G485 Ebook OCR PHYSICS A

OCR Physics A
G485 Forces, Particles &

Frontiers of Physics Ebook
Table of Contents
G485 Forces, Particles & Frontiers of Physics Syllabus
Electric Fields
Electric Field (Introduction)
Uniform Electric Fields
Radial Electric Fields
Comparing Electric and Gravitational Fields
Magnetic Fields
Magnetic Field Patterns
Magnetic Force on a Straight Wire
Magnetic Force on a Moving Charge
Velocity Selector
Mass Spectrometer
Electromagnetism
Magnetic Flux and Flux Linkage
Electromagnetic Induction
Lenzs Law
A.C. Generator
Transformers
Capacitors
Capacitors and Capacitance
Capacitors: Charging and Discharging
Capacitors in Series and Parallel
Energy Stored in Capacitors
Uses of Capacitors
Capacitors Discharging through Resistor: Exponential Decay
Nuclear Atom
Rutherfords Alpha Scattering Experiment
Elementary Particles: Leptons, Hadrons and Quarks
Strong Nuclear Force
Radioactivity
Radioactive Transformations
Radioactive Properties
Radioactive Decay (Activity and the Decay Constant)
Radioactive Decay (Exponential Decay)
Radioactivity Decay Comparison with Capacitor Discharge
Uses of Radioactive Isotopes: Smoke Alarms and Carbon Dating
Nuclear Physics
Einsteins Mass-Energy Equation: E = mc2
Nuclear Binding Energy
Fission and Fusion
Nuclear Fission Reactor

Medical Imaging
X-ray Production
Intensity of an X-ray Beam
X-rays Interaction with Matter
X-ray Imaging
Contrast Medium
Image Intensifiers
Computed Axial Tomography (CAT) Scan
Ultrasound Production
Acoustic Impedance and Impedance Matching
Ultrasound Imaging: A and B Scans
Doppler Ultrasound
Radionuclide Imaging
Gamma Camera
Medical Tracers
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Principles of Magnetic Resonance
MRI Scanner
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Cosmology
Cosmological Distances
Stellar Evolution
Doppler Effect
Hubbles Law
Age of the Universe
Olbers Paradox
Cosmological Principle
Origin of the Universe: Big Bang Theory and Evidence
Evolution of the Universe
Future of the Universe
G485 Forces, Particles & Frontiers of Physics Glossary
Physics Data
G481 Mechanics Formulae
G482 Electrons, Waves & Photons Formulae
G484 Newtonian World Formulae
G485 Forces, Particles & Frontiers of Physics Formulae
G485 Forces, Particles & Frontiers of Physics Syllabus

5.1.1 Electric fields
(a) State that electric fields are created by electric charges;
(b) Define electric field strength as force per unit positive charge;
(c) Describe how electric field lines represent an electric field;
Qq
(d) Select and use Coulombs law in the form F
;
4 0r 2
Q
(e) Select and apply E
for the electric field strength of a point charge;
4 0r 2
(f) Select and use E = V/d for the magnitude of the uniform electric field strength between charged
parallel plates;
(g) Explain the effect of a uniform electric field on the motion of charged particles;
(h) Describe the similarities and differences between the gravitational fields of point masses and
the electric fields of point charges.
5.1.2 Magnetic fields
(a) Describe the magnetic field patterns of a long straight current-carrying conductor and a long
solenoid;
(b) State and use Flemings left-hand rule to determine the force on current conductor placed at
right angles to a magnetic field;
(c) Select and use the equations F = BIL and F = BILsin;
(d) Define magnetic flux density and the tesla;
(e) Select and use the equation F = BQv for the force on a charged particle travelling at right angles
to a uniform magnetic field;
(f) Analyse the circular orbits of charged particles moving in a plane perpendicular to a uniform
magnetic field by relating the magnetic force to the centripetal acceleration it causes;
(g) Analyse the motion of charged particles in both electric and magnetic fields;
(h) Explain the use of deflection of charged particles in the magnetic and electric fields of a mass
spectrometer (HSW 6a).
5.1.3 Electromagnetism
(a) Define magnetic flux;
(b) Define the weber.
(c) Select and use the equation for magnetic flux =BAcos;
(d) Define magnetic flux linkage;
(e) State and use Faradays law of electromagnetic induction;
(f) State and use Lenzs law;
(g) Select and use the equation: induced e.m.f. = rate of change of magnetic flux linkage;
(h) Describe the function of a simple ac generator;
(i) Describe the function of a simple transformer;
(j) Select and use the turns-ratio equation for a transformer;
(k) Describe the function of step-up and step-down transformers.
5.2.1 Capacitors
(a) Define capacitance and the farad;
(b) Select and use the equation Q = CV;
(c) State and use the equation for the total capacitance of two or more capacitors in series;
(d) State and use the equation for the total capacitance of two or more capacitors in parallel;
(e) Solve circuit problems with capacitors involving series and parallel circuits;
(f) Explain that the area under a potential difference against charge graph is equal to energy
stored by a capacitor;
(g) Select and use the equations W = QV and W = CV2 for a charged capacitor;
(h) Sketch graphs that show the variation with time of potential difference, charge and current for
a capacitor discharging through a resistor;
(i) Define the time constant of a circuit;
(j) Select and use time constant = RC;
(k) Analyse the discharge of capacitor using equations of the form x x0e t / RC ;
(l) Explain exponential decays as having a constant-ratio property;
(m) Describe the uses of capacitors for the storage of energy in applications such as flash
photography, lasers used in nuclear fusion and as back-up power supplies for computers (HSW
6a).
5.3.1 The nuclear atom
(a) Describe qualitatively the alpha-particle scattering experiment and the evidence this provides
for the existence, charge and small size of the nucleus (HSW 1, 4c);
(b) Describe the basic atomic structure of the atom and the relative sizes of the atom and the
nucleus;
(c) Select and use Coulombs law to determine the force of repulsion, and Newtons law of
gravitation to determine the force of attraction, between two protons at nuclear separations and
hence the need for a short range, attractive force between nucleons (HSW 1, 2, 4);
(d) Describe how the strong nuclear force between nucleons is attractive and very short-ranged;
(e) Estimate the density of nuclear matter;
(f) Define proton and nucleon number;
(g) State and use the notation ZA X for the representation of nuclides;
(h) Define and use the term isotopes;
(i) Use nuclear decay equations to represent simple nuclear reactions;
(j) State the quantities conserved in a nuclear decay.
5.3.2 Fundamental particles
(a) Explain that since protons and neutrons contain charged constituents called quarks they are,
therefore, not fundamental particles;
(b) Describe a simple quark model of hadrons in terms of up, down and strange quarks and their
respective antiquarks, taking into account their charge, baryon number and strangeness;
(c) Describe how the quark model may be extended to include the properties of charm, topness
and bottomness;
(d) Describe the properties of neutrons and protons in terms of a simple quark model;
(e) Describe how there is a weak interaction between quarks and that this is responsible for
decay;
(f) State that there are two types of decay;
(g) Describe the two types of decay in terms of a simple quark model;
(h) State that (electron) neutrinos and (electron) antineutrinos are produced during + and decays, respectively;
(i) State that a - particle is an electron and a + particle is a positron;
(j) State that electrons and neutrinos are members of a group of particles known as leptons.
5.3.3 Radioactivity
(a) Describe the spontaneous and random nature of radioactive decay of unstable nuclei;
(b) Describe the nature, penetration and range of -particles, -particles and -rays;
(c) Define and use the quantities activity and decay constant;
(d) Select and apply the equation for activity A = N;
(e) Select and apply the equations A = A0e-t and N = N0e-t where A is the activity and N is the
number of undecayed nuclei;
(f) Define and apply the term half-life;
(g) Select and use the equation t = 0.693;
(h) Compare and contrast decay of radioactive nuclei and decay of charge on a capacitor in a CR
circuit (HSW 5b);
(i) Describe the use of radioactive isotopes in smoke alarms (HSW 6a);
(j) Describe the technique of radioactive dating (i.e. carbon-dating).
5.3.4 Nuclear fission and fusion
(a) Select and use Einsteins massenergy equation E = mc2;
(b) Define binding energy and binding energy per nucleon;
(c) Use and interpret the binding energy per nucleon against nucleon number graph;
(d) Determine the binding energy of nuclei using E = mc2 and masses of nuclei;
(e) Describe the process of induced nuclear fission;
(f) Describe and explain the process of nuclear chain reaction;
(g) Describe the basic construction of a fission reactor and explain the role of the fuel rods, control
rods and the moderator (HSW 6a and 7c);
(h) Describe the use of nuclear fission as an energy source (HSW 4 and 7c);
(i) Describe the peaceful and destructive uses of nuclear fission (HSW 4 and 7c);
(j) Describe the environmental effects of nuclear waste (HSW 4, 6a and b, 7c);
(k) Describe the process of nuclear fusion;
(l) Describe the conditions in the core of stars that make fusion possible;
(m) Calculate the energy released in simple nuclear reactions.
5.4.1 X-Rays
(a) Describe the nature of X-rays;
(b) Describe in simple terms how X-rays are produced;
(c) Describe how X-rays interact with matter (limited to photoelectric effect, Compton Effect and
pair production);
(d) Define intensity as the power per unit cross-sectional area;
(e) Select and use the equation I = I0 e-x to show how the intensity I of a collimated X-ray beam
varies with thickness x of medium;
(f) Describe the use of X-rays in imaging internal body structures including the use of image
intensifiers and of contrast media (HSW 3, 4c and 6);
(g) Explain how soft tissues like the intestines can be imaged using barium meal;
(h) Describe the operation of a computerised axial tomography (CAT) scanner;
(i) Describe the advantages of a CAT scan compared with an X-ray image (HSW 4c, 6).
5.4.2 Diagnosis methods in medicine
(a) Describe the use of medical tracers like technetium-99m to diagnose the function of organs;
(b) Describe the main components of a gamma camera;
(c) Describe the principles of positron emission tomography (PET);
(d) Outline the principles of magnetic resonance, with reference to precession of nuclei, Larmor
frequency, resonance and relaxation times;
(e) Describe the main components of an MRI scanner;
(f) Outline the use of MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) to obtain diagnostic information about
internal organs (HSW 3, 4c and 6a);
(g) Describe the advantages and disadvantages of MRI (HSW 4c & 6a);
(h) Describe the need for non-invasive techniques in diagnosis (HSW 6a);
(i) Explain what is meant by the Doppler effect;
(j) Explain qualitatively how the Doppler effect can be used to determine the speed of blood.
5.4.3 Ultrasound
(a) Describe the properties of ultrasound;
(b) Describe the piezoelectric effect;
(c) Explain how ultrasound transducers emit and receive high-frequency sound;
(d) Describe the principles of ultrasound scanning;
(e) Describe the difference between A-scan and B-scan;
(f) Calculate the acoustic impedance using the equation Z = c;
I (Z Z )2
(g) Calculate the fraction of reflected intensity using the equation r 2 1 2 ;
I0 (Z2 Z1 )
(h) Describe the importance of impedance matching;
(i) Explain why a gel is required for effective ultrasound imaging techniques.
5.5.1 Structure of the universe
(a) Describe the principal contents of the universe, including stars, galaxies and radiation;
(b) Describe the solar system in terms of the Sun, planets, planetary satellites and comets;
(c) Describe the formation of a star, such as our Sun, from interstellar dust and gas;
(d) Describe the Suns probable evolution into a red giant and white dwarf;
(e) Describe how a star much more massive than our Sun will evolve into a super red giant and
then either a neutron star or black hole;
(f) Define distances measured in astronomical units (AU), parsecs (pc) and light-years (ly);
(g) State the approximate magnitudes in metres, of the parsec and light-year;
(h) State Olbers paradox;
(i) Interpret Olbers paradox to explain why it suggests that the model of an infinite, static universe
is incorrect (HSW 7);
v
(j) Select and use the equation
;
c
(k) Describe and interpret Hubbles red shift observations;
(l) State and interpret Hubbles law (HSW 1 & 2);
(m) Convert the Hubble constant H0 from its conventional units (km s-1 Mpc-1) to SI (s-1);
(n) State the cosmological principle;
(o) Describe and explain the significance of the 3K microwave background radiation (HSW 1).
5.5.2 The evolution of the universe
(a) Explain that the standard (hot big bang) model of the universe implies a finite age for the
universe (HSW 1, 2, 7);
(b) Select and use the expression age of universe 1/H0;
(c) Describe qualitatively the evolution of universe 10-43 s after the big bang to the present;
(d) Explain that the universe may be open, flat or closed, depending on its density (HSW 7);
(e) Explain that the ultimate fate of the universe depends on its density;
(f) Define the term critical density;
3H02
;
8G
(h) Explain that it is currently believed that the density of the universe is close to, and possibly
exactly equal to, the critical density needed for a flat cosmology (HSW 7).
(g) Select and use the expression for critical density of the universe 0
Back to Table of Contents
Electric Fields
Electric Fields
Due to
Definition
Equation
Unit
Direction
Objects with charge.

Charge creates an electric field in the space around it.
Electric field strength at a point is defined as the force exerted per unit
positive charge placed at that point.
E = F/Q
N C-1
Direction a positive charge moves i.e. from positive to negative.
Electric field lines leave/meet charged surfaces at 90o.

Uniform Field
e.g. charged parallel plates
+
Radial Field
point charges / charged spheres
+
d
Uniform Electric Field
Example
Diagram
Uniform Electric Field

Between charged parallel plates
V
0V
d
Equation
Units
Application
E=V
d
-1
V m (N C-1)
Charged parallel plates can be used to deflect charged objects.
+
+Q
In the direction of the E field charge Q will accelerate towards the negative
plate.
In the perpendicular direction to the E field the charge will move at a
constant speed. Why? No force is acting in that direction!
Radial Electric Fields
What is it
about?
Diagram
Electric Field Strength

Radial field strength due to point
charges or charged spheres
Coulombs Law
Electrostatic force between two point
charges
Q1
+
Q
Q2
r
Description
Proportionality
constant
Equation
Further
information
Electric field strength is directly

proportional to the charge Q of the
object and is inversely proportional to
the square of distance r away.
The force between two charges Q1 and

Q2 separated by distance r is directly
proportional to the product of the
charges and is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance r.
k = 1/(40)
where 0 is the permittivity of free space
0 = 8.85 1012 F m1
E =kQ
F = kQ1Q2
2
r
r2
Charges
Q1
and
Q2
exert
equal/opposite forces on each other
thus obeying Newtons third law of
motion.
Like charges force F is positive
repulsive.
Unlike charges force F is negative
attractive.
Comparing Electric and Gravitational Fields

Electric
charge
force per unit charge
(E = F/Q)
N C-1
+ve to -ve
Due to objects with

Definition of field
strength at a point
Unit of field strength
Direction of field
strength
Formula for field
strength for a point
object
Nature of force i.e.

attractive and/or
repulsive
kQ
r2
Coulombs law
Name of Law and

formula for force
between point objects
Proportionality
constant
Gravitational
mass
force per unit mass
(g = F/m)
N kg-1
towards centre of mass
Newtons law of gravitation
kQ1Q2
r2
FE
k
GM
r2
Fg
4 0
where 0 is the permittivity of
free space = 8.85 10-12 F m-1
Attractive (-ve) for unlike charge
or repulsive (+ve) for like charges
GM1M2
r2
Universal gravitational constant,

G = 6.67 10-11 N m2 kg-2
Always attractive (hence negative

sign)
+
Q
v
g
Uniform Fields
Charged parallel plates

E = V/d
Near Earths surface

g = 9.8 N kg-1
Magnetic Fields Patterns

Long straight wire
Solenoid
Diagram of
magnetic
field pattern
current outwards
current inwards
Direction of
magnetic
field
Right-hand grip rule:
Like a bar magnet

The direction of the current gives the pole ends.
Magnetic Force on a Straight Wire

field decreases above conductor
Current going out of board
F
S
field increases below conductor
The magnetic force exerted on a current-carrying conductor placed at right angles to a

magnetic field of flux density B is given by
F = BIL
Unit of flux density is tesla, T.
When the current elem

perpendicular to the field contributes to the magnetic force:
L
l
F = BILsin
Flemings Left Hand Rule Direction of Magnetic Force

If the current direction is at right angles to a
magnetic field then the force exerted on
current carrying conductor is perpendicular
to both the current and field directions.
Remember FBI.
Force F
field (flux
density B)
conventional
current I
Charged Particle Moving in a Magnetic Field
A charged particle Q moving at velocity v right angles to a magnetic field of flux density B with
experience a magnetic force.
The force is given by
F = BQv
The charged particle follows a circular path. Explain

why.
Velocity is always perpendicular to the magnetic field.
The magnetic force is always perpendicular to the
motion (velocity) from FLHR.
BQv = mv2/r
Orbital Frequency
mv2
BQv
r
BQ
2 r
2 rf
T
BQ
B inwards
v
+
mv
r
2frv
r
BQ
2m
The frequency is independent of the radius and the velocity.
Uses: particle accelerators (cyclotrons and synchrotons) accelerate particles moving in

circles; mass spectrometers (separate atoms according to their specific mass (Q/m).
Velocity Selector
Charged particles can be deflected by both magnetic and electric fields.
B into board
E
v
FB
circular
motion
v
parabolic
path
FE
Q
In a velocity selector the B and E fields are at right angles to each other.
So that charges moving at a certain velocity can travel through undeflected when the
magnetic force FB is equal / opposite to the electric force FE.
BQv QE
v E /B
Mass Spectrometer
It makes use of electric and magnetic fields to
identify ions and determine their abundance.
Only ions with velocity v = E/B pass through
the velocity selector undeflected.
They then follow a circular path in the
uniform B field.
mv2
BQv
r
m Br
Br
B 2r

Q v E /B E
If the magnetic flux density for the velocity
selector B1 is different to that B2 deflecting
the ions in a circular path then
m B1 B2 r
Q
E
Ions deflect according to their mass m/Q ratio.
m/Q r
The detector is moved to different radii to detect the different ions.

Measuring the number of ions arriving per unit time determines their abundance.
Magnetic Flux, Flux Density and Flux Linkage

Magnetic Quantity
Flux density (B)
Flux ()
Description
Definition
It is a measure of the number of
B = F/IL
field
lines
(flux)
passing
perpendicularly per unit area.
The number of magnetic field lines Product of flux density and
passing perpendicularly through area of coils perpendicular to
area A.
flux.
Unit
Tesla
Weber
= BA
Flux linkage (N)
The total flux

linking N turns
of
wire
through area
A.
Product of magnetic flux and

number of turns of coils it
passes through.
Weber
Electromagnetic Induction
An e.m.f. is induced when a wire cuts through magnetic field lines.
Why?
Consider a wire whose length AB is moving down cutting through magnetic field B.
Charges +Q in the wire are moving downwards with the wire.
A
Applying FLHR, the charges experience a force
along the wire.
Charges +Q move towards B and -Q charges
N
S
move towards A.
This separation of charge gives rise to a voltage
between the ends of the wire.
B
Hence an e.m.f. (electromotive force) is induced.
If the wire forms a complete circuit, then an
Motion (F)
induced current flows.
The direction of the induced current is given by
B
Flemings right hand rule.
An e.m.f. is also induced when the flux linking the

coil of wire i.e. flux linkage changes.
Induced I
Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Faradays law the induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage
(N) or the rate at which the magnetic field lines are cut.
Lenzs law the direction of the induced e.m.f. is such that the induced current that flows
opposes the change in magnetic flux linkage that is producing it.
The two laws can be expressed as
E.m.f. = -(N)
t
Lenzs Law
The direction of the induced e.m.f. is such that the induced current that flows opposes the
change in magnetic flux linkage which is producing it.
Electromagnetic induction, KE electrical.
There must be a loss in KE in order to produce electricity.
If motion/KE remained the same then electrical energy would be created from nothing.
This is impossible because it violates the law of conservation of energy.
Induced currents flow so that they produce a force that opposes the motion (reduces the KE)
that is being used to create them.
Energy has to be constantly put into the system in order to maintain KE and to produce the
electrical energy.
Proof
wire moving downwards
From FLHR the direction of the
current induced in the wire, carrying
A
charges Q, which is moving
downwards is towards B.
The now induced current-carrying
wire 90o in the magnetic field will
N
S
A
I
experience a force.
From FLHR the direction of the force
acting on the wire is upwards.
How does this force affect the motion
B
of the wire?
Decelerates because the force is acting in the opposite direction to the motion.
Hence the induced current is flowing in a direction so as to produce a force that opposes the
motion that is creating it Lenzs law.
Application
When the North pole of a magnet
moves towards the coils of wire, the
change in flux linkage induces an e.m.f.
in the coils.
Induced current flows in the coils.
The coils become an electromagnet.
The current flows in a direction in order to produce a force that opposes the motion i.e. side A
becomes a N pole in order to repel the magnet.
Thus reducing the KE of the magnet in order to produce electricity.
AC Alternator
Electricity can be generated by rotating a coil of

wire in a magnetic field.
The change of flux linkage in the coils results in
an induced voltage.
Every half cycle current direction reverses a.c.
output.
Flux linkage N is when the magnetic field lines

pass perpendicularly through the plane of the
coil.
where is the angle between the magnetic field and the normal of the plane of the coil.
When = 0 then the magnetic field is perpendicular to plane of coil.
N = NBAcos
E.m. f .
(N )
t
induced e.m.f.
flux linkage
time
When flux linkage is maximum i.e. = 0 plane of coil is perpendicular to B field:

Rate of change of flux linkage is zero.
Induced e.m.f. is zero.
When flux linkage is zero i.e. = 90o plane of coil is parallel to B field:
Rate of change of flux linkage is maximum.
Induced e.m.f. is maximum.
time
Transformers
A transformer makes use of electromagnetic induction to increase / decrease voltage.
Two coils, the primary and secondary, are wound on an iron core.
Alternating current through the primary coil creates an alternating magnetic field (changing
magnetic flux) which links to the secondary coil.
Hence an e.m.f. is induced in the secondary coil.
N.B. The iron core links all the magnetic flux from the primary coil to the secondary coil.
In a step-up transformer the Ns > Np, so flux linkage in the secondary greater than in the primary so
the induced voltage Vs > Vp.
It the reverse in a step-down transformer.
The ratio of e.m.f.s in the secondary and primary coils is given by
Np
Ns
Vp
Vs
If the transformer is 100 % efficient then there is no power loss.
I pVp I sVs
Capacitors
Parallel metal plates which are separated by an insulating material (called a dielectric).
N.B. The positive plate connects to the positive terminal.
Capacitors store charge.

Plate A stores positive charge.
Plate B stores negative charge.
Plates A and B store equal amounts of charge.
Charge does not flow between the plates.
When the voltage across the capacitor is the same at
that from the battery, charging stops.
V
e
A
e
+Q
-Q
V
Capacitance
Equal increases in charge Q results in equal increases in voltage V across the plates.
QV
The proportionality constant is capacitance.

Q = CV
Capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the amount of charge stored per unit voltage across it.
C = Q/V
Unit is Farad F
1 F = 1 C V-1
Capacitors Charging and Discharging
When the switch is closed the capacitor is charging.

When the switch is open the capacitor is discharging through the resistor.
1. What direction does the current flow in the circuit when

(a) charging? positive to negative terminal of battery
(b) discharging? positive to negative terminal of capacitor
(c)How can you tell this from the ammeter?
Ammeter reading shows change in direction (+/-)
6V
470 F
100
A
2. Does charge flow between the plates? Explain your

answer.
No, because there is an insulating medium between them
100
During charging an equal amount of positive and negative charges is stored on the opposite plates
of the capacitor.
When the voltage across the capacitor is equal to the voltage across the battery, charging process
stops.
3. To the right is a sketch of a current-time graph during I
the charging process.
(a) Explain why the current decreases to zero.
As charge is stored on the capacitor plates they repel further
the charge being stored so current decreases
(b) Sketch a current-time graph during the discharging
process.
(c) The stored charge is found from the area under a
current-time graph. What can you say about the areas for
the charging and discharging processes? Equal
charging
t
discharging
Capacitors in Series and Parallel

In Series
Circuit diagram
with two
capacitors C1
and C2
In Parallel
V
Q
C1
C2
C1
Q1
Q1
C2
V1
Equivalent
circuit
(combined
capacitors)
V2
Q2
V
Q
V
Charge stored
on capacitors
Voltage across
capacitors
Q = CV
expression
Total
capacitance
Further
information
V
V
Q2
Same Q
Shared/divided
Q = Q 1 + Q2
Same V
Shared/divided
V =V1 + V2
Q Q Q
C C1 C 2
CV = C1V + C2V
1 1 1
C C1 C 2
C = C1 + C2
Overall capacitance decreases!
Overall capacitance increases!
Energy Stored in a Capacitor
It is found from the

area under a voltage
against
charge
graph.
W = QV
= CV2 = Q2/C
However the energy supplied by the battery to charge the capacitor is QV.
Half the energy from the battery is used do work against the electrostatic repulsion to store
further charge on the plates.
Capacitors
Releases their stored energy quickly (provided
the circuit is of a low resistance).
No internal resistance.
Batteries
Slower release of energy.
Have internal resistance which results in
energy dissipation.
Uses of Capacitors
Flash Photography
Lasers in Nuclear Fusion
A cameras flashgun is
powered by a capacitor.
The capacitor is charged from
the cameras battery via a
system that increases the
voltage.
When a picture is taken, the
energy is released very
quickly through the lamp
producing a bright flash.
It takes a few seconds to

recharge the capacitor, so the
flash
cannot
be
used
straightaway.
The
capacitors
are
charged to thousands of
volts.
Their energy is released
to power lasers whose
brilliant flash forces
hydrogen nuclei together
causing them to fuse to
form helium nuclei.
The fusion of the nuclei
releases energy.
Back-Up Power Supplies for

Computers
Capacitors with high
capacitances
but
relatively small volume
are used as back-up
power supplies.
They are charged up
when the computer is in
use.
If the battery or mains
supply fails, they provide
the electrical power
needed to save data and
shut down the computer
safely.
Capacitor Discharging through a Resistor

Discharging through Resistor R
C
Diagram
I
R
Q = Q0 e-t/RC
- exponential decay
Charge Q on
capacitor at time t
Q
Graph
t
Time constant
( = RC)
Voltage across
capacitor VC ( Q)
Voltage across
resistor VR
Time taken to reach 37 % of initial value.

V = V0 e-t/RC
exponential decay
Same as capacitor (parallel)
- exponential decay
V
Graph of VC and VR
t
Current I (= VR/R)
-t/RC
I = I0 e
- exponential decay
Rutherfords Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment
It produced the first evidence for the

present model of the atom.
It replaced the generally accepted plum
pudding model by Thomson.
Experiment
A thin gold foil is bombarded by highenergy -particles.
The number of -particles deflected at
various angles was counted.
Results
5
15
30
45
Angle / deg
Number scattered 8289000
120570 7800 1435
Most of the -particles passed straight through.
A small number were deflected at very large angles.
1 in 8000 were back-scattered.
60
477
75
211
105
70
120
52
135
43
150
33
Conclusions
The atom is mostly empty space because most of the -particles pass straight through (or
experience very little deflection from the nucleus).
The nucleus is a very small compared to size of atom because only a few -particles are
deflected through very large distances. These are the particles coming close to the nucleus.
Nucleus is positively charged because positively charged -particles are being repelled
(deflected) by nucleus.
Elementary Particles
Fundamental particles
Cannot be broken into smaller particles
Non-fundamental particles
Can be broken into smaller particles
Leptons
electron family
e- electron
e+ positron
e electron neutrino
e electron anti-neutrino
Hadrons
consists of quarks
Mesons
Baryons
Consist of
two quarks
Pions
Kaons K
Consist of
three quarks
Neutrons n, n
Protons p, p
Baryons B = 1
Anti-baryons B = -1
All particles have anti-particles same mass but opposite charge Q, baryon B number and
strangeness.
Quarks
Believed to be fundamental particles.
Type of quark
Charge (e)
up, u
2/3
-2/3
u
anti-up,
down, d
-1/3
1/3
anti-down, d
Baryon number (B)

1/3
-1/3
Strangeness (S)
0
0
1/3
-1/3
0
0
Strange, s
-1/3
1/3
-1
1/3
-1/3
1
Anti-strange, s
Other quarks: top, bottom and charm and their anti-quarks, anti-top, anti-bottom and anticharm respectively.
Conservation Rules
For any reaction to occur charge Q, baryon number B and strangeness must be conserved.
n p e e
Q 0 + 1 = (-1) + 0
B 1+1=0+0
S 0+ 0 =0+0
This reaction cannot take place because Q and B are not conserved.
Nuclear Forces
Protons in a nucleus exert both electrostatic and gravitational forces on each other.
p
Fe
p
Fg
Fg
Fe
1 fm
Are the forces balanced?
Due to
Nature
Size
Electrostatic Force
charge
repulsive
Fe
Q2
4 0 r 2
Gravitational Force
mass
attractive
Fg
= 230 N
GM2
= 1.86 10-34 N
r2
So how are the protons confined in the nucleus?

Strong Nuclear Force
There must be another force acting in the nucleus, stronger than the electrostatic force.
This force holds the nucleons together but is repulsive at distances less than 0.5 fm.
The strong nuclear force is limited to a very short range (up to 3 fm).
It is believed to arise from the interaction between quarks.
p
Fe
p
Fn
Fn
1 fm
Fe
Radioactive Transformations
Atoms that lie on the curve are stable.

Atoms that do not lie on the curve are radioactive.
Radioactive atoms decay emitting , and/or radiation.
In a radioactive transformation Z and A numbers are conserved.
decay
Nature
decay
decay
-decay
Helium nucleus
Fast
moving
(highly Fast
moving
(highly An electromagnetic wave
energetic) electron
energetic) positron.
A positron is an anti-electron
i.e. a negatively charged
electron.
Why does this The nucleus is too heavy. The nucleus is neutron rich The nucleus is proton rich The nucleus has excess energy.
decay occur?
i.e. has too many neutrons i.e. has too many protons
than protons.
than neutrons.
What is
Nucleus is losing two In the nucleus the neutron In the nucleus the proton There is no change to the
happening
protons
and
two transforms into a proton, transforms into a neutron, structure of the nucleus
inside the
neutrons.
electron and antineutrino. positron and a neutrino.
loses energy as a photon.
+
-
nucleus?
p
n
+
e
+
v
np+e +
A
A
0
0
A
A 4
4
A *
A
0
A
A 0 0
Nuclear
Z X Z 1Y 1 0 v energy
Z X Z 2Y 2 energy
X
e
n
e
r
g
y
Z X Z X 0
Z
Z
1
1
0
equation
14
14
0
238
234
4
12
12
0
60
Example
Co* 60Co 0
8 O 7 N 1 energy
92U 90Th 2 energy
5 B 6 C 1 energy
27
27
Properties of Alpha, Beta and Gamma Radiation
Nature
Alpha Radiation
Helium nucleus
Ionising power
Range in air
Very strong
Few centimetres
Beta Radiation
Fast moving
electrons/positrons
Weak
About a metre
Sheet of Paper
1 cm thick aluminium
About 5 - 10 % c
About 4 to 10 MeV
About 90 % c
About 0.025 to 3.2
MeV
Penetrating power
(stopped by)
Speed
Energy range
Additional
information
Alpha particles
emitted from a
particular source all
have the same
energy.
Beta particles emitted

by a particular source
have an almost
continuous energy
spectrum (i.e. range of
energies)
1 MeV = 1.6 10-13 J

Speed of electromagnetic waves in vacuum, c = 3.0 108 m s-1
Deflection in an electric field
Source
Gamma Radiation
Electromagnetic wave
Very weak
Several kilometres (obeys
an inverse-square law with
distance)
10 cm thick lead
c
E = hf
where h = 6.63 10-34 J s
and f is the frequency
Gamma rays emitted by a
particular source can have
only certain sharply-defined
energies. For example,
cobalt-60 emits 1.2 and 1.3
MeV gamma rays.
Radioactive Decay
Background Radiation
It is naturally occurring radiation that is always present in the surroundings.
When measuring the activity of a radioactive substance the background radiation must be
taken into account because it always contributes to the measurement. An average reading of
background radiation should be taken (without the source being present). This value should
then be subtracted from the measured count rate from the source in order to eliminate its
effect.
Radioactive decay
Radioactive decay is spontaneous it cannot be induced - changing external conditions (e.g.
temperature or pressure) will not cause or prevent the decay of a radioactive nucleus.
Radioactive decay is a random process do not know when a particular nucleus will decay.
Activity
Activity is the number of radioactive decays per unit time.
It is measured in Becquerel (Bq).
It is given by
A = N
where is decay constant (s-1) i.e. the probability of a nucleus decaying per unit time or the
fraction of nuclei that decay per unit time;
and N is number of undecayed nuclei present.
Activity decreases with time. Explain why.

As time increases, the number of undecayed nuclei present decreases (i.e. N ) and because A
N activity decreases.
Radioactivity Decay (Exponential Decay)

Activity
Activity is the number of radioactive decays per unit time.
It is given by
dN
N
dt
Rearranging and integrating gives

N = N0 e - t
where N is number of undecayed nuclei remaining at time t

N0 is initial number of undecayed nuclei
It is an exponential decay i.e. constant

ratio property (for equal increments in
time the same fraction decays).
As A = N then
A = A0 e-t
Taking logs
ln A = ln A0 -t
Half-life
It is the mean time taken for half the number of nuclei to decay.
Time
% left
50
2 t
25
3 t
12.5
t = ln2
For a fast rate of decay ( is large) t is short.
Radioactivity Decay Comparison with Capacitor Discharge
Decaying
Rate of decay
Radioactive Decay
radioactive nuclei
Activity rate of decay of nuclei
A
Exponential equations
N
N
t
N N0e t
A A0e t
Half-life
Time constant
t1 2
ln 2
1/
Capacitor Discharge
charge stored
Current rate of decay of charge
Q
Q
t
RC
Q Q0e t / RC
I I 0e t / RC
t1 2 RC ln2
RC
Uses of Radioactive Isotopes

Smoke Alarms
Smoke alarms contain americium-241 which emits alpha particles.
The alpha particles ionise the air between two metal plates.
This allows current to flow. When smoke enters the alarm, the ions stick to the smoke
particles.
Current flow is reduced.
When the current drops below a certain threshold, the alarm is triggered.
without smoke
with smoke inside
Carbon Dating
Carbon dating is based on the assumption that living things take in and give out carbon-12 as
well as radioactive carbon-14, the percentage of which is assumed constant.
After death, no more carbon is taken in and the carbon-14 present decays by - emission. The
ratio of carbon-14 to non radioactive carbon-12 decreases with time.
The ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 nuclei for the sample to be dated is determined (x).
The current ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 nuclei is determined (x0).
The age of the sample is found using x = x0e-t.
Limitations:
(a) assumption that ratio of carbon-14-carbon-12 is constant in living things;
(b) that the activity of sample may be comparable (so indistinguishable) to that of
background radiation.
Einsteins Mass-Energy Relationship
E = mc2
Einstein showed that mass and energy coexist i.e. any change in mass results in a change in energy
and vice versa.
E = m c2
Nuclear Binding Energy
Consider the constituents of the helium nucleus.

Separated
Bound in nucleus
p
p
n
The mass of the nucleus of helium-4 is 6.646782 10-27 kg.

Compare the mass of this nucleus with the total mass of its constituents (mp = 1.672623 10-27 kg
and mn = 1.674929 10-27 kg).
Total mass of the nucleons inside a nucleus is less than the mass of the same nucleons when
separated.
The difference in mass m is known as the mass defect.
The energy equivalent of this mass defect is called the binding energy.
BE = m c2
It is the energy released when nucleons bind together or it is the energy needed to separate the
nucleons from the nucleus.
It results from the strong nuclear force which acts to bind the nucleons.
Energy has to be supplied to remove a nucleon from the nucleus. Why?

In order to overcome the strong nuclear force.
A
A
BE
Average BE
per nucleon
Nuclear Fission and Fusion
Description of
process
Conditions
Why is energy
released?
Elements that can
undergo process
Examples of use
Fission
It is the splitting up of a heavy
nucleus to form two lighter nuclei
(known as fission fragments).
The neutron must be at the right
speed to make the heavy nucleus
unstable so that the electrostatic
repulsion splits the fragments apart.
Fusion
It is the combining of two lighter
nuclei to form a heavier nucleus.
High temperatures are needed to
provide enough KE to overcome the
electrostatic repulsion of the nuclei
for the strong nuclear force to take
over.
Mass of products < mass of reactants

BE of products > BE of reactants
Loss in mass and so an increase in binding energy.
A > 56
A < 56
Nuclear power stations

Atomic bombs
Energy processes in Stars

Hydrogen bombs
B.E. per
nucleon
Fission
Fusion
56Fe
Nuclear Fission Reactor

Key Parts
Function
Fuel rods
Contains the fissile material (uranium) that releases energy in the reactor core.
(uranium)
Control
It ensures the chain reaction takes place at a steady rate by absorbing surplus
rods
neutrons so that exactly the right number is free to react.
(boron)
Controlled chain reaction: the control rods are inserted into the reactor so as to
allow (on average) one neutron from previous reaction to cause subsequent
fission.
To slow down the reaction or stop the chain reaction, they are lowered into the
core. To speed up the reaction, they are partially withdrawn.
Moderator Only slow (thermal) neutrons can produce the fission of uranium-235. A
(carbon)
moderator is used to slow down the fast (energetic) neutrons that are released in
the process.
X-rays
X-rays are very short wavelength (10-12 10-7 m) electromagnetic waves.

They are produced from the large deceleration of high-energy electrons when they hit a metal
surface.
KE of electrons X-ray photon + Heat
X-ray Tube and Generator

The cathode filament is heated by the a.c. current flowing through it.
Electrons are produced at the
cathode by the process of
thermionic emission.
A metal cup surrounding the
filament focuses the electrons,
which are accelerated through a
high voltage, to a tungsten target
embedded in a copper anode.
X-rays are produced.
Only 1 % of the electron energy is
converted to X-rays.
The rest is lost as heat resulting in a
high heat concentration at the
anode.
But copper with a high thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity conducts the heat away.
The oil within the tube housing cools the copper and is in turn cooled by water in a heat
exchanger.
For further reduction in heat, the anode is rotated rapidly so that the target area is constantly
changing.
The X-rays emitted at the anode is non-isotropic i.e. they are emitted all around the tube.
A lead shielding around the tube housing absorbs this leakage radiation.
Intensity of an X-ray Beam
The intensity of an X-ray beam from a point source
obeys the inverse square law with distance.
The intensity of a collimated (parallel) X-ray beam
remains constant.
However due to absorption processes that occur
in matter the intensity I of a collimated X-ray
beam varies exponentially with thickness x:
I I 0 e x
where - linear attenuation coefficient (units m-1)
The distance for halving the intensity is called half

value thickness.
l n2
x1 / 2
The Interaction of X-rays with Matter

X-rays are absorbed as they pass through matter due to three mains processes:
Process
Energy range of X- Description
ray photons / MeV
Photoelectric
< 0.1
An
X-ray
photon
is
effect
absorbed by an electron,
transferring all its energy to
the electron, which then
escapes the atom.
Diagram
Conservation of Energy
hf = + mv2
where (= hf0) work function
The X-ray photon must have a
frequency above the threshold
frequency i.e. f > f .
0
Compton
scattering
0.5 5.0
An X-ray photon collides

with an atomic electron,
the electron gains some of
the photon energy and the
photon is scattered with a
longer wavelength.
hf = + mv2 + hf
The electron gains energy from
the photon.
The scattered photon has a
longer wavelength / lower
frequency i.e. f < f.
Pair
production
> 1.02
An X-ray photon strikes an

atomic
nucleus
and
disappears to create an
electron-positron pair.
hf = 2(mc2 + mv2)
The photon energy is converted
into mass energy for the
electron-positron pair.
Any
remaining
energy
is
converted into KE.
X-ray Imaging
Materials with a high proton number (density) absorb X-rays more than those with a low
proton number.
Bone contains calcium (Z = 20) and so absorbs X-rays easily.
Soft tissue, made up largely of carbon (Z = 6), hydrogen (Z = 1) and oxygen (Z = 8) does not
absorb X-rays as much.
An 'X-ray is a 'shadow image'.
The patient is placed between the X-ray machine and the film.
Parts of the body which absorb radiation e.g. bone cast an X-ray shadow which shows up white
on the film. Air (e.g. lungs) appears black; soft tissues appear grey.
Contrast Medium
Several types of tissue have very similar proton numbers so they absorb the X-rays by similar
amounts.
There is little contrast (difference) between them on the X-ray image.
A contrast medium, e.g. barium or iodine, is used to distinguish between them.
It has a very high proton number and so is radio-opaque i.e. it absorbs X-rays more than the
surrounding tissue.
Barium sulphate which is swallowed barium meal to show the outline / shape of the gastrointestinal tract (intestines and stomach) as white on the film.
Iodine containing contrast medium which is injected into the blood stream to show the outline
the blood vessels in the X-ray image.
Image Intensifiers
Photographic film is not very sensitive to X-rays; most pass straight through.
A high dose of X-rays is needed to produce a bright enough image.
But high doses of radiation are harmful to patients.
Image intensifiers are used to
reduce exposure times.
Film is more sensitive to light
than to X-rays.
Double-sided film is sandwiched
between two image intensifier
sheets coated with phosphor.
The phosphor atoms absorb Xray photons and are excited into
a higher energy state.
They fluoresce emitting many
visible light photons.
So the phosphor converts an Xray photon into many visible light photons, which are then absorbed by the film.
A metal plate at the back of the cassette stops radiation from penetrating out of the screen.
In digital systems, phosphor atoms convert X-ray photons into many visible light photons.
These photons release electrons (by the photoelectric effect) which are then accelerated onto
a fluorescent screen where they are converted into visible light flashes.
The image on this screen can be viewed on a television or stored electronically.
Computerised Axial Tomography (CAT) Scans
Computerised Axial Tomography uses X-rays to produce cross-sectional images of the body.
Conventional X-ray images show all depths in the body superimposed on each other.
X-rays cannot be focused onto one chosen plane in the body.
However in CAT, X-rays pass through the same section of the body from different directions
producing a cross-sectional image i.e. a slice.
In modern scanners the X-ray tube produces a thin fan-shaped beam that is rotated round the
patient.
There is a ring of thousands of fixed detectors surrounding the patient.
The diagram on the right shows a cross-section of a CAT scanner for the X-ray source and
detectors in two different positions.
The shadow cast by the body depends on the direction of the beam.
A computer processes all the data from one full rotation to construct a cross-sectional image /
slice of the section of the body of interest.
Between rotations the patient is moved bit by bit through the machine and a slice is computed
at each new position.
These slices can be combined to produce a 3D image.
Sections of the image can be viewed at many different angles from the computer.
CAT scanners can detect very small differences in X-ray absorption providing excellent soft
tissue contrast e.g. detailed images of the brain, chest, abdominal or pelvic organs e.g. lungs,
liver, kidneys, bladder; and intestines.
The patient has to remain very still and hold their breath, to ensure a sharp image.
Advantages
Provides more detailed information than
conventional X-rays particularly soft tissues
contrast.
3D images are possible any angle /
section / plane can be viewed.
Disadvantages
Significantly higher radiation doses but the
dose is less than it used to be with the use
of increased sensitivity of sensors.
Much more expensive than conventional Xrays
Requires a co-operative or sedated patient.
Ultrasound
Ultrasound is high frequency sound wave beyond human hearing i.e. > 20 kHz.
The Piezoelectric Effect

When high frequency alternating voltage i.e. the signal is applied across the crystal of an
ultrasound transducer, the crystal expands and contracts oscillating at the forcing frequency of
the signal and ultrasound waves are transmitted.
To maximise the effect, the frequency of the voltage must match the natural frequency of the
crystal so that resonance can occur.
The process also works in reverse i.e. the same crystal can also act as an ultrasound receiver ultrasound waves arriving at the crystal causes it to expand and contract that an alternating
voltage is induced across the crystal.
A short pulse of ultrasound is transmitted into the patients body which gives enough time for
the reflected pulse to be detected by the same receiver.
Acoustic Impedance
It is used to determine the fraction of sound intensity transmitted at a boundary.
It is defined by:
Z = c
where c - speed of sound in medium and density of medium
Units of Z: kg m-2 s-1
The fraction of reflected intensity using the equation

I r (Z 2 Z 1 )2
I 0 (Z 2 Z 1 )2
When Z2 = Z1, Ir = 0, i.e. no reflection.

When Z2 << Z1 or Z2 >> Z1, Ir I0 i.e. most energy is
reflected.
Impedance Matching
There is a layer of air between the ultrasound transducer
and the body.
The large difference in acoustic impedance between air
and skin most of the ultrasound is reflected.
A coupling medium (gel), with an acoustic impedance

similar to (matching) skin, is used most of the
ultrasound is transmitted into the body.
Medical Uses of Ultrasound
Amplitude A-Scan
An A-scan uses a single pulse to
determine the depth and nature of
reflecting surfaces.
The ultrasound partially reflects when it
hits a barrier.
The time taken to receive the echo
indicates the depth of barrier.
The relative amplitudes indicate the
nature of the reflecting surfaces.
Brightness B-Scan
A B-scan builds up a 2D image.
Many elements (sensors) are used
together or a single probe is moved
through different positions/ angles.
The position of the dots represents the
position of the reflecting surface.
The brightness of the dots represents
the intensity of the reflection.
Doppler Ultrasound
The change in frequency/wavelength of the waves from a moving source is called the Doppler
shift.
The Doppler shift (f) can be used to
determine the speed v of blood cells.
f v
An ultrasound wave is emitted inside the body.
With a stationary blood cell there is no Doppler
shift.
Blood cells moving away from the probe reflect
the incident wave with a lower frequency.
In fact, there are two Doppler shifts. The first
one for the incident wave and the second for the reflected wave.
Blood cells moving towards the probe reflect the incident wave with a higher frequency.
Doppler imaging uses both normal ultrasound imaging and Doppler imaging e.g. to image blood
flow.
Nuclear Medicine
Radionuclide Imaging
A radionuclide is 'attached' to a convenient chemical compound (medical tracer) and
administered (injected or ingested) into the body.
It then travels through the body, leaving a trail of its radiation, thus allowing its path to be
traced. Often, it will concentrate in a particular organ of the body, allowing detailed imaging of
that structure.
To enable such a radioactive tracer to be detected outside the body, the radiation it emits
needs to be relatively penetrating, making -emitters suitable.
Gamma cameras detect the radiation, which are then used to build up an image of the
distribution of the radionuclide in the body.
Advantages
Assess body function rather than just
structure
Whole body scanning is possible
Monitors behaviour following treatment
Disadvantages
Poor resolution compared to X-rays
Radiation risk
Invasive procedure
Disposal of radioactive waste
Relatively high costs production and
administration of radionuclide
Gamma Camera
Components
collimator
Function
Consists of a series of
long, narrow lead tubes. It
defines exactly where the
-ray originated. Only rays perpendicular to the
plane to the collimator (or
parallel to the lead tubes)
can pass through it.
scintillator
Converts the incoming photons into thousands of
light photons.
photomultiplier Convert the flashes into
tubes (PMTs)
amplified electrical
pulses.
computer
Analyses and processes
the electrical information
in order to form an image.
Medical Tracer
The medical tracers must be sterile, non-toxic, of precisely known chemical composition,
compatible with the body and behave just like the substance being investigated, so that it
accurately reflects body behaviour.
90 % of medical tracers use of 99m technetium (99mTc).
Technetium-99m
short half-life of 6 hours
emits only -rays (safer for patient)
-rays are of a convenient energy for the gamma camera
easily attached to different compounds to form radioactive tracers
easily produced in hospitals using a generator
Some of uses of technetium-99m are shown below.
Organ
Investigations
blood
Estimates total body plasma and blood count
bone
Bone metabolism and localisation of bone disease e.g. cancer
heart and circulation Labelled red blood cells used to monitor cardiac output, blood
volume and circulation.
Identifies presence of blood clots (thrombosis) through build up of a
tracer at those points.
kidneys and bladder Assesses blood and urine flow
liver
Liver disease and disorders of its blood supply
Positron Emission Tomography

The radionuclide used in a PET scan emits positrons i.e. a +-emitter e.g. fluorine-18
The positrons annihilate with any electron present and two gamma ray photons are emitted.
It is these gamma photons that are detected.
In a PET scanner a ring of gamma detectors surrounds the patient.

They detect pairs of gamma-photons coming from inside the patient and travelling in opposite
directions.
The difference in time at which they arrive at the detectors is measured.
From this the position from where they were emitted can be determined.
Gradually, a 3D image of the distribution of the radionuclide in the patient is constructed.
Any abnormal functioning can be discovered.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Principles of Magnetic Resonance
Nuclei spin around an axis, like a spinning
top or gyroscope.
This movement of the axis of a spinning
object around another axis is called
precession.
In an external magnetic field, the nuclei
align along the direction of the field.
In an external magnetic field, the nuclei
align along and precess about the magnetic
field direction.
The angular frequency of precession of nuclei in an external field B is called the Larmor
frequency (L).
L B
When a radio frequency (RF) pulse of same frequency as the Larmor frequency is applied
resonance occurs.
The nuclei flip from a low energy state to a high energy state.
Absorption
Relaxation
When the RF pulse is removed the nuclei relaxes back to the lower energy (equilibrium) state,
emitting a RF signal as it does so.
The time taken for the nuclei to return back to their lower energy state is called the relaxation
time.
MRI Scanner
Main Component
Superconducting magnet
Gradient coils
RF coil
RF receiver coil
Computer
Function
produces the strong external field
produce a magnetic field that varies with position
transmits radio wave pulses into the patient
detects the signal emitted by the relaxing nuclei
controls the gradient coils and RF pulses and processes the signals
and displays the image
Principles of Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Hydrogen bound in water in tissue has long relaxation times where as in fat - short relaxation
times.
The different tissues can be differentiated by their relaxation times.
Gradient coils are arranged such that they alter the field strength across the length, depths and
width of the patient.
Thus the Larmor frequency of the nuclei within the patient will vary across of the body.
Only a small volume of the body is at exactly the right field for resonance.
The computer can precisely locate the source of the RF signal within the patients body.
Several scans to cover the range of frequencies are needed to construct the image.
Hence it can take a long time.
Advantages
Non-ionising
Differentiates well between tissues (of
similar density) e.g. excellent soft tissue
contrast
Higher resolution than X-ray imaging
Disadvantages
Slow scan times
Not portable / MRI larger
Cannot be used if patient has metal
implants including heart pacemakers
Examination can be claustrophobic and
noisy
Cosmological Distances
Measuring Unit
The
Astronomical
Unit (AU)
Light-year (ly)
Definition
Conversion
The average distance between
1AU = 1.5 1011 m
the Earth and Sun.
(1 AU 1.5 1011 m)
When is it used?
Within the solar
system
The distance travelled by light

in one year.
1 ly = 9.5 1015 m
(1 ly 1016 m)
Distance involving
stars from Earth.
Parsec (pc)
A star which has a parallax of 1

arc-second is said to be one
parallax second or one parsec
distant from Earth.
1 pc = 3.1 1016 m
(1 pc 3 1016 m)
Distance involving
stars (pc) and
galaxies (Mpc)
from Earth
Parsec
Parallax p is the half angle through which a star's direction changes as the Earth moves from
one extremity of its orbit to another.
2 AU
2p
The distance of stars can be determined from their parallax.

A star which has a parallax of 1 arc-second is said to be one parallax second or one parsec
distant from Earth.
3600 arc-seconds = 1o
p = 1 arc-second = 1/3600o
Distance star from Earth:
tanp = 1AU/x
x = 1 AU/tanp
11
x = 1 pc = 1.5 10 / tan(1/3600o)
1 pc = 3.1 1016 m
The further away a star is, the smaller its parallax.
Distance(pc)
1
parallax(arc - sec)
Stellar Evolution
Gas and
dust
Protostar
Continued
gravitational collapse
gives rise to the very
high core
temperatures (-107 K),
which allows the
fusion of hydrogen
nuclei into helium
nuclei
Main-Sequence
star e.g. Sun
Supernova
Explosion
For very high

mass stars (8
- 12 MS) a
neutron core
is left behind.
Neutron
star
Attracted by gravitational forces
Nebula
During the gravitational collapse of the

cloud GPE is converted into KE of the gas
molecules thus raising the temperature of
the gas.
When the hydrogen runs out, the

core contracts due to gravity. The
resulting increase in core
temperature allows the fusion of
helium nuclei into carbon nuclei.
The energy released overcomes
gravity to make the stars outer
layers expand and cool.
Red Giant
For large stars > 8 Ms, No more core

fusion star collapses due to gravity.
Gravity overcomes the Fermi pressure
and the electrons are forced inside
the nucleus. The electrons and
protons combine to form neutrons.
The intense pressure in the core
causes the star to explode.
Fusion stops,
For extremely large stars
core
(>12 MS), the gravitational
contracts due
pressure causes the core to
to gravity and
shrink to such a high density
heats up.
that not even light can
White
escape its gravitational field.
dwarf
Black
Hole
The Chandrasekhar limit is the
upper limit of the mass of a white
dwarf; it is 1.4Ms. There is not
enough mass to overcome the
Fermi pressure (repulsion) of the
electrons that further collapse is
not possible.
Low mass stars

e.g. Sun
Outer layers
are lost
Interplanetary
nebula
Star just
cools
Black
dwarf
The Doppler Effect
As a result of the relative motion between a source and observer, the wavelength of the
wave detected by the observer is different to the wavelength emitted from the source.
The Doppler equation is given by
' v
where '
v c
observed/detected wavelength
wavelength emitted by source

v
speed of object/observer
c
speed of wave
Source S emits waves of wavelength and observer O detects waves at wavelength
'
Source and observer are
stationary
Source is moving towards

observer (or vice versa)
Source is moving away

from observer (or vice
versa)
waves
v
Diagram
Comparing
and
'
'
v
O
'
'
'
'
Hubbles Law
This is another piece of evidence that supports an expanding universe.

Consider galaxies A, B, C & D that are initially 1 Mpc apart. After 1 hour they are 2 Mpc apart.
A
Relative to Galaxy A,
Distance moved (Mpc)
Speed (Mpc/hr)
Galaxy B
Galaxy C
Galaxy D
What conclusion can you draw? speed distance away

Hubbles law is:
The speed with which a distant galaxy moves away from Earth (and other galaxies) is
directly proportional to its distance away.
This can be represented graphically as:

The proportionality constant is H0, Hubble constant.
So Hubbles law equation is
speed
v = H0d
where v is measured in
d is measured in
H0 is measured in
km s-1
Mpc
km s-1 Mpc-1
distance
H0 can be found from the gradient of the v-d graph.

As more and more data is being obtained, the more accurate the value of H0 that can be
determined.
The value of H0 is important because from it the age of the universe can be found.
Age of the Universe

Assuming a uniform rate of expansion (galaxies moving at a constant velocity), the age of the
universe can be calculated from how long ago the galaxies were all together at a single point.
A galaxy has travelled a distance d at a constant velocity of H0d from a reference galaxy when
at the beginning of the universe they originated at the same point.
The time taken to travel this distance represents the age of the universe and is found using
t = s/v
Age = d = 1/H0
H0d
Cosmology
Cosmology - the study of the nature, origin and evolution of the universe.
The universe is all matter and energy that exists.
Universe was first thought to be infinite, uniform and static.
Olber's Paradox
Olber argued that for an
infinite uniform universe
filled with stars we
should see a star in any
direction.
Even
though
the
luminosity decreases the
number
of
stars
increases with distance
sky should have a
similar brightness to the
Sun.
The night time sky
should therefore be
uniformly bright - not
dark.
No day or night.
Interstellar matter (gas/dust) can diminish the light from distant stars enough to make the sky
dark. However the light absorbed would heat up the matter considerably causing them to glow
uniformly bright nighttime sky.
So why is the sky dark at night?
The universe is finite. Beyond the universe, stars and galaxies do not exist. Many lines of sight
reach this darkness dark nighttime sky. Also light takes time to travel across space, so not all
the light has had time to reach Earth. Also a finite universe finite number of stars their
total energy would be too little to make a bright nighttime sky.
Cosmological Principle
The cosmological principle states that the universe is homogeneous and isotropic.
Homogeneous evenly distributed i.e. uniform (true over large volumes).
Isotropic physical properties e.g. temperature are the same in all directions.
The laws of physics are universal i.e. the laws of physics on Earth are the same anywhere in the
universe.
Origin of the Universe

Big Bang Theory
Proposed by LeMaitre in 1927 and revised by Gamow in 1946.
The universe (all its energy and matter) was concentrated at a single point (a singularity).
The resulting infinite pressure and temperature caused the universe (space-time) to expand.
Evidence to Support the Big Bang Theory
Evidence
Description
Cosmic microwave It was predicted by Gamow and was accidently detected in 1965 by
background
Penzias and Wilson.
radiation
It is low frequency radiation that is distributed uniformly in the
universe and in all directions.
Its spectrum corresponds to a black-body temperature of 2.7 K the
average temperature of the universe.
It is the radiation that was emitted during the Big Bang and has since
cooled down.
The original short wavelength high energy radiation has stretched as
space-time has expanded, so that its wavelength has increased
greatly.
Red
shift
of Analysis of spectra of light from distant galaxies tells us that the
galaxies
&
galaxies are moving away from each other.
Hubbles law
The speed with which a distant galaxy moves away from Earth (and
other galaxies) is directly proportional to its distance away universe
had a zero size in a finite past.
High abundance of The visible matter in the universe contains about 27 % helium.
helium in the Hydrogen burning in stars only accounts for 2-3% helium.
universe
The remaining (primordial) helium was formed in first few minutes
after the Big Bang.
Evolution of the Consistent with experimental results.
universe
Evolution of the Universe

Time after
Big Bang
0
Temperature of
Universe
Infinite
Feature of Universe
10-12 s
1015 K
0.01 s
3 min
1012 K
107 K
105 years
104 K
~10 years
4000 K
A singularity infinitesimal (approaching zero) in size and

infinitely dense.
All four (gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak)
fundamental forces are united.
The universe was made up of -radiation and the
fundamental particles of matter i.e. quarks and leptons (e.g.
electrons) and their anti-particles.
An asymmetry (unevenness) in the annihilation of
particles/anti-particles left the universe with an excess of
matter over antimatter.
Quarks combined to form protons and neutrons.
Protons and neutrons combined to form 12 H , 13 H and
4
2 He nuclei.
About 25 % of the mass was in the form of (primordial)
helium.
Nuclei and electrons combined to form hydrogen and helium
atoms.
Universe became transparent before photons were
absorbed by the free electrons, but now the atoms allow the
radiation to travel freely.
The universe was matter-dominated rather than radiationdominated.
Microwave background radiation fills the universe
Gravity became a major force: density fluctuations allowed
some parts of the gas cloud with a higher density to attract
neighbouring gas together to form stars, galaxies and galactic
clusters.
Approximate age of the universe
15109year
2.7 K
s
Before 0.01 s, there is no direct experimental for temperatures above 1012 K (energies are too
high to be achieved). We only have theories.
The Future of the Universe
The universe is expanding.

But gravity is slowing down the rate of expansion.
There are three possible futures for the universe depending on the density of the universe.
Comparing KE and GPE

Density of universe
Is the universe dense
enough to stop the
expansion?
Description of future
Critical (Flat) Universe

KE = GPE
= critical density
No
Closed Universe
GPE > KE
> critical density
Yes
Open Universe
KE > GPE
< critical density
No
Continues to expand
towards but never
reaching a definite
(finite) limit.
Eventually expansion
stops
contracts to the Big
Crunch
Continues to expand
forever
The critical density is the density of the universe that will give rise to a flat universe is given
by:
3H02
c
8G
Determining the mean density of the Universe is proving difficult because

(a) of the presence of dark matter and dark energy (96 % of the universe).
(b) if neutrinos have mass (previously thought to be massless).
Current measurements:
flat universe
G485 Forces, Particles & Frontiers of Physics Glossary
Electric Fields
electric field
Created in the space around electric charge where a force acts on charged
particle.
electric field
strength
Force exerted per unit positive charge at a point. (E = F/Q).
Coulombs law
The force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product
of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between the charges.
Magnetic Fields
magnetic flux
density (B)
It is the amount of force exerted per unit length of conductor carrying per
unit current perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.
Tesla (T)
1 T is the amount of magnetic flux density that will produce a force of 1 N

per metre length of conductor carrying a current of 1 A perpendicular to the
direction of the magnetic field.
Flemings left-hand
rule
It shows the direction of the force on a conductor carrying a current at right

angles to a magnetic field. Force thumb, field first finger, current
second finger, all at right angles to each other. Used with electric motors and
forces acting on current carring condctors or charges moving in magnetic
fields.
velocity selector
A device using electric and magnetic fields superimposed at right angles to

each other in order to select a specific velocity of charged particles to pass
through the fields undeflected.
magnetic flux ()
The product of magnetic flux density and the area of coil perpendicular to
the flux.
Weber (Wb)
1 Wb is the flux when a magnetic flux density of 1 T passes perpendicularly

through an area of 1 m2.
magnetic flux
linkage (N)
The product of the magnetic flux and the number of turns of wire it passes
through. It is related to the total flux linking / passing through N number of
turns of wire.
Faradays law
The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is equal (or directly proportional) to the
rate of change of magnetic flux linkage.
Lenzs law
The induced e.m.f. / current acts in a direction so as to oppose the change in

magnetic flux linkage that causes it.
Flemings righthand rule
It shows the direction of the induced current when a conductor moves

through a magnetic field. Force thumb, field first finger, induced current
second finger, all at right angles to each other. Used in electromagnetic
induction e.g generators.
a.c. generator
(alternator)
A generator that, via the use of slip rings, produces an alternating e.m.f. and
so an alternating current from electromagnetic induction.
transformer, stepdown
A device that has a greater number of turns of wire on the input side
(primary coils) than the output side (secondary coils) and so reduces the
e.m.f. and increases the electric current on the output side.
transformer, stepup
A device that has a greater number of turns of wire on the output side
(secondary coils) than the input side (primary coils) and so increases the
e.m.f. and reduces the electric current on the output side.
turns ratio
The ratio of turns of wire on the input side to the output side of a
transformer equals the ratio of the input e.m.f. to the output e.m.f.
Capacitors
capacitance
The charge stored on a capacitor per unit voltage across it.
farad
1 F is the amount of capacitance when 1 C of charge stored on the plate per

volt across the plates.
exponential decay
It has a constant-ratio property: quantity decays by equal ratio in equal

intervals of time. For example capacitor discharge and radioactive decay.
time constant (RC)
The time taken for the charge stored on a capacitor to fall to 1/e (= 37%) of
its original value. It is the product of resistance and capacitance of a circuit.
Radioactivity
radioactive decay
The breakdown of an unstable radionuclide causing the emission of an alpha

particle, beta particle or gamma photon from the nucleus.
random
Radioactive decay is random; it is not possible to predict when a radioactive

nucleus will decay.
spontaneous
Radioactive decay is spontaneous; it cannot be induced - changing external

conditions (e.g. temperature or pressure) will not cause or prevent the decay
of a radioactive nucleus.
alpha particle
A particle comprising of two protons and two neutrons emitted from the
nucleus during alpha decay.
beta particle
A high-speed (energy) electron (positron) emitted from the nucleus during

beta decay.
beta minus decay
The radioactive decay that causes emission of a - particle and an

antineutrino from the nucleus when a neutron breaks down into a proton
under the influence of the weak nuclear force.
beta plus decay
The radioactive decay that causes emission of a + particle and a neutrino

from the nucleus when a proton breaks down into a neutron under the
influence of the weak nuclear force.
weak nuclear force
The fundamental force responsible for beta decay. It occurs between leptons
and during hadron decay.
activity (A)
The number of radioactive decays per unit time.
becquerel (Bq)
1 Bq is 1 radioactive decay per second.
decay constant ()
The probability of a nucleus decaying per unit time or the fraction of nuclei
that decay per unit time ( = A/N).
half-life
The average time taken for the activity of a radioactive source (number of
undecayed nuclei) to decrease to half its original value.
ionisation
The process of adding or removing an electron from an atom. N.B. ionisation

by radioactive particles only involves removal of electrons.
Nuclear Physics
nucleon
A particle in the nucleus; a proton or neutron.
nucleon (mass)
number
The total number of neutrons and protons inside a nucleus.
proton (atomic)
number
The number of protons inside a nucleus.
isotope
Atoms with same number of protons but different number of neutrons.
unified atomic
mass unit
Unit of mass equal to 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
strong nuclear
force
The fundamental force between nucleons that holds the nucleus together. It
is attractive and has a very short range (~10-14 m).
binding energy
The energy required to separate a nucleus into all its nucleons i.e. all the
individual protons and neutrons. Or the energy released to form a nucleus
from its nucleons.
binding energy per

nucleon
The average energy required to remove a nucleon from the nucleus.
mass defect
The difference between the total mass of the individual, separate nucleons
and the mass of the nucleus.
nuclear fusion
The process of two nuclei joining together and releasing energy from the
increase in binding energy.
nuclear fission
The process of splitting a large nucleus into two smaller nuclei, often with
the emission of several neutrons. This releases energy because of the
increase in binding energy of products compared with reactants.
fission products
The particles and energy released when a nucleus undergoes fission.
chain reaction
One reaction causing another, which causes another, etc E.g. a neutron
produced in nuclear fission can induce further fission reactions.

moderator
A material e.g. carbon (graphite) used in a nuclear fission reactor to slow

down the fast-moving neutrons from a fission reaction so that they have a
greater chance of interacting with the fissile nuclei.
control rod
Boron rod absorbs neutrons so as to reduce the rate of a nuclear fission

chain reaction.
Particle Physics
fundamental
particle
A particle that cannot be broken down into smaller components (e.g.

leptons).
antiparticle
A particle of antimatter that has the same rest mass but, if charged, the
equal and opposite charge to its corresponding particle.
positron
The antiparticle of the electron.
annihilation
The process when a particle and antiparticle interact and their combined
mass is all converted into energy via E = mc2.
lepton
A fundamental particle. For example an electron or a neutrino.
neutrino
A fundamental particle (lepton) with a very small mass and no charge.
quark
A component of hadrons, possibly a fundamental particle. There are six

types of quark; up, down, strange, charm, top and bottom.
up quark
Type of quark with charge = 2/3e, baryon number = 1/3 and strangeness = 0
down quark
Type of quark with charge = -1/3e, baryon number = 1/3 and strangeness = 0
strange quark
Type of quark with charge = -e, baryon number = 1/3 and strangeness = -1
hadron
A group of particles consisting of quarks (i.e. baryons and mesons).
baryon
A group of particles consisting of three quarks (e.g. a proton or neutron).
neutron
A nucleon comprising of 3 quarks (1 up and 2 down) and has no charge.
proton
A nucleon comprising 3 quarks (2 up and 1 down) and has a charge of +e.
baryon number
A property of baryons and quarks that is conserved in particle interactions.
strangeness
The property of some quarks that is conserved in the strong interaction but
not in weak interactions.
X-rays
X-rays
An electromagnetic wave with wavelengths between 1012 m and 109 m.
intensity
The energy incident per unit area per unit time; measured in W m2.
half-value
thickness
The distance in a medium over which X-ray intensity is reduced to half its
original value.
collimation
Focussing an electromagnetic wave (e.g. X-rays) to provide a parallel beam.
photoelectric
effect
An X-ray photon is absorbed by an electron in an atom resulting in the

removal of the electron. The electron gains all the energy from the incident
photon.
Compton effect
The effect whereby X-ray photon ejects an electron from an atom. The X-ray
photon is scattered and has a longer wavelength (lower energy). The ejected
electron gains some energy from the X-ray photon.
pair production
The process of creating a particleantiparticle pair from a high-energy

photon. For example X-ray electron + positron. Example of conversion of
energy into mass via E = mc2.
image intensifier
A device used to convert X-ray photons into an increased number of visible

light photons in order to enhance the X-ray image and reduce exposure
times.
contrast medium
Medium with a significantly higher density (proton number) compared to

surroundings that easily absorbs X-rays e.g. barium is used to reveal outline /
shape of soft tissues in an X-ray image.
computerised axial
tomography (CAT)
A process using X-rays and computers to produce an image of a slice through

the body by changing the relative positions of the X-rays and detectors.
Ultrasound
ultrasound
High frequency (> 20 kHz) sound waves above the human hearing range.
acoustic
impedance
The product of density of medium and its speed of sound in medium (Z =c).
impedance
matching
The process of matching materials with similar acoustic impedances to

maximise transmission of ultrasound through the materials (hence minimise
reflection). For example a coupling gel used in ultrasound scanning.
piezoelectric effect
The change in volume (expand / contract) of certain crystals when an

alternating p.d. is applied across them results in the production of
ultrasound. Alternatively the production of an e.m.f. when certain crystals
are placed under stress when receiving ultrasound.
pulse repetition
frequency
Number of ultrasound pulses per unit time in ultrasound imaging.
A scan
A pulse of ultrasound is sent into the body and the echoes are detected and
displayed on an oscilloscope as a voltage against time graph.
B scan
A 2D image is built up, using many ultrasound elements, onto a screen

positioning dots to represent the position of the reflecting surfaces and
brightness determining the intensity of the reflection.
Doppler effect
The change in wavelength (frequency) caused by the relative motion

between the wave source and an observer.
Nuclear Medicine
medical tracer
A radioactive substance that is ingested or injected into a patient.
gamma camera
A detector of gamma photons emitted from a patient given a radioactive

tracer. This is used to produce a real-time image of the path of the medical
tracer through the body.
collimator
Consists of a series of long, narrow lead tubes. It defines exactly where the ray originated. Only -rays perpendicular to the plane to the collimator (or
parallel to the lead tubes) can pass through it.
scintillator
Converts the -rays photons into thousands of light photons.
photomultiplier
tubes (PMTs)
Converts light photons into amplified electrical pulses.
positron emission
tomography (PET)
The detection of gamma photons produced when positrons annihilate with

electrons inside the body to map out active areas within the body.
Magnetic Resonance
magnetic
resonance imaging
(MRI)
The use of powerful magnetic fields and the spin of hydrogen atoms
(protons) within the body to produce a detailed image of the internal organs.
precession
The movement of the axis of a spinning object around another axis.
Larmor frequency
The frequency of precession of a spinning object in an external magnetic

field.
magnetic
resonance
When a radiofrequency pulse of the same frequency as the Larmor

frequency is applied the nuclei flip from a low to high energy state.
relaxation time
The time taken for the nuclei to return back from their high to low energy
state.
Cosmology
astronomical unit
The average distance from the Earth to the Sun. 1 AU = 1.5 1011 m.
light year
The distance light travels in a year through a vacuum. 1 ly = 9.5 1015 m.
parsec
The distance from an object which has a parallax angle of 1 arc second. 1 pc
= 3.1 1016 m.
parallax
The apparent shifting of the position of a star relative to the background of

distant stars when observed from different positions in the Earths orbit
round the Sun.
star
A large body in space emitting heat and light from nuclear fusion within its
core.
planet
A body orbiting a star.
moon
A body orbiting (natural satellite of) a planet.
comet
A body comprising mainly ice and rock in orbit around a star. These orbits
are usually highly elliptical.
galaxy
A cluster of billions of stars orbiting its own centre of gravity.
universe
All the space, matter and energy that exists (i.e. everything that physically
exists).
nebula
A huge collection of mainly hydrogen gas and dust forming a cloud-like

structure in space.
main sequence star A star in the main / stable phase of its life.
red giant
A star in the later stages of its life that has nearly exhausted the hydrogen in
its core. It begins to fuse helium into carbon. The outer layers expand and
cool down.
white dwarf
A hot, dense star which is the end product of low mass stars when the outer
layers have dispersed into space.
supernova
An intensely bright exploding star caused when a large star collapses in on

itself.
neutron star
The remains of the core of a large star after it has gone a supernova. It is
incredibly dense (density of nuclear matter) and is composed mainly of
neutrons.
black hole
The remains of the core of a very large star after it has gone supernova. It
has a very high gravitational field strength that not even light can escape
from it.
redshift
The apparent increase in wavelength towards the red end of the

electromagnetic spectrum caused when galaxies move away from the
observer (Earth). An example of the Doppler effect.
Hubbles law
The speed of recession of a galaxy is directly proportional to its distance

from the Earth.
big bang theory
The universe was created from a single point, which contained all its energy
and matter. Infinitessimally small and infintely dense. It expanded from this
state into the universe we see today.
cosmological
principle
On a large scale the universe is homogeneous (uniform) and isotropic (same

in all directions.
Olbers paradox
Assuming that the universe is static and infinite, there will be an infinite
numbers of stars in the universe, no matter what direction you look you will
always see a star along your line of sight. Therefore the night sky will be as
bright as the day sky
flat universe
The mean density of the universe is equal to the critical density. The universe
will expand towards but never reaching a definite (finite) limit. The rate of
expansion will tend to zero.
closed universe
The mean density of the universe is greater than the critical density. The
universe will contract back into a single point (Big Crunch).
open universe
The mean density of the universe is less than the critical density. The
universe will continue to expand forever.
critical density of
the universe (c)
The average density of the universe which will give a flat universe will just
expand forever. Above which the universe will collapse (closed universe) and
below which the universe will expand forever (open universe).
X-rays
X-rays
A form of electromagnetic wave with wavelengths between 1012 m and 109

m.
intensity
The energy incident per unit area per unit time; measured in W m2.
half-value
thickness
The distance in a medium over which X-ray intensity is reduced to half its
original value.
collimation
Focussing an electromagnetic wave (e.g. X-rays) to provide a parallel beam.
photoelectric
effect
A X-ray photon is absorbed by an electron in an atom resulting in the

removal of the electron. The electron gains all the energy from the incident
photon.
Compton effect
The effect whereby X-ray photon ejects an electron from an atom. The X-ray
photon is scattered and has a longer wavelength (lower energy). The ejected
electron gains some energy from the X-ray photon.
pair production
The process of creating a particleantiparticle pair from a high-energy

photon. For example X-ray electron + positron. Example of conversion of
energy into mass via E = mc2.
image intensifier
A device used to convert X-ray photons into an increased number of visible

light photons in order to enhance the X-ray image and reduce exposure
times.
contrast medium
Medium with a significantly higher density (proton number) compared to

surroundings that easily absorbs X-rays e.g. barium is used to reveal outline
/shape of soft tissues in an X-ray image.
computerised axial
tomography (CAT)
A process using X-rays and computers to produce an image of a slice through

the body by changing the relative positions of the X-rays and detectors.
Ultrasound
ultrasound
High frequency sound waves above the human hearing range i.e. greater than
20 kHz.
acoustic
impedance
The product of density of medium and its speed of sound in medium (Z =c).
impedance
matching
The process of matching up materials with similar acoustic impedances to

allow good transmission of ultrasound through the materials (hence reduce
reflection). For example the use of a coupling gel with ultrasound scanning.
piezoelectric effect
The change in volume of certain crystals when alternating p.d. is applied

across them results in the production of ultrasound. Alternatively the
production of an e.m.f. when certain crystals are placed under stress when
receiving ultrasound.
transducer
A device that converts a non-electrical signal (e.g. sound) into an electrical

signal. For example a microphone or ultrasound transducer
pulse repetition
frequency
Number of ultrasound pulses per unit time in ultrasound imaging.
A scan
A pulse of ultrasound is sent into the body and the echoes are detected and
displayed on an oscilloscope as a voltage against time graph.
B scan
A 2D image is built up, using many ultrasound elements, onto a screen

positioning dots to represent the position of the reflecting surfaces and
brightness determining the intensity of the reflection.
Doppler effect
The change in wavelength (frequency) caused by the relative motion

between the wave source and an observer.
Nuclear Medicine
tracer
A radioactive substance that is ingested or injected into a patient.
gamma camera
A detector of gamma photons emitted from a patient given a radioactive

tracer. This is used to produce a real-time image of the path of the tracer
through the body.
collimator
Consists of a series of long, narrow lead tubes. It defines exactly where the ray originated. Only -rays perpendicular to the plane to the collimator (or
parallel to the lead tubes) can pass through it.
scintillator
Converts the -rays photons into thousands of light photons.
photomultiplier
tubes (PMTs)
Converts light photons into amplified electrical pulses.
positron emission
tomography (PET)
The use of gamma photons produced when positrons annihilate with

electrons inside the body to map out active areas within the body.
Magnetic Resonance
magnetic
resonance imaging
(MRI)
The use of powerful magnetic fields and the spin of hydrogen atoms
(protons) within the body to produce a detailed image of the internal organs.
precession
The movement of the axis of a spinning object around another axis.
Larmor frequency
The frequency of precession of a spinning object in an external magnetic

field.
resonance
When a radiofrequency pulse of the same frequency as the Larmor

frequency is applied the nuclei flip from a low to high energy state.
relaxation time
The time taken for the nuclei to return back from their high to low energy
state.
Cosmology
astronomical unit
The average distance from the Earth to the Sun. 1 AU = 1.5 1011 m.
light year
The distance light travels in a year through a vacuum. 1 ly = 9.5 1015 m.
parsec
The distance from an object which has a parallax angle of 1 arc second. 1 pc
= 3.1 1016 m.
parallax
The apparent shifting of the position of a star relative to the background of

distant stars when observed from different positions in the Earths orbit
round the Sun.
star
A large body in space emitting heat and light from nuclear fusion within its
core.
planet
A body orbiting a star.
moon
A body orbiting (natural satellite of) a planet.
comet
A body comprising mainly ice and rock in orbit around a star. These orbits
are usually highly elliptical.
galaxy
A cluster of billions of stars orbiting its own centre of gravity.
Universe
All the space, matter and energy that exists (i.e. everything that physically
exists).
nebulae
A huge collection of mainly hydrogen gas and dust forming a cloud-like

structure in space.
main sequence star A star in the main / stable phase of its life.
red giant
A star in the later stages of its life that has nearly exhausted the hydrogen in
its core. It begins to fuse helium into carbon. The outer layers expand and
cool down.
white dwarf
A hot, dense star which is the end product of low mass stars when the outer
layers have dispersed into space.
supernova
An intensely bright exploding star caused when a large star collapses in on

itself.
neutron star
The remains of the core of a large star after it has undergone a supernova. It
is incredibly dense (density of nuclear matter) and is composed mainly of
neutrons.
black hole
The remains of the core of a very large star after it has gone supernova. It
has a very high gravitational field strength that not even light can escape
from it.
redshift
The apparent increase in wavelength towards the red end of the

electromagnetic spectrum caused when luminous objects (e.g. stars and
galaxies) move away from the observer. An example of the Doppler effect.
Hubbles law
The speed of recession of a galaxy is directly proportional to its distance

from the Earth.
big bang theory
The Universe was created from a single point a singularity; infinitesimal in

size and infinitely dense. It expanded from this state into the universe we
see today.
cosmological
principle
On a large scale the Universe is homogeneous (uniform) and isotropic (same

in all directions.
Olbers paradox
Assuming that the Universe is static and infinite, there will be an infinite
numbers of stars in the Universe, no matter what direction you look you will
always see a star along your line of sight. Therefore the night sky will be as
bright as the day sky
flat universe
The mean density of the Universe is equal to the critical density. The
Universe will expand towards but never reaching a definite (finite) limit. The
rate of expansion will tend to zero.
closed universe
The mean density of the Universe is greater than the critical density. The
Universe will contract back into a single point (Big Crunch).
open universe
The mean density of the Universe is less than the critical density. The
Universe will continue to expand forever.
critical density of
the universe (c)
The average density of the universe which will give a flat universe will just
expand forever. Above which the universe will collapse (closed universe) and
below which the universe will expand forever (open universe).
Physics Data
The data, formulae and relationships relevant to each unit will be printed as an insert to the
examination paper.
Data
Values are given to three significant figures, except where more are useful.
speed of light in a vacuum
permittivity of free space
elementary charge
Planck constant
gravitational constant
Avogadro constant
molar gas constant
Boltzmann constant
electron rest mass
proton rest mass
neutron rest mass
alpha particle rest mass
acceleration of free fall
Conversion Factors
unified atomic mass unit
electron-volt
c
0
e
h
G
NA
R
k
me
mp
mn
m
g
3.00 108 m s-1

8.85 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2 (F m-1)
1.60 10-19 C
6.63 10-34 J s
6.67 10-11 N m2 kg-2
6.02 x 1023 mol-1
8.31 J mol-1 K-1
1.38 x 10-23 J K-1
9.11 10-31 kg
1.673 10-27 kg
1.675 10-27 kg
6.646 10-27 kg
9.81 m s-2
1 u = 1.661 10-27 kg
1 eV = 1.60 10-19 J
1 day = 8.64 104 s
1 year 3.16 107 s
1 light year 9.5 1015 m
Mathematical equations
arc length = r
circumference of circle = 2r
area of circle = r2
curved surface area of cylinder = 2rh
volume of cylinder = r2h
surface area of sphere = 4r2
volume of sphere = 4/3 r3
Pythagoras theorem: a2 = b2 + c2
For small angle sin tan and cos 1
lg(AB) = lg(A) + lg(B)
lg(A/B) = lg(A) lg(B)
ln(xn) = n ln(x)
ln(ekx) = kx
G481 Mechanics Formulae and Relationships
Fx = F cos
Fy = F sin
a = v / t
v = u + at
s = (u + v)t
s = ut + at2
v2 = u2 + 2as
F = ma
W = mg
moment = Fx
torque = Fd
=m/V
p=F/A
W = Fx cos
Ek = mv2
Ep = mgh
efficiency = ( useful energy output / total energy input ) 100%
F = kx
E = Fx
E = kx2
stress = F / A
strain = x / L
Young modulus = stress / strain
G482 Electrons, Waves & Photons Formulae and Relationships
Q = It
I = Anev
W = VQ
V = IR
R = L/A
P = VI
P = I2R
P = V2/R
W = VIt
e.m.f. = V + Ir
Vout = [R2 / (R1 + R2 )] Vin
v = f
= ax/D
d sin = n
E = hf
E = hc/
hf = + KEmax
= h/ mv
R = R1 + R 2 +
1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2
G484 Newtonian World Formulae and Relationships
F = p / t
v = 2 r / T
a = v2 / r
F = mv2 / r
F = GMm / r2
g=F/m
g = G M / r2
T2 = (42 / GM) r 3
f=1/T
= 2 / T = 2f
a = (2f)2 x
x = A cos(2ft)
vmax = (2f) A
E = mc
pV = NkT
pV = nRT
E = 3/2 kT
G485 Forces, Particles & Frontiers of Physics Formulae and Relationships
E=F/Q
F = Qq / 40 r2
E = Q / 40 r2
E=V/d
F = BIL sin
F = BQv
= BA cos
induced e.m.f. = rate of change of magnetic flux linkage
Vs / Vp = ns / np
Q = VC
W = QV
W = CV2
time constant = CR
x = x0 et/CR
C = C1 + C 2 +
1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 +
A = N
A = A0 et
N = N0 et
t = 0.693
E = mc2
I = I0 ex
Z = c
Ir / I0 = (Z2 Z1)2 / (Z2 + Z1)2
/ = v / c
age of Universe = 1/ H0
0 = 3H02 / (8G)

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OCR Physics A

G485 Forces, Particles &

Nuclear Fission Reactor

G485 Forces, Particles & Frontiers of Physics Syllabus

Back to Table of Contents

Objects with charge.

Electric field lines leave/meet charged surfaces at 90o.

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Uniform Electric Field

Uniform Electric Field

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Radial Electric Fields

Electric Field Strength

Electric field strength is directly

The force between two charges Q1 and

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Comparing Electric and Gravitational Fields

Due to objects with

Nature of force i.e.

Name of Law and

Newtons law of gravitation

Universal gravitational constant,

Always attractive (hence negative

Charged parallel plates

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Near Earths surface

Magnetic Fields Patterns

Right-hand grip rule:

Like a bar magnet

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Magnetic Force on a Straight Wire

Current going out of board

field increases below conductor

The magnetic force exerted on a current-carrying conductor placed at right angles to a

Unit of flux density is tesla, T.

When the current elem

Flemings Left Hand Rule Direction of Magnetic Force

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Charged Particle Moving in a Magnetic Field

The charged particle follows a circular path. Explain

The frequency is independent of the radius and the velocity.

Uses: particle accelerators (cyclotrons and synchrotons) accelerate particles moving in

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Charged particles can be deflected by both magnetic and electric fields.

The detector is moved to different radii to detect the different ions.

Magnetic Flux, Flux Density and Flux Linkage

Flux linkage (N)

The total flux

Product of magnetic flux and

An e.m.f. is also induced when the flux linking the

Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

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Electricity can be generated by rotating a coil of

Flux linkage N is when the magnetic field lines

When flux linkage is maximum i.e. = 0 plane of coil is perpendicular to B field:

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A transformer makes use of electromagnetic induction to increase / decrease voltage.

The ratio of e.m.f.s in the secondary and primary coils is given by

If the transformer is 100 % efficient then there is no power loss.

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N.B. The positive plate connects to the positive terminal.

Capacitors store charge.

The proportionality constant is capacitance.