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Electric breakdown

in gases

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The electron avalanche

+
i

total
current

I 0ed
I=
1 (ed 1)

self-sustained
discharge

(ed 1) = 1 ed = 1

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Townsend mechanism
I 0ed
I=
1 (ed 1)
at small values of d

<< 1

A plot of log I versus the gap separation d gives a straight line. The
slope of this straight line yields the value of a. Once the value of is
known, the value of can be found by using data points in the above
equation.
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Paschens curve for air

U bd

Bpd
=
Apd
ln
1
ln1 +

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Paschens minimum
( pd ) min

(Vb ) min

e 1
= ln + 1
A

B 1
= 2.718 ln + 1
A

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Electronegative gases

( )

I = I0

( ) d
1
e
1

breakdown criterion

[
e

( ) d

1 = 1

if a> breakdown is always possible irrespective of the


values of , and provided that d is large enough
if a< no breakdown can take place
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Different types of discharges


Townsend discharges
Streamers and leaders
Corona

Breakdown strength in a non-homogeneous field (sphere-plane) gap. Solid lines


indicate breakdown voltages and broken lines corona inception voltages.
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Streamer mechanism
At pressure above 5 barmm Townsend
mechanism does not operate any longer
- time to breakdown is short (10 - 100 ns),
- breakdown voltage is not dependent on
cathode material,
- breakdown channels are sharp, narrow and
hot.

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Streamer mechanism
If the avalanche length surpasses a
critical length xc, the space charge
developed in the head is capable of
transforming it into channels of
ionisation that can extend in both
the anode and cathode.

n = exp( xc ) = 10

xc=18 - 20 - streamer inception criterion


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Anode initiated streamer


- space charge formation at the anode
- photo-electrons are produced by photons
emitted from the tip of avalanche
- auxiliary (secondary) avalanches develop
and they are directed towards the stem of
the main avalanche
- plasma channel is formed by intensified
space charge in the direction of the cathode
- plasma channel connects both electrodes
and spark develops
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streamer - spark transition


a streamer is not a spark!
A streamer channel should be
heated to a temperature of about
4000 K so the thermal ionisation
takes place.
Electrons at densities of 1017 cm-3
and above may effectively transfer
their kinetic energy to ions and
neutral atoms - the gas temperature
increases rapidly. This process is
called thermalisation and leads to
formation of a spark.
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Mid-gap streamer
As an avalanche propagates
towards the anode in the
middle of a gap, the electric
field is then affected, both
before and behind it. A quick
propagation of streamers can
take place at both sides of the
avalanche.

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Streamer breakdown in a non-uniform gap

x ( x )dx 18 20
c

for 0 x xc E Ec = 3 10 V/m
Once a streamer is created, the
background electric field must be
able to sustain its propagation.
For positive streamer it is about
0.5106 V/m and for negative
streamer it is about 1106 V/m.
This explains why it is easier to
break a rod-plane gap when the
rod is at positive polarity.
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Breakdown in practical insulation systems


Dependence on
- electrode geometry
- physical properties of gas
- voltage polarity
- time variation
- presence of barriers

Breakdown strength (50% probability) in a rod-plane gap for different types of voltages.
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Breakdown and time


Development of
breakdown process
requires certain time
t = ts + t f
ts - statistical time lag
ts - formative time lag

Examples of the cumulative probability


distributions of breakdown probabilities for
homogeneous (a) and non-homogeneous (b)
gaps (A = U0%, B = U50% and C = U100%)

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Statistical nature of electric breakdown


Due to the statistical nature of the
time lags the electrical breakdown
of a gap becomes an probabilistic
event

Vb-100 - 100% breakdown voltage


Vb-50 - 50% of the applied voltage impulses yield breakdown
Vb-0 - impulse withstand level

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Time lag

1. Voltage (and hence the electric field) in the gap has to exceed
the critical value (i.e. Vs).
2. The voltage must remain over this critical value until the
formation of the discharge is completed.
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Point-plane and point-point air gaps


at ac voltage breakdown
takes place when the
point is positive
0.5 kVmax/mm - practical
design criterion

breakdown develops from the point - the positive


point having always lower withstand level
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Compressed gas insulation


Breakdown field in different
gases
(Breakdown field in air is assumed to be 1)

N2 1

SF6 2,3
CCl4 6,4
the effect of electronegativity in some of the gases is utilised
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High frequency breakdown


Mobility controlled region
1 - ion oscillations
2 - electron oscillations
Diffusion controlled region

k+
fc = 2 U
d

f ce

ke
= 2U
d

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Corona
Corona discharges occur at sharp points and edges in gas
insulating systems before complete breakdown takes place.
It contributes to:
losses in HV lines
radio interference and interfering signals
in sensitive measuring systems
chemical changes in gas composition
(by-products, ozone)
UV light
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Negative corona
A diffusive discharge (Townsend discharge) occurs around the point, the
electrons are pushed away and a positive space charge is formed. Further
away, due to the attachment a negative space charge is formed - it screens
the sharp point from the field and the discharge stop.

Trichel pulses - increasing


frequency with voltage
which change into
continuous glow corona
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Negative corona
Capacitive voltage distribution in concentric sphere configuration can be
used for estimating the inception voltage

V = 1 + U d

for R >> r

Radius

Inception voltage

10 m

450 V

50 m

1 kV

500 m

3.5 kV

1 mm

5.5 kV

5 mm

15 kV

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Positive corona
Streamers arise at the point and leave positive space charge. The space
charge causes periodic extinction of the discharge. Positive corona starts at
a slightly higher voltage than the negative one.

burst corona current pulses


~100s

ac corona
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Corona losses
depend on the field strength at conductor surface
less than 2 kV/mm is a practical design criterion

U
Er =
r ln(h r )
R [mm]

Er[kV/mm]

1.8

10

1.7

20

1.5
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Vacuum as an insulator
used in switchgear, technological and scientific
instrumentation, X-ray tubes, etc.
Advantages

Disadvantages

self-restoring

high price

low permittivity and loss,


= 1, tg = 0

effects of solid spacers

high breakdown strength

effects of electrode conditions

non-inflammable

1 mbar - = 0.4 mm
10-6 mbar - = 400 m
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Field emission in vacuum


electrons can be emitted from metalic surfaces in vacuum
- Fowler-Nordheim emission
initial current starts much below the breakdown voltage and increases
exponentially with the voltage
2

6
.
9

10
W
E
6
a
exp
j = 1.55 10

Wa
E

j - current density [A/cm2]; E - field strength [V/cm]; Wa - work function [eV]


For large electrode areas the emitted
current exceeds the theoretical value influence of surface roughness. Also
electrode temperature influences the
emission intensity significantly.
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Breakdown in vacuum
field induced breakdown
microparticle breakdown
electrode surface after
vacuum breakdown
a) anode

b) cathode

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Breakdown in vacuum

effect of electrode material


1 - Zn, 2 - Al, 3 - Cu, 4 - Fe

effect of electrode material and


temperature
1 - Cu 293 K, 2 - Cu 80 K, 3 - Fe 293 K
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Breakdown in vacuum
short gaps break mainly due to electronic emission strength at ac voltage is 20 - 30 kVrms/mm and at impuls
voltage is 30 - 40 kVrms/mm
long gaps break mainly due to micro-particle initiation voltage strength is

Vb C d
C is a constant in the order of 30 kVrms/mm-2 for ac voltage
and 60 kV/mm-2 for impuls voltage

There is also a strong influence of solid interfaces present


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