the participants felt that patients suffered
due to the lack of medical supplies in the hospital. Similarly
77.08% of the healthcare professionals experienced stress
due to their tight work schedule. Examination of the reasons
cited by the participants revealed that 72.92% attributed the
experience of the stress to an imbalanced patient-staff ratio,
which is an excessively large number of patients that each
staff member has to cater to. On the other hand, 22.92% of
the professionals did not experience stress and the reason
offered was that of habituation (18.75%). According to them
they had got so used to rushing through their work and that
it did not stress them anymore.
Surprisingly
70.83%
of
the
healthcare
professionals expressed a fear of contagion. Over one
third (37.5%) of the participants expressed this fear
despite following universal precautions and some
expressed the same due to failure to use safety
procedures for various reasons, such as inability to
follow precautions due to time pressure (12.5%).
According to these professionals they were unable to
take necessary precautions when in a hurry to attend
to the patients.
To paint a picture of the work conditions in most public
hospitals in India; on an average, each public hospital in
Mumbai caters to 3000 to 4000 patients every day in their
out-patient departments (OPD) (Andhale, 2006) and each
department caters to up to 400 OPD patients per day (A.
Almeida, Personal communication, March 19, 2006). Further
each ward has about 35 to 40 patients (Quereshi, 2005). In
spite of there being such a high patient load, as reported by
the participants, there were only two to three residents and
two to three nurses to attend to these patients per ward.
These residents too, like the senior doctors were generally
taking care of multiple wards. Laboratory technicians
reported that they handled a minimum of 250 samples per
day. With such an acute shortage of manpower, it was
obvious that these professionals were over worked and
consequently stressed.
From the point of view of the equipment, it was
observed that some of the equipment was rusty or broken
(for example the enamel coated trays that nurses use to
ISSN 2250-1665
carry all medicines or injections from one patient to the

other, trolleys and movable screens used in the wards, and
so forth). Though some participants reported that broken or
rusty equipment were replaced promptly, some said that due
to the lack of funds and sometimes bureaucracy, it took very
long for the authorities to replace equipment even after
persistent complaints and requests. The time pressure that
these professionals were subjected to, coupled with the
unsafe equipment that they handled were bound to
contribute to the stress experienced.
There was substantial difference in the level of
cleanliness maintained from one hospital to the other and
also from one department to another in the same hospital. In
some hospitals, the corridors were filled with patients
relatives nibbling at food items, throwing food remains on the
ground, in others, relatives were seen inside the wards with
dirty footwear, sitting on the patients bed. Some relatives
were observed coughing, sneezing and spitting on the walls.
All this could contribute to the poor hygiene of the hospital.
Moreover with the shortage of staff available in public
hospitals, maintenance of proper hygienic conditions
remained a problem. At the same time it was noted that
some departments were kept spotlessly clean. The effort that
must have been invested in reaching these high standards of
cleanliness was particularly noteworthy. It was interesting to
note low levels of stress in the healthcare professionals in
spite of less than perfect working conditions.
The commonest reason for the low levels of stress,
which emerged across all the areas, was that the healthcare
professionals were habituated to the stressors. With their
frequent exposure to stressors, most of them seemed to have
developed effective coping strategies like detachment or
choosing not to react to the stressor, rationalising the
unpleasant behaviour of others, seeing the brighter side of
things, and so forth. Many of the healthcare professionals
were mentally prepared about the nature of work in the
public hospital set up. Also they had a realistic picture about
the work set up and work load, had realistic expectations
with respect to the level of hygiene in the public hospitals,
salary and facilities provided to the employees. What
probably helped in this mental preparation is that, as a
student, most of the healthcare professionals undergo
training in public hospitals. This helps them get used to the
set up.
Personal observations of the work setting during data
collection suggested a level of resilience of these healthcare
professionals who work in a public hospital setting. For
example, the ability of all the doctors, nurses and laboratory
technicians to keep their cool during the constant questioning
- 61 -
and frequent demands of the patients and/or their relatives

was extraordinary. Another possible reason for the low scores
on the stress scale could be that as seen in the results, most
healthcare professionals obtained something positive from
their work with patients with HIV/AIDS. Looking at the
brighter side of things and drawing out the positive features
from stressful events helps in long term management of the
stress (Your attitude, 2005).
Haviland et.al. (1997)
conducted a study on 86 care providers from 29 HIV/AIDS
service agencies in New York City. They found that HIV/AIDS
care providers feel a high level of personal commitment to
working with HIV-positive clients. According to them personal
commitment to HIV-positive clients may blunt some of the
stresses associated with HIV/AIDS care. As one of the senior
nurses in the present study stated, I have been doing this
job for nearly 30 years now. Most of the times we are rushing
through our work, from one patient to the other, handling the
relatives and at the same time trying to meet the
expectations of the doctors...It is very stressful, but at the
end of the day what matters to me the most is that I am in a
position to help lessen someones pain and suffering. That is
a very fulfilling feeling.
As evident from the results, overall the healthcare
professionals had low levels of stress. It was heartening to
observe these findings because in spite of the sub-optimal
work conditions and facilities which were available to them,
these healthcare professionals were not stressed regarding
the same and continued to relentlessly provide services to the
best possible level.
6. COMPARISON BETWEEN DOCTORS, NURSES AND
LABORATORY TECHNICIANS
Significant differences were found among the three
groups on their scores on the stress scale (Kruskal-Wallis
2=14.876, p=0.001). Note that the mean score was
103.31(SD=63.16). Post hoc tests revealed that the doctors
(M=140.31) were more stressed than laboratory technicians
(M=57.75, p=0.002) and also nurses were more stressed
than laboratory technicians (M=57.75, p=0.002). However,
there was no significant difference between the stress levels
of doctors (M=140.31) and nurses (M=111.88).
Probably doctors had higher levels of stress because
they were responsible for the patients life. According to
Taylor (1986) stress may be greater when the work of the
professionals involves responsibility for people rather that
things or products, as seen in the case of laboratory
technicians. Although the fate of the patient is dependent on
the blood report, laboratory technicians are not responsible
for the survival of the patient. Nurses, on the other hand,
ISSN 2250-1665
were constantly in touch with the patients and their relatives

and therefore might be subject to stressors in relation to
them.
Also a reason for the lower scores of the laboratory
technicians could be that some areas on the stress scale used
in the study were not applicable to most of them. For
example, stress related to communicating with patients,
stress related to families of patients, stress related to
psychological issues in the management of patients and
stress related to death and dying of patients. Most of the
laboratory technicians hardly came in contact with the
patients and their relatives. For many of them, the maximum
contact they had with the patient was during sample
collection, which takes hardly any time for them to get an
opportunity to interact with the patient at a personal level.
Further, there were some laboratory technicians who never
came in contact with the patient because their job involved
only work restricted to the laboratory, where they analysed
the samples collected by someone else. In most cases it was
seen that the samples were collected by the ward nurses
themselves, and then sent to the laboratory for analysis.
7.CONCLUSION
Healthcare professionals are among the first who have
contact with the patient with HIV/AIDS. They are a major
source of care, information and in most cases, emotional
support for the patient as well as his/her family members.
The kind of stress they face at the workplace not only affects
the quality of their lives but also affects the quality of services
provided by them therefore directly impacting the patients
and their caregivers. Healthcare professionals working in
India, especially in the public sector do not have ideal
working conditions. Furthermore working with patients with a
highly sensitive condition like HIV/AIDS comes with its own
dynamics. In spite of that it was seen that overall stress ran
low in the sample under study. Though the sample size is
quite small to generalize the findings, it is quite heartening to
note these findings. A great insight is that the resilience of
human nature and sprit manifests in different situations, this
being one of them. Though they are exposed to a large
gamut of stressors our healthcare professionals have
developed their own strategies to cope with them thus
ensuring that work does not get affected to that extent.
While some of these coping mechanisms might be good,
there are some that might not be considered desirable. With
the help of such data, mental health professionals can equip
these professionals to handle the stress in a better way and
develop healthy coping strategies.
- 62 -
Reference
Andhale (2006, March 1). State to clamp EMSA on citys

striking docs. Mumbai Mirror, p. 4.
Chandra, P. S., Jairam, K. R. & Jacob, A. (2004). Factors

related to staff stress in HIV/AIDS related palliative care.
Indian Journal of Palliative Care, 10, 48-54. Retrieved
December 25, 2005, from Proquest database
Gueritault-Chalvin, V., Demi, A., Peterson, J.L. &

Kalichman, S.C. (2000). Workrelated Stress and
Occupational Burnout in AIDS Caregivers: Test of a
Coping Model with Nurses Providing AIDS Care. AIDS
Care, 12(2), 149-163. Retrieved August 12, 2005, from
Medline database.
Haviland, M. L., Healton, C. G., Weinberg, G. S., Messeri,

P. A., Aidala, A. A., Jetter, D., Jessop, D. & Nelson, K.
(1997). Delivering HIV/AIDS services: the professional
care provider speaks out. American Journal of Preventive
Medicine, 13(6), 12-18. Abstract retrieved July 27, 2005,
from
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/
query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&li
st_uids=9455588&query_hl=2
HIV and AIDS in India. (2007). Retrieved September 16,

2007, from. http://www.avert.org/aidsindia htm
Living with HIV. (1998). Retrieved May 24, 2005, from

http://www.afao.org.au/view_articles.asp?pxa=ve&pxs=
99&id=255
Qureshi, A. (2005). Health services in Mumbai. In

Mukherjee, N. (Ed.) Understanding Our Civic Issues.
Retrieved
March
4,
2006,
from
http://www.bcpt.org.in/healthservices.pdf
Smit , R. (2004). HIV/AIDS and the Workplace: A Case

Study of Nurses in a Public Hospital. Retrieved May 18,
2005, from Medline database.
Taylor, S. (1986). Health Psychology. New York: Random

House.
The impact of HIV and AIDS on Africa. (2005). Retrieved

May
24,
2005,
from
http://www.avert.org/aidsimpact.htm
UNAIDS (2000) HIV and AIDS-related stigmatization,

discrimination and denial: forms, contexts and
determinants Research studies from Uganda and India.
Geneva: Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
(UNAIDS).
Your attitude and its effect on your stress. (2005)

Retrieved
February
25,
2005,
from
http://www.psywww.com/mtsite/smattit.html
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ISSN 2250-1665
ISSN 2250-1665
IMPACT OF TELEVISION VIEWING LEADS TO

HYPERTENSION AMONG SCHOOL CHILDREN
IN METROCITY
*Munegowda.P, Dr.R.Munireddy**
*Research scholar, Singhania University, Jhunjhunu, Rajasthan
**Director, Bangalore University.
ABSTRACT
Objectives: To analyze the relation between hypertension and watching television. Correlation between Diastolic and
Systolic blood pressure and establish norms of blood pressure in children aided and unaided schools sportsmen and non
sportsmen of (5th to 7th) standard. Materials and methods: We measured the Diastolic and Systolic blood pressure.
Norms of 5th to 7th standard aided and unaided sportsmen and non sportsmen were established. Random study settings of
1600 children of Bangalore Metro city. Persistently hypertensive children were investigated influencing factors like family
history of hypertension was taken in to account. Discussion: The prevalence of Diastolic and Systolic blood pressure in
school children 5th to 7th standard in our study counters the results obtained from the other studies. Present data was
analyzed statistically and we had tried to correlate it with time spent on TV. Results: Aided schools sportsmen and non
sportsmen 800 samples and unaided schools sportsmen and non sportsmen 800 samples were taken into account for the
study and this study was conducted among the boys. The above statistics with the help of t-ratio watching television 2.571,
diastolic blood pressure 8.343, and systolic blood pressure 17.374 among 1600. Conclusion: We observed an association
between hypertension among the sportsmen and non sportsmen in the aided and unaided schools and the time spent in
front of TV is the factor.
Key Words: Watching television and hypertension.
1. INTRODUCTION:
Hypertension is a common disease associated with high
morbidity and mortality. The disease is a silent threat to the
health of people all over the world. It is suggested that
hypertension has its origin in childhood but goes undetected
unless specifically looked for during this period1. Thus, early
detection of hypertension and its precipitating or aggravating
factors is important if one is to evolve measures so that
complication of hypertension can be prevented2. The present
study was designed to evaluate the normal range of blood
pressure in different age groups, prevalence of hypertension
and the precipitating or aggravating factors.
Obese is known to increase the possibility of
cardiovascular risk factors, such as hypertension.3The
increased prevalence of elevated systolic and diastolic blood
pressures among U.S youth over the past 10 years is cause
for concern.4
Blood pressure is the force of blood against the walls of
arteries. Blood pressure has two components-the systolic
pressure (It is the force that blood exerts on the artery walls
when the heart is pumping) over the diastolic pressure (it is
the residual force that remains when the heart relaxes
between beats). The measurement is written one above or
before the other, with the systolic number on top and the
diastolic number on the bottom. For example, a blood

pressure measurement of 130/85 mm Hg (millimeters of
mercury) is expressed verbally as "130 over 85."
Blood pressure varies from person to person and by
ages. In general: Normal blood pressure is less than 130 mm
Hg systolic and less than 85 mm Hg diastolic. Optimal blood
pressure is less than 120 mm Hg systolic and less than 80
mm Hg diastolic.
Hypertension is generally defined as a blood pressure
greater than 140/90. You should bring your blood pressure
closer to what's considered optimal, 120/80. Elevated in
blood pressure is bad because it raises your risk for heart
attack and stroke.5
2. OBJECTIVES
To analyze the relation between hypertension and
watching television.
Correlation between diastolic and
systolic blood pressure. To establish norms of blood pressure
in children aided and unaided schools sportsmen and non
sportsmen of (5th to7th) standard.
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
We measured the Diastolic and Systolic blood pressure.
Norms of 5th to 7th standard aided and unaided sportsmen
- 64 -
and non sportsmen were established. At the age group of 10

to 12 years random study settings of 1600 children of
Bangalore Metro city. Persistently sportsmen and non
sportsmen children were investigated influencing factors like
family history of hypertension and watching TV was taken in
to account.
4. THE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Mean x standard deviation (SD) and frequency were
calculated for the statistical analysis students t-test was used
ISSN 2250-1665
to compare the mean results and standard error. The data

was analyzed through SPSS trail statisticspackage.
5. DISCUSSION
The prevalence of Diastolic and Systolic blood pressure
in school children 5th to 7th standard in our study counters the
results obtained from the other studies. Present data was
analyzed statistically and we had tried to correlate it with
time spent on TV.
Table-1
ANALYSIS BETWEEN AIDED AND UNAIDED SCHOOLS STUDENT GROUPS ( 800 SUBJECTS PER GROUP)
T-RATIO BETWEEN AIDED SCHOOL STUDENTS AND UN-AIDED SCHOOL STUDENTS
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level
The table one reveals the diastolic and systolic blood

pressure among the sportsmen and non sportsmen of aided
and unaided schools. It slight differences and the t-ratio the
significant level among aided and unaided schools students is
one and the same. The average watching of TV slightly
changes the t-ratio among aided and unaided schools boys
the significant level slightly differs.
7. CORRELATION MATRIX
TABLE-2
CORRELATION BETWEEN DAILY TV WATCHING
DURATION AND SELECTED VARIABLES OF
HYPERTENSION.
The table two reveals the correlation between watching

tv daily and the duration and selected variables diastolic and
systolic blood pressure among aided and unaided school
(sportsmen and non sportsmen) the level of difference
changes as per the table diastolic .007 and systolic .067 as
per the Pearson correlation. While assessing the watching of
Television daily and the (duration) among the sportsmen and
non sportsmen of aided and unaided schools there is a
slightly differsand the table predicts as per the statistics .772
and 008 and It means that there is a difference between
sportsmen and non sportsmen in aided and unaided schools.
8. DISCUSSION
The prevalence of Diastolic and Systolic blood pressure
in school children 5th to 7th standard in our study counters the
results obtained from the other studies. Present data was
analyzed statistically and we had tried to correlate it with
time spent on TV.
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
- 65 -
9. RESULTS
Aided schools sportsmen and non sportsmen of 800
samples and unaided schools sportsmen and non sportsmen
of 800 samples were taken into account for the study and as
per the statistics there is a slight change in the diastolic and
systolic blood pressure among sportsmen and non sportsmen
aided and unaided schools. There is a difference between
watching the daily TV among sportsmen and non sportsmen
in aided and unaided schools.
10. CONCLUSION
We observed an association between hypertension
among the sportsmen and non sportsmen in the aided and
unaided schools and the time spent in front of TV is the
factor. The effects on the age group of sportsmen and non
sportsmen of diastolic and systolic blood pressure lead to
hypertension by watching TV for more than one hour per day
as per data and discussion.
References
Sukumar IP, Alukar VM. Systemic high arterial pressure

in children.Indian heart J 1978, 30:69.
Sukumar IP, Alukar VM. Systemic high arterial pressure

in children.Indian heart J 1978, 30:69.
3.Wilson PW, DAgostino RB, Sullivan L, Parise H, Kannel

WB. Overweight and obesity as determinants of
cardiovascular risk: the Framingham experience Arch
Intern Med 2002; 162:1867-72.
Muntner P, He J Cutler JA , Wildman RP, Whelton PK.

Trends in blood pressure among children and
adolescents .JAMA 2004;291:2107-13.
5.George Jacob, heart info center, Hypertension (high

blood pressure)page 1-2.
6.N.K Anand, LalitTandon. Prevalence of hypertension in

school going childrenGovt medical collegeAmritsar.1995;
1-5.
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ISSN 2250-1665
ISSN 2250-1665
DETERMINANTS OF JOB SATISFACTION AND

MIGRATION BEHAVIOR OF CONTRACT LABORS
IN DELHI AND NCR.
Ms. Shikha Singh*, Dr. Ajay Kumar Chauhan**, Dr. Dipti Sharma***
*Assistant Professor (Economics) Lal Bahadur Shastri Institute of Management,New Delhi
**Assistant Professor, Institute of Management Technology (IMT), Ghaziabad
***Assistant Professor,Malaviya National Institute of Technology(MNIT)Jaipur,
ABSTRACT
The research paper is an effort to identify and analyze the factors affecting job satisfaction and migration behavior of the
contract laborers working in manufacturing firms in the National Capital Region. It is found in the research study that quality
of service condition in the current job is the most influencing factor affecting the satisfaction of a contract worker followed by
level of satisfaction in the current job, wage satisfaction and working conditions. However a worker gives more importance to
wages as compared to the working conditions. Indicating the fact that even if the working conditions are bad a worker will
continue to work as he is receiving higher wages, so he doesnt mind comprising on the working conditions whether they are
safe or unsafe, healthy or unhygienic.
Key words: Contract labour, migration, wages, employment, job satisfaction,contractor, employer
JEL Classification: J00, J 3, C 3, C 8
1. INTRODUCTION:
Globalization has changed the world scenario resulting in
larger integration and major changes in markets not only for
products but also for employment structures. It is
globalization of employment structures which has led to the
introduction of labour flexibility by the multinational
companies. In order to help the multinational companies
andto provide a flexible labour environment countries are also
attempting to liberalize their labour markets with
amendments in labour laws. The whole framework is
structured to promote an investment and employment
friendly environment. As pointed out by Sundar (2011) the
standard of employment is taken to cover full time, open
ended contract with social security benefits and employments
not conforming to these are referred to non-standard
employment. The author further emphasis that the
employment of labour intermediaries and establishment of
triangular relationships have spread to many countries and
grown over the years in the form of contract employment. At
the outset Khan (2005) found that globalization has reduced
the number of employees in Bangladesh working under
permanent contracts. The country has seen the emergence of
non-traditional employment structure including part time,
casual and contract labour. Exploring the contract form of
employmentForde and Mackenzie (2007) examined the use of
contingent labour in construction and civil engineering sector
in United Kingdom. They found that employers use of
contingent labour is widespread and that in many cases, the
use of contingent labour may increasingly be a constrained
choice for employers, reflecting overall labour shortages and

recruitment difficulties in the sector. They also found that the
use of contingent labour contributes to skill shortages in the
industry with the scope of training offered to workers on
these contract forms being limited in nature. Palma & Lopez
(2008) provided an overview of the recent developments in
employment relations in Chile. The authors emphasize that
Chiles employment relation institutes are inadequate to
protect the vulnerable workers. The paperexplains the
capacity of contract workers to overcome such limitations by
recurring to mobilization. It also argues that contract labour
mobilization rather than a shift leftin government seems to
offer a more plausible explanation of current developments in
Chilean employment relations. From the global scenario
shifting the focus on India, Mitra (2001)
in his research
paper examines the basic objectives of industrial policy in
India. According to the author the Industrial policy in India
since independence has been to create employment
opportunities on a large scale in the industrial sector. The
deregulation process initiated in 1984-85 and structural
adjustment programs implemented in July 1991 aimed at
increasing the long run growth rate of GDP through
deregulation in both commodity and factor markets. By
removing the rigidities in the factor market, i.e. removing
subsidies in the capital market and discouraging unionization
in the labour market, employment levels in the industrial
sector were expected to grow fast.
Deshpande (2004), Rajeev (2008) laid stress on labour
management being the most crucial tasks of an entrepreneur.
- 67 -
In order to surpass the stringent labour regulations, the

industry sector in India is largely resorting to contract
laborers, who are governed by the Contract Labour
Regulation and Abolition Act of 1970. In India too they
observed an increasing use of casual /contract or other such
non informal labour over time. One of the easiest ways
companies have found in contributing to increase in
employment is through hiring more and more of contract
laborers.
Today contract form of employment is gaining
momentum among the industries. In Marutis Manesar factory
nearly 85 per cent of the workers are working on contract
basis. Saini (2010) has explained the law by telling that the
contract labour acthas been made applicable to every
establishment in which 20 or more workmen are employed or
were employed on any day of the preceding 12 months as
contract labour. It is also applicable to all contractors who
employ 20 or more contract workers in an establishment
belonging to the principal employer. An establishment
covered under the Act has to register itself as aprincipal
employer by making an application to the registration officer
concerned appointed by the appropriate government.
In India the contract labour act of 1970 has been facing
continuous opposition by the trade unions. Increased labour
inequalities, intensified labour insecurity in the market and
weak bargaining power of labour leading to exploitation
forms the basis of argument.
As of now some state governments have introduced
reforms in the Contract Labour Act. Also at the same time,
the contract workers are being organized and significant
struggles and collective agreements with regard to their
issues and interests have been reached. Thus, there is a need
to review the developments with respect to the contract
labour law reform debate, the public policy and social
dialogue.
The Contract Labour (Regulation and Abolition) Act,
1970 in India was formulated to protect the interest of
laborers working on contractual basis.The act defines the
contract laborer as one who is hired in connection with the
work of an establishment by a principal employer which can
be a firm owner or a manager through a contractor.The Act
applies to every establishment/contractor in which 20 or
more workmen are employed or were employed on any day
in the preceding 12 months as contract labour and to every
contractor who employs or who employed on any day of the
preceding 12 months, 20 or more workmen. It does not
apply to establishments where the work performed is of
intermittent or seasonal nature. An establishment wherein
work is of intermittent and seasonal nature will be covered by
ISSN 2250-1665
the Act if the work performed is more than 120 days and 60
days in a year respectively.
The Act also applies to
establishments of the Government and local authorities as
well.
The act makes a number of provisions for the welfare of
the contract workers including payment of minimum wage,
social security benefits and others. At various points of time
Government amended the law with a view to make it more
labour friendly. However, such amendments can be of help to
the workers only if implementation of the law is ascertained.
(Rajeev Meenakshi, 2009).
Today contract labour is becoming one of the prominent
forms of labour employment in India. In the midst of the
much needed flexible form of employment in a globalized
competitive world, there are questions about extending the
social security measures to these strata of contract laborers.
The current research focuses on checking the various
provisions of the Contract Labour Act and at the same time
examines the level of satisfaction, quality of service and
factors affecting migration of a contract worker involved in
the private sector.
2. METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The research study is descriptive in nature. It identifies
and analyzes the factors affecting job satisfaction and
migration behavior of the contract laborers.Judgmental
sampling is used for the collection of primary data from 144
contract laborers working in manufacturing firms in Delhi and
National Capital Region (hereafter NCR). Questionnaire and
interview method is used in the study. The multivariate
regression is applied in order to analyse and identify the
factors influencing job satisfaction and migration of contract
laborers. Variables used in the study include job satisfaction,
referral behavior, migration outside Delhi/NCR, shifting to
another contractor and choosing opportunities in Mahatma
Gandhi National Rural employment guarantee act (hereafter
MNREGA) over the contract employment. SPSS software is
used for data analysis.
3. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
In the research study it is found that most of the
workers belong to general category (41.7 per cent) followed
by scheduled tribe (25 per cent), scheduled caste (11.1 per
cent) and other categories (9.75 per cent).Majority of male
contract workers are found working on the huge construction
sites. The number of males as per the survey are maximum
(96.5 per cent) and the females are minimum. (3.5 per cent).
Due to high amount of risks and danger involved there are
fewer females working as contract laborers on huge
- 68 -
construction sites. Maximum numbers of workers have

migrated from states like Bihar, West Bengal and Uttar
Pradesh. Out of 144 workers 62 (43.1 per cent) workers
belong to Bihar. Another states from where maximum
migration has taken place are from West Bengal (25 per cent)
and Uttar Pradesh (22.9 per cent) followed by Jharkhand (4.9
per cent),Punjab (2.8 per cent) and Chhattisgarh (1.4 per
cent). The workers are having low levels of education. Nearly
131 (91 per cent) workers are having education below class
10th followed by 6.3 per cent of workers having education till
class 10th. Only 2.1 per cent of workers are having education
till class 12th and just 0.7 per cent of the worker is having
education till graduate level. Most of the workers 106 (73.*6
per cent) have not taken a formal training. They have
acquired the skills through their past experience and as and
when they were exposed to such kinds of work they picked
up on their learning curve. Only 26.4 per cent of the workers
have taken a formal training to work on the construction
sites.Out of a total of 144 workers 83 (57.6 per cent) workers
have shifted to construction since last five or less years. Rest
has been followed by more than five but less than 10 years of
experience i.e. 30.6 per cent. Remaining 11 per cent have
been associated with this work for more than 10 years but
less than 15 years. Only one worker as per the survey is
having more than 15years of association with the
construction industry.
Majority of contract laborers in this work are below the
age of 25 years i.e. 81 (56 per cent). The system of monthly
wages and getting paid for overtime are the probable reasons
for maximum younger age group to be doing this work. Next
category of age which has maximum presence (25 per cent)
ISSN 2250-1665
in this type of work is between 25 to 35 years of age. The

presence level of agegroup of 35 to 45 years is found to be
15per cent. As the age is increasing the presence is going
down and therefore the contract workers above the age of 45
years doing this construction work are only 3.5 per cent.
Out of a total of 144 workers maximum numbers of contract
workers (44.4 %) are receiving wages between the ranges of
5000 to 8000; this high earning capacity attracts the
workers to get associated with this industry on contractual
basis. Also 38.2 per cent of the workers are receiving wages
5000. Some contact workers who are semi-skilled
below
are able to receive wages between the ranges of 8000 to
12000.
The provisions of the Contract labour act were checked
through the questionnaire to ascertain that the provisions as
laid down in the act are being met by the contractors/work
providers or not. The data in table 1 shows that almost 63
per cent of workers do not sign on the contract paper
whereas only 38 per cent have provisions at their work place
to sign on the contract. Likewise majority of workers receive
monthly wages rather than getting on daily or weekly basis.
78 per cent of the workers have canteen facilities, 66 per
cent have provision for rest room if the worker has to stay in
the night for work, 99 per cent of the workers are provided
with safe drinking water, 76 per cent of them have proper
provisions for urinals and latrines, 96 per cent have access to
first aid facilities, 96 per cent of the workers are provided
with safety equipments at the work site.Thus assessingthe
overall provisions of the act most of them are met more than
moderately by the work providers and the contractors.
TABLE 1: PROVISIONS OF THE CONTRACT LABOUR ACT
Source :Compiled by the authors from the results of the survey
- 69 -
To analyse the factors effecting the satisfaction and

quality of service for a contract worker it is found (Table 2 )
that service conditions in the current job is having the
highest mean of 3.81, followed by level of satisfaction in the
current job (mean 3.79) , wage satisfaction (mean 3.59) and
working conditions(mean 3.48).
ISSN 2250-1665
competitive place and he can get high wages here that is the
reason he recommends his relative to do the same job as well
as stay in Delhi/NCR.
TABLE 3: FACTORS AFFECTING
MIGRATION/MOVEMENT OF THE CONTRACT
WORKERS
TABLE 2: FACTORS AFFECTING SATISFACTION AND

QUALITY OF SERVICE FOR A CONTRACT LABOUR
Source : Compiled by the authors from the results of the survey
Source: Compiled by the authors from the results of the survey
This shows that a worker gives more importance

towages as compared to the working conditions. Indicating
the fact that even if the working conditions are bad a worker
will continue to work as he is receiving higher wages, so he
doesnt mind comprising on the working conditions whether
they are safe or unsafe, healthy or unhygienic. Further if see
in table 2 the highest mean (3.63) is of the factor where a
contract worker would like to recommend a relative to do the
same work in which he is currently working. This factor is
followed by the fact that a worker wants to stay in Delhi/NCR
(mean 2.85). A worker believes that Delhi/NCR is a very
4. DETERMINANTS OF JOB SATISFACTION AND

MIGRATION BEHAVIOR OF CONTRACT LABORERS
In order to analyze the determinants of perception of the
contract workers for recommending a relative to do the same
job, the multiple regression model is applied. The results of
multiple regression model are shown in table no 4. The
results indicate that the most important factor is the level of
satisfaction in the current job.
TABLE 4: REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF RECOMMENDING A RELATIVE TO DO THE JOB OF CONSTRUCTION
indicates significant impact at 10 per cent level of significance

Source : Compiled by the authors from the results of the survey
The slope co-efficient of this variable is positive and the

- 70 -
P-value is highly significant, which indicates a direct

relationship of this variable on recommending a relative to do
the same job. Hence we can conclude that higher the
level of satisfaction with the current job more a
worker is going to recommend a relative to do a
similar kind of work.
In order to analyze the determinants of perception of the
contract workers for wanting to leave Delhi/ NCR (National
Capital region), the multiple regression model is applied. The
results of multiple regression model are shown in table no 5.
ISSN 2250-1665
The results indicate that the most important factor is the level
of satisfaction in the current job. The slope co-efficient of this
variable is positive and the P-value is highly significant, which
indicates a direct relationship of this variable on
recommending a relative to do the same job. Hence we can
conclude that higher the level of satisfaction with the
current job more a are the chances of labour not
leaving Delhi/NCR
TABLE 5 : REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF CONTRACT WORKERS WANTING TO LEAVE DELHI/NCR

Source:Compiled by the authors from the results of the survey
In order to analyse the determinants of perception of the

workers for shifting to another contractor/employer, the
multiple regression model is applied. The results of multiple

regression model are shown in table no 6.
TABLE 6: REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF WORKERS WANTING TO SHIFT TO ANOTHER EMPLOYER/CONTRACTOR

The results indicate that the most important factor is the

quality of service conditions in the current job followed by
wage satisfaction. The slope co-efficient of these two factors
are negative which indicates the inverse impact of these

variables on the switching behavior of the workers. In
addition to the above variables, the overall level of
- 71 -
satisfaction with the current job is also influencing the

shifting behavior of the contract workers with their present
employer/contractor. Hence it can be concluded that
lower the quality of service conditions in the current
job higher will be the migration of the worker from
the current contractor. Lesser the level of satisfaction
with the wages higher are the chances that the
contract
worker
would
migrate
to
another
contractor/employer.
workers for shifting to opportunities like MNREGA, the
multiple regression model is applied. The resultof multiple
regression modelis shown in table no 7. The results indicate
that the most important factor is the satisfaction with wages
followed by working conditions and level of satisfaction with
the current job. The slope co-efficient of the two factors i.e.
satisfaction with wages and level of satisfaction with the
ISSN 2250-1665
current job are negative which indicates the inverse impact of

these variables on the choosing an opportunity like MNREGA
outside the current contract work. In addition to the above
variables, working conditions in the present job is also
influencing in choosing an opportunity outside the current
contract work. The slope co-efficient of this variable is
positive and the P-value is highly significant, which indicates
a direct relationship of this variable on recommending a
relative to do the same job. Therefore better the working
conditions for a worker in the current work lesser are the
chance for shifting to another opportunities for work. Hence
it can be concluded that lower the satisfaction with
the current wages and the current job higher will be
the chances of a contract worker to look for
opportunities like MNREGA and others.
TABLE 7: REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF CONTRACT WORKERS WANTING TO SHIFT

TO OPPORTUNITIES LIKE MNREGA

5. CONCLUSION
Quality of service condition in the current job is found to
be the most influencing factor affecting the satisfaction of a
contract worker followed by level of satisfaction in the current
job, wage satisfaction and working conditions.A worker
gives more importance to wages as compared to the
working conditions. Indicating the fact that even if
the working conditions are bad a worker will continue
to work as he is receiving higher wages, so he doesnt
mind comprising on the working conditions whether
they are safe or unsafe, healthy or unhygienic.For
factors affecting referral and migration behavior of workers it
is found that recommending a relative to do the same work is
the most influencing factor followed by the fact that a worker
wants to stay in Delhi/NCR. A worker believes that Delhi/NCR

is a very competitive place and he can get high wages here
that is the reason he recommends his relative to do the same
job as well as wants to stay in Delhi/NCR.
In order to identify the factors influencing the referral
behavior of contract workers multiple regression model is
applied. Results indicate that the mostinfluencing factor is the
level of satisfaction in the current job. Hence higher the
level of satisfaction with the current job more a
worker is going to recommend a relative to do a
similar kind of work. In case of the perception of
contract workers desirous of leaving Delhi/ NCR
(National Capital region), the most influencing factor is the
level of satisfaction in the current job. Hence higher the
- 72 -
levels of satisfaction with the current job more are

the chances of labour not leaving Delhi/NCR. In order
to analyse the determinants of perception of the workers for
shifting to another contractor/employer, the most important
factor is found to be the quality of service conditions in the
current job followed by wage satisfaction. Hence lower the
quality of service conditions in the current job higher
will be the migration of the worker from the current
contractor. Lesser the level of satisfaction with the
wages higher are the chances that the contract
worker
would
migrate
to
another
contractor/employer.
workers for shifting to opportunities like MNREGA, the most
important factor is the satisfaction with wages followed by
working conditions and level of satisfaction with the current
job. The slope co-efficient of the two factors i.e satisfaction
with wages and level of satisfaction with the current job are
negative which indicates the inverse impact of these variables
on the choosing an opportunity like MNREGA outside the
current contract work. In addition to the above variables,
working conditions in the present job is also influencing in
choosing an opportunity outside the current contract work.
Hence lower the satisfaction with the current wages
and the current job higher will be the chances of a
contract worker to look for opportunities like MNREGA
and others.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Following the results of the survey certain
recommendations have been laid out.The Government needs
to take measures for the development of skills of the contract
worker by conducting frequent vocational training programs,
so that it helps them it earn higher wages. Efforts should be
made to increase the awareness level of the workers about
the various supporting laws and regulations, so that they can
demand better working environment and can live a quality
life. The government can also have tie ups with various Non Governmental organizations (NGOs) for creating awareness
sessions for the workers. Apart from tie ups with NGOs
government should distribute free copies of the labour acts
laid down with provisions to the workers thus making them
more informed of their rights. To stop exploitation of the
contract workers in the unorganized sector especially
construction sector, workers should be made aware about the
Contract labour act of 1970 and its various provisions.
Hygiene facilities are always an issue for the worker. Thus
due attention should be given to provide healthy working
conditions to the workers and provision should be made
ISSN 2250-1665
mandatory for each work provider/contractor to provide the

same to the workers. Most of the contract workers are not
made to sign the papers of the contract, this should also be
made mandatory and every contractor should be required to
maintain accounts for the same. If needed these accounts
should be audited regularly by respective bodies. This is
suggested in interest of the contract workers to provide them
job security and safety of wages which is missing to a great
extent in urban scenario.
REFERENCES
Agarwal,
Rashmi
(2001):
Labour
Laws
and
Contemporary Issues, Manpower Journal, XXXVII,4,3947.
Basu, K., S. Bhattacharya and A. Mishra (1992): Notes

on bribery and the control of corruption, Journal of
Public Economics, 48, 349-359.
Contract Labour Regulation and Abolition Act, 1970.

www.nic.org.in
Mitra Arup (2001), The Urban Labour market in India

An overview, International Journal of Employment
Studies, Vol. 9, No. 2, October 2001
Deshpande, L et al, 2004, Liberalization and Labour,

Labour Flexibility in Indian Manufacturing, Institute for
Human Development, New Delhi.
Government of India, Annual Report, Ministry of Labour,

Different Issues.
Khan, A. S. (2005): Impact of Globalization on Labour

Market and Workers, Challenges and Opportunities:
Trade Union Action, www.globalnetwork-asia.org.
Kumar, Arun (2002), Labour Law Reforms in India: Some

Issues for Consideration, Manpower Journal, Vol.
XXXVII, 4, 39-47.
Marjit, S., M. Rajeev and D. Mukherjee (2000):

Incomplete information as a deterrent to crime,
European Journal of Political Economy, 16, 763-773.
Rajeev, Meenakshi (2006): How Contract Laborers are

Cheated, Deccan Herald (16thJan), Bangalore, India.
Rajeev, Meenakshi and S. RoyChowdhuri (2006):

Contractual Employment in Selected manufacturing
Enterprises in Karnataka, Project Report No. SRTT/4,
Institute for Social and Economic Change.
Rajeev, Meenakshi (2009), Contract Labour Act in India:

A Pragmatic Approach, IGIDR proceedings.
Theron, Jan (2002): Labour Law and the Informal

Economy, Paper Presented in the Working Group
Meeting
organized
by
WIEGO,
Geneva,
http://www.wiego.org/papers/geneva_report.doc.
- 73 -
Dr. K. R Shyam Sundar(2011), Contract labour debate

in India :Another policy deadlock Maharashtra Economic
Development Council, Monthly Economic Digest, June
2011
ISSN 2250-1665
KHAP PANCHAYATS AND THE DEBATE

ON THEIR BAN IN INDIA
Tanushree
Research Scholar, Gautam Buddha University, Greater NOIDA.
ABSTRACT
Khaps has been in the media spotlight for almost two years for their involvement in the so called honour killings. Existing in
parts of northern India for a long time they have considerable influence among the rural masses. Their role in societies they
exist too is immense and they have played very diverse roles throughout their existence. Sometimes they supported rulers
militarily and other times in administration. A ban on them (for being involved in honour killings) has been advocated by
social activists, lawyers and other organizations like AIDWA, NCW etc. A recent Panchayat of 36 communities residing in
village Asara in Baghpat district of Uttar Pradesh grabbed headlines inviting strong reactions against community panchayats
by media and social activists alike for passing resolution on youngsters carrying mobiles, dress code for women etc. A Sarv
Khap Panchayat was also organized recently against female foeticide which was portrayed as attempt to change their image
by the media. These two incidents has further heated up the debate for a ban on Khap Panchayats.
Key Words: Khap Panchayat, honour killings, local forums, sagotra issue.
1. INTRODUCTION:
Community Panchayats or local forums have been
existing throughout India from medieval times. These
organizations are the result of people coming together for
discussing problems that were common to all. As an
important forum of discussion on matters of common concern
these local forums have been playing vital role in the social
and economic spheres of their areas. Throughout India they
are called by various names like in Katta Panchayats in Tamil
Nadu ( Dorairaj, 2011), Khap Panchayats in North India (
Pradhan 1966), Panchayatis in Hyderabad ( Nagaraj, 2010
)and Pancharu in Karnataka (Kripa Ananth Pur with Mick
More, 2007). According to the popular perception Khap
Panchayats exist mostly among the Jat community in parts of
Haryana, Rajasthan and western Uttar Pradesh but studies
suggest how Khap system is followed in other communities
by Rajputs, Pathans, Gurjars, Ahirs and Tyagi Brahmins
residing in north India (Pradhan 1966).
Research studies on village forums have focused on the
social roles of these organizations taking up cases handled by
them and analyzing their influence on society.
The reasons behind their existence have been studied widely
by anthropologists, sociologists and historians alike. The chief
reasons why they still continue to dominate rural areas are:
1. Wide acceptance in areas of their existence. The
decisions of the Khap Panchayats are widely accepted since
people consider the leaders to be highly respectable and also
because Khaps can easily pressurize people because of their
influence. These bodies have been playing the role of
institution of social control since ancient times and hence
their interference on matters of family is considered normal
and acceptable. People in general look up to them for

guidance and approval in social matters.
2. Local forums are seen as good alternative to courts.
The formally established courts seem have failed to attract
the people since Khaps still wield a lot of power in the rural
areas. The main reason behind the preference for Khap
panchayats is that they are easy to approach and also
because people usually prefer an out of the court settlement
since justice from Khap seem to be more easily available
since law courts take a lot of time as well as money.
Corruption among the government officials further
aggravates the problem.
3. Failure of the government established Panchayats to
take their place. Panchayats established by the government
are more or less influenced by Khaps themselves. Khap
leaders as elders of respectable families still have a lot of say
in the village matters. Khaps are existing since hundreds of
years and legally established courts are relatively new in
comparison.
2. THEIR HISTORY
It has been argued that the power of community
councils and especially Khap Panchayats has started to
dwindle as many young couples and especially those
educated in the urban areas has defied their authority, hence
they are desperately raising up issues like sagotra marriages
in order reassert their status. While this may be partially true,
the reality remains that the Khap like organizations are still
widely accepted and consulted by the rural people. The
participation of huge number of people during recently
organized Sarv Khap Panchayats in Haryana and other areas
- 74 -
show their influence over their community members. Honour

killings and the alleged involvement of Khaps in them have
raised the debate over their ban which has been advocated
by many (Rajalakshmi, 2009). Khaps have been called the
representatives of medieval Indian mindset and compared to
the Taliban. Honour killings and Khaps seem to be
inseparable in the eyes of many. The media reports usually
describe every meeting of the elders in rural India as a Khap
Panchayat without understanding the basic structure of this
system and the social settings in which they exist. The Khaps
have also addressed social evils like dowry, unnecessary
expenditure in the marriages, low standard of education in
the villages, female foeticide, alcoholism and the difficulties
faced by farmers from a long time (Pradhan 1966). These
good works of Khaps have gone totally unnoticed in the
media reports. Khap Panchayats has also immensely
contributed for making peasant activism in north India
successful through Bhartiya Kisan Union (Gupta, 1997).
Historically, Khaps are said to be existent since medieval
times and since then Khaps have played a significant role.
Their contribution to the society has been diverse and
immense. They were given overt or covert support by the
rulers in the different times of history. During British rule in
India Khap leaders became the agents of revenue collection
and administration. The colonial rulers assimilated the
traditional village elites in their administration because of
their influence over the people in general, allowing them
certain level of judicial powers which they had been enjoying
traditionally. They continued to be a dispute resolution body
and a platform of discussion of common problems like dowry,
female foeticide, marital discords and other matters of social
concern. Social control through the means of societal
pressure has been an inherent function of the Khaps. Khaps
are divided into Thamba that comprises of a few villages;
Thamba is further divided into Patti. Sarv Khap Panchayat at
the top is a congregation of different Khaps (Pradhan 1966).
The main allegation for which a ban on them is sought is
the opposition of the Khaps to the same gotra marriages and
the violent activities they adhere to in case of non conformity
of these customs. Sagotra marriages has been opposed by
the Khaps as in their opinion sagotra marriage is equal to
marriage between brother and sister. They believe sagotra
marriages to be morally and scientifically wrong (Siddiqui,
2010). They consider marriage between the people of same
village equal to incest since in most of the villages members
of the same clan (gotra) reside. Certain pages of history are
to be unfolded in order to understand this phenomenon.
During ancient times when land was abundant and
people used to migrate in search of better pastures, usually
ISSN 2250-1665
it happened that wherever people settled they took with

them their extended families also and as time went on and
the population expanded they
assimilated larger areas
occupying the whole village and the neighboring villages.
Hence the same gotra people came to inhabit the
neighbouring villages forming a cluster of same clan. Decent
from the common ancestor forms the basic principle of their
brotherhood organizations and also the relations they share
with each other. Since they believe sagotra marriage is
against their traditions and customs they have been opposing
it from public platforms and sometimes even imposing their
decisions against on couples violating these norms.
Historically, the Khaps has been passing judgments on the
offenders and their punishments range from a simple fine to
completely out casting the people from the Khap areas
(Chowdhry 2007).
Recently Khaps have been in news for passing harsh
diktats and even supporting death punishment for couples
opting for sa-gotra and intercaste marriages. The alleged
involvement of a Khap Panchayat in the famous Manoj and
Babli honour killing case in which five people were awarded
death penalty brought the Khap panchayats under constant
media glare ( Siwach, 2010, ). After the pronouncement of
the judgment in the above mentioned case, the Khaps
publically supported the offenders in a Sarvkhap Panchayat.
The demand for an amendment in the Hindu Marriage Act,
1955 is also put up by the Khaps (www.indianexpress.com,
2010.). Then onwards a ban on them has been contemplated
by the social activists. Currently, the same gotra marriages
are legal in the Hindu Marriage Act 1955. Khap Panchayats
had organized Sarv Khap Panchayats in order to pressurize
government to accept their demands. Khaps have also found
supporters in politicians like Om Prakash Chautala, Bhupinder
Singh Hooda, Jayant Chaudhary etc. On 19 April 2011,
Supreme Court while condemning honour killings called Khap
Panchayats illegal comparing them with Kangaroo Courts
(The Hindu, 20 April 2011).
3. RECENT CONTROVERSY
A recent Panchayat of 36 communities residing in village
Asara in Baghpat district of Uttar Pradesh which passed
resolution on matters like use of mobile phones by the youth,
dress code for women etc has drawn intense criticism from
the media ( The Hindu, 13 July 2012).While talking to the
media about the diktats people of Asara village claimed that
the resolutions that were passed included ban on dowry and
that they also made schooling compulsory for children which
were not reported by the media. They also claimed that there
was no Khap in their area, the panchayat that was held was a
- 75 -
single village panchayat (The Hindu, 15 July 2012). The most

interesting part of this panchayat was the participation of
women and also their endorsing of the panchayat decisions.
Khap Panchayats has throughout alleged that media portrays
them in negative light and hardly understand their culture.
A Sarvkhap Panchayat in Jind was also held recently against
the rising social evil of female foeticide in which Khaps from
Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh participated (Sunday
Pioneer, 15 July 2012). Although resolutions of this nature
has been passed by Khap Panchayats several times before,
this panchayat received special attention by the media since
it goes against the image of Khap Panchayats who had been
till now compared to the Taliban and Kangaroo Courts since
Manoj and Babli honour killing case was highlighted.
4. CONCLUSION
The debate on their ban however continues to erupt
from time to time. What the people demanding their ban do
not understand is that even if a ban on them is imposed they
cannot be completely eliminated from the rural scene since
their influence has been tremendous and people at large
consider them as their moral leaders even today. As we saw
earlier in the article local dispute resolution systems or bodies
of social control exist throughout India, hence it can be
obviously be generalized that conditions like these must be
existing in other parts of the country as well. Hence before
making any law regarding their ban a country wide study
should be made.
The country needs stricter law and order system along
with sensitive administrative authorities which caters to the
needs of rural poor and wins their confidence. This will help
the legal system slowly replace Khap like organizations.
Khaps used to exist in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Punjab as
well but gradually they were replaced by modern legal
system. Khaps cant be erased from rural scene overnight as
they still continue to get support in areas of their existence.
As Dr. Prem Chowdhry who has worked extensively on the
society of Haryana where these Khaps are extensively found
while answering a question on the changes that she would
suggest to deal with Khap Panchayats said
You cant do away with them since they are old
institutions, but I would suggest they take the reformist
agenda. Surely, the government can put pressure on them to
take up issues like female feticide, infanticide, dowry,
ostentatious weddings and even inter and intra caste
marriages. But, instead, they are trying to appropriate judicial
powers. (Reddy, 2010).
ISSN 2250-1665
Diverting the attention of these Khap Panchayats (channelize

their power) towards other social issues and utilize their
influence for public good may prove to be a good idea only if
their activities are under constant check and their powers are
limited to a certain level. Proper awareness among the rural
people regarding other options available to them can also
hopefully make a change. Violence in a civilized society is
highly unacceptable and those violating basic human rights
should be punished irrespective of their power and position.
References:
Ali, M., Kattakayam, J.We didnt issue any Talibani

firmans, say elders, The Hindu, 15 July 2012, p. 9.
Ahlawat, B. Female foeticide is murder: Khaps, Sunday

Pioneer, 15 July 2012, p 1.
Chaudhary, Prem. (2007): Contentious Marriages,

Eloping Couples: Gender, Caste and Patriarchy in
Northern India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press).
Correspondent. Insert ban in Hindu Marriage Act: Khaps,

Posted on 13 April, Retrieved on 30 August 2012 from
www.indianexpress.com
Dorairaj, S. (May 03 June 2011) Ruling by Decree

,Frontline, vol 28, issue 1, 21.
Gupta, Dipankar. (1997): Rivalry and Brotherhood (New

Delhi: Oxford University Press).
Khan, A., Ramachandran, S. K., Baghpat Panchayat

issues a Taliban-style diktat to young women, The
Hindu, 13 July 2012 p. 1.
Kripa Ananth Pur with Mick More. (2007). Ambiguous

Institutions:
Traditional
Governance
and
Local
Democracy in Rural India, working paper, Institute of
Development Studies.
Pradhan, M.C. (1966): Political System of the Jats of

Northern India (London: Oxford University Press).
Rajalakshmi,T.K.(15-28 August 2009).Khap panchayats
must be declared illegal. Frontline, vol 26, issue 17.
Siddiqui, Pervez Iqbal. Khap Mahapanchayat opposes

same gotra marriages, Posted on 15 November 2010,
Retrieved
on
30
August
2012
from
www.timesofindia.indiatimes.com.
Siwach, Sukhbir. Five to hang on khap death diktat.

Posted on 31 March 2010, Retrieved on 30 August 2012
from www.timesofindia.indiatimes.com
Sheela Reddy ,Khaps have to reform, Outlook, Posted on

12 July 2010, Retrieved on 25 August from
www.outlookindia.com.
Vasudha, Nagaraj. ( 2010 ) Local and Customary

Forums: Adopting and Innovating Rules of Formal Law,
Indian Journal Of Gender Studies, vol 17, pp 429-450.
Venkatesan, J. Khap Panchayats illegal: Supreme Court,

The Hindu, 20 April 2011, p 1.
- 76 -
ISSN 2250-1665
EFFECT OF CALLISTHENIC, AEROBIC DANCE, AND

COMBINATION OF CALLISTHENIC AND AEROBIC
DANCE ON BODY COMPOSITION
OF ADOLESCENTS
Dr. Appanna M. Gasti*, Dr. Rajashekhar M. Hiremath**
*Selection Grade Physical Cultural Instructor, Department of Physical Education
Kuvempu University, Shimoga 577451
**Assistant Director of Physical Education, Basaveshwara Science College, Bagalkote 587101
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the study was to find out the effect of callisthenic exercises, aerobic dancing and combination of callisthenic
and aerobic dancing on selected physical fitness variables of male adolescents. Total 120 high schools boys, randomly
assigned to four groups, between the ages of 13 to 15 years were selected as subjects for this study. In order to find out the
effect of twelve weeks callisthenic exercises, aerobic exercises and combination of callisthenic and aerobic exercises on body
composition impedance fat analysis was utilised. Prior to the administration of test the subjects were given necessary
instruction and orientation about the conduct of the test. The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was employed to compare the
significance of difference from pre to post test among the experimental and control groups followed by post hoc test,
wherever the F-value was found significant. The level of significance chosen was 0.05. On the basis of the present cross
sectional investigation it was concluded that the aerobic exercises were found more effective in improving the lean body
mass and decrease in the body fat compared to the combination of aerobics and calisthenics and calisthenics alone.
Key Words: Callisthenics, Aerobic Dance, Adolescents, Body composition, Subcutaneous fat.
1. INTRODUCTION:
People today have experienced more changes and crises
then of any other generation. Advancement in modern
technology has enabled our present day society to exist in a
world where physical work is almost obsolete. We are
constantly looking for ways to make life easier, that is, from
the view point of conserving effort and human energy.
Physical inactivity and increased sedentary nature of our daily
living habits are a serious threat to the body, causing major
deterioration in normal body functions. Such common and
serious medical problems as coronary heart disease,
hypertension, obesity, anxiety, depression and lower back
problems have been either directly or indirectly associated
with lack of physical activity.
Biologically man tends to conserve energy. Along with it,
advancement in technology and automation, modern
civilization consciously or subconsciously has become less
active and lazier. The positive correlation between the
increased coronary heart disease death rates is increasing,
even though the cause and effect certainly cannot be
established. As a result of sedentary life style, many people
suffer from hypo-kinetic diseases or diseases associated with
lack of physical fitness and inactivity.
One of the serious health problems that children as well
as adults are facing today is obesity. Obesity refers to the
excessive accumulation of fatty tissue. The best defence
against the development of hypo-kinetic diseases is to put

the muscles, bones, joints, heart, lungs and various body
systems to work on a regular basis through a systematic
programme of exercise.
Physical fitness is ones richest possession. It cannot be
purchased. It has to be earned through a daily routine of
physical exercise. It is evident that fit citizens are a nations
best asset and weak ones are its liability. It is the
responsibility of every country to promote physical fitness of
its citizens because fitness is the basic requirement for most
of the tasks to be undertaken by an individual in his daily life.
There many ways and means to improve ones health and
physical fitness. Routine physical exercise includes
innumerable permutation and combination of exercise
protocols. To name most popular ways; the aerobic dances,
callisthenic drills, slow continuous running, brisk walking,
laughter exercises, yogasanas, and so on. Each of these
exercise have got its own dos and donts. It is wise to involve
in an exercise or group of exercise to optimize the gain with a
clear knowledge, what is to be developed. Knowledge of this
sought helps to participants in involving themselves in a
meaningful and most effective regiment of exercises, in turn
optimize the gain.
Here is an effort of the researchers to explore the
effectiveness of three groups of most popular exercises
systems, namely Aerobic dancing, calisthenics and
- 77 -
combination of Aerobic and Callisthenic exercises on selected

physical fitness variables among schooling population.
2. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The study intended to find out the effect of callisthenic
exercises, aerobic exercises and combination of callisthenic
and aerobic exercise on selected physical fitness variables of
male adolescents.
3. METHODOLOGY
Subjects
Total 120 high schools boys of 13 to 15 years were
selected as subjects for this study. Four groups were
constituted with 30 boys each on random basis, out of which
three groups were the experimental groups and one group
was the control group.
Test Variable
In order to find out the effect of twelve weeks
callisthenic exercises, aerobic exercises and combination of
callisthenic and aerobic exercises on body composition
impedance fat analysis was utilised.
ISSN 2250-1665
Design of the study

The selected 120 subjects were divided into four equal
groups as A, B, C and D. After taking the pretest for
variables of Health Related Physical Fitness, the training
programme is given to experimental groups A, B, and C at
random basis.
Group D was the control group. The
experimental group A underwent aerobic exercise program,
group B had callisthenic exercise programme, and group C
had a combination training programme in Calisthenics and
aerobic exercises of 45 minutes duration, four times in a
week for a duration of 12 weeks. The group D, which was
acting as control group did not have any training programme.
A post test was conducted after 12 weeks of training in each
variable for all the subjects. After every three weeks of the
commencement of the training programme, the load was
increased for progression in order to have required
physiological adaptation.
The training protocol of Calisthenics, Aerobic and
Combination of Calisthenics and Aerobic Exercises selected
for 12 weeks Training is presented in table 1.
TABLE 1. LIST OF CALISTHENICS, AEROBIC AND COMBINATION OF CALISTHENICS AND AEROBIC EXERCISES
SELECTED FOR 12 WEEKS TRAINING
Administration of the test

Prior to the administration of test the subjects were
given necessary instruction and orientation about the conduct
of the test. They were asked to put up their best effort
during the test. A brief warm-up was given to the subjects
before conducting the test.
Body composition was measured through the amount of

subcutaneous body fat in the body. Impedance body fat
percent analyzer was made use for this purpose. After
updating the body height, weight, age, sex input of each
subject in to the fat analyzer, the subject was asked to hold
the body fat percent analyzer in standing erect position,
extending both hands in front at shoulder height. Digital out
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ISSN 2250-1665
put on the screen of the body fat analyzer was noted and
which served as the score of each subject.
Statistical analysis
The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was employed to
compare the significance of difference from pre to post test
among the experimental and control groups followed by post
hoc test, wherever the F-value was found significant. The
level of significance chosen was 0.05.
4. FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
The data obtained before and after the training
programme of experimental and control groups were
analyzed by employing appropriate statistics and the
following results are elicited.
The experimental group which underwent aerobic
training programme showed significant improvement in lean
body mass.
Combination of aerobics and calisthenics
experimental group also showed significant improvement in
lean body mass, compared to the group which has only
callisthenic exercises. The control group did not show any
significant improvement in lean body mass. Descriptive
statistics related to pre and post test of the subjects included
in the study are given in table 2.
FIGURE 1: COMPARISON OF MEAN PERCENT BODY

FAT OF PRE AND POST TEST OF EXPERIMENTAL AND
CONTROL GROUPS
Summary on Analysis of Co-Variance for post test
means on percent body fat of the experimental and control
groups is presented in table 3.
TABLE 3. SUMMARY ON ANCOVA FOR POST TEST
MEANS ON PERCENT BODY FAT OF THE
EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS
TABLE 2. PRE AND POST TEST MEANS AND

STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PERCENT BODY FAT OF
THREE EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS AND CONTROL
GROUP
* Significant at 0.05 level
Table 2 indicates the pre test and post test mean and
standard deviation of three experimental groups and a
control group in percent body fat measured by using
impedance fat monitor. It is evident that, there is a
considerable difference in the pre and post test means of
body fat among the experimental groups and very meager
difference between the pre and the post test means of
control group. A graphical representation of mean values of
body fat of pre and post test of three experimental groups
and a control group is given in figure 1.
Table 3 indicates the effect of 12 weeks aerobic,

callisthenic, and combination of aerobics and calisthenics
training as post adjusted mean on percent body fat was
examined by using ANCOVA with pre percent body fat scores
as covariate.
As seen from table 3, significant F-ratio of 4148.127 and
34.503 were obtained for the pre and post treatment groups
respectively, thereby indicating significant difference in post
adjusted percent body fat scores between experimental and
control group.
Further, Pair-wise comparison of adjusted means of
experimental and control groups were carried out using post
test value of percent body fat as dependent variable by
administering Least Significant Difference Post Hoc test.
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TABLE 3. SUMMARY OF PAIR-WISE COMPARISON

FOR POST ADJUSTED MEANS ON PERCENT BODY FAT
OF THREE EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS AND ONE
CONTROL GROUP
*. The mean difference significant at the .05 level.
Table 3 depicts the post hoc comparison to determine

which of the experimental and control groups showed
significant difference for the post adjusted percent body fat
scores. The pair wise comparison of adjusted means on
percent body fat indicates the following results.
All the groups showed significant difference in percent
body fat after the 12 weeks of training programme. It is also
evident from the table that, the least percent body fat was
exhibited by aerobic groups with best lean body mass. Next
best lean body mass was found in combination of aerobic and
calisthenics group followed by aerobic group. The control
group found with high percent body fat, hence, the low lean
body mass as they did not have any training. A graphical
representation of the paired adjusted post mean value of
percent body fat of three experimental groups and control
group is presented in figure 2.
FIGURE 2: COMPARISON OF PAIRED ADJUSTED POST

MEAN VALUE OF PERCENT BODY FAT OF PRE AND
POST TEST OF EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL
GROUPS
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5. DISCUSSION ON FINDINGS
The analysis of data revealed that, the experimental group
which underwent aerobic training programme showed significant
improvement in lean body mass. Aerobic exercises are excellent
means to burn more calories and thereby reducing the body fat.
Aerobic exercises are also equally effective in increasing the
metabolism and thereby lowering the body fat.
Both combination and calisthenics experimental groups
showed significant improvement in lean body mass. The
same reason may be attributed to the nature of these
exercises protocol, as these exercises are of high caloric
demand that burns body fat and increases the lean body
mass. The control group did not show any significant
improvement in lean body mass.
Maity and Samanta (2001) found similar results after 12
weeks of calisthenics and yogasana training. Calisthenics
exercises were found superior to yogasana in improving
motor fitness of fifth grade girls.
Donnelly, et.al. (2000) investigated the effect of different
aerobic training protocol on aerobic fitness, body weight, and
lipid profile. It was concluded that the continuous or
intermittent exercise performed long-term may be effective
for preventing weight gain and for improving some measures
of metabolic fitness.
Participation in three months hockey training improved
body fat status in a study conducted by Sasikumar & Mathew
(2007) to determine the effect of twelve weeks training on
selected physical, physiological and psychological variables of
novice hockey players.
Bera, Rajapurkar and Ganguly (1990) carried out a study
on effect of yogic training on body density in school going
boys. A significant improvement of body density was found in
yoga group in comparison with control group. Percent body
fat was gained significantly in control group in comparison
with yoga group. Absolute body fat of control group
increased significantly than yoga group. Significant
improvement in ideal body weight was found in yoga group
than control group.
Lohan, Dolly and Rajesh (2002) studied the effects of
Asanas and Pranayamas on Physical and Physiological
components of boys between age group 12-16 years. Results
showed that every type of yogic exercise improves the
physical and physiological fitness but training of asanas and
pranayamas collectively can produce the best results.
6. CONCLUSION
On the basis of the present cross sectional investigation
it was concluded that the aerobic exercises were found more
effective in improving the lean body mass and decrease in
the body fat compared to the combination of aerobics and
- 80 -
calisthenics and calisthenics alone. Calisthenics, aerobics are

the simple form of exercises which can improve body
composition by lowering subcutaneous body fat without
apparatus.
Hence, these exercise protocols may be
implemented in school settings.
References
Andrew Maiorana, et.al. Combined aerobic and

resistance exercise training improves functional capacity
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Hospital, Perth 6000, Western Australia, Australia. Vol.
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Bera, T.K., Rajapurkar, M.V. and Ganguly, S.K., Effect

of Yogic Training on Body Density in School-Going Boys,
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pp23-33.
Blumenthal, et.al, Psychological changes accompany

aerobic exercise in healthy middle-aged adults Age and
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Performance in Healthy Turkish Adolescents, Int J
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Psychological
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Dimeo F,et.al, Benefits From Aerobic Exercise in

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Donnelly, E., et.al, The effects of 18 months of

intermittent vs. continuous exercise on aerobic
capacity, body weight and composition, and
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moderately obese females, Department of
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USA. Volume 24, Number 5, Pp 566-572, May
2000.
George A. Kelley Aerobic Exercise and Resting Blood

Pressure among Women , Meta-Analytic Research
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Illinois University, Dekalb, Illinois, 60115-2854, 27 March
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George A. Kelley, Kristi A Kelley,et.al, Aerobic Exercise

and Resting Blood Pressure: A Meta-Analytic Review of
Randomized, Controlled Trial, University of Colorado
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Health Sciences Center, Denver, CO2 Boston,MA-02114,

April 18, 2000.
Geri B. Neuberger, Effects of exercise on fatigue,
aerobic fitness, and disease activity measures in persons
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Helgerud,et.al Aerobic endurance training improves
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James A, et.al Aerobic exercise reduces levels of
cardiovascular and sympathoadrenal responses to
mental stress in subjects without prior evidence of
myocardial ischemia, abstract: The Department of
Medical Psychology, U.S.A. 5 July. 22 April 2004.
Lohan, U., Dolly and Rajesh, Effects of Asanas and
Pranayamas on Physical and Physiological Components
of Boys between Age Group 12-16 Years, Journal of
Sports and Sports Sciences, Vol. 25, No. 1, January
2002, pp 50-56.
M. L. Pollock, et.al, Effect of age and training on aerobic
capacity and body composition of master athletes
American Physiological Society. Vol:62, Issue 2/ pp.725731, 1987.
Sailendra Nath Maity and Subhash Chandra Samanta,
Effect of Calisthenics and Yogasanas on Motor Fitness
of Fifth Grade Girls, Journal of Sports and Sports
Sciences, Vol.24, No. 1, Jan 2001, pp 10-15.
Sasikumar, Arundhthi & Mathew, Liji, Effect of twelve
weeks training on selected physical, physiological and
psychological variables of novice hockey players,
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California, December 03, 2007.
ISSN 2250-1665
THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTION OF
BUDDHIST PSYCHOLOGY
Rev.Rotumba Gnanarathana
Zhejiang University of yuquan campus, P.R.China
ABSTRACT
The method that a Therapist can use for treating mental patients is called Buddhist psychotherapy since it is based on the
Buddhist psychology. What is the understanding of Buddhist philosophy oriented psychotherapists refer to as spiritual
intervention is actually practice. Certainly Buddhism is a practical philosophy in the sense that prevails today. This philosophy
sets up a system of vast psychotherapy. It uses Buddhist philosophy to help to understand who they are, and It can be used
for people to spend a more peaceful life in that modern pressures to succeed and collect material things are put in a
perspective to the aim of peoples lives to be happy, without mental problems.
Key Words: Buddhist psychology, Psychotherapy, Mental health, Buddhist meditation
1. INTRODUCTION:
Psychotherapy is defined as an interaction between a
psychotherapist and a client that leads to changes from a less
adaptive state to more adaptive state in clients thoughts
feelings and behaviors. Psychotherapy can control or
eliminate troubling and painful symptoms so that the client
can return to normal functioning .The Lord Buddha was a
unique psychotherapist. The Buddha is also known as the
peerless physician. The Buddhas method of exposition of the
four noble truths is comparable to that of a physician. The
Buddha first diagnosed the illness .Suffering is the root
course of the illness .The Buddha was some times more
concerned with therapeutic and then the objective analysis.
(Jayatunga 2008), The Buddhist concept of suffering has a
deep philosophical meaning. It is not the just ordinary human
suffering. It is call in Pli word Dukkham, in other words
pain, sorrow, misery. The term of suffering {Dukkham}
in Buddhism is the First Noble Truth. It includes deeper ideas
such as imperfection, impermanence, and Emptiness,
insubstantiality. It is difficult therefore to find one word to
embrace the whole conception of the term Dukkham as the
First Noble Truth, and so it is better to leave it understand,
than to give as inadequate and wrong idea of it by
conveniently translating it as suffering or pain (Rahula,
2006)
2. WESTERN PSYCHOTHERAPY
About Two hundred years ago there was no
psychotherapy in the world. In the beginning with publishing
a book called Animal Magnetism by Franz Anton Mesmer
found an account for mental disturbances as a result of
physical forces. (Christine 2007)This was developed by
Sigmund Freud who was an Australian neurologist that
founded the discipline of psychoanalysis. Now there are many
different methods of psychotherapy suggested by him. In the
East thought Buddha had expounded the doctrine; it can help
to find the root of the mental illness. The recent century

psychologists have to pay attention to Buddhist
psychotherapy which is taught to us to treat patient how to
eliminate mental defilements to get a peaceful healthy
mind. Buddhist psychotherapy can be practiced as something
complimentary to Western Psychology. When the patient has
gone deeply depressive, we cant talk a word to him. This
extreme depression in Buddhist psychology cant be helped
unless with the help of the Psychiatrist by giving drug to
reduce the depression.
3. HISTORY
Beginning of the twentieth century in the West had no
system of so called Psychotherapy. But just not mistaken that
there were no mad people, in fact there were and they were
treated utmost as criminal and they were considered to be
very danger people, Now when we talk about Western
Psychology, there are 5 branches of Western Psychotherapy,
which have been practiced all over the world. All these
branches have been practiced or developed not in the East
but in the West. They have been developed last two
centuries in the Western world. (Nissanka2005)
1. Chemotherapy.
It means that the mental patients are given chemical,
which we called in technical term medicine. The forms of
medicine such as capsule, liquid, pin, tablets, injections are
as treatments for psychological problems. Those treatments
are with chemicals in the form of medicine.
2. Electroplexy or Shock Therapy
Patients are given electrical shock by special devices
fixed on the parts of their body. This is the second mostly
used methods in the world. As it is also a specialized therapy,
only the psychiatrists should use it.
3. Psycho-surgery
That is a brain operation, which is ministered by rare
accession because it is dangerous, and the result is uncertain.
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Since the risk involvement is greater, the system of

psychosurgery has not been very popular.
4. Psycho-analysis
Mental patents mind is probed into to discover the
mental causes of the mental illness. This was the third
popular method of treatment.
5. Behavioral therapy
Social psychologists have advanced a system of therapy
through aiming at to changing or removing the symptoms of
the mental; illness so that the normal behavior would be
restored.
In the development of Sociology and Psychology, mans
behavior has been studied by a number of scholars about the
behavior of human beings. Till time passed, these scholars
said the study of mans behavior is the most scientific method
of Psychotherapy. According to them, they assumed some
behaviors of man to be abnormal, and this abnormal behavior
has its special symptom. Hence they discovered a lot of
techniques to remove these symptoms, because these
symptoms were the causes of the mental patient. This was
also known as Modern Psychology development.
In the western concept of psychotherapy which is a branch of
psychiatry which can be divided in to two forms.
1 .psychiatric Somatotherapy
2. Psychotherapy
If you have a mental illness based on the physiological
background such as accident, surgery, or drugs, you must
have treatment as somatotherapy. But psychotherapy
concerns the mental illness caused by the psychological
background. Although Buddhism understands human being
as cohesive of both psychological and physiological
aggregates, it is very hard to find out in the Buddhist sources
that the Buddha prescribes the mental patients. Our subject
area is the psychotherapy of Buddhism which is not
concerned with psychiatry of the somatotherapy.
In order for a therapist to use Buddhist psychology
within the counseling room one should first explain to the
client that we are not talking about religion. Talk about the
mental problems and how to spend a normal life according to
Buddhist teachings. The Buddha says that you should do
your work, for The Tathgats* 1only teach the way2 so
followers should know themselves and must agree to do and
just a counselor can proposes give methods mentioned in
1
The perfect one, lit. The one who has thus gone or thus come
is an epithet of the Buddha used by him when speaking of him.
Buddhist Dictionary page 329.
*Mahparinibbna, sutta Dga nikya, a scripture belonging the
Sutta Pitaka of pli canon.
ISSN 2250-1665
Buddhism. The connection between Buddhist psychotherapy,

counseling and meditation has been discussed
many
psychotherapist today. Although earlier psychotherapist
considered meditation as a totally useless exercise, a new
generation of psychotherapist and counselors in western has
discovered its relative benefits for curing both physical and
mental ailments, Steven Batchelor has stated thus:
An area with one of the strongest links to Buddhism in
Europe is that of psychology and psychotherapy .Buddhism is
becoming the region of choice for many therapists who either
are Buddhists, have practiced Buddhist meditation, or
incorporate Buddhist ideas put into their work. The attraction
of Buddhism lays not only in its analysis of human suffering in
terms of deep seated psychological error and disturbance,
but also its practical importance to dealing with them
(Batcherlor ,2004)
Since the mental basis and the physical basis of the
individual cannot be separated from each other it is very
difficult to distinguish psychological illness from the physical
illness .but for the sake of proper understanding, the Buddha
divides illness in to two forms in the rga sutta3 in Angutthara
nikya, one of Buddhist discourse in pli texts
1.
2.
Kyarga Physical Disease,

Ctesikarga Mental Disease.
As physical diseases and mental diseases .The Buddha
said: O bhikkhs there are two kinds of illnesses. What are
those two? Physical illnesses and mental illnesses. There
seem to be people who enjoy freedom from physical illness
even for year or two even for a hundred years or more.
But, O, bhikkhs, rare in this world are those who enjoy
freedom from mental illness even for a one moment, except
those who are free from mental defilements (Rahula, 2006).
the wordlings are suffering from mental illness in very
moment .They are all deranged. Even the noble disciples,
who are spiritually developed in a certain stages, still suffer
from mental fetters that they have not yet eliminated .Only
Arahant4 can be said to have a perfectly healthy mind.
Arahant is the ultimate state of the mental well being, totally
free from all the mental problems. The Buddhist meditation is
the best way to heal the mental illness. It has two
therapeutic aspects: behavioral therapy based on Samatha
meditation and cognitive therapy based on Vipassan
meditation.
It is a well established fact that mental illness can be caused
both by physical and mental factors and by a combination of
3
Rga;illness, sutta:Discourse , Buddhist Dictionary

Arahant: the attainment of the last&highest stage of the path pali
English dictionary. PTS
- 83 4
both. Mental illnesses caused predominantly by physical

factors which have to be treated medically by using methods
such as chemotherapy (medication) Eletroplecxy and
psychosurgery; illnesses caused by mental factors have to be
treated psychotherapeutically. According to this system of
Buddhist psychotherapy the mental factors that caused
mental illnesses are identified as mental defilements, the
klshas but dealing with klshas(defilements) one has to
understand to see and know both ones body and mind. The
mind, even in its normal state, is full of defilements.
According to Buddhist psychotherapy there are three
reasons of mental disorder (lbha) desire, hatred (dsa), and
(mha) ignorance. We have to see the psychological basis of
these three roots causes. As a psychological concept, lbha is
a pleasure principle. It is divided into three forms,
kmatanh, (craving for sense gratification)bhavatanh
(craving for self preservation),and vibhavatanh(craving for
self annihilation) kmatanh (craving for self preservation)
we can compare this kmatanh with the western
psychology. Sigmund Freud, the father of modern
psychology, also says that kmatanh is the main concept
which is activated in human mind. He classified mind into
consciousness, sub consciousness, and unconsciousness.
He also employed three basic concept; id, ego and super ego.
What Freud expounded is only the sexual desire (id) but the
Buddhist concept of kmatanh is not only limited to
sexuality but includes other many sensual desires. Therefore
in fact if we dont have such kmatanh, we cannot survive in
this life. It is the motivation power of individuals.
This method of treating mental patients is called
Buddhist psychotherapy because it is based on the teaching
of the Buddha. I would prefer to say that Buddhism is entirely
psychotherapy. This means Buddhism is psychotherapy or
rather than an ultimate psychotherapy. In pli canon, the
Buddha was called the unsurpassable physician and
surgeon ( anutthar bhisakk sallakatt) and also the
unsurpassable trainer of persons(anutthar purisa dhama
srat). In modern term, these words can say as The super
psychiatrist and the super personality trainer .the Buddhas
teaching, particularly his way of meditation aims at producing
a state of perfect mental health, equilibrium and tranquility.
The word meditation is a very poor substitute for the original
term bhvan which means culture or development, in
other words mental development. The therapeutic
intervention of Buddhist mediation found in the following
discourses delivered by Buddha.
1. The discourse on mindfulness5
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The discourse on all mental cankers6

The discourses on the simile of cloth7
The discourse on breathing awareness8
Besides the above, the main teachings on
impermanence, Suffering, soullessness, depend origination
are incorporated in to The Buddhist psychotherapy.
Finally attain the Enlightenment is the highest stage of
Buddhist psychotherapy that is called as understanding the
four noble truths. The heart of the Buddhas teaching lies in
the four noble truths which he expounded in his very first
sermon to his colleagues, the five ascetics, in this sermon as
we have it in the original texts, these four truths are given
briefly, but there are innumerable places in the early Buddhist
scriptures where they are explained again and again, with
greater details and in different ways. If we study the four
noble truths with the help of these reference and
explanations, we get a fairly good and accurate account of
the essential teaching of the Buddha according to the original
texts. The four noble truths are.
2.
3.
4.
1. The Noble Truths of suffering (Dukkham)

Dukkka is the pli word; because there is no single
English word that neatly and tidily contains the same range of
meaning and connotation as Dukkha It is better not to
translate it. Otherwise, you will waste time spinning your
wheels over a word that doesnt mean what the Buddha
meant.
The Buddha taught there are three main categories of
Dukkha. These are:
1. Suffering or pain (dukkha-dukkha)
2. Impermanence or change (viparinama-dukkha)
3. Conditioned states (samkhra -dukkha)
Suffering or Pain
Ordinary suffering, as defined by the English word, is one
form of dukkha. This includes physical, emotional and mental
pain
Impermanence or Change
Anything that is not permanent, that is subject to change, is
dukkha. Thus, happiness is dukkha, because it is not
permanent. Great success, which fades with the passing of
time, is dukkha. Even the purest state of bliss experienced in
spiritual practice is dukkha.
Vatthpama sutta Majjima nikya,

napna sati sutta ssamyuttha nikya.
Satipatthna sutta, Majjima nikya.

Sabbsava sutta ,Majjima nikya.
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This doesn't mean that happiness, success and bliss are

bad, or that it's wrong to enjoy them. If you feel happy, then
enjoy feeling happy. Just don't cling on to it.
Conditioned States
To be conditioned is to be dependent on or
something else. According to the teaching of
origination, all phenomena are conditioned.
affects everything else. This is the most difficult
teachings on dukkha to understand, but it is
understanding Buddhism.
affected by
dependent
Everything
part of the
critical for
2. The second noble truth of arising of suffering

(samudaya)
The second noble truth is the truth of the origin of
dukkha. The second noble truth can be found in innumerable
places in the original texts.
Craving for sense-pleasures (kmatanh)
This is the craving for sense objects which provide pleasant
feeling, or craving for sensory pleasures.
Craving to be (bhavatanh)
This is the craving to be something, to unite with an
experience. This includes craving to be solid and ongoing, to
be a being that has a past and a future, and craving to
prevail and dominate over others.
Craving not to be (vibhavatanh)
This is the craving not to experience the world, and to
be nothing; a wish to be separated from painful feelings.
Attachment is one translation of the word tanh, which
can also be translated thirst, desire, lust, craving, or clinging
which produce re existence and re-becoming (pnobhavik),
which is bounded up with passionate greed (nandirga
sahagat)and which finds fresh delight here and there
(tatratatrbhinanadin). If we commonly recognize that there
are three roots of defilements which cause suffering.
Attachment, Aversion, Ignorance (raga, dvsha, mha)
according to Buddhism everything is relative and
interdependent. It is considered as the cause and effect
which is known as Conditioned Genesis (Prattyasamutpda).
3. The third noble truth of the cessation of suffering.
(nirda)
The Third Noble Truth is that there is emancipation,
liberation, freedom from suffering from the continuity of
samsra (wheel of life). This is called the noble truth of the
ISSN 2250-1665
cessation of dukkha which is Nibbna 9; nirvana is the

traditional name for the state of being wherein all clinging,
and so all suffering, has been eliminated. It is often
translated as "blowing out," with the idea that we eliminate
self like we blow out a candle. We cannot give a real
explanation completely and satisfactorily in word because
language is too poor to express the real nature of Ultimate
truth of Nirvana.
4. The forth noble truth of the path (magga)
The fourth noble truth is that of the way leading to the
cessation of suffering. This is known as the middle path
because it avoids two extremes; one extreme being the
search for happiness through the pleasures of the senses,
which is low, common, unprofitable and the way of the
ordinary people: the other being the search for happiness
through self mortification in different forms of asceticism,
which is painful, unworthy and unprofitable, having himself
first tried these two extremes, and having found them to be
useless, the Buddha discovered through personal experience
the middle path which gives vision and knowledge, which
leads to calm, insight, enlightenment, nirvana. This middle
path is generally referred to as the noble eightfold path,
because it is composed of eight categories or divisions
namely,
1. Right understanding
2. Right thought
3. Right speech
4. Right action
5. Right livelihood
6. Right effort
7. Right mindfulness
8. Right concentration 10
In order to a therapist or for a counselor use Buddhist
philosophy one should first understand founder mental
teachings of the Buddha. This method of therapy not only for
Buddhist people But also other Mental patients whether they
are Christian or Muslims or Hindus, can be treated by this
method because people all over the world are alike when it
comes to causes of mental illness, Dr. Nissanka mentions in
his book that Buddhist psychotherapy consist of six steps that
a mental patient has to go through.
1. Development of communication between the therapist
and the patient.
2. Development of body awareness by the patient.
3. Development of feeling awareness by the patient.
9
Nibbna: to cease blowing; to become extinguished. Buddhist
dictionary page 201.
10
Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta,Samyuttha nikya.
- 85 -

4.
5.
6.
Probing in to the patients conscious and unconscious

mind and bringing to the materials buried particularly in
the unconscious mind.
Analysis of the selected materials that are linked to the
mental illness The causes of the illness are made to be
seen and known by the patient himself.
Rehabilitation and socialization of the mental patient who
has successfully gone through the first five steps given
above. Buddhist Psycho-therapeutically cares; need both
physical and psychological rehabilitation.
A. Physical rehabilitation
After the treatment, patient needs Environment support.
(I) By doing some light exercise.
(II) Make him dress well and attain to personas hygiene
B. Psychological rehabilitation
This is done by injective confidence to him by various means.
C. Social rehabilitation
D. Mental patient must be helped by helping him or her find
a job to live without economical problems.
Even after the initial recovery of mental health, there can
be relapse of the mental illness .in such a case the patient
has to be brought back to the therapist for the further
guidance in treating cases of relapse, the therapist has to use
his discretion and have a combination of two or more steps at
each session. Here, again the importance of rehabilitation has
to be stressed.
The final target of Buddhist psychotherapy is to make a
mental patient a normal human being who can manage his
defilements such as anger, suspicion, greed, malevolence,
and jealousy.
In the Sabbsava Sutta, the Buddha had given seven
methods of dealing with the defilements; the first one is
Dassan (by seeing), by entering into the path of sotpanna
11
. In the beginning of the Sutta the Buddha said:
This is the only way, O Monks! For the purification of
beings, for the overcoming of sorrow and lamentation, for the
destruction of suffering and grief, for reaching the right path,
for the attainment of Nibbana, namely the Four Foundations
of Mindfulness.12
Buddha had specially mentioned this in this Sutta. If someone
is having grief, lamentation, miserable stages of mind, the
only way of get rid of that unhappy situation is to go by this
Satipatthna Sutta. Therefore, if we think of a mental patient,
he/she is one who suffers more than ordinary people but
they are not aware, this is the dangerous of them. Just like a
person having Cancer and till it reaches advance stage, we do
11
12
Stpanna:Stream entrant, Pli English dictionary. PTS

Sabbsawa sutta Majjima nikya .
ISSN 2250-1665
not know that particular person had Cancer, but the danger is
there. Similarly a mental patient is a bundle of suffering not
only him, also his immediate relations. Hence, it is out to us
to try to lead the mental patient using the discourse delivered
by the Buddha.
The meaning of Satipatthna
The Pli term Satipatthna is generally rendered as the Four
Foundations of mindfulness
Sati +patthna
Or
sati+pa+(t) thna
The word sati derives from the root meaning 'to remember
but as a Mental factor it signifies 'presence of mind,
attentiveness to the present, awareness, wakefulness and
heedfulness, Rather than the faculty of memory of the past
(Sayadaw)
Generally Sati means mindfulness, in literately
remembrance. For instance, if one is to be aware of some
accident, at the same time he also has to remember certain
past experiences that led him to be aware. Just like when he
saw a cobra on the roadside, immediately he has the
awareness and at the very sight of the cobra, he
remembered that cobra beating or killing a lot of people.
Therefore remembrance is essential there.
The Buddhist system of psychotherapy is nothing but
getting the patient to practice meditation; it deviates from
the traditional forms of mediation such as samatha
(concentration) Vipassan (analytical understanding) the
Buddhist psychotherapy methods present to control the
defilements. Normal people also have defilements such as
greedy, anger, delusion but in this method of psychotherapy
manage the patients to manage whom they lost normal
mental conditions.
Another word to remember is patthna, two meanings
one is placing near. Other is fact or cause. According to
Abhidhamma pitaka13 there is a Buddhist concept of twenty
four factors or causes that cause a thing to happen, and
kamma is only one out of the twenty four factors. Hence,
patthana mean conditionality, Buddha in the satipatthna
sutta rightly begins with body awareness. There mentions of
four fold mindfulness of four fold mindfulness.
1.
Kynupassan (mindfulness based on body)

To see the body, seeing the body Buddha recommends
seeing and knowing as the first step of developing
mindfulness.
Are we mindful of our body, leaving a side everything of the
13
- 86 -
Abhidhamma pitaka is the last of the three pitaks.
outside world. We may be aware of the presence of someone

else. Generally we are not mindful of our own body because
all the time our attentions are drawn outside of the body.
Without awareness of the body we cant develop mindfulness.
The Buddha said this body is the first thing because it is
tangible which we could be touched and see, other things we
may not touch and see. Therefore, body is the first thing that
we can touch and get to know, further more the Buddha had
discussed six methods to know the body as follow.
1.1. npnasati bhvan (Breathing meditation)
Concentration on the breathing, is one way to aware of
the body because here we can know the force of our life, it is
a non-stop functioning from birth to death. In the body, there
is a process which non-stop working all the time that is our
breath. Hence breathing meditation means looking at the
body and seeing and knowing. When we observe the
breathing course, we will see sometime the breathing is fast,
slow, long and short. By looking at the phenomenal of
breathing and we are able to be aware of such moment. By
observing breathing we can master our own body and
become a wonderful person in this world. Especially to a
Buddhist who practices breathing meditation, he looks not
only on the breathing but a higher idea such as in order to
attain spiritual achievement.
1.2. Iriypatha bhvan (Mindfulness on postures)
Concentration on the four postures of the body, all our
activities can be seen from one of these postures, i.e. sitting
as a basic posture, other such as walking, standing and
sleeping. Therefore, while we are walking we must know our
own walking we must master our walking, known our steps
of walking, aware of the movement of our walking, by seeing
our walking, from that we can get to know our body.
1.3. Sampajaa (Mindfulness on Acting)
When we are going to do something in daily life, think
about the action that we are going to perform; we have to
check this action would be harmful to others, or would not be
useful to others. There are various ways to look at these
actions while performing or before performing. Therefore,
Sampajaa means you are aware of the consequence before
you perform any action.
1.4. Patikkla manasikra (Mindfulness on the body
as full of various kinds of impurity)
To observe the body is full of impurity, detailed
descriptions are in the Satipatthna Sutta. If we ignore the
impurity of our own body, we would not be able to
ISSN 2250-1665
understand our own body. The Buddha had analyzed the

impurity of the body into 32 parts in Satipatthna Sutta,
hence we will find nothing valuable in our body except
impurity.
1.5. Dhtu manasikara (Mindfulness on the body by
way of the four elements)
The body is composed by four elements according to
early Buddhist literature by looking analytically of the four
components element; we will be able to know our own body.
1.6. Navasvathika (contemplating a corpse in nine
different states of decomposition)
The stages of decomposition of the body, and finally the
body would reduce to a bundle of bonds. These are various
methods for us to understand the .Kynupassan. But from
the theoretical point of view, we can take a mental patient to
a cemetery and ask him to see the reality of his body, but as
step one npnasati is sufficient in Buddhist psychotherapy.
Even Prince Siddhartha before his enlightenment, he started
to co temperate on the breathing in and out, also this is
helpful for the higher knowledge. Therefore, when it comes
to the theoretical purpose, it becomes very easy and
practicable to mental patient.
How to treat the patient with npnasati meditation When
the mental patient was very depression, first we must take
him to a mental doctor to reduce his depression, till he is in
the position to communicate, then we can ask him to breath
in as much as possible, after breath in and in then stop and
wait as much as he can then breathe out. This is applicable
to all type of mental patient including Schizophrenia types of
mental patient. We have to develop the confidence with him
that he can master his own breath. When a person can
breathe so much as he can, he also bring in a lot of oxygen
to the lung, and when he hold on, it will give a lot of exercise
to the lung and heart. Then the patient will have confidence
because he knows the he can hold his breath, and he has this
sort of achievement.
2.
Vdannupassan (feeling awareness)

Feeling Awareness Vdanupassan the Buddha had
spoken of three kinds of vedan (feelings) namely
1.
Pleasure = sukhavdan
2.
Painful = dukkhavdan
3.
Neutral = adukhamasukha
What the purpose is observing these feelings. When there is
a pain in my hand, I said about the pain, when there is no
pain I said there is no pain in me, or comfort in my hand etc.
Hence this shows that there are different stages that one can
- 87 -
experience these feeling. This can be practiced along with

npnasati. In this sense, it is applicable to mental patient
too. So we can get the mental patient to see and go on
breathing as much as he can, while breathing observes also
any pain occurred in the body, or while holding the breath
check any pain in the body. Finally when breathing out is
there any painful experience in the body. Actually mental
patient discovered for the first time could have lot of pain
because he had done a lot of thing to forget his paining. If
the pain is there, the mental patient will lead his mind
towards something which is pleasurable or past memory. But
in npnasati, while breathing we must ask the mental
patient to focus on different part of the body, i.e. start from
the ear, eye, and head and step by step from external part to
the internal part of the body . Therefore the awareness on
the pain in different part of the body is essential.
Feeling awareness is essential for pure mental
treatment. Both therapist and mental patient must fully
aware for this. Hence, in Satipatthna Sutta, it focuses two
things for us to concentrate, first the body and second feeling
because these two things are almost tangible to us, especially
feeling we can feel easily then the mind. And the important
aspect is through the body and feeling we can easily, clearly
and quickly aware of our own body.
Beside Satipatthna Sutta there are many points
mentioned in Buddhist texts about mediation as to eliminate
metal defilement which can be used as therapy for mental
illness. Early psychologist and psychotherapist like Carl Jung,
William James and Robert recognized the Buddhist
approaches to psychotherapy.
Conclusion
The Buddhist system of psychotherapy in nothing but
getting the patient to practice meditation, it derives from the
traditional forms of meditation such as samatha (concentrate)
vipassana (Analytical Understanding) Buddhist psychotherapy
uses both these forms of meditation. But they are modified
and structured to suit the mental patients who have lost
control of their bodies and minds. I would prefer to say here
whole Buddhist conceptions has a psychotherapeutic
approach, So recently the themes deemed to be belonged to
Buddhist psychotherapy became very fashionable towards
the end of the twentieth century in western. Especially many
of them approached the modern Buddhist traditions not for
the early teachings of Buddha. As I pointed out in this
discussion the original teachings of the Buddha based on pli
texts is psychotherapy itself. If modern psychotherapists
study these significant
ISSN 2250-1665
Points they will be convinced the value of early teachings of

Buddhism for the modern psychotherapeutic field.
References
Buddhaghosa, (1979), The Path of purification

B.Nanamoli,Translation,. Kandy, SriLanka: Publication
Society.
Batcherlor,Stephen, (2004).The Awaking of The west,

The Encounter of Buddhism and Western Culture
,Parallax press, California.
Chattha Sangayana Tipitaka, CD-ROM, vesion4.0 pli

canon on CD room.
Christine Lister- ford. (2007) . A short Introduction to

Psychotherapy, Sage publication ltd London.
Epstein.
(1995). Thoughts
without
a
thinker:
Psychotherapy from a Buddhist perspective. New
York: Basic Books.
Jayatunga rowan MD. (2008). Buddhism & psychology,

&differences in Buddhism and western psychology, HAS
publishing, Sri Lanka.
Morris ED. R. and E Hard, (1885) Dghanikaya, (PTS)

London
Morris ED. R. and E Hardy, (1885) Majjhima nikya,

(PTS) London
Morris ED. R.
and E Hardy, (1885) Samyutta
nikya,(PTS) London
Morris ED. R. and E Hardy (1885) 5 volumes,the Book of

Gradual Sayings,Anguttaranikya, (PTS) London
Maung tin. (1920)Students pali English Dictionary,

British Burma press Rangoon,
Nissanka, H S S. (2005). Buddhist psychotherapy,

Buddhist -cultural center in Sri Lanka.
Sayadaw u panditabivamsa. (2002)The meaning of

Satipatthna. sahadhammika co., ltd Bangkok Thailand.
Tse fu kuan. (2008). Mindfulness in Early Buddhism,

Oxford center for Buddhist studies.
Ven, nyanatiloka.(1980). Buddhist Dictionary, manual of

Buddhist terms and doctrines. Buddha Dharma
Educational Association Inc.
Rahuala w. (2006). What the Buddha taught, Buddhist

cultural center Sri Lanka,
Pli English Dictionary (1969) PTS, Pli text society

London.
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ISSN 2250-1665
MALADY OF THE MODERN MIND AND ELIOTIAN

METAMORPHOSIS
Dr. Prajnapani
Associate Professor in Business Communication,
School of Management, CUTM, Odisha,
ABSTRACT
The essay deals with the peculiarities of the modern mind and resultant ponderings. The effort is to define the malaise
through an exploration of the categories of the malaise and also speak of the capabilities of the modern mind. It expresses
modern man's inability to confront life, the influence of anxiety, and a failure of feeling, exhaustion and madness which are at
the core of modernist thinking. The essay discusses Eliot's metamorphosis, the growth of his poetry in meaning and attempts
to diagnose the malady. It emphasizes the self- transcending character of human existence. The eternal human situation
offers liberation of mankind which starts with a total knowledge of man by himself. Through philosophical and existential
exploration we can enter into, in effect, another state of consciousness, where we reconnect with each of our will at a deeper
and satisfying level.
Key Words: Modernism, Malaise, Metamorphosis, Transcendence, Mind, Eliot, Metaphor, Existential
1. INTRODUCTION:
that we shall find the ethic that we need [Actuelles:
A study of T.S Eliot's poetical works reveals the degree
Chroniques 1944-1948].
that a society has been overtaken by a sense of malaise. The
A characteristic reading of modern thought depends on
different phases of his poetic development reflect the split
the tension inherent in the desire to escape from history. Eliot
society and the dedoublement of the
personality. The first
gives the estrangement of man its essential dimension of
phase shows the pervasive influence of science on modern
history. The sad course that humanity has followed since the
man, resulting in modern malaise, man's need and quest
dawn of Western philosophy now returns to its roots in the
for life. The second phase aims at probing, testing and
homelessness of modern man. The lines from Eliot form the
diagnosing the human condition through his literary craft.
basis of this essay: I saw the best minds of my generation
The Eliotian Metamorphosis that is reflected in this phase
destroyed by madness, starving hysterical naked and the
tries to prove the potential for transcendence which is linked
closing lines
to the resolution of the existential crisis and mental
This is the way the world ends
breakdown. The theme finds better expression in the line
Not with a bang but a whimper
'It must
['The Hollow Men V', lines 97-98]
Be the finding of a satisfaction' [Anca PIEU, Stevens, 2002]
The vocation of T.S.Eliot here comes that much closer to that
where Eliot endeavours to comfort and reward the artist
of the diagnostician rather than the artist's celebration of life
and his audience for the malady of the quotidian.
in a triumphant age.
'The Malady of the Modern Mind and Eliotian
The twentieth century was the most critical in human
Metamorphosis' is compounded of rage and longing,
history, the Great Disorder Under Heaven and The Crisis of
contempt and nostalgia, passive resignation and mad
Our Age. From Baudelaire and James Thomson to Kafka,
defiance. T.S.Eliot frequently presented in his art a general
Camus, Sartre, and Pinter we have a large and powerful body
cultural malaise, disease, or syndrome. Madness,
of imaginative literature attesting to and exposing the width
indifference, hysteria, neuropathy, suppression, neurasthenia
and depth of the modern sense of absurdity. At the heart of
as well as what Eliot himself called the 'fatal American
Western life and individual today, Andre Malraux has said,
introspectiveness', all find a place in this essay. Nerves itself
dominating our culture, there lies an essential absurdity. In
appears perhaps more frequently of all. Camus rightly said:
1928 Eliot wrote in The Criterion that Modernism is a mental
The malaise which concerns us is that of an entire epoch
blight. It speaks to us not only Eliot's trauma but the trauma
from which we do not wish to separate ourselves. We want to
inseparable from our culture. The syllables of 'The Love Song
think and live in our own history. We believe that the truth of
of J.Alfred Prufrock', 'Gerontion', 'The Waste Land', 'The
our century cannot be reached without going all the way to
Hollow Men', parts of the 'Four Quartets', and other poems
the end of our drama. If the epoch has suffered from nihilism
were for many people irreplaceable mental furnishings. The
- 89 -
realities they evoke constitute our reality. They reflect

existential signposts, landmarks in modernity's spiritual battle
for a survivable culture.
Modern characters suffer from the malaise, an
unknown palpable disease - a sense of despair not easily
brought into focus and identified. The epigraph at the start of
The Moviegoer quotes from Kierkegaard's The Sickness Unto
Death:
the specific character of despair is specifically this: it
is unaware of being despair.[Brent, 1989]
In The Moviegoer, the young movie- going Binx Bolling
states that
the malaise is the pain of loss. The world is lost to
you, the world and the people in it, and there remains only
you and the world and you no more able to be in the world
than Banquo's ghost.[Finny, p.29]
While the malaise which Percy describes is distinctly
modern, it is inherently ancient in nature; it is the longing of
man for meaning in a world that has abandoned any real
notion of transcendent truth. According to Brooks the poet
exposes how disintegrating faith in the meaning of life in
modern
times
has
provoked
this
descent
into
meaninglessness. This meaninglessness creates the sterility
and unreality of the modern waste land. Thus the malady of
meaninglessness which is death in life describes the
hopeless fragmentation of the lives of modern men and
women.
A deeper level of psyche is called into play in T.S Eliot's
poetical works by a study of nerves or nervous disease,
hysteric illness, paralysed consciousness, cynical
rebukes, erotic forays, sexual malaise - different
terminologies but one disease, the malady of the modern
mind. The delicate moroseness of these poems is often
expressed in terms of the prototypical late - nineteenth and
twentieth century complaint of strained nerves. Nerves
were also a cultural product of the time, and it is this fact
that connects Eliot's poetry not just with other poems but
with a whole society and a historical moment. At the end of
his life, Eliot came to feel that although he had become a
British citizen in 1927, the roots of his poetry and his
sensibility were American. At the beginning of the last
century nerves and nervous disease were understood as a
particularly American phenomenon. Neurasthenia, in the
wake of its most relentless diagnosticator, George M. Beard,
was known as American nervousness - largely because the
disease and the related manifestations of despair, depression,
fainting, stammering were characterised as a reaction toward
ISSN 2250-1665
modern civilisation, a civilisation that was understood to have

reached its most advanced and desperate stage in America.
Exploring the poetic possibilities inherent in nervous
disease, then, was a way for Eliot not only to circumvent the
banalities of officially approved literary modes but also to
claim an ironic centrality for his writing.
Nervous monologue, as Eliot termed remained a vital
subject for the poet of the outgoing century. Nerves, and
allied worlds of exhaustion, emptiness and sickness and
madness, were at the core of Eliot's imaginative thinking at
the time - both in his poetry and in his philosophical labours.
The influence of Symons and Laforgue is clearly visible in the
lines where Symons's distillation of Laforgue's persona made
an obvious appeal to the creator of Prufrock:
'He is terribly conscious of daily life, cannot omit,
mentally, a single hour of the day; he sees , the
possibilities for art which come from the sickly modern
being, with his clothes, his nerves ' [Symons, 1958, p. 5960].
Eliot describes in clammy detail Prufrock's tramping
through certain half deserted streets and the context of his
muttering retreats / of restless nights in one - night cheap
hotels. The opening lines may be maddening:
Let us go then you and I
When the evening is spread out against the sky
Like a patient etherized upon a table
[' The Love Song of J.Alfred Prufrock', p. 9, 1-3]
The literary critic Louis Untermeyer said that Prufrock
was the first piece of the English language that utterly
stumped meThe effect was that of the Muse in a
psychopathic ward.
Eliot offers a kaleidoscopic chaos of ghostly fragments
invoked by Memory: unseen feet, twilight, dawn, the
sad intangible who grieve and yearn[CP 232]. Hysterics, or
people who sexualize others, show excessive emotions and
who unlike the obsessive lacks the capacity to think. Eliot
says:
Time for you and time for me
And time yet for a hundred indecisions. [Ibid., p.10, 31-32]
Haunted by memory, as in Tennyson's speaker in In
Memoriam, the characters of 'The Waste Land' strive to
forget; the past is there, resurfacing, but it is never learned
from; the dead do not merely enter the land of the living but
rather the living become like the dead. T.S. Eliot's early
poetry is haunted by a series of voracious, often voluble,
semi-hysterical women who, in their capacity to trap,
formulate, and disintegrate the male speakers of the
poems, exhibit maternal power at its most frightening.
- 90 -
The limitations of mankind's finite existence cause

lethargy, apathy or paralysis in all the characters of Eliot's
poetry. The first stanza introduces the subject of 'The Hollow
Men', which we already know from the title and epigrams:
the hollow men, the stuffed men and concludes with an
obvious reference to the lines from 'The Waste Land':
Our dried voices.
Are quiet and meaningless As wind in dry grass
Or rat's feet over broken glass In our dry cellar.
['The Hollow Men-I', p.56, 1-5]
These lines can be compared with the lines from 'The Waste
Land'
And bones cast in a little low dry garret
Rattled by the rat's foot only, year to year.
['The Fire Sermon- III', p.34, 94-95 ]
These lines define the paralysis of the stuffed men.
In 'The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock', Eliot juxtaposes
the usual beauty and romance associated with the evening
sky with the sterility of an etherised patient awaiting surgery.
This metaphor of paralysis serves to give an insight into the
persona's psychological state, showing his own inaction like
the comatose, while also revealing that the persona cannot
relate to the beauty in the world.
The metaphor of paralysis is closely aligned with other
patterns of imagery that operate in the poem. Throughout
the poem there are images of restriction and entrapment
which encompass more specific metaphors like the fog-cat
and insect metaphors. All these reveal the person's own
sense of entrapment and his inability to escape social mores
and routines. The insect metaphor:
And when I am formulated, sprawling on a pin,
When I am pinned and wriggling on the wall
['The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock', p.11, 57-58]
reveals the person's state of anguish. He sees himself as
being painfully pinned by convention, controlled by external
factors and always on display as if his actions are constantly
being watched so that he must present a proper face to those
around him.
The fog-cat metaphor also relates to Prufrock's own
timidness and sexual repression. The sexual connotations
implicit in 'licked its tongue into the corners of the evening'
give way to 'curled once about the house, and fell asleep'.
Prufrock also prefers to retreat from action and desire,
sleeping quietly rather than inviting sexual attention. This
retreat from action is also seen in the crab imagery:
I should have been a pair of ragged claws
Scuttling across the floors of silent seas.
[ Ibid., p.12, 73-74]
ISSN 2250-1665
In this image Prufrock wishes to lose his human

qualities, to be able to hide inside a shell like a crab and to
scuttle sideways rather than confront problems directly.
Throughout his life Prufrock has become incapacitated by
his fears and insecurities as well as by his perception of the
universe he inhabits. Here Prufrock relates more of his erotic
forays into the narrow streets of a social and emotional
underworld :
When the evening woke and stared into its blindness
I heard the children whimpering in corners
Where women took the air, standing in entries
Women spilling out of corsets, stood in entries
Where the draughty gas- jet flickered
And the oil cloth curled up slairs.
[' Prufrock's Pervigilium', 1996, 4-9]
After a lonely nocturnal vigil in which the midnight turned
and writhed in fever and the darkness has crawled and
hissed at him like a cat, Prufrock fumbles to the window
to experience the world
And hear my Madness singing.
[Ibid., 28-29]
Eliot delves into some important sources of the malaise
of the modern world in the post conversion poetry,. Despair
Kierkegaard says:
'. . . . is the secret malady from which all sufferthe sole
difference between men is that some men know from what it
is they suffer, whilst others do not'. [Murray, 1991, p.119]
In Eliot's poetry the discontinuity between the images
defining the consciousness of the speaker serves to indicate
what for Eliot is a major manifestation of modern life, the
loss of the integrated personality. Eliot does this quite
deliberately as part of his sense that a fractured world and an
inchoate response to it what we have become:
The life of a soul does not consist in the contemplation of
one consistent world but in the painful task of unifying (to a
greater and large extent) jarring and incompatible ones.
[Johnston, Lecture on T.S Eliot, 1997]
Prufrock is paralysed by indecision and extreme self
consciousness which make him hesitant to dare/ Disturb the
Universe (presumably by instigating conversation and / or a
relationship with a woman), consoling himself with the
thought that there will be time, there will be time'. It
highlights the ironic contrast between past glories and
modern inadequacy; it still remains squarely within the
tradition. The poem's value doesn't lie in its structural
innovation so much as in the fact that its themes - the
disintegration of the modern world, the tone of effort and
futility of effort which is central in Eliot's writing, the failure
to act, to disturb the universe, as Prufrock puts it - were to
- 91 -
preoccupy Eliot throughout his career. In Portrait of a Lady

Eliot again mentions the human frailty. The dull tom tom
inside the narrator's brain signifies some inability to control
mental processes. The cracked cornets and the out - of - tune
broken violin are indicative of the falsity of the lady's
emotions, as perceived by the narrator. The tired and the
mechanical street piano does not evoke the lyrical and the
romantic, but reiterates a clichd song:
Yet with these April sunsets, that somehow recall
My buried life, and Paris in the spring
[' Portrait of a Lady-II ', p.11, 52-53]
The phrase 'buried life' here is an allusion to Matthew
Arnold's poem, The Buried Life.
Eliot presents the modern mind and modern city as
composed of fragments from the past, a heap of broken
images, through which run great and obsessive anxieties. In
'What the Thunder Said' the final section of 'The Waste Land',
the anxiety with death and the anxiety with decline at last
join: the fragmentation of the poet's obsessive learning and
the fragmentation of the Unreal City have a single origin.
'Rhapsody on a Windy Night' is another of Eliot's poems
that deals with an alienated character and the mindless,
deadening routines of everyday life.'Preludes'explores the
drudgery of working class in the city. 'The Love Song of J.
Alfred Prufrock' reveals the emptiness of middle class
conformity, while 'Rhapsody' is an attempt to recover some
lost self during a night walk, only to find that there is no
escape and the persona must return to the banal routines of
contemporary existence: The bed is open; the tooth- brush
hangs on the wall
Put your shoes at the door, sleep, and prepare for life.
['Rhapsody on a Windy Night', p. 19, line 76]
The last twist of the knife, the creative wanderings of the
mind are reduced to the obsession with the distorted and
purposeless things in life. This is further accentuated when
the person's memory can offer little solace and only
remembers images of desolation and dryness:
The memory throws up high and dry
A crowd of twisted things.
[ Ibid.,p.17, 11-12]
Everything remembered is associated with decay and
disintegration 'broken spring', 'rust that clings', 'a twisted
branch stiff and white'. The world remembered is full of
imagery that reveals the automatic meaningless grasping
after what is useless: a cat reaches for rancid butter, a child
for a stolen toy, voyeur reaching for other lives ('Trying to
peer through lighted shutters'), a crab reaching for a stick. All
these reveal the meaningless, purposeless world that the
persona inhabits, and in particular it explores how people
ISSN 2250-1665
search for things that will not bring happiness and

contentment, a theme explored in depth in 'The Waste Land',
and this is the condition of a materialistic world devoid of
spiritual values.
Eliot's poems are about the failure of modern man who
has lost touch with reality because they fail to experience
reality. Modern man as symbolised by Sweeny has lost the
human consciousness which alone gives meaning and
significance to all phenomena of time which, otherwise are
meaningless and absurd. Sweeny is a rootless, non-historic
and unsatisfied being who symbolises the religious decay and
cultural ruin of modern man. He proclaims the degeneration
of the contemporary man. The atmosphere in the Sweeny
poem suggests the predominance of the phenomena and the
insignificance of the living reality. The characters seem
nothing more than stray and unwanted offshoots of the wild
antihuman life that they represent:
This withered root of knots of hair
Slitted below and gashed with eyes
This oval O cropped out with teeth
The sickle motion from the thighs .
['Sweeny Erect', p.28, 13-16]
'Gerontion' announces that he has lost all the faculties of
perception:
I have lost my sight, smell, hearing, taste and touch:
How should I use for your closer contact?
['Gerontion', p. 20, 58-59]
'The Hollow Men' is also considered a profound verse of
postwar malaise and a prime influence on the lost generation.
Eliot shows his concern for the hollowness of modern man,
We are the hollow men
We are the stuffed men.
['The Hollow Men', p.56, 1-2]
Eliot speaks of the alienation, where the will-less
subjects of the poem cluster in a dead land, waiting like
effigies for a galvanic revelation that does not come. They
comment on their lot in a spastic chorus that includes a
children's game song, a fragment of the lord's Prayer, and a
parody of world without end.
Gerontion symbolises the unrest of the epochal
consciousness of the contemporary man who has to make a
persistent endeavour
to unveil from moment to moment
the nameless power
which
are simultaneously inimical to the life order and selfhood.
[ Jaspers, p. 121]
The past of Gerontion, from which he seeks a release,
remains unfulfilled. Throughout his life he has failed to
experience the potential of his being. He has also failed to
- 92 -
relate himself to the incarnate one. Finally he becomes aware

of his historical vacuity, and his present environment smells
the rancid flavour of his decayed past.
In 1920, Eliot gave voice to the anxiety in his poems. He
presents the modern mind close to a post modernist view
when his thoughts 'multiply variety in a wilderness of
mirrors'( Ben Jonson's The Alchemist). In 'The Waste Land'
Eliot presents the modern mind and modern city as
composed of fragments of the past, A heap of broken
images through which run great and obsessive anxieties. In
'What the Thunder Said' the final section of the poem, the
anxieties with death and the anxiety with decline at last join:
the fragmentation of the poet's obsessive learning and the
fragmentation of the Unreal City have a single origin. Eliot
also gave voice to the anxiety in his 'Gerontion', in the
following words:
After such knowledge, what forgiveness
['Gerontion',p.19, line 33]
T.S Eliot's 'Journey of the Magi' is one part of his
conversion story which is based on the theme of faith without
revelation. Elizabeth Drew maintains:
The meaning of the new birth is obscure, full of doubt,
accompanied by pain, not joy, and perplexing in the
extreme. [Drew, 118-119]
Her analysis of the conversion imagery is typified by
statements like a bewildering sense of paradox and great
weariness and disillusionment. These are not the images of a
joyous experience or conversion. They reflect the indefinite
nature of a world in which positives and negatives often
coalesce. As Lyndall Gordon suggests, the poem tells about
his being ill - at - ease in the 'old dispensation' after his
conversion. Martin Scofield says that it is an attempt to
describe, what the experience means:
Eliot
clearly
chose the magus as a persona because he represented the
experience of being caught between two worlds, of having
had an intimation of faith but now being left No longer at
ease here, in the old dispensation - the experience of
conversion without the full benefit of assured faith. [Scofield,
1988,p.146]
As a young man Eliot suffered a religious crisis and a
nervous breakdown before regaining his emotional
equilibrium and Christian faith. His disposition and intellectual
rigor required something more substantial to solve his inner
conflicts. Eliot's conversion to Christianity in the late twenties
is the major turning point in his life and art which infuses his
later poems, giving them a sense of faith, hope and clarity
which is seldom found in his earlier works. Clearly the early
secular poetry of 'Prufrock and Other Observations', 'Poem'
[1920], 'The Waste Land' and 'The Hollow Men' differ
ISSN 2250-1665
subjectively from the late poetry of religion in 'Ariel Poems' ,

'Ash Wednesday', Choruses from 'The Rock' and ' Four
Quartets'.
Following his conversion to Anglo-Catholicism, Eliot's
poetry took on new spiritual dimensions. The six-part poem
'Ash Wednesday' [1930] sensitively traces a pattern of
spiritual progress. The emphasis is on the struggle toward
belief rather than the triumphant assertion of it. Eliot's last
major poetic sequence, 'Four Quartets' [1943], which was
written in four sections from 1935 to 1942 and which he
believed to be his first achievement, is religious in a very
broad sense. It deals with ideas of incarnation, the
intersection of time and eternity, and the discovery of
spiritual insight in sudden and unexpected moments of
revelation. In his later poetry, Eliot turned from spiritual
desolation to hope for human salvation. He accepted religious
faith as solution to the human dilemma and espoused
AngloCatholicism in 1927. Influential later essays include 'The
Idea of a Christian Society' [1939] and 'Notes Towards the
Definition of Culture' [1948]. His play Murder in the Cathedral
[1935] is a verse treatment of St. Thomas Becket's
martyrdom.
The second part of this essay is thus based on Eliotian
metamorphosis, the development of Eliot which constitutes a
completely new belief system. Eliot himself suggests that, in
art there should be interpretation and metamorphosis. For
example, The Golden Bough can be read in two ways: as a
collection of entertaining myths, or as a revelation of that
vanished mind of which our mind is a continuation. [ Eliot,
North, 132 ] This portion of the chapter expresses how better
to escape from what one of James Joyces' characters calls
the Nightmare of history [Ulysses 42] while at the same
time making art, in T.S.Eliot's phrase, a new thing [Selected
Prose 43].
To Eliot, the prime mover of culture was the preservation
of tradition in a constantly changing world. The evolutionary
development was a shift in quality as the new information
changed the culture's perception of the older matter. As Eliot
described it:
The artist must be aware that the mind of Europe
(Western Culture)- the mind of his own country - a mind
which
he learns in time to be much more than his own
private mind- is a mind which changes, and that this change
is a development which abandons nothing en route, which
does not superannuate either Shakespeare, or Homer, or the
rock drawing of the Magdalenian draugtsmen The
difference between the present and the past is that the
conscious present is an awareness of the past in a way and
- 93 -
to an extent which the past's awareness of itself cannot

show. [Freed, 1979, 101-102]
The tone of unbroken sincerity and passionate yearning,
of anxiety and some joy
is new for Eliot after his
transformation. The penitent desires to abandon ambition, his
fading powers of expression, the enticements of the world,
and all that may prevent his mounting the turning stairs
toward salvation. Though his longing for the vision of God
known in childhood is not fulfilled, he progresses toward it,
and he will persist. American critic F.O.Mathiessen remarked
how Eliot with paradoxical precision in vagueness used
wonderfully concrete images to convey the mystery of a
spiritual experience.
One of the central concerns of literary modernism is the
textual representation of time and space as perceived in the
individual consciousness. The attempt is as Woolf said of
Joyce, to reveal the flickering of that innermost flame which
flashes its messages through the brain [Modern Fiction ,
107].However, in the modern frame work the subjective
'making sense' of the world that individuals constantly do is
augmented from time to time by moments of heightened
clarity and meaning - epiphanies, moments of being,
Incarnations, and the like. During these times, the recipient
of this heightened awareness is somehow brought closer to
the way things objectively are; they more clearly, access
some version of spiritual truth, or come to understand
something important about themselves as the world around
them. These moments tend to exhibit two characteristics:
they are delivered in time and space.
'this grace dissolved in place'
as Eliot calls it in ' Marina'. The following passage from
Woolf 's To The Light House is an excellent example:
It paled beside this rapture, this silent stare, for which
she felt intense gratitude ; for nothing so solaced her, eased
her of the perplexity of life, and miraculously raised its
burdens, as this sublime power, this heavenly gift, and one
would no more disturb it, while it lasted, then break up the
shaft of sunlight lying level across the floor.[48]
Both Eliot and Lawrence attempt to access the epiphanic
moment through a catalogue of the physical and sensory
conditions that bring it about. Even Rossetti describes 'the
grass beyond the door,/The sweet, keen smell,/ The sighing
sound, the light around the shore, while Eliot ranges through
The distraction fit, lost in a shaft of sunlight,
The wild thyme unseen, or the winter lighting
Or the water fall or music heard so deeply
That it is not heard at all, but you are the music While
the music lasts. ['The Dry Salvages IV',p.44, 25-29]
ISSN 2250-1665
Both William Butler Yeats's 'The Second Coming' and

T.S.Eliot's 'Journey of the Magi' present a renewal process,
but each one focuses on different goals and subjects; Eliot
on a particular person's transformation where as Yeats
predicts a renovation of the entire world as a result of an
escalation of chaos. And while Yeats attempts to present a
definitive picture of what he believes will happen at the time
of this renovation, as a human being, lack of foresight leaves
him conclude with nothing more than an unanswerable
question. Eliot, on the other hand, uses ambiguity to support
and develop his theme: death is the way to rebirth.
The role of religion is more obvious in Eliot's poetry after
his conversion. 'Ash Wednesday', 'The Hollow Men' and 'The
Four Quartets' all have very heavy religious themes which are
in contrast to the unconsciously religious aspects of his
former poetry. These poems present to us the experience of
Eliot himself attaining faith. He even uses lines from formal
Christian mass services in 'Ash Wednesday' in the lines Lord,
I am not worthy / Lord I am not worthy/ but speak the word
only. The poem differs from his earlier works in that it is a
far more personal experience; it more clearly speaks about
himself. Along with the change in subject, Eliot's religion
changed his writing style. The language is that of a person
thinking out loud, or musing.
This essay is a reflection of the paradigm shift in Eliot's
ideas with a general movement from the personal to the
philosophic, to the aesthetic to the religious. The shift shows
the development of Eliot's mind. Eliot was inclined toward
both skepticism and belief, with his Unitarian and enlightened
upbringing pushing him toward former and his own mystical
moments pushing him toward the later. In his writings, Eliot
pays close attention to all intellectual and intuitional
formulations. The second part of the essay shows the
metamorphosis of the mind and man through a brief analysis
of his poems. In 'The Love Song of J.Afred.Prufrock',
Prufrock's picture of twilight as a sort of anaesthetic
atmosphere, a drugged calm on the cutting edge of
anaesthetic atmosphere, night, invites a comparison between
the defining malaise of modernism and the affective
disruptions of modern medicine. The non-sense of dusk as
sky set for surgery, and of night, by extension, as darkness
riven only by a slicing curve of moon, the confusion, in other
words, of ether with ether - of pure, weightless air with
sweet, stifling fume - not only records the poem's moment as
the modern moment, but also invokes medicine as the
definitive metaphor for that moment. He sees the evening in
the aspect of etherisation, and the metaphor of etherisation
suggests the desire for inactivity to the point of enforced
release from pain. All of this simply projects the mind of the
- 94 -
speaker - a mind, it would appear, that is in conflict, but

presumably concerned with love. With the image of fog as
cat we have another reflection of his mental state: desire
which ends in inertia. Time associates the scene with his
mental indecision, but time also offers him an escape.
Prufrock is a perfect gentleman and tragic in his
conventionality. He has heard the mermaids singing but is
paralysed by self consciousness:
'I do not think that they will sing to me
['The Love Song of J.Alfred Prufrock', p.14, line 125]
This line emphasises transience, the metamorphosis of
mind and man; the mythic resonance is that of the eminence
of death, subliminally present but rarely recognised.
Eliot gives Prufrock one moment where he seems to be
building himself up to action:
Would it have been worthwhile,
To have bitten off the matter with a smile,
To have squeezed the universe into a ball
To roll it toward to some overwhelming question,
To say: 'I am Lazarus, come from the dead,
Come back to tell you all, I shall tell you all.
[Ibid., p.13, line 90-95]
'Rhapsody on a Windy Night' in which
Every street lamp
Beats like a fatalistic drum
And through the spaces of the dark Midnight shakes the
memory, ['Rhapsody on a Windy Night',p.17, 8-11]
the fatalistic drum is akin to those of Conrad's Heart of
Darkness and similarity shakes up the memory, returns to
consciousness the repressed and supreme moment of
complete knowledge. This is the meaning of the exclamation
Memory! near the end of the poem and the matter- of- fact
recognition You have the key. As Southam remarks, the
poem, 'Gerontion' sounds like a parody of Newman's Dream
of Gerontius, containing the dramatic reverie of an old man,
approaching death, whose spiritual struggles are crowned
with salvation.
The metaphor of seeing and vision is central to Eliot's
poems as well as to modernism. The characters fail to see
anything except a heap of broken images. Eliot in 'The Waste
Land' and in other texts promises to show the reader a
different meaning; to show the reader how to make meaning
from dislocation and from fragments. In the poem, it is the
primary process that speaks and it is not in its nature to be
easily deciphered. In the end, the Grail legend and fertility
myths, the painful march towards salvation or purity no more
than provide a rationalisation for a 'meaning' which remains
secret. 'Salvation', 'sacrifice', 'purification' are words which
still have to be analysed. What Eliot wrote about Joyces's
ISSN 2250-1665
Ulysses perfectly applies to 'The Waste Land', though not in

the way one may think.
It is simply a way of controlling, of ordering, of giving a
shape and significance to the immense panorama of futility
and anarchy which is contemporary history. [The Dial, 1923]
Clearly, it corresponds to a wish to organise chaos, and it
does point a desire for coherence in life. But such ordering
cannot be carried out with our attention restricted to what is
consciousness only. This psychotherapeutic reading
appropriates the images of Dante's Purgatorio as Jungian
archetypes. The shifting levels of consciousness in the film
replicate personal psychoanalytic experience travelled by way
of associations.
'Ash Wednesday', Eliot's conversion poem deals with the
struggle that ensues when one who has lacked faith in the
past strives to move towards God. The poem written with a
base of Dante's Purgatorio, is richly but ambiguously allusive
and deals with the aspiration to move from spiritual
barrenness to hope for human salvation. The style is different
from his poetry which predates his conversion. 'Ash
Wednesday' and the poems that followed have a more
casual, melodic and contemplative method. A greater
maturity of feeling is marked in his later poetry:
And I pray that I may forget
These matters that with myself I too much discuss Too
much explain
Because I do not hope to turn again Let these words
answer
For what is done, not to be done again
May the judgment not be too heavy upon us.
['Ash Wednesday-I', p.56, 27-33]
A realisation or knowledge is self maintained forever
which is luminous in its own right beyond all ignorance.
The speaker in 'Ash Wednesday' is not an enamoured
rustic, but he rejoices,
having to construct something
Upon which to rejoice
[Ibid. p. 55-56, lines 24-25]
He knows he has to make the shadow he pursues. Leavis
thought well of 'Ash- Wednesday' for different reasons than
Richards. The poet was preoccupied, he said, with the
problem of sincerity. He had to achieve a paradoxical
precision- in- vagueness, to persuade the elusive intuition to
define itself, without any forcing, among the equivocations of
the dream crossed twilight. The warning against crude
interpretation, against trying to elicit anything in the nature
of prose statement, is there in the unexpected absences of
punctuation; and in the repetitive effects, which suggest a
kind of delicate tentativeness. The poetry itself is an effort at
- 95 -
resolving diverse impulsions, recognitions, and needs. The

characteristic rhythm of Ash Wednesday has certain
qualities of ritual; it produces in a high degree the frameeffect, establishing apart from the world a special order of
experience, dedicated to spiritual exercises. The characters of
T.S.Eliot are animated by desire, all of them having no end
but death.'Ash Wednesday' is presented as the redemption of
'The Waste Land'.
The transcendental superstructure rises ever clearer in
Eliot's world picture. At the same time a manifest striving
after a positive, guiding message emerges in his dramatic art,
Murder in the Cathedral, Family Reunion, which is a bold
attempt to combine such different conceptions as the
Christian dogma of original sin and the classical Greek myths
of fate, in an entirely modern environment, with the scene
laid in a country house in northern England. Eliot wishes to
point out poetry can really accomplish for our inner life:
It may make us from time to time a little more aware of the
deeper,unnamed feelings which form the substratum of our
being, to which we rarely penetrate; for our lives are mostly a
constant evasion of ourselves. [Noble Lectures, Literature
1901- 1967]
The sequence of three moments as Eliot described it is
under Dante's auspices. More than any other poet, Dante
suggested to Eliot the possibility of redeeming the time,
transforming mere tempus into aevum in the light of what
Eliot in the essay called the high dream. There too Eliot
notes how skillfully Dante expresses [in Canto xxx of the
'Purgatorio'] the recrudescence of an ancient passion in a
new emotion, in a new situation, which comprehends,
enlarges, and gives a meaning to it.
In 'Four Quartets', however, Eliot explores his poetic
development as an autobiographical concern that challenges
the way that his work has been persistently read in modern
criticism. He addresses the question of the self in religious
terms, just as he allows us to resituate his life in a new
conception of the self in time. Eliot's journey of the self into a
condition of the spirit is ultimately a journey of the
transcendence, into intensity in which here or there doesn't
matter:
Old men ought to be explorers
Here and there does not matter
We must be still and moving Into another intensity
For a further union, a deeper communion
Through the dark cloud and empty desolation,
The wave cry, the wind cry, the vast waters
Of the petrel and the porpoise
In the end is my beginning.
['East Coker IV', p., 32, 31-38]
ISSN 2250-1665
The very thought might heal the malaise of the self he

finds himself in at the outset of the sequence.
'Four Quartets' calls attention to the rifts in time which
animate the speaker's account of his own journey from doubt
to religious certainty:
Oh, do not ask, What is it?
Let us go and make our visit.
['The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock', p.9, 11-12]
Section V presents language itself as transience on which
sufficient form may confer endurance. The poem ends with a
reassertion of the possibility, and the significance, of timeless
moments: Sudden in a shaft of sunlight
Even while the dust moves
There rises the hidden laughter
Of children in the foliage
Quick now, here, now, always
Ridiculous the sad waste time
Stretching before and after.
['Burnt Norton IV', p.20, 33-39]
In this elusive vision the moving dust in sunlight
suggests the conditions of human existence, dust sustained
and made visible by whatever power emanates from the still
point; here and now acquire momentarily the significance of
'always'; and 'the before and after' which for Shelley
contained those distracting glimpses of 'what might have
been', cease to tantalise: they are merely aspects of 'the
waste sad time' which the timeless moment has the power to
render irrelevant.
The second part of 'Malady of the Modern Mind and
Eliotian Metamorphosis' depicts Eliot's work, which in the
wake of his conversion turned from images of fatal feminity
to those of a silent, holy motherhood, such figures of
maternal benevolence as Ash - Wednesday's Holy Virgin,
Agatha from the Family Reunion. Finally the silent lady of
'Ash Wednesday' retains a decidedly disturbing aspect when
she appears as the object of the male speaker's adulation.
While he is reduced, in his humility, to scattered, dry bones,
chirping her praise, she herself is withdrawn / In a white
gown to contemplation, in a white gown.
The initial poems following Eliot's conversion are the
'Journey of the Magi', 'A Song of a Simeon'. The first of the
Ariel poems, 'Journey' and 'A Song' which deal dramatically
with the poet's new understanding of Christ's incarnation.
The music in Ariel's spiritual, restorative song; induces a sea
change through metamorphosis and serves as a marked
contrast to the sterility of the modern death scene: yet the
poem itself changes forms and shapes, the metamorphosis
ultimately aim to restore Ariel a voice for the master Prospero
as Eliot's poem lends a voice to the mind of Europe.
- 96 -
White bodies naked on the low damp ground

And bones cast in a little low dry garret
Rattled by the rat's foot only, year to year
But at my back from time to time I hear
The sound of horns and motors
['The Fire Sermon III', p.34, 202- 206]
Thus Eliot's poetry is an advance, an inch by inch
movement up the stairway in which the end is significant
because it both remembers and fulfils the beginning (Rajan).
In the first part of this essay, the modern mind is projected
as jumping quickly from actuality to memory and back again,
haunted, tormented, terribly and poignantly alive .It can be
assumed that the malady of the modern mind is due to
habitual thoughtlessness and misinterpretation. Eliot through
the main characters speaks of the weakness and inability of
the modern man and explains that every man holds the same
malady. The later half of this essay is an attempt to search
for an adequate medium to overcome the tensions of modern
existence. Eliot communicates in the poem an exhortation to
live in the present moment, rather than in the shadows of the
past and future, what Eliot calls 'time before and time after'.
He contrasts what he calls the 'waste sad time / stretching
before and after' with the creative possibilities, beauty and
meaning that are accessible to us if we inhabit the present
moment.
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Anca Pieu STEVENS/PATRU 3. HTM.- 63K>. Bernt,

Short. The Modern Prognosis: An Interview withWalker
Percey, Interview by, Washington DC May, 1989.
Brace, Harcourt. ' Prufrock's Pervigilium', T.S.Eliot.

Inventions of the March Hare: Poems
1909.Christopher Ricks Ed. London, 1996.
Bush, Roland. T.S.Eliot: A Study in Character and Style, (

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Drew, Elizabeth .T.S Eliot : The Design of His Poetry.

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Eliot, T.S., Collected Poems. 1909 - 1935, Faber & Faber,

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Freed, Lewis. T.S.Eliot: The Critic as Philosopher( West

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Murray, Paul. T.S Eliot and Mysticism: The Secret History
of 'Four Quartets', Macmillan Press, UK, 1991.
Scofield, Martin. T.S Eliot: The Poems. Cambridge:
Cambridge UP, 1988.
Sorokin, P.A., The Crisis of Our Age, 1941.
Symons, Arthur. The Symbolist Movement in Literature,
2nd ed, revised., revised ( 1899; New York: Dutton,
1958).
ISSN 2250-1665
IMPACT ON SOCIO ECONOMY DEPRIVATION LEVEL

AMONG THE SPORTS PERSONS
Prasanna B K, Dr. Sakapal Hoovanna
*Ph. D Research scholar, Singhania University, Jhunjhunu (D), Rajasthan State
**Asst Prof DPE KSWU, Bijapura.
ABSTRACT
In India there are hundreds of athletes (both Men and Women) who suffer from certain socio-economic and cultural
handicaps, which would affect their performance in sports. And it is a established fact all over the world that, socioeconomic, cultural and psychological as well as many other relevant factors contribute to their performance in sports .The
present study is an investigation into the impact of socio-cultural deprivation of the athletes.
Key Words: Socio-cultural deprivation,athletes
1. INTRODUCTION:
The participation in sports rather influences the whole
personality of the athlete. Sports influence all aspects of
athletes personality and help him in gaining poise and
balance, refreshing the spirits, renewing the inner springs of
faith and courage, mastering the skills, adjusting in the
society and meeting the strains of modern life with ease and
calmness.
In India there are hundreds of athletes (both Men and
Women) who suffer from certain socio-economic and cultural
handicaps, which would affect their performance in sports.
And it is a established fact all over the world that, socioeconomic, cultural and psychological as well as many other
relevant factors contribute to their performance in sports.
The fact that socio cultural conditions are at the core of
human behaviour and would affect the performance of the
athletes. This phenomenon has attracted the large number of
investigators during sixties to ascertain effects of sociocultural deprivation on human behaviour. There are many
people in every society who are deprived of one or the other
of these factors.
2.SOCIAL DEPRIVATION:
The social deprivations mean nothing but absence of
togetherness and or group member with whom one can
interact. Yet this term is used synonymously with terms like
social disadvantaged, social isolation, and poverty etc. The
socio-culturally advantageous athletes normally have an
advantage over the socio-cultural deprived athletes. It is a
widely known fact that the personality of a person is very
much dependent upon his socio-cultural, caste, community,
economic conditions, place and situations of a persons
interactions.
The present study is an investigation into the impact of
socio-cultural deprivation of the athletes. The aim is to take
a coherent view of the impact of athletic socio-cultural
deprivation on their achievement motivation level so that

physical education teachers, who work with an objective to
improve the general well-being of the students and coaches
who provide specialized training to the athletes for higher
accomplishments may be benefited to the extent of providing
correct guide-lines to the athletes in the matter of
psychological training besides physical training.
The following are the objectives of this study were
formulated.
1. To study the nature of relation between socio cultural
deprivation and achievement motivation of high and low
deprived athletes.
2. To examine the level of achievement motivation between
the high and low deprived athletes.
3. To examine the impact of socio-cultural deprivation on
the need for skill achievement between high and low
deprived athletes and women athletes.
4. To make a comparative analysis of the levels of need for
academic success, social achievement, vocational
achievement and skill achievement between high and
low deprived athletes and women athletes.
5. To find out the level of achievement motivation and its
four dimensions (academic, social, vocational and skill
achievement) between rural and urban athletes and
women athletes
3. THE METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY:
To measure the impact of socio-cultural deprivation on the
level of achievement motivation of athletes and women
athletes, the investigator has selected total 400 samples.
Among them 200 athletes and 200 women athletes including
50% Rural and 50% Urban both deprived and non-deprived
groups. The distribution is as under,
- 98 -
ISSN 2250-1665
SAMPLE DESIGN
4. TOOLS:
1) The Prolonged Deprivation Scale (PDS) developed
and standardized by Mishra and Tripathi was used in the
present study. This scale consists of 96 statements with five
alternative answers for each statement, measuring 15 areas
of life situation and experimental domains. Where deprivation
could occur, were identified and isolated. They are (1)
housing conditions, residential, accommodation, 2) Home
physical environmental 3) income sufficiency 4) food 5)
clothing 6) educational experiences 7) childhood experiences
8) rearing experiences 9) parental characteristics 10)
interaction with parents 11) motivational experiences 12)
emotional experiences 13) religious experiences 14) travel
and recreational experiences and the miscellaneous socioquasi-cultural experiences. Each statement divided into five
alternatives ranging from the scales values of 1,2,3,4 and 5
are assigned to all the statements except statements, 70, 74,
75 and 77 to which scale values will be 5,4,3,2,1 in which
high score indicated high deprivation and low score indicated
low deprivation. On the basis of scores, obtained the group
may be divided into high, middle and low deprived groups.
2)To understand the Achievement Motivation of the
Athletes, Achievement Motivation Test developed by
Dr. Beena Shah was adopted in the present
investigation. This achievement motivation scale is a
three point scale. Each statement is followed by three
alternative responses. The alternatives are arranged
in order of ones inclination towards achievement in
the areas-academic, vocation, social context and
skills. Weight age 1, 2 and 3 are respectively awarded
for alternatives (a), (b) & (c) respectively of any
statement. Thus the scale value lies between 40 and
120.
5. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS:
To meet the objectives of the study and to verify the
formulated hypotheses he data were analyzed. As the
purpose of the study was to find out the impact of sociocultural deprivation on the achievement motivation level of
athletes and women athletes, the mean, SD were calculated,
t values were calculated to test the significant difference
between the samples.
6. CONCLUSION
The following are the conclusion of this study
There is a significant difference of achievement

motivation between the high and low deprived athletes.
The low deprived athletes have high need for academic

success than the high deprived athletes.
The need for social achievement is high among the low

deprived athletes than the high deprived athletes.
The low deprived athletes have high need for vocational

achievement than the high deprived athletes.
The need for skill achievement is high among the low

deprived athletes and very low among the high-deprived
athletes.
The athletes have high achievement motivation than the

women athletes.
The urban athletes have high achievement motivation

than the rural athletes.
The rural athletes have high achievement motivation

than the rural women athletes.
The urban athletes have high achievement motivation

than the urban women athletes.
- 99 -

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Vol.

II Issue-XII December 2012

Asian Journal of Research in Social Sciences & Humanities

IMPACT OF URBANISATION ON LAND USE

of 27.78%. According to the Census 2011 Assam,

Vol. II Issue-XII December 2012

4.3: Demographic Aspects:

Vol. II Issue-XII December 2012

Asian Journal of Research in Social Sciences & Humanities

Fig2: Map of Pathsala Town

4.4: Socio-Economic Functions of Town:

TABLE 1: DECADAL POPULATION GROWTH IN

Source: Census of India Report, 1971,1991, 2001

Vol. II Issue-XII December 2012

FIG.4: MAPS SHOWING LAND USE CLASSES OF

Source: Based on topographical sheets and Satellite Imagery

The land use pattern of the Pathsala town area is

Asian Journal of Research in Social Sciences & Humanities

Shortage of Houses: The problem that perhaps

Critical Inadequacies in Public Utilities: Massive

Environmental Problems: In the study area the rapid

Due to proper road and rail communication in the area

Slums Proliferation: Rapid urbanizations with lack of

The Pathsala town is surrounded by rural areas and rural

Social and economic inequalities: The urbanization

The Pathsala is also known as the Hub of Education in

and also from west Bengal settled here for education

The Pathsala is also known as a Gateway to the Bhutan

Due to urbanization different banks, firms, company,

The raw materials from the surrounding villages like

Pathsala is the heritage of theatre in Assam. The mobile

Balanced urban planning in the study area

Development of strong economic base for urban

8. CONSEQUENCES OF UNBALANCED URBANIZATION

Vol. II Issue-XII December 2012

Emphasis on agro-based industry. Raw material should

Slum areas should be properly managed by the

Checked and control on mushrooming growth of

People of the town must be aware of the environmental

Asamoah, B, 14-Jul-2010, Urbanisation and changing

Census of India Report, 1971

Census of India, 1991,(http://www.censusindia.net)

Census of India, 2001, (http://www.censusindia.net)

Chandna.R.C. (2001), Geography of Population, Kalyani

Datta,P.June,2006 ,Urbanisation in India , Popultion

Manta,M, Borah,J and Borah,J, Urbanisation and Growth

Meyer, W.B. and M.G. Turner (1994), Changes in land

Prashant K. Srivastava, Saumitra Mukherjee, Manika

Vol. II Issue-XII December 2012

Asian Journal of Research in Social Sciences & Humanities

ROHINGYA REFUGEE PARADOX:

documented and undocumented Rohingya refugees and is

Vol. II Issue-XII December 2012

Vol. II Issue-XII December 2012

Vol. II Issue-XII December 2012

Vol. II Issue-XII December 2012

Vol. II Issue-XII December 2012

Vol. II Issue-XII December 2012

Ahmed, Imtiaz. (2010). The Plight of the Stateless

Akhtaruzzaman. (2006). Legal Protection of Refugees

Annan, Kofi. (2006). The Secretary General Preface to

Brenda, Balek. (2012). Double Jeopardy: Abuse of Ethnic