Physics 452.3 & 851.

3
Subatomic Physics

Web site:
physics.usask.ca/~pywell/p452

Subatomic Physics
This course is an introduction to Nuclear Physics and
Particle Physics
Subatomic physics is really about getting to the heart
of what we know about the Universe.
i.e. We are trying to answer the fundamental
questions
What is the Universe made of?
the particles

What are the interactions between them?

the forces

What are the overarching rules that govern all

things in the Universe?
the conservation laws or symmetries

Rutherford Scattering
The experiment carried out by Geiger and
Marsden.
First established that the atom is composed of
a small nucleus surrounded by electrons.
The experiment made use of -particles.

Radioactivity
If we put some radioactive material in front of a
magnet we see 3 types of radiation.
radioactive material
e.g. Uranium

-rays

magnetic field

-rays
-rays

- particles
charge +2e
mass ~ 7000me
= nucleus of helium atoms
- particles
charge 1e
mass = me
= electrons
- rays
no charge
no mass
= photons (high energy X-rays)

Geiger and Marsden Experiment

-particles

gold foil

scintillating screen
microscope

They counted the number of -particles

scattered in each direction .
They found that most of them pass through
without deflection.
But one in several thousand are scattered by
angles > 90

Rutherfords Explanation
Atom is mostly empty.
Atom has a small positively charged nucleus
containing most of the mass of the atom.
It was postulated that the electrons were in
orbit about the nucleus.
Number of electrons = Z = Atomic Number
determines atoms position in the periodic table
(chemical properties)

Therefore Nucleus has charge +Ze

(so that atom is electrically neutral)

Rutherfords Explanation
Using this model, Rutherford was able to derive the
shape of the Angular Distribution of the scattered
-particles that was observed by Geiger and
Marsden.
To do this he assumed:
The target nucleus has negligible recoil
i.e. it is much more massive than the -particle

The only force between the -particle and the

nucleus is the Coulomb force.
i.e.

1 (2e)( Ze)
V (r )
4 0
r
where r distance between and nucleus

Rutherfords Explanation
He also assumed:
Classical mechanics can be used.
Elastic Scattering

i.e. the collision between the -particle and the nucleus is

an elastic collision.
(There are no excitations of the nucleus or the -particle
we are getting ahead of ourselves here!)

For now, we will not go through the derivation of the

Rutherford scattering formula.
The result is:
The Probability of scattering at angle is
Z2
1
P( ) 2
T sin 4 2
where T KE of incident - particle

Rutherford Scattering
Z2
1
P( ) 2
T sin 4 2
where T KE of incident - particle

We see that this formula predicts

A large probability for small
A small probability for large
0 P ( )
Is this a problem?
0 corresponds to a large Impact Parameter b

Rutherford Scattering
Geiger and Marsden
showed that the
Rutherford formula was
correct.
Agreed for angles
5 150
P() was proportional to Z2
Z2
1
P( ) 2
T sin 4 2

Rutherford Scattering
Later, Rutherford and Chadwick showed that there was no
deviation from the formula for a large range of -particle
energies.
i.e. There is no deviation from Coulombs Law.
This means that there is no collision between the -particle
and the nucleus.
(At least for the -particle energies available to them at the
time.)
This means that both the -particle and the nucleus had to be
very small!
Eventually deviations from the Rutherford formula were found
when the closest approach of an -particle to the nucleus
was ~ 8 1015 m.
This was the first estimate of the nuclear size.

The Nucleus
A remaining puzzle was the existence of isotopes.
Isotopes = Atoms with the same Z (chemical
properties) but different masses.
This was explained by Rutherfords postulate that the
nucleus consisted of two types of particles.
Protons: = Nucleus of neutral Hydrogen: charge +e
Neutrons: No charge but mass ~ mass of proton.
This postulate was confirmed by Chadwicks
discovery of the neutron. (via a nuclear reaction)

Nomenclature and Definitions

Z = # protons = Atomic Number
N = # neutrons = Neutron Number
A = N + Z = Atomic Mass Number
= # Nucleons (protons or neutrons)
Nuclide = name for a specific nucleus
Notation:

Chemical SymbolN
e.g. 136 C 7
A
Z

Nomenclature and Definitions

Isotope = nuclides with same Z
e.g. Isotopes of Hydrogen
1
1

H0

2
1

H1

Deuterium (d)

Isotone = nuclides with same N

3
4
H
e.g.
1 2
2 He 2
Isobar = nuclides with same A
14
14
e.g.
C
6 8
7N7

3
1

H2

Tritium

Nomenclature and Definitions

Atomic Weight or Atomic Mass
= the mass of an atom (it includes the mass of the
electrons)
It is convenient to use Atomic Mass Units (u)
(Old abbreviation a.m.u.)

Defined by:
Mass of 126 C atom
1u
1.661 10 27 kg 931.5 MeV/c2
12
12
e.g. Atomic mass of 6 C = 12.000 u

Atomic mass of carbon = 12.011 u

(Average of mass of carbon atoms with the terrestrial
abundances of the isotopes of carbon.)

Nomenclature and Definitions

In these units:
Mass of proton:
mp = 1.007276 u = 938.27 MeV/c2.

Mass of neutron:
mn = 1.008665 u = 939.57 MeV/c2.

Mass of 1H atom:
mH = 1.007825 u = 938.79 MeV/c2.

Nuclear Size
Later we will see that Nuclear radii are given
approximately by R aA 13
with a = const. 1.2 fm
1 fm = 1 femtometre = 1015 m = 1 fermi

This implies that Volume of nucleus is

proportional to A.
This suggests that nucleons have a fixed size.

Nuclear Binding Energy

The nucleons in a nucleus remain together
because they are in a lower energy state
than if they were apart.
Binding Energy, B
= energy needed to make
A
Z X N N free neutrons Z free protons
Nomenclature:
A
M(Z, A) = mass of Z X N nucleus.
A
MA(Z, A) = Atomic mass of Z X N (includes the
mass of the electrons)