A

PROJECT REPORT
ON
ASHA HEALTH CARE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
SUBMITTED TO:
Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal (M.P.)
(University of Technology of Madhya Pradesh)

In partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of the

degree of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
2011-2015
SUBMITTED BY:
RAGHVENDRA PRAJAPATI (0916IT111026)
NARENDRA DHAKAD (0916IT111020)
PRADEEP GURJAR (0916IT111023)
SANDEEP GALORIYA (0916IT111032)

Under the guidance of

Prof. HEMANT SONI
(HOD OF CS/IT DEPT.)
Mr. RAKESH SIR
(Asst. Prof. CS/IT DEPT.)

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING

GWALIOR ENGINEERING COLLEGE, GWALIOR
RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAYA, BHOPAL (M.P.)
1

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this project entitled ASHA HEALTH CARE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM which is being submitted by RAGHVENDRA
PRAJAPATI In partial fulfillment for the award for degree of Bachelor of
Engineering (INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY) of Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki
Vishwavidyala, Bhopal (M.P.), is a record of students own work carried by them
under my guidance and supervision. To the best of my knowledge, the matter
presented in this project has not been submitted for the award of any diploma or
degree certificate.

Project guide
Mr. Rakesh Sir

Head of Dept.
Mr. Hemant Soni (IT Dept.)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
2

Principal
Dr. Sanjay Kushwah

GOD is always with us, above us to bless, below us to support,

before us to guide, behind us to protect, beside us to comfort and
inside us to sustain.
Every shining building has a firm foundation beneath it. There are
various persons who led us to walk on a proper path to reach on
our destination. Completion of any project depends upon
cooperation, coordination and combined effort of several sources
of knowledge. It is our pleasure in taking this opportunity to
express our sincere thanks and deep sense of gratitude to the
people who helped us with their invaluable guidance in completion
of this project.
First of all, we would like to express our profound sense of
gratitude to
Prof. Hemant Soni (Head of CS/IT DEPT.,
GEC). We are thankful to him for providing immense guidance
for this project. We are also thankful to Mr. RAKESH SIR (Asst.
Prof., GEC) who always gave us his precious suggestion and
valuable encouragement regarding this project. Sincerely thanks to
all the staff members for their immense cooperation and
motivation of completing out the project.
Sincerely Thanks to all.

CANDIDATES DECLARATION
We RAGHVENDRA PRAJAPATI hereby declare that the work
presented in this project entitled ASHA HEALTH CARE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM in partial fulfillment for the award of
the degree of the bachelor of engineering is a record of our own
work carried out together under guidance of Prof. Hemant Soni,
HOD CS/IT DEPT., GEC, GWALIOR (MP). We have not submitted
the matter presented in this project report for any diploma or
degree certificate.
RAGHVENDRA
PRAJAPATI
0916IT111026

CONTENTS
Chapter 1:

Objectives
4

Chapter 2:

Design Implementation

Chapter 3:

Circuit Diagram

Chapter 4:

PCB Layout

Chapter 5:
Chapter 6:
Chapter 7:
Chapter 8:
Chapter 9:
Chapter 10:

Block Diagram
Description of Component
PCB Etching
Test Plan
Conclusion
Bibliography

Chapter 1
OBJECTIVES
Recently, with the rapid development of micro electronics technology, wireless communication
technology and embedded system, the technology of wireless sensor network (WSN) has been
advanced a lot. At the meanwhile, more and more producers and international organizers want to
make the mote more intelligent and standard. Sensor Networks being considered as an emerging
area of research in recent years has evolved in itself a large potential to counteract the ongoing
5

system. By networking large numbers of tiny sensor motes, it is possible to obtain data about
physical phenomena that was difficult or even sometimes impossible to obtain in conventional
ways. With the rapid proliferation of vehicle availability and usage in recent years, finding a
vacant car parking space is becoming more and more difficult, resulting in a number of practical
conflicts. Parking problems are becoming ubiquitous and ever growing at an alarming rate in
every major city. Wide usage of wireless technologies with the recent advances in wireless
applications for parking, manifests that digital data dissemination could be the key to solve
emerging parking problems. Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) technologies have attracted
increased attention and are rapidly emerging due to their enormous application potential in diverse
fields. This field is expected to provide an efficient and cost-effective solution to the effluent car
parking problems. This project proposes a Smart Parking System based on wireless sensor
network technology which provides advanced features like automated guidance. The paper
describes the overall system architecture of our embedded system from hardware to software
implementation in the view point of sensor networks. Here in this project we use a sensor network
by which when a Car enters in parking area the gate will automatically open and the screen shows
the busy and free space to park the car.

Chapter 2
DESIGN DESCRIPTION
In the development of a car park management system to detect available parking space or bays,
one factor needs to be taken into account which is the cost of implementation. Systems that
determine the availability of car park spaces require sensors to determine the status of the parking
spaces would incur cost in obtaining sensors, preparing and maintaining the infrastructure of the
parking system. Here sensors can be utilized to detect and provide information on the location of
available parking areas. Among the implementation of sensor based parking system is a wireless
6

sensor system. This system would utilize sensors in each parking space would provide information
on the status of each car park locations but the cost of installing sensors in each parking bay might
prove to be prohibitive as the cost of installing sensors would increase with the increase in the
number of parking bays or areas.
In the presented project we show the various automation for parking system , here we attached the
array of sensor where at first we have attached a pair of IR sensor which will give high output
when it detects the IR waves; so we place a IR emitter source and a IR detector in a same line ,
now if any car will stand or pass infront of it then it detects and its analog signal will become
digital because of Op-amp IC (LM358) , now this signal will travel for Microcontroller where
precoded signal will fetch it and give commands according to coding to the H- Bridge for
controlling of motor to open the gate for car. Same thing will happen at the exit gate of the
parking , these gate automatically detects the presence of human or car and automatically opens
the gate for entry and exit of that person of that car. The next automation is the screen which
shows the free and busy space for the parking, this will happen by the help Reed switch or
magnetic sensor which will give high output when it detects a car on above of it.

Chapter 3
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig . 3.1 Circuit Diagram

Chapter 4
PCB LAYOUT

Fig . 4.1 PCB Layout Diagram

Chapter 5
BLOCK DIAGRAM

OUTPUT GATE
POWER SUPPLY
CONTROLLER

LIGHT
CONTROLLER

MICROCONTROLLER
SECTION

INPUT SENSOR
MODULE
LCD SECTION

Fig . 5.1 Block Diagram

Chapter 6
DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS

10

6.1 Transformer
6.2 Bridge Rectifier
6.3 Capacitor
6.4 Voltage Regulator
6.5 Resistor
6.6 Led
6.7 Microcontroller
6.8 Crystal Oscillator
6.9 IR Sensor
6.10
REED Switch
6.11
LCD Display(Alphanumerical)

6.1 TRANSFORMER

11

A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive coupling between its
winding circuits. A varying current in the primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic flux through the secondary winding. This varying
magnetic flux induces a varying electromotive force (emf.) or voltage in the secondary winding.
Transformers can be used to vary the relative voltage of circuits or isolate them, or both.
Transformers range in size from thumbnail-sized used in microphones to units weighing hundreds
of tons interconnecting the power grid. A wide range of transformer designs are used in electronic
and electric power applications. Transformers are essential for the transmission, distribution, and
utilization of electrical energy.

The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the
turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside
12

the windings. Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in leakage inductance in series with the
mutually coupled transformer windings. Leakage flux results in energy being alternately stored in
and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not directly a
power loss (see Stray losses below), but results in inferior voltage regulation, causing the
secondary voltage not to be directly proportional to the primary voltage, particularly under heavy
load. Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance.
Nevertheless, it is impossible to eliminate all leakage flux because it plays an essential part in the
operation of the transformer. The combined effect of the leakage flux and the electric field around
the windings is what transfers energy from the primary to the secondary.
In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic
bypass shunts may deliberately be introduced in a transformer design to limit the shortcircuit current it will supply. Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative
resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and neon signs or for safely handling loads
that become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders.
Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-frequency
transformers in circuits that have a DC component flowing in the windings.
Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when transformers are operated in parallel. It can
be shown that if the percent impedance (Z) and associated winding leakage reactance-toresistance (X/R) ratio of two transformers were hypothetically exactly the same, the transformers
would share power in proportion to their respective volt-ampere ratings (e.g. 500 kVA unit in
parallel with 1,000 kVA unit, the larger unit would carry twice the current). However, the
impedance tolerances of commercial transformers are significant. Also, the Z impedance and X/R
ratio of different capacity transformers tends to vary, corresponding 1,000 kVA and 500 kVA units'
values being, to illustrate, respectively, Z ~ 5.75%, X/R ~ 3.75 and Z ~ 5%, X/R ~ 4.75

6.2 BRIDGE RECTIFIER

13

A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge circuit configuration that
provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input.
When used in its most common application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC) input
into a direct current (DC) output is known as abridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides fullwave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a
rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding.
The essential feature of a diode bridge is that the polarity of the output is the same regardless of
the polarity at the input. The diode bridge circuit was invented by Polish electro-technician Karol
Pollak and patent was recorded in 14 Jan, 1896 under the number DRP 96564. It was later
published in Elektronische Zeitung, vol. 25 in 1897 with annotation that German physicist Leo
Graetz also was researching this matter at that time. Today the circuit is still often referred
as Graetz circuit or Graetz Bridge.'

14

According to the conventional model of current flow (originally established by Benjamin

Franklin and still followed by most engineers today), current is assumed to flow through electrical
conductors from the positive to the negative pole. In actuality, free electrons in a conductor nearly
always flow from the negative to the positive pole. In the vast majority of applications, however,
the actual direction of current flow is irrelevant. Therefore, in the discussion below the
conventional model is retained.
In the diagrams below, when the input connected to the left corner of the diamond is positive, and
the input connected to the right corner is negative, current flows from the upper supply terminal to
the right along the red (positive) path to the output, and returns to the lower supply terminal via
the blue (negative) path.
In each case, the upper right output remains positive and lower right output negative. Since this is
true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only produces a DC output from an AC input,
it can also provide what is sometimes called "reverse polarity protection". That is, it permits
normal functioning of DC-powered equipment when batteries have been installed backwards, or
when the leads (wires) from a DC power source have been reversed, and protects the equipment
from potential damage caused by reverse polarity.

AC, half-wave and full wave rectified signals.

15

Prior to the availability of integrated circuits, a bridge rectifier was constructed from "discrete
components", i.e., separate diodes. Since about 1950, a single four-terminal component containing
the four diodes connected in a bridge configuration became a standard commercial component and
is now available with various voltage and current ratings.
POWER SUPPLY

A simple power supply from 220V AC to 5 V DC using transformer, rectifier and dc voltage
regulating IC 7805.

16

6.3 CAPACITOR
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used
to store energy electro-statically in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely,
but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example,
one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.

When there is a potential difference across the conductors, an electric field develops across the
dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other
plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single
constant value, capacitance. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the
potential difference between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad, which is equal to
one coulomb per volt.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor;
hence capacitor conductors are often called plates, referring to an early means of construction. In
practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an
electric field strength limit, the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an
undesired inductance and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power
supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power
transmission systems they stabilize voltage and power flow
17

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non-conductive

region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator.
Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion
region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and
isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The
conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces and the dielectric
develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of
charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of

charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

18

Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges on the conductors
attract one another due to their electric fields, allowing the capacitor to store more charge for a
given voltage than if the conductors were separated, giving the capacitor a large capacitance.

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In
this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Dielectric materials

Most types of capacitor include a dielectric spacer, which increases their capacitance. These
dielectrics are most often insulators. However, low capacitance devices are available with a
vacuum between their plates, which allows extremely high voltage operation and low
losses. Variable capacitors with their plates open to the atmosphere were commonly used in radio
tuning circuits. Later designs use polymer foil dielectric between the moving and stationary plates,
with no significant air space between them.
In order to maximize the charge that a capacitor can hold the dielectric material needs to have as
high a permittivity as possible, while also having as high a breakdown voltage as possible.
Several solid dielectrics are available, including paper, plastic, glass, mica and ceramic materials.
Paper was used extensively in older devices and offers relatively high voltage performance.
However, it is susceptible to water absorption, and has been largely replaced by plastic film
19

capacitors. Plastics offer better stability and aging performance, which makes them useful in timer
circuits, although they may be limited to low operating temperatures and frequencies. Ceramic
capacitors are generally small, cheap and useful for high frequency applications, although their
capacitance varies strongly with voltage and they age poorly. They are broadly categorized
as class 1 dielectrics, which have predictable variation of capacitance with temperature or class 2
dielectrics, which can operate at higher voltage. Glass and mica capacitors are extremely reliable,
stable and tolerant to high temperatures and voltages, but are too expensive for most mainstream
applications. Electrolytic capacitors and super capacitors are used to store small and larger
amounts of energy, respectively, ceramic capacitors are often used in resonators, and parasitic
capacitance occurs in circuits wherever the simple conductor-insulator-conductor structure is
formed unintentionally by the configuration of the circuit layout.
Electrolytic capacitors use an aluminum or tantalum plate with an oxide dielectric layer. The
second electrode is a liquid electrolyte, connected to the circuit by another foil plate. Electrolytic
capacitors offer very high capacitance but suffer from poor tolerances, high instability, gradual
loss of capacitance especially when subjected to heat, and high leakage current. Poor quality
capacitors may leak electrolyte, which is harmful to printed circuit boards. The conductivity of the
electrolyte drops at low temperatures, which increases equivalent series resistance. While widely
used for power-supply conditioning, poor high-frequency characteristics make them unsuitable for
many applications. Electrolytic capacitors will self-degrade if unused for a period (around a year),
and when full power is applied may short circuit, permanently damaging the capacitor and usually
blowing a fuse or causing failure of rectifier diodes (for instance, in older equipment, arcing in
rectifier tubes). They can be restored before use (and damage) by gradually applying the operating
voltage, often done on antique vacuum tube equipment over a period of 30 minutes by using a
variable transformer to supply AC power. Unfortunately, the use of this technique may be less
satisfactory for some solid state equipment, which may be damaged by operation below its normal
power range, requiring that the power supply first be isolated from the consuming circuits. Such
remedies may not be applicable to modern high-frequency power supplies as these produce full
output voltage even with reduced input.
Capacitance instability

20

The capacitance of certain capacitors decreases as the component ages. In ceramic capacitors, this
is caused by degradation of the dielectric. The type of dielectric, ambient operating and storage
temperatures are the most significant aging factors, while the operating voltage has a smaller
effect. The aging process may be reversed by heating the component above the Curie point. Aging
is fastest near the beginning of life of the component, and the device stabilizes over time.
[26]
Electrolytic capacitors age as the electrolyte evaporates. In contrast with ceramic capacitors,
this occurs towards the end of life of the component.
Temperature dependence of capacitance is usually expressed in parts per million (ppm) per C. It
can usually be taken as a broadly linear function but can be noticeably non-linear at the
temperature extremes. The temperature coefficient can be positive or negative, sometimes even
amongst different samples of the same type. In other words, the spread in the range of temperature
coefficients can encompass zero. See the data sheet in the leakage current section above for an
example.
Capacitors, especially ceramic capacitors, and older designs such as paper capacitors, can absorb
sound waves resulting in a micro-phonic effect. Vibration moves the plates, causing the
capacitance to vary, in turn inducing AC current. Some dielectrics also generate piezoelectricity.
The resulting interference is especially problematic in audio applications, potentially causing
feedback or unintended recording. In the reverse micro-phonic effect, the varying electric field
between the capacitor plates exerts a physical force, moving them as a speaker. This can generate
audible sound, but drains energy and stresses the dielectric and the electrolyte, if any.

21

6.4 VOLTAGE REGULATOR (78XX)

The 78xx (sometimes L78xx, LM78xx, MC78xx) is a family of self-contained fixed linear
voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is commonly used in electronic circuits
requiring a regulated power supply due to their ease-of-use and low cost. For ICs within the
family, the xx is replaced with two digits, indicating the output voltage (for example, the 7805 has
a 6 volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The 78xx lines are positive voltage regulators:
they produce a voltage that is positive relative to a common ground. There is a related line
of 79xx devices which are complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be
used in combination to provide positive and negative supply voltages in the same circuit.
78xx ICs have three terminals and are commonly found in the TO220 form factor, although
smaller surface-mount and larger TO3 packages are available. These devices support an input
voltage anywhere from a couple of volts over the intended output voltage, up to a maximum of 36
to 40 volts depending on the make, and typically provide 1 or 1.5 amperes of current (though
smaller or larger packages may have a lower or higher current rating).

Advantages
78xx series ICs do not require additional components to provide a constant, regulated source of
power, making them easy to use, as well as economical and efficient uses of space. Other voltage
regulators may require additional components to set the output voltage level, or to assist in the
regulation process. Some other designs (such as a switched-mode power supply) may need
22

substantial engineering expertise to implement. 78xx series ICs have built-in protection against a
circuit drawing too much power. They have protection against overheating and short-circuits,
making them quite robust in most applications. In some cases, the current-limiting features of the
78xx devices can provide protection not only for the 78xx itself, but also for other parts of the
circuit.

Disadvantages
The input voltage must always be higher than the output voltage by some minimum amount
(typically 2 volts). This can make these devices unsuitable for powering some devices from
certain types of power sources (for example, powering a circuit that requires 5 volts using 6-volt
batteries will not work using a 7805). As they are based on a linear regulator design, the input
current required is always the same as the output current. As the input voltage must always be
higher than the output voltage, this means that the total power (voltage multiplied by current)
going into the 78xx will be more than the output power provided. The extra input power is
dissipated as heat. This means both that for some applications an adequate heat sink must be
provided, and also that a (often substantial) portion of the input power is wasted during the
process, rendering them less efficient than some other types of power supplies. When the input
voltage is significantly higher than the regulated output voltage (for example, powering a 7805
using a 24 volt power source), this inefficiency can be a significant issue.
Individual devices in the series
There are common configurations for 78xx ICs, including 7805 (5 volt), 7806 (6 volt), 7808
(8 volt), 7809 (9 volt), 7810 (10 volt), 7812 (12 volt), 7815 (15 volt), 7818 (18 volt), and 7824
(24 volt) versions. The 7805 is common, as its regulated 5 volt supply provides a convenient
power source for most TTL components. Each device in this series has minimum input voltage to
be maintained to get regulated output.

Part
Number

Output Voltage
(V)

Minimum Input Voltage

(V)

7805

+5

7.3
23

7806

+6

8.3

7808

+8

10.5

7810

+10

12.5

7812

+12

14.6

7815

+15

17.7

7818

+18

21.0

7824

+24

27.1

Less common are lower-power versions such as the LM78Mxx series (500 mA) and LM78Lxx
series (100 mA) from National Semiconductor. Some devices provide slightly different voltages
than usual, such as the LM78L62 (6.2 volts) and LM78L82 (8.2 volts) as well as
STMicroelectronics L78L33ACZ (3.3 volts)

6.5 RESISTOR
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as
a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the
resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law:

Where, I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference
measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units
of ohms.

24

The ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current in the circuit
is called its resistance, and this can be assumed to be a constant (independent of the voltage) for
ordinary resistors working within their ratings.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in
electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well
as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also
implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated
into hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial
resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders. When specifying that resistance
in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to the
manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific application.
The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision
applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must
exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of
concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically
larger and may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to
the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor. While there is no minimum working voltage
for a given resistor, failure to account for a resistor's maximum rating may cause the resistor to
incinerate when current is run through it.
Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these specifications
can be important in high-frequency applications. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp,
the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and
temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the
resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors
manufactured using a particular technology. A family of discrete resistors is also characterized

25

according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and the position of its leads (or
terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.

Units
The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. An
ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a very
large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 m = 10 3 ), kilohm (1 k = 103 ), and
mega ohm (1 M = 106 ) are also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in siemens (SI unit),
sometimes referred to as a mho. Hence, siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm:
. Although
the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are always specified
in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.

Electronic symbols and notation

The symbol used for a resistor in a circuit diagram varies from standard to standard and country to
country. Two typical symbols are as follows;

American-style symbols. (a) resistor, (b) rheostat (variable resistor), and (c) potentiometer

IEC-style resistor symbol

The notation to state a resistor's value in a circuit diagram varies, too. The European notation
avoids using a decimal separator, and replaces the decimal separator with the SI prefix symbol for
the particular value. For example, 8k2 in a circuit diagram indicates a resistor value of 8.2 k.
Additional zeros imply tighter tolerance, for example 15M0. When the value can be expressed
without the need for an SI prefix, an 'R' is used instead of the decimal separator. For
26

example, 1R2 indicates 1.2 , and 18R indicates 18 . The use of a SI prefix symbol or the letter
'R' circumvents the problem that decimal separators tend to 'disappear' when photocopying a
printed circuit diagram.
Series and parallel resistors
In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the same, but the voltage across
each resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The potential difference (voltage) seen across
the network is the sum of those voltages, thus the total resistance can be found as the sum of those
resistances:

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each of the same resistance R is
given by NR. Thus, if a 100K ohm resistor and a 22K ohm resistor are connected in series, their
combined resistance will be 122K ohm they will function in a circuit as though they were a
single resistor with a resistance value of 122K ohm; three 22K ohm resistors (N=3, R=22K) will
produce a resistance of 3x22K=66K ohms.
Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same potential difference (voltage),
however the currents through them add. The conductances of the resistors then add to determine
the conductance of the network. Thus the equivalent resistance (Req) of the network can be
computed:

27

So, for example, a 10 ohm resistor connected in parallel with to a 5 ohm resistor and a 15 ohm
resistor will produce the inverse of 1/10+1/5+1/15 ohms of resistance, or 1/(.1+.2+.067)=2.725
ohms. The greater the number of resistors in parallel, the less overall resistance they will
collectively generate, and the resistance will never be higher than that of the resistor with the
lowest resistance in the group (in the case above, the resistor with the least resistance is the 5 ohm
resistor, therefore the combined resistance of all resistors attached to it in parallel will never be
greater than 5 ohms).
The parallel equivalent resistance can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||" (as in
geometry) as a simplified notation. Occasionally two slashes "//" are used instead of "||", in case
the keyboard or font lacks the vertical line symbol. For the case of two resistors in parallel, this
can be calculated using:

A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be broken up into
smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance,

However, some complex networks of resistors cannot be resolved in this manner, requiring more
sophisticated circuit analysis. For instance, consider a cube, each edge of which has been replaced
by a resistor. What then is the resistance that would be measured between two opposite vertices?
In the case of 12 equivalent resistors, it can be shown that the corner-to-corner resistance is 56 of
28

the individual resistance. More generally, the Y- transform, or matrix methods can be used to
solve such a problem.
One practical application of these relationships is that a non-standard value of resistance can
generally be synthesized by connecting a number of standard values in series or parallel. This can
also be used to obtain a resistance with a higher power rating than that of the individual resistors
used. In the special case of N identical resistors all connected in series or all connected in parallel,
the power rating of the individual resistors is thereby multiplied by N.
Fixed resistor

A single in line (SIL) resistor package with 8 individual, 47 ohm resistors is shown. One end of
each resistor is connected to a separate pin and the other ends are all connected together to the
remaining (common) pin pin 1, at the end identified by the white dot.

Lead arrangements
Resistors with wire leads for through-hole mounting Through-hole components typically have
leads leaving the body axially. Others have leads coming off their body radial instead of parallel to
the resistor axis. Other components may be SMT (surface mount technology) while high power
resistors may have one of their leads designed into the heat sink.
Carbon composition

29

Three carbon composition resistors in a 1960s valve (vacuum tube) radio Carbon composition resistors

consist of a solid cylindrical resistive element with embedded wire leads or metal end caps to
which the lead wires are attached. The body of the resistor is protected with paint or plastic. Early
20th-century carbon composition resistors had un-insulated bodies; the lead wires were wrapped
around the ends of the resistance element rod and soldered. The completed resistor was painted for
color-coding of its value.
The resistive element is made from a mixture of finely ground (powdered) carbon and an
insulating material (usually ceramic). A resin holds the mixture together. The resistance is
determined by the ratio of the fill material (the powdered ceramic) to the carbon. Higher
concentrations of carbon a good conductor result in lower resistance. Carbon composition
resistors were commonly used in the 1960s and earlier, but are not as popular for general use now
as other types have better specifications, such as tolerance, voltage dependence, and stress (carbon
composition resistors will change value when stressed with over-voltages). Moreover, if internal
moisture content (from exposure for some length of time to a humid environment) is significant,
soldering heat will create a non-reversible change in resistance value. Carbon composition
resistors have poor stability with time and were consequently factory sorted to, at best, only 5%
tolerance.[5] These resistors, however, if never subjected to overvoltage or overheating were
remarkably reliable considering the component's size.
Carbon composition resistors are still available, but comparatively quite costly. Values ranged
from fractions of an ohm to 22 mega ohms. Due to their high price, these resistors are no longer
used in most applications. However, they are used in power supplies and welding controls.[6]
Carbon pile
A carbon pile resistor is made of a stack of carbon disks compressed between two metal contact
plates. Adjusting the clamping pressure changes the resistance between the plates. These resistors
are used when an adjustable load is required, for example in testing automotive batteries or radio
transmitters. A carbon pile resistor can also be used as a speed control for small motors in
household appliances (sewing machines, hand-held mixers) with ratings up to a few hundred
watts.[7] A carbon pile resistor can be incorporated in automatic voltage regulators for generators,
where the carbon pile controls the field current to maintain relatively constant voltage. [8] The
principle is also applied in the carbon microphone.
Carbon film
Partially exposed Tesla TR-212 1 k carbon film resistor a carbon film is deposited on an
insulating substrate, and a helix is cut in it to create a long, narrow resistive path. Varying shapes,
coupled with the resistivity of amorphous carbon (ranging from 500 to 800 m), can provide a
variety of resistances. Compared to carbon composition they feature low noise, because of the
precise distribution of the pure graphite without binding. [9] Carbon film resistors feature a power
rating range of 0.125 W to 5 W at 70 C resistances.
30

Printed carbon resistor

A carbon resistor printed directly onto the SMD pads on a PCB. Inside a 1989 vintage Psion II
organizer Carbon composition resistors can be printed directly onto printed circuit board (PCB)
substrates as part of the PCB manufacturing process. Whilst this technique is more common on
hybrid PCB modules, it can also be used on standard fibre glass PCBs. Tolerances are typically
quite large, and can be in the order of 30%. A typical application would be non-critical pull-up
resistors.

Thick and thin film

Thick film resistors became popular during the 1970s, and most SMD (surface mount device)
resistors today are of this type. The resistive element of thick films is 1000 times thicker than thin
films, but the principal difference is how the film is applied to the cylinder (axial resistors) or the
surface (SMD resistors).usually different consisting of one or more ceramic (cermet) conductors
such
as, tantalum-nitride (TaN), rutheniumoxide (RuO2), lead-oxide (PbO), bismuth-ruthenate
(BiRuO7), nickel chromium (NiCr) or bismuth iridate (BiIrO).
Metal oxide film
Metal-oxide film resistors are made of metal oxides such as tin oxide. This results in a higher
operating temperature and greater stability/reliability than Metal film. They are used in
applications with high endurance demands. They are worse than that of a composition resistor.
Foil resistor Wire-wound

31

High-power wire wound resistors used for dynamic braking on an electric railway car. Such
resistors may dissipate many kilowatts for extended times.

Types of windings in wire resistors:

1. Common
2. Bi-filar
3. Common on a thin former
4. Ayrton-perry
Wire-wound resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire, usually nichrome, around a
ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core. The ends of the wire are soldered or welded to two caps or
rings, attached to the ends of the core. The assembly is protected with a layer of paint, molded
plastic, or anenamel coating baked at high temperature. These resistors are designed to withstand
unusually high temperatures of up to +450 C.[6] Wire leads in low power wire-wound resistors are
usually between 0.6 and 0.8 mm in diameter and tinned for ease of soldering. For higher power
wire-wound resistors, either a ceramic outer case or an aluminum outer case on top of an
insulating layer is used-- if the outer case is ceramic, such resistors are sometimes described as
"cement" resistors, though they do not actually contain any traditional cement. The aluminumcased types are designed to be attached to a heat sink to dissipate the heat; the rated power is
dependent on being used with a suitable heat sink, e.g., a 50 W power rated resistor will overheat
at a fraction of the power dissipation if not used with a heat sink. Large wire-wound resistors may
be rated for 1,000 watts or more.
Ammeter shunts
An ammeter shunt is a special type of current-sensing resistor, having four terminals and a value
in milliohms or even micro-ohms. Current-measuring instruments, by themselves, can usually
accept only limited currents. To measure high currents, the current passes through the shunt,
where the voltage drop is measured and interpreted as current. A typical shunt consists of two
32

solid metal blocks, sometimes brass, mounted on to an insulating base. Between the blocks, and
soldered or brazed to them, are one or more strips of low temperature coefficient of
resistance (TCR) manganin alloy. Large bolts threaded into the blocks make the current
connections, while much smaller screws provide voltage connections. Shunts are rated by fullscale current, and often have a voltage drop of 50 mV at rated current. Such meters are adapted to
the shunt full current rating by using an appropriately marked dial face; no change need be made
to the other parts of the meter.
Grid resistor
It is used in load testing of generators and harmonic filtering for electric substations. In heavyduty industrial high-current applications, a grid resistor is a large convection-cooled lattice of
stamped metal alloy strips connected in rows between two electrodes. Such industrial grade
resistors can be as large as a refrigerator; some designs can handle over 500 amperes of current,
with a range of resistances extending lower than 0.04 ohms. They are used in applications such
as dynamic braking and load banking for locomotives and trams, neutral grounding for industrial
AC distribution, control loads for cranes and heavy equipment
The term grid resistor is sometimes used to describe a resistor of any type connected to
the control grid of a vacuum tube. This is not a resistor technology; it is an electronic circuit
topology.

33

6.6 LED - Light-emitting diode

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps
in many devices and are increasingly used for general. Appearing as practical electronic
components in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are
available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
When a light-emitting diode is switched on, electrons are able to recombine with holes within the
device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the
color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band
gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical
components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs have many advantages over
incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved
physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. However, LEDs powerful enough for room
lighting are relatively expensive, and require more precise current and heat management than
compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive lighting,
advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and
sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced
communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many
34

commercial products including televisions, DVD players and other domestic appliances. LEDs are
also used in seven-segment display.

6.7 MICROCONTROLLER

The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32
I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level
35

interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition,
the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two
software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM,
timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode
saves the RAM con-tents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next
interrupt or hardware reset.

36

6.8 Crystal Oscillator

A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a
vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very
precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz
wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize
frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator
used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits incorporating them became known as crystal
oscillators, but other piezoelectric materials including polycrystalline ceramics are used in similar
circuits.
Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of
megahertz. More than two billion crystals are manufactured annually. Most are used for consumer
devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cell phones. Quartz crystals are also
found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal generators,
and oscilloscopes.

37

6.9 IR Sensor
The sensitivity of a Photodetector is the relationship between the light falling on the device and
the resulting output signal. In the case of a photocell, one is dealing with the relationship between
the incident light and the corresponding resistance of the cell.

5mm Infrared LED

Features

High reliability
High radiant intensity
Peak wavelength p=940nm
2.54mm Lead spacing
Low forward voltage
Pb free
The product itself will remain within RoHS compliant version.

Descriptions

EVERLIGHTS Infrared Emitting Diode(IR333-A) is high intensity diode , molded in a blue

transparent plastic package.
38

The device is spectrally matched with phototransistor, photodiode and infrared receiver
module.

Applications

Free air transmission system

Infrared remote control units with high power requirement
Smoke detector
Infrared applied system
6.10 REED Switch

The reed

switch is

an electrical

switch operated

by

an

applied magnetic

field.

It

was invented at Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1936 by W. B. Ellwood. It consists of a pair

of contacts on ferrous metal reeds in a hermetically sealed glass envelope. The contacts may be
normally open, closing when a magnetic field is present, or normally closed and opening when a
magnetic field is applied. The switch may be actuated by a coil, making a reed relay,[1] or by
bringing a magnet near to the switch. Once the magnet is pulled away from the switch, the reed
switch will go back to its original position. An example of a reed switch's application is to detect
the opening of a door, when used as a proximity switch for a burglar alarm. The reed switch
contains a pair (or more) of magnetizable, flexible, metal reeds whose end portions are separated
by a small gap when the switch is open. The reeds are hermetically sealed in opposite ends of a
tubular glass envelope.

39

6.11 LCD DISPLAY (ALPHANUMERICAL)

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a wide range of
applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is very commonly used in various
devices and circuits. These modules are preferred over seven segments and other multi
segment LEDs. The reasons being: LCDs are economical; easily programmable; have no
limitation of displaying special & even custom characters (unlike in seven segments.)
A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In this LCD
each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers, namely, Command
and Data.
The command register stores the command instructions given to the LCD. A command is an
instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like initializing it, clearing its screen, setting the
cursor position, controlling display etc. The data register stores the data to be displayed on the
LCD. The data is the ASCII value of the character to be displayed on the LCD. Click to learn
more about internal structure of a LCD.

40

Pin Description:
Pin
No
1
2
3

Function

Name

Ground (0V)
Supply voltage; 5V (4.7V 5.3V)
Contrast
adjustment;
through

variable

Ground
Vcc
resistor VEE

Selects command register when low; and data register when high

Register Select

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

Low to write to the register; High to read from the register

Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is given

Read/write
Enable
DB0
DB1
DB2
DB3
DB4
DB5
DB6
DB7
Led+
Led-

8-bit data pins

Backlight VCC (5V)

Backlight Ground (0V)

41

42

Chapter 11
CONCLUSION
43

The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded. Systems by M.A.Majidi.

44