Be able to recognize experimental vs survey vs case study vs naturalistic observation

research ?
The essential differences are as follows:

Experiments vs Observation and Survey:

With experiments you manipulate one variable then measure another, this means you know how
changing one variable causally affects another and you can draw inferences about cause and
effect. In observational studies and surveys you are not manipulating any variables so you can
only draw correlational conclusions which indicate associations between variables rather than
causal links.
Observation vs Survey:
In observational research you observe people in the natural environment, unually with them
being unaware of this so you see their natural behaviour. e.g. If you see them use a candy
machine you know they eat candy. With surveys they know they are being surveyed so you can
get all sorts of things affecting the results such as demand characteristics. e.g. They may say
they don't eat candy but how can you be sure?
Case Study

Definition:
A case study is an in-depth study of one person. Much of Freud's work and theories
were developed through individual case studies.
In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to
seek patterns and causes for behavior. The hope is that learning gained from
studying one case can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies
tend to be highly subjective and it is difficult to generalize results to a larger
population.
Types of Case Studies

Explanatory: Used to do causal investigations.

Exploratory: A case study that is sometimes used as a prelude to further,

more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information
before developing their research questions and hypotheses.

Descriptive: Involves starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then
observed and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing
theory.

Intrinsic: A type of case study in which the researcher has a personal interest
in the case.

Collective: Involves studying a group of individuals.

Instrumental: Occurs when the individual or group allows researchers to

understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.

Case Study Methods

Prospective: A type of case study in which an individual or group of people is

observed in order to determine outcomes. For example, a group of
individuals might be watched over an extended period of time to observe the
progression of a particular disease.

Retrospective: A type of case study that involves looking at historical

information. For example, researchers might start with an outcome, such as
a disease, and then backwards at information about the individuals life to
determine risk factors that may have contributed to the onset of the illness.

Know that research findings of one study must be replicated in other studies for us
to be confident that the findings really are trustworthy ... test more than once to be
absolutely certain / 100% sure
Understand the concept of representsativeness of one's sample --

Representative sampling is a type of statistical sampling in which a researcher attempts to

select individuals which are representative of a larger population. In statistical sampling,
people gather data from a small group and try to extrapolate the results to make
generalizations about a larger group. Truly representative sampling is extremely hard to
accomplish, and researchers may dedicate a great deal of time and funding to getting the
most representative sample possible.

As a research tool, statistical sampling is extremely valuable. It allows people to study a

population without studying every single individual in that population. Average individuals are
quite familiar with statistical sampling, even though they might not be aware of it; the next
time you open a newspaper, look for an article which talks about the result of a study. A line
like 67% of American pet owners sleep with their pets is the result of a representative
sample of pet-owning Americans. Incidentally, that number comes from the Sealy Mattress
Company.
In order to get a representative sample, the researchers must first identify the population
being sampled. In the example above, the researchers wanted to collect data on how many
Americans slept with their animals, so the population was American pet owners. The next step
for the researchers is finding a way to randomly select people from this population so that
they can survey these individuals for data.
If the researchers collect too heavily from one segment of the population, such as all American
pet owners going to veterinary clinics in the city of Chicago, the result is not a
representativesample of the population being studied. Therefore, researchers must think of a
multitude of methods for collecting data to ensure that evenly samples all aspects of the
population being studied.
When you read a study which has been conducted with the use of representative sampling, it
is a good idea to find out which methods the researchers used. Sampling error can yield
incorrect results, and therefore you want to know how the data was collected, who it was
collected from, and what sort of controls were in place to ensure that the sampling was
representative. By using critical thinking to look at statistics and representative sampling, you
will be able to determine whether or not they are truly useful and applicable.
Chapter 6 - Learning
Classical Conditioning
Behaviorism is a school of thought in psychology based on the assumption that
learning occurs through interactions with the environment. Two other assumptions
of this theory are that the environment shapes behavior and that taking internal
mental states such as thoughts, feelings and emotions into consideration is useless
in explaining behavior.
One of the best-known aspects of behavioral learning theory is classical
conditioning. Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning
is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental
stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.
It's important to note that classical conditioning involves placing a neutral signal
before a naturally occurring reflex. In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the
neutral signal was the sound of a tone and the naturally occurring reflex was
salivating in response to food. By associating the neutral stimulus with the
environmental stimulus (the presentation of food), the sound of the tone alone
could produce the salivation response.

In order to understand how more about how classical conditioning works, it is

important to be familiar with the basic principles of the process.
The Unconditioned Stimulus

The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically

triggers a response. For example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you
may immediately feel very hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the
unconditioned stimulus.
The Unconditioned Response

The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in

response to the unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the feeling of hunger in
response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response.
The Conditioned Stimulus

The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming

associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a
conditioned response. In our earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your
favorite food, you also heard the sound of a whistle. While the whistle is unrelated
to the smell of the food, if the sound of the whistle was paired multiple times with
the smell, the sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this
case, the sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus.
The Conditioned Response

The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral

stimulus. In our example, the conditioned response would be feeling hungry when
you heard the sound of the whistle.
Classical Conditioning in the Real World

In reality, people do not respond exactly like Pavlov's dogs. There are, however,
numerous real-world applications for classical conditioning. For example, many dog
trainers use classical conditioning techniques to help people train their pets.
These techniques are also useful in the treatment ofphobias or anxiety problems.
Teachers are able to apply classical conditioning in the class by creating a positive
classroom environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear. Pairing an
anxiety-provoking situation, such as performing in front of a group, with pleasant

surroundings helps the student learn new associations. Instead of feeling anxious
and tense in these situations, the child will learn to stay relaxed and calm.
More About Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning can be used to increase the amount of a behavior, but it can
also be used to decrease behavior. Learn more about classical conditioning
phenomena.
Understand the basic process involved in acquiring a classically conditioned
response to something --Behaviorists have described a number of different phenomena associated with
classical conditioning. Some of these elements involve the initial establishment of
the response, while others describe the disappearance of a response. These
elements are important in understanding the classical conditioning process.
Acquisition

Acquisition is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and
gradually strengthened. For example, imagine that you are conditioning a dog to
salivate in response to the sound of a bell. You repeatedly pair the presentation of
food with the sound of the bell. You can say the response has been acquired as
soon as the dog begins to salivate in response to the bell tone. Once the response
has been acquired, you can gradually reinforce the salivation response to make sure
the behavior is well learned.
Extinction

Extinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or disappear.

In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer
paired with an unconditioned stimulus. For example, if the smell of food (the
unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the sound of a whistle (the
conditioned stimulus), it would eventually come to evoke the conditioned response
of hunger. However, if the unconditioned stimulus (the smell of food) were no
longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (the whistle), eventually the
conditioned response (hunger) would disappear.
Sponteneous Recovery

Spontaneous Recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest

period or period of lessened response. If the conditioned stimulus and

unconditioned stimulus are no longer associated, extinction will occur very rapidly
after a spontaneous recovery.
Stimulus Generalization

Stimulus Generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke

similar responses after the response has been conditioned. For example, if a child
has been conditioned to fear a stuffed white rabbit, the child will exhibit fear of
objects similar to the conditioned stimulus.
Discrimination

Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and

other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus. For
example, if a bell tone were the conditioned stimulus, discrimination would involve
being able to tell the difference between the bell tone and other similar sounds.
GO to page 237 in the book
How can a conditioned response become extinct ?? ---Extinction in Classical Conditioning

Consider this example of extinction in classical conditioning.

If the smell of food (the unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the
sound of a whistle (the conditioned stimulus), it would eventually come to
evoke the conditioned response of hunger. However, if the unconditioned
stimulus (the smell of food) was no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus
(the whistle), then the conditioned response (hunger) would eventually
disappear.
Extinction in Operant Conditioning

Consider this example of extinction in operant conditioning:

A teacher has been using positive reinforcement to encourage good behavior in
her classroom. When a student raises his or her hand instead of shouting out
the answers, the teacher rewards the student with a fruit-flavored candy. After
several days of this, the children become sick of the candy, and stop raising
their hands. Because the children have become satiated and the candy is no
longer rewarding, extinction of the trained behavior has occurred.
Understand recovery and renewal effects are pretty common, and what makes a
renewal (relapse ) effect more likely ??? ---

THE RENEWAL EFFECT

Associative learning occurs when an organism links two or more items of information. The
simplest forms of associative learning are classical conditioning and instrumental
conditioning. Classical conditioning is also known as Pavlovian conditioning in honor of Ivan
Pavlov (18491936) who was the first person to conduct extensive research of this nature.
In a typical experiment with dogs, Pavlov would present a neutral auditory stimulus such as
a metronome immediately before applying sand or food powder to the dog's tongue, which
produced salivation. After a number of these pairings, Pavlov presented the metronome
alone, and the dog now salivated. Pavlov developed terminology for these components of
classical conditioning: The dog experienced a relatively neutral stimulus or conditioned
stimulus (CS, the metronome) in conjunction with a biologically significant stimulus or
unconditioned stimulus (US, the food powder), which always produces an unconditioned
response (UCR, salivation). After multiple CS-US pairings (i.e., acquisition), presentation of
the CS alone elicited a response, the conditioned response (CR, also salivation), which is
appropriate for its corresponding US. Following acquisition of the CR to the metronome CS,
Pavlov also reported that presenting the CS alone a number of times would eventually
eliminate the salivation CR, a procedure termed extinction.
Although most classical conditioning experiments have used nonhumans, classical
conditioning readily occurs in humans (e.g., Hermans, Craske, Mineka, & Lovibond, 2006).
With nonhumans, many model systems have been developed to explore classical
conditioning, including conditioned eyeblink, conditioned taste aversion, and conditioned
approach/avoidance (Domjan, 2003). Clearly, these have little classroom application, but
the most common classical conditioning paradigm, conditioned emotional response, is
applicable. Conditioned emotional reactions can be either positive or negative. A positive
conditioned emotional response is produced by pairing a relatively neutral stimulus with a
US that elicits a positive emotion such as happiness. For example, a parent may use the
preferred taste of cheese to cover the flavor of broccoli. After a few meals of cheesy
broccoli, a child will be more willing to eat broccoli by itself (for a review of food preference
learning, see Capaldi, 1996). Although it is possible to produce positive emotional reactions,
broad application of this methodology has not been implemented (other than in advertising
when an attractive model is paired with a product). In practicality, it may be difficult for a
teacher to spend substantial time during the earliest portions of class to pair their presence
with a positively affective US. One can imagine only the youngest of children would not see
through an instructor plying them with candy or treats on the first day of class.

Instead, the more commonly studied phenomenon, and the more likely classroom
occurrence, is the negative conditioned emotional response. A classic example of
conditioned fear in humans is the Little Albert Study conducted by Watson and Rayner
(1920). Watson and Rayner examined if a phobia could be induced in a human, so they
borrowed nine-month-old Albert from the nursery at Johns Hopkins University. After
recording Albert's baseline responses to a range of stimuli such as animals and neutral
objects, conditioning began two months later. During acquisition, a white rat was paired with
a loud noise US (Watson clanged a steel bar with a hammer) seven times. Five days later,
Albert was tested with a range of stimuli, including the white rat. Albert cringed and cried in
response to the rat, behaviors that were quite different from his curiosity about the rat
during the baseline phase. They tested long-term retention of fear 30 days later, and Albert
was still scared of the white rat and other white objects such as a rabbit, white fur coat, and
Santa Claus mask. In addition to demonstrating conditioned fear in humans, Watson and
Rayner planned to examine the conditions necessary to extinguish Albert's fear.
Unfortunately, on the day prior to the implementation of the extinction phase, Albert was
released from the hospital with his fear intact.
Understand the Role of classical or evaluative conditioning in political and product ads--- you
should be able to diagram the US, UR, CS and CR for example ads ---

Classical Conditioning in Advertising

Advertisers are always looking for new ways to push their products onto the average citizen. Ads can be
seen and heard everywhere from television and the Internet to blimps and clothing. For decades,
advertisers have been using classical conditioning in advertising to influence consumers on a
subconscious level into buying the advertised product. Clear examples of this marketing technique is
particularly prominent in ads for foods and drinks, and perhaps even more obviously so in political
campaign ads.
Foods and drinks depicted in ads on television, billboards, and other visual media are known for being
exceptionally deceptive in their tantalizing, refreshing appearances. (When was the last time you received
a Big Mac that looked as good as the ones you see on TV?) However, altering the appearance of their
products is not the only trick that the marketing divisions of major food and drink companies use to make
consumers buy their products; they often pair their product in ads with upbeat music and feel-good
imagery. Take, for example, the Coca-Cola commercial that debuted during 2012s Super Bowl game.
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S2nBBMbjS8w) NE_Bear is very visibly distraught about his teams

performance in the game, but he clearly is much happier once he gets his paws on an ice-cold bottle of
Coca-Cola. The emotional imagery presented serves as an unconditioned stimulus which is meant to
condition the consumer to associate Coca-Cola, the conditioned stimulus, with positive feelings. Perhaps
the stronger UCS in the ad is the use of Beethovens Fifth Symphony, which is a very well-known and
respected piece of classical music. Another commercial which uses similar techniques is the Budweiser
commercial revolving around prohibition, which also debuted during the 2012 Super Bowl.
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RGgosT-v5sw) The commercial depicts a massive celebration to
commemorate the end of prohibition, which, just like the Coca-Cola commercial, aims to associate
positive feelings of celebration (the UCS) with the product for sale, in this case Budweiser (the CS). The
Budweiser commercial features well known, triumphant music, which further mirrors the Coca-Cola ad.
Examples of classical conditioning are even more blatantly obvious in political ads, specifically in ads
aiming to defame opposing candidates. Ironically, the aspects of classical conditioning in these ads are
often so obvious that many people consider the ads to be counterproductive, even laughable. One strong
example of classical conditioning in political advertising is an anti-Obama ad marketed toward women and
focusing on Obamacare. (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iys1BWUf-Nc) The entire video is structured
and formatted like a Nazi public announcement. The Orwellian context and grim color scheme serve as
unconditioned stimuli that are supposed to connect Obama, the conditioned stimulus, with oppressive,
totalitarian government. Another ad, which targets Mitt Romney, does a better job of showing the more
common stimuli that are used for classical conditioning through poltial advertising.
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PtSeLTOeXBs) The majority of the ad is simply quotes and statistics
about Romneys career as a businessman, but the presentation of these statements is where conditioning
comes into play. The entire ad features dull, dark colors like gray and brown, without any music or any
other appetitive stimulus. This is the model followed by most negative campaign ads.
In conclusion, modern advertisements rely heavily on classical conditioning to influence consumers.
Through the use of visual depiction of emotion, as well as other audiovisual stimuli, advertisers form a
connection between the advertised product and positive feelings, or in some cases negative ones.
Ope-rant Conditioning

What Is Operant Conditioning?

Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a

method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior.
Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a
consequence for that behavior.

Operant conditioning was coined by behaviorist B.F. Skinner, which is why you may
occasionally hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning. As a behaviorist, Skinner
believed that internal thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain
behavior. Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable
causes of human behavior.
Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon
the environment to generate consequences" (1953). In other words, Skinner's
theory explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit each
and every day.
Examples of Operant Conditioning

We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the
case of children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or
employees finishing projects to receive praise or promotions.
In these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in
behavior, but operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior. The
removal of an undesirable outcome or the use of punishment can be used to
decrease or prevent undesirable behaviors. For example, a child may be told they
will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class. This potential for
punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors.
Components of Operant Conditioning

Some key concepts in operant conditioning:

Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows.
There are two kinds of reinforcers:
1. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented
after the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a
response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as
praise or a direct reward.
2. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or
outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is
strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant.
In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.

Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or

outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of
punishment:
1. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application,
involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to
weaken the response it follows.
2. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when
an favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.
In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases.
Understand the processes involved in learning through operant conditioning -Psychologists use several key terms to discuss operant conditioning principles,
including reinforcement and punishment.

Reinforcement
Reinforcement is delivery of a consequence that increases the likelihood that a
response will occur. Positive reinforcement is the presentation of a stimulus after
a response so that the response will occur more often. Negative reinforcement is
the removal of a stimulus after a response so that the response will occur more
often. In this terminology, positive and negative dont mean good and bad.
Instead,positive means adding a stimulus, and negative means removing a
stimulus.

Punishment
Punishment is the delivery of a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a
response will occur. Positive and negative punishments are analogous to positive
and negative reinforcement. Positive punishment is the presentation of a
stimulus after a response so that the response will occur less often. Negative
punishment is the removal of a stimulus after a response so that the response will
occur less often.
Reinforcement helps to increase a behavior, while punishment helps to decrease a
behavior.

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers and Punishers

Reinforcers and punishers are different types of consequences:

Primary reinforcers, such as food, water, and caresses, are naturally

satisfying.

Primary punishers, such as pain and freezing temperatures, are naturally

unpleasant.

Secondary reinforcers, such as money, fast cars, and good grades, are
satisfying because theyve become associated with primary reinforcers.

Secondary punishers, such as failing grades and social disapproval, are

unpleasant because theyve become associated with primary punishers.

Secondary reinforcers and punishers are also calledconditioned reinforcers

and punishers because they arise through classical conditioning.

Is It Primary or Secondary?
To distinguish between primary and secondary reinforcers, people can ask
themselves this question: Would a newborn baby find this stimulus satisfying? If
the answer is yes, the reinforcer is primary. If the answer is no, its secondary. The
same idea can be applied to punishers by asking whether a baby would find the
stimulus unpleasant.

Shaping
Shaping is a procedure in which reinforcement is used to guide a response closer
and closer to a desired response.
Example: Lisa wants to teach her dog, Rover, to bring her the TV remote control.
She places the remote in Rovers mouth and then sits down in her favorite TV
watching chair. Rover doesnt know what to do with the remote, and he just drops it
on the floor. So Lisa teaches him by first praising him every time he accidentally
walks toward her before dropping the remote. He likes the praise, so he starts to
walk toward her with the remote more often. Then she praises him only when he
brings the remote close to the chair. When he starts doing this often, she praises
him only when he manages to bring the remote right up to her. Pretty soon, he
brings her the remote regularly, and she has succeeded in shaping a response.

Reinforcement Schedules
A reinforcement schedule is the pattern in which reinforcement is given over
time. Reinforcement schedules can be continuous or intermittent. In continuous
reinforcement, someone provides reinforcement every time a particular response
occurs. Suppose Rover, Lisas dog, pushes the remote under her chair. If she finds
this amusing and pats him every time he does it, she is providing continuous

reinforcement for his behavior. In intermittent or partial reinforcement,

someone provides reinforcement on only some of the occasions on which the
response occurs.
Types of Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules
There are four main types of intermittent schedules, which fall into two categories:
ratio or interval. In a ratio schedule, reinforcement happens after a certain
number of responses. In an interval schedule, reinforcement happens after a
particular time interval.

In a fixed-ratio schedule, reinforcement happens after a set number of

responses, such as when a car salesman earns a bonus after every three cars
he sells.

In a variable-ratio schedule, reinforcement happens after a particular

average number of responses. For example, a person trying to win a game by
getting heads on a coin toss gets heads every two times, on average, that
she tosses a penny. Sometimes she may toss a penny just once and get
heads, but other times she may have to toss the penny two, three, four, or
more times before getting heads.

In a fixed-interval schedule, reinforcement happens after a set amount of

time, such as when an attorney at a law firm gets a bonus once a year.

In a variable-interval schedule, reinforcement happens after a particular

average amount of time. For example, a boss who wants to keep her
employees working productively might walk by their workstations and check
on them periodically, usually about once a day, but sometimes twice a day,
or some-times every other day. If an employee is slacking off, she reprimands
him. Since the employees know there is a variable interval between their
bosss appearances, they must stay on task to avoid a reprimand.

Response Patterns
These different types of reinforcement schedules result in different patterns of
responses:

Partial or intermittent schedules of reinforcement result in responses that

resist extinction better than responses resulting from continuous
reinforcement. Psychologists call this resistance to extinction the partial
reinforcement effect.

Response rate is faster in ratio schedules than in interval schedules. Ratio

schedules depend on number of responses, so the faster the subject
responds, the more quickly reinforcement happens.

A fixed-interval schedule tends to result in a scalloped response pattern,

which means that responses are slow in the beginning of the interval and
faster just before reinforcement happens. If people know when reinforcement
will occur, they will respond more at that time and less at other times.

Variable schedules result in steadier response rates than fixed schedules

because reinforcement is less predictable. Responses to variable schedules
also cannot be extinguished easily.

Extinction
As in classical conditioning, extinction in operant conditioning is the gradual
disappearance of a response when it stops being reinforced. In the earlier example,
Lisas dog, Rover, started to put the remote under her chair regularly because she
continuously reinforced the behavior with pats on his head. If she decides that the
game has gone too far and stops patting him when he does it, hell eventually stop
the behavior. The response will be extinguished.

Stimulus Discrimination
If Lisa enjoys Rovers antics with the TV remote only in the daytime and not at night
when she feels tired, Rover will put the remote under her chair only during the day,
because daylight has become a signal that tells Rover his behavior will be
reinforced. Daylight has become a discriminative stimulus. A discriminative
stimulus is a cue that indicates the kind of consequence thats likely to occur after
a response. In operant conditioning, stimulus discrimination is the tendency for a
response to happen only when a particular stimulus is present.

Stimulus Generalization
Suppose Lisas dog, Rover, began to put the remote under her chair not only during
the day but also whenever a bright light was on at night, thinking she would
probably pat him. This is called stimulus generalization. In operant conditioning,
stimulus generalization is the tendency to respond to a new stimulus as if it is
the original discriminative stimulus.

---- Know that " reinforcement" , whether pos or neg (1) has to do with the pay-off or
reward the person recieves and ( 2) increases the behavior that leads to that pay off
--Reinforcement

Choosing a Schedule

Knowing what shaping means ??

Shaping
Shaping modifies behavior by reinforcing behaviors that progressive approximate the
target behavior (operant response). Shaping can be used to train organisms to perform
behaviors that would rarely if ever occur otherwise.
For example, to teach a child to write his or her first name, you initially give praise for
writing the first letter correctly. After the child has mastered that first step, letter-byletter you give praise until the entire name is correctly written.
Shaping is a conditioning procedure used primarily in the experimental analysis of behavior. The method used
is differential reinforcement of successive approximations. It was introduced by B.F. Skinner[1] with pigeons and
extended to dogs, dolphins, humans and other species. In shaping, the form of an existing response is
gradually changed across successive trials towards a desired target behavior by rewarding exact segments of
behavior. Skinner's explanation of shaping was this:
We first give the bird food when it turns slightly in the direction of the spot from any part of the cage. This
increases the frequency of such behavior. We then withhold reinforcement until a slight movement is made
toward the spot. This again alters the general distribution of behavior without producing a new unit. We
continue by reinforcing positions successively closer to the spot, then by reinforcing only when the head is
moved slightly forward, and finally only when the beak actually makes contact with the spot. ... The original
probability of the response in its final form is very low; in some cases it may even be zero. In this way we can
build complicated operants which would never appear in the repertoire of the organism otherwise. By
reinforcing a series of successive approximations, we bring a rare response to a very high probability in a short
time. ... The total act of turning toward the spot from any point in the box, walking toward it, raising the head,
and striking the spot may seem to be a functionally coherent unit of behavior; but it is constructed by a
continual process of differential reinforcement from undifferentiated behavior, just as the sculptor shapes his
figure from a lump of clay.[2]

Difference between negative reinforcement and punishment psychology

Definition: Punishment is an important part of B. F. Skinner's theory operant conditioning. According

to Skinner, punishment involves applying a stimulus after a behavior in order to reduce likelihood that
the behavior will occur again in the future.
People often confuse punishment with negative reinforcement. One of the easiest ways to remember
the difference between the two is to note that punishment always involves reducing a behavior while
negative reinforcement always involves increasing a behavior.
Learn more about this concept including the types, effectiveness and potential drawbacks in this
definition of punishment.

Negative Reinforcement strengthens a behavior because a negative condition is stopped or avoided as a

consequence of the behavior.
ex: a rat is shocked until it presses a lever in the cage, the shock stops. when it lets go of the lever, the
shock starts again. therefore, the rat learns to hold the lever down in order to avoid being shocked.
Punishment, on the other hand, weakens a behavior because a negative condition is introduced or
experienced as a consequence of the behavior.
Example: a rat is in a cage and when it presses the lever, it is shocked. When it lets go, the shock stops.
It learns not to press the lever so it wont get punished.

Understand that punishment tends to decrease the punished behavior

How to extinguish operantly conditioned responses ?
Extinction is observed in both operantly conditioned and classically conditioned behavior. When operant
behavior that has been previously reinforced no longer produces reinforcing consequences the behavior
gradually stops occurring.[1] In classical conditioning, when a conditioned stimulus is presented alone, so that it
no longer predicts the coming of the unconditioned stimulus, conditioned responding gradually stops. (For
example, afterPavlov's dog was conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, it eventually stopped salivating to
the bell after the bell had been sounded repeatedly but no food came.)

Extinction
In operant conditioning, extinction (the cessation of a particular response) occurs
when a response no longer results in reinforcement; it occurs in classical conditioning,
as discussed earlier, when the CS no longer produces a CR. One way to measure the
strength of the learning that has occurred (called response strength) is to see how
many unreinforced trials must occur before extinction takes place, (called resistance
to extinction). Sometimes, in both classical and operant conditioning, spontaneous
recovery occurs; that is, the response in question begins again even though there has

been no reinforcement (for example, a rat presses the bar even though the action no
longer produces a food pellet).

In Positive Reinforcement a particular behavior is strengthened by the consequence of

experiencing a positive condition. For example:
A hungry rat presses a bar in its cage and receives food. The food is a positive condition for the hungry
rat. The rat presses the bar again, and again receives food. The rat's behavior of pressing the bar is
strengthened by the consequence of receiving food.

In Negative Reinforcement a particular behavior is strengthened by the consequence of

stopping or avoiding a negative condition. For example:
A rat is placed in a cage and immediately receives a mild electrical shock on its feet. The shock is a
negative condition for the rat. The rat presses a bar and the shock stops. The rat receives another shock,
presses the bar again, and again the shock stops. The rat's behavior of pressing the bar is strengthened by
the consequence of stopping the shock.

In Punishment a particular behavior is weakened by the consequence of experiencing a

negative condition. For example:
A rat presses a bar in its cage and receives a mild electrical shock on its feet. The shock is a negative
condition for the rat. The rat presses the bar again and again receives a shock. The rat's behavior of
pressing the bar is weakened by the consequence of receiving a shock.

In Extinction a particular behavior is weakened by the consequence of not experiencing

a positive condition or stopping a negative condition. For example:
A rat presses a bar in its cage and nothing happens. Neither a positive or a negative condition exists for
the rat. The rat presses the bar again and again nothing happens. The rat's behavior of pressing the bar is
weakened by the consequence of not experiencing anything positive or stopping anything negative.

Schedules of Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, schedules of reinforcement are an important component of the learning
process. When and how often we reinforce a behavior can have a dramatic impact on the strength and
rate of the response.
A schedule of reinforcement is basically a rule stating which instances of a behavior will be reinforced.
In some case, a behavior might be reinforced every time it occurs. Sometimes, a behavior might not
be reinforced at all. Either positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement might be used, depending
on the situation. In both cases, the goal of reinforcement is always to strengthen the behavior and
increase the likelihood that it will occur again in the future.
In real-world settings, behaviors are probably not going to be reinforced each and every time they
occur. For situations where you are purposely trying to train and reinforce an action, such as in the
classroom, in sports or in animal training, you might opt to follow a specific reinforcement schedule.
As you'll see below, some schedules are best suited to certain types of training situations. In some

cases, training might call for starting out with one schedule and switching to another once the desired
behavior has been taught.
Certain schedules of reinforcement may be more effective in specific situations. There are two types of
reinforcement schedules:
1. Continuous Reinforcement
In continuous reinforcement, the desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs. Generally,
this schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning in order to create a strong association
between the behavior and the response. Once the response if firmly attached, reinforcement is usually
switched to a partial reinforcement schedule.
2. Partial Reinforcement
In partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part of the time. Learned behaviors are
acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more resistant toextinction.
There are four schedules of partial reinforcement:
1.

Fixed-ratio schedules are those where a response is reinforced only after a specified number
of responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of responding with only a brief pause
after the delivery of the reinforcer.

2.

Variable-ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number

of responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. Gambling and lottery games
are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule.

3.

Fixed-interval schedules are those where the first response is rewarded only after a
specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of responding near the
end of the interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer.

4.

Variable-interval schedules occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable

amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.

Choosing a Schedule
Deciding when to reinforce a behavior can depend upon a number of factors. In cases where you are
specifically trying to teach a new behavior, a continuous schedule is often a good choice. Once the
behavior has been learned, switching to a partial schedule is often preferable.

Realistically, reinforcing a behavior every single time it occurs can be difficult and requires a great deal
of attention and resources. Partial schedules not only tend to lead to behaviors that are more resistant
to extinction, they also reduce the risk that the subject will become satiated. If the reinforcer being
used is no longer desired or rewarding, the subject may stop performing the desired behavior.

GO OVER CONCEPT CHECK P 250 256

Observational Learning

Observational Learning
By GILLIAN FOURNIER

Replicating others novel behavior through observation and imitation; also known
as vicarious learning, modeling, or social learning. This theory was proposed by Albery
Bandura.
Basically, to learn in an observational manner someone must notice something someone
else is doing, remember it or record it in their mind, and finally replicate the behavior. The
behavior may or may not happen again. The choice to continue exhibiting the behavior
depends on the outcome (positive or negative, reward etc). The only things that limit this
type of learning are the intelligence level and the level of ability to copy the person well that
the learner possesses.
Example: In a famous experiment, social psychologist Al Bandura showed young children a
video of a woman hitting and kicking an inflatable Bobo doll. When left alone with a
similar doll, children copied the womans aggressive gestures.
I think this site demonstrates the ideas of social learning theory/observational learning
theory quite well:

Observational Learning
People and animals dont learn only by conditioning; they also learn by observing
others. Observational learning is the process of learning to respond in a particular way by watching
others, who are called models. Observational learning is also called vicarious conditioning because it
involves learning by watching others acquire responses through classical or operant conditioning.
Example: Brian might learn not to stand too close to a soccer goal because he saw another spectator
move away after getting whacked on the head by a wayward soccer ball. The other spectator stopped
standing close to the soccer goal because of operant conditioninggetting clobbered by the ball acted
as positive punishment for standing too close. Brian was indirectly, or vicariously, conditioned to move
away.
Bandura and the Bobo Dolls
The person best known for research on observational learning is psychologist Albert Bandura, who did
some landmark experiments showing that children who watched adults behaving aggressively were

more likely to behave aggressively themselves. His most famous experiment was the Bobo doll study.
Bandura let a group of kindergarteners watch a film of an adult violently attacking an inflatable plastic
toy shaped like Bobo the Clown by hitting it, sitting on it, hammering it, and so forth. He then let the
children into a room with Bobo dolls. The children precisely imitated the adults behavior, gleefully
attacking Bobo. Their behavior was a type of observational learning.

Featured Study p 259 Did filmed aggression influence childrens aggressive

acts ????? check that book
Violent Behavior: Summary
The research evidence shows clearly that media violence is a causal risk factor for aggressive and
violent behavior. There is considerably less evidence concerning violent crimes, but the few crosssectional and longitudinal studies that included violent crime measures also found similar links with
media violence. The size of the media violence effect is as large as or larger than that of many factors
commonly accepted by public policymakers and the general public as valid risk factors for violent
behavior. Figure 7 illustrates the current best estimates of several risk factors for youth violence. The
figure does not include the longitudinal violent video game effect because the one relevant study did
not include a specific measure of violence that is comparable to the other factors. However, several
studies have directly compared video game and TV violence using the same participants and the same
measures; they generally find a somewhat larger effect for video games. Thus, we expect that the
effect of violent video games on long-term violence will be larger than that of TV violence and smaller
than that of gang membership. Furthermore, it is likely that overall media violence exposure has a
somewhat larger effect than any individual type of media violence. In any case, the figure makes clear
that media violence exposure has a larger effect on later violent behavior than does substance use,
abusive parents, poverty, living in a broken home, or having low IQ.

132

Findings

Virtually since the dawn of television, parents, teachers, legislators, and mental health professionals have been
concerned about the content of television programs and its impact, particularly on children. Of special concern has
been the portrayal of violence, especially given psychologist Albert Bandura's work on social learning and the
tendency of children to imitate what they see. As a result of 15 years of consistently disturbing findings about the
violent content of children's programs, the Surgeon General's Scientific Advisory Committee on Television and Social
Behavior was formed in 1969 to assess the impact of violence on the attitudes, values and behavior of viewers. The
resulting Surgeon General's report and a follow-up report in 1982 by the National Institute of Mental Health identify
these major effects of seeing violence on television:
Children may become less sensitive to the pain and suffering of others
Children may be more fearful of the world around them
Children may be more likely to behave in aggressive or harmful ways toward others
Research by psychologists L. Rowell Huesmann, Leonard Eron and others found that children who watched many
hours of violence on television when they were in elementary school tended to also show a higher level of aggressive
behavior when they became teenagers. By observing these youngsters into adulthood, Drs. Huesmann and Eron
found that the ones who'd watched a lot of TV violence when they were eight years old were more likely to be

arrested and prosecuted for criminal acts as adults. Interestingly, being aggressive as a child did not predict watching
more violent TV as a teenager, suggesting that TV watching may more often be a cause rather than a consequence
of aggressive behavior.
Violent video games are a more recent phenomenon; therefore there is less research on their effects. However,
research by psychologist Craig A. Anderson and others shows that playing violent video games can increase a
person's aggressive thoughts, feelings and behavior both in laboratory settings and in actual life. In fact, a study by
Dr. Anderson in 2000 suggests that violent video games may be more harmful than violent television and movies
because they are interactive, very engrossing and require the player to identify with the aggressor.
Dr. Anderson and other researches are also looking into how violent music lyrics affect children and adults. In a 2003
study involving college students, Anderson found that songs with violent lyrics increased aggression related thoughts
and emotions and this effect was directly related to the violent content of the lyrics. "One major conclusion from this
and other research on violent entertainment media is that content matters," says Anderson. "This message is
important for all consumers, but especially for parents of children and adolescents."

Significance
A typical child in the U.S. watches 28 hours of TV weekly, seeing as many as 8,000 murders by the time he or she
finishes elementary school at age 11, and worse, the killers are depicted as getting away with the murders 75% of the
time while showing no remorse or accountability. Such TV violence socialization may make children immune to
brutality and aggression, while others become fearful of living in such a dangerous society.
With the research clearly showing that watching violent TV programs can lead to aggressive behavior, The American
Psychological Association passed a resolution in 1985 informing broadcasters and the public of the potential dangers
that viewing violence on television can have for children. In 1992, the APA's Task Force on Television and Society
published a report that further confirmed the link between TV violence and aggression.

Practical Application
In 1990, Congress passed the Children's Television Act (CTA), which outlined new regulations for commercial
broadcast stations. As a result of the CTA (which was updated in 1996), stations are required to air at least three
hours of programming "that furthers the education and informational needs of children 16 years and under in any
respect, including children's intellectual/cognitive or social/emotional needs." These programs must be labeled with
the designation "E/I" and have clearly stated, written educational objectives. These educational programs generally
contain both direct and indirect messages fostering cooperation and compassion rather than aggression. Parents
now have positive options when it comes to choosing TV programs for their children. Research on television and
violence has also led to the development of content-based rating systems that allow parents to make judgments
about the programs' content before allowing their children to watch a show.
Besides warning of the harmful effects of violent media content, psychology has a strong history of bringing out the
best in television. For example, Daniel R. Anderson, a professor of psychology at the University of Massachusetts,
has worked with producers of children's programs like Sesame Street and Captain Kangaroo to help TV shows
educate children.

Chapter 11 Development
Understand why we view development as a polygenic, multi-factorial process of Nature
and nurture, not nature vs nurture
The term polygenic inheritance is used to refer to the inheritance of quantitative traits, traits
which are influenced by multiple genes, not just one. In addition to involving multiple genes,
polygenic inheritance also looks at the role of environment in someone's development.
Because many traits are spread out across a continuum, rather than being divided into black and
white differences, polygenic inheritance helps to explain the way in which these traits are inherited
and focused. A related concept is pleiotropy, an instance where one gene influences multiple traits.

Early Mendelian genetics focused on very simple genetic traits which could be explained by a single
gene. For example, a flower might appear in either orange or yellow form, with no gradation
between the colors. By studying plants and the ways in which they mutated, early researchers were
able to learn more about the gene which determined flower color. However, by the early twentieth
century, people were well aware that most traits are far too complex to be determined by a single
gene, and the idea of polygenic inheritance was born.
One easily understood example of polygenic inheritance is height. People are not just short or tall;
they have a variety of heights which run along a spectrum. Furthermore, height is also influenced
by environment; someone born with tall genes could become short due to malnutrition or illness,
for example, while someone born with short genes could become tall through genetic therapy.
Basic genetics obviously wouldn't be enough to explain the wide diversity of human heights, but
polygenic inheritance shows how multiple genes in combination with a person's environment can
influence someone's phenotype, or physical appearance.
Skin color is another example of polygenic inheritance, as are many congenital diseases. Because
polygenic inheritance is so complex, it can be a very absorbing and frustrating field of study.
Researchers may struggle to identify all of the genes which play a role in a particular phenotype,
and to identify places where such genes can go wrong. However, once researchers do learn more
about the circumstances which lead to the expression of particular traits, it can be a very
rewarding experience.
In pleiotropy, on the other hand, one gene is responsible for multiple things. Several congenital
syndromes are examples of pleiotropy, in which a flaw in one gene causes widespread problems
for a person. For example, sickle cell anemia is a form of pleiotropy, caused by a distinctive
mutation in one gene which leads to a host of symptoms. In addition to causing mutations,
pleiotropy also occurs in perfectly normal genes, although researchers tend to use it to track and
understand mutations in particular.

Genes versus Environment

When researchers analyze the origins of disease, the terms used to
describe causation are "genetic" versus "environmental," but the
issues are the same as those in the nature-versus-nurture debate.
Conditions considered to be primarily genetic are ones in which the
presence or absence of genetic mutations determines whether an
individual or population will develop a disease, independent of
environmental exposures or circumstances. A disease considered to
be primarily environmental is one in which people of virtually any
genetic background can develop the disease when they are exposed
to the specific environmental factors that cause it.
Even the conditions and diseases once believed to be at either end
of the continuumcaused by either purely genetic or purely
environmental factorsmay not be exclusively attributable to one or

the other. For example, an automobile accident that results in an

injury might be deemed entirely environmentally caused, but many
geneticists would contend that risk-taking behaviors such as the
propensity to exceed the speed limit are probably genetically
mediated. Furthermore, the course and duration of rehabilitation
and recovery from an injury or illness is also very likely genetically
influenced.
At the other end of the continuum are diseases believed to be
predominantly genetic in origin, such as sickle-cell anemia. While
this disease does not have an environmental cause, there are
environmental triggers that may determine when and how seriously
the disease will strike. For example, sickle-cell attacks are more
likely when the body has an insufficient supply of oxygen, so people
who live at high altitudes or those who engage in intense aerobic
exercise may be at increased risk of attacks. There are many more
conditions for which the risk of developing the disease is strongly
influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Multiple
genes and environmental factors may be involved in causing a given
condition and its expression.

Understand why it is not the case the one gene or one environmental factor can account
for everything about a certain developmental process or outcome
Look Above
Gene Expression

Many genes play an important role in what you look like, how intelligent you may become, and
perhaps even aspects of your personality. Increasingly, as work on the human genome continues,
researchers are linking specific genes to psychological functioning and behavior. Linking, however, is
an important qualifier. In many cases, your genotype, which is your genetic makeup, does not entirely
determine your phenotype, which is who and what you actually are. The link between genotype and
phenotype can range from simple to exceedingly complex.
Simple Dominance-Recessiveness
Some characteristics are determined by a single gene and are affected little if at all by the
environment of an individual. An example is the texture of your hair, which is directly determined by a
single gene. The allele for curly hair let's call it C is dominant over the recessive allele for straight

hair call this S. This means that whenever either or both of the alleles for hair texture are C, the
person will have curly hair, and only when both alleles are S will a person have straight hair.
Suppose both parents are CS for hair texture. Thus, their child can be CC, CS, SC, or SS for these
alleles. The child will then have a 75 percent chance of having curly hair (3 combinations out of 4) and
only a 25 percent chance of straight hair (1 out of 4). If either parent is CC, no SS combination is
possible.
Partial Dominance-Recessiveness
Allele combinations can also display partial dominance and recessiveness. A classic example is the
sickle-cell trait, which occurs primarily among people of African ancestry and is believed to have
developed originally because it enhanced the chances of survival. Here, the partially recessive gene
that produces sickle-shaped red blood cells which are less efficient than normal ones at
transporting oxygen are at the same time highly resistant to the mosquito-transmitted malaria that
is rampant in Africa's wet regions. Thus, a person in these regions who has one allele for normal red
blood cells and the other for sickled ones has a better chance of survival than does a person who has
all normal blood cells. A mix of the two works best in an environment where malaria is a strong
possibility.
Alleles that fall in the category of codominance are neither dominant nor recessive. The result is a
blend of the two, which happens in certain blood types. If a person has one allele for A positive and the
other for B positive, the person's blood type will be AB positive.
People with the mix of red blood cells tend to experience joint pains from time to time and need to
avoid high altitudes where the oxygen content of the air is low. But they survive. In contrast, those
who have all sickled cells as a result of both alleles being the recessive for the trait have much more
severe symptoms and cannot survive without regular transfusions of normal blood.
Genotype, Phenotype, and Polygenic Expression
Even where one pair of genes is concerned, genotype doesn't always determine phenotype. Hair type,
blood traits, and blood type aren't affected by environmental factors, but many other physical
characteristics are. For example, genes may set the stage for how tall or heavy or muscular a person
may be, but environmental considerations such as nutrition and exercise are important factors too.
Malnutrition, especially during early childhood, can make the phenotype much less than what it was
genetically set to be. Exceptionally good nutrition, exercise, and so on can instead enhance the
phenotype.
An additional complication is polygenic expression, which is characteristic of psychological traits such
as intelligence and personality. The prevailing view is that a multitude of yet-to-be identified genes are
responsible for complex characteristics such as these, and in turn that these are strongly affected by
the environment in which a person grows up. The interaction between heredity and environment will
be further examined at various points in this book.

Can genes be turned on and off in cells?

Each cell expresses, or turns on, only a fraction of its genes. The rest of the genes are
repressed, or turned off. The process of turning genes on and off is known as gene
regulation. Gene regulation is an important part of normal development. Genes are
turned on and off in different patterns during development to make a brain cell look
and act different from a liver cell or a muscle cell, for example. Gene regulation also
allows cells to react quickly to changes in their environments. Although we know that
the regulation of genes is critical for life, this complex process is not yet fully
understood.
Gene regulation can occur at any point during gene expression, but most commonly
occurs at the level of transcription (when the information in a genes DNA is
transferred to mRNA). Signals from the environment or from other cells activate
proteins called transcription factors. These proteins bind to regulatory regions of a
gene and increase or decrease the level of transcription. By controlling the level of
transcription, this process can determine the amount of protein product that is made by
a gene at any given time.
Epigenetic marks can be inherited, understand why this underscores an interactionist
view of development
Epigenetic inheritance is the transmittance of information from one generation to the next that affects the traits
of offspring without alteration of the primary structure of DNA (i.e., the sequence of nucleotides) or from
environmental cues. The term "epigenetic inheritance" is used to describe both cellcell and organism
organism information transfer, while transgenerational epigenetics typically refers only to the latter. Although
these two levels of epigenetic inheritance are equivalent in unicellular organisms, they may have distinct
mechanisms and evolutionary distinctions in multicellular organisms.

Genetically identical mice with different DNA methylation patterns causing kinks in the tail of one but not the other.[1]

Four general categories of epigenetic modification are known: [2]

1.

self-sustaining metabolic loops, in which a mRNA or protein product of a gene

stimulates transcription of the gene; e.g. Wor1 gene in Candida albicans[3]

2.

structural templating in which structures are replicated using a template or scaffold structure on the
parent; e.g. prions, proteins that replicate by changing the structure of normal proteins to match their
own

3.

chromatin marks, in which methyl or acetyl groups bind to DNA nucleotides or histones thereby

4.

RNA silencing, in which small RNA strands interfere (RNAi) with the transcription of DNA or translation

altering gene expression patterns; e.g. Lcyc gene in Linaria vulgaris described below
of mRNA; known only from a few studies, mostly inCaenorhabditis elegans[4]
For some epigenetically influenced traits, the epigenetic marks can be induced by the environment and some
marks are heritable, leading some to view epigenetics as a relaxation of the rejection of soft inheritance of
acquired characteristics.

EPIGENETICS AND INHERITANCE

We used to think that a new embryo's epigenome was completely erased and rebuilt from scratch. But this isn't
completely true. Some epigenetic tags remain in place as genetic information passes from generation to generation, a
process called epigenetic inheritance.
Epigenetic inheritance is an unconventional finding. It goes against the idea that inheritance happens only through the
DNA code that passes from parent to offspring. It means that a parent's experiences, in the form of epigenetic tags,
can be passed down to future generations.
As unconventional as it may be, there is little doubt that epigenetic inheritance is real. In fact, it explains some strange
patterns of inheritance geneticists have been puzzling over for decades.

Overcoming the Reprogramming Barrier

Most complex organisms develop from specialized reproductive cells (eggs and sperm in animals). Two reproductive
cells meet, then they grow and divide to form every type of cell in the adult organism. In order for this process to
occur, the epigenome must be erased through a process called "reprogramming."
Reprogramming is important because eggs and sperm develop from specialized cells with stable gene expression
profiles. In other words, their genetic information is marked with epigenetic tags. Before the new organism can grow
into a healthy embryo, the epigenetic tags must be erased.
At certain times during development (the timing varies among species), specialized cellular machinery scours the
genome and erases its epigenetic tags in order to return the cells to a genetic "blank slate." Yet, for a small minority of
genes, epigenetic tags make it through this process and pass unchanged from parent to offspring.

Reprogramming resets the epigenome of the early embryo so that it can form every type of cell in the body. In order to
pass to the next generation, epigenetic tags must avoid being erased during reprogramming.

Inheritance Is Not Just about the Genes

Traditional genetics goes far in explaining how unique biological traits are passed on from parents to
children. DNA from each parent mixes together in a child and this DNA contains discrete stretches of
coded instructionsgenesthat are used to make all the proteins we are made of. A child is basically
a mixed amalgam of proteins half from the genes of each parent. However, biology is rarely so neat.
Genes only provide the bits of information that make an organism. Like words that make up a story,
genes need to be used at the right place and right time to produce a meaningful result. Context is key
and cells have several controls to activate and shut down genes at the right times as needed.
Sometimes genes are not just turned on or off temporarily but more permanently shut down, folded
up, and put in a type of long-term storage. The controls that shut down, and occasionally resuscitate
genes, are "epigenetic controls" meaning "over and above the genes." Recently, it has been
discovered that some of the epigenetic patterns of shut down and reactivated genes can be passed
from parents to children. This idea of epigenetic inheritance has lead to general reevaluation of how
inheritance works and whether some traits, especially those associated with certain life experience and
environmental diseases, can be passed from generation to generation.
Why Is Epigenetic Inheritance Important?
It is the observation that the patterns of genes that are shut down or activated in response to our
experience, combined with the discovery that gene expression patterns can be passed on to our
children, that makes epigenetics so interesting. These two observations suggest the surprising
conclusion that our life experience may be able to affect intrinsic inherited traits we pass on to our
children. First seen in bacteria and individual cells where certain "learned" responses to chemicals in
the environment were passed to their progeny. Now, it seems that individuals may also inherent
certain traits based on their parents or grandparents experience.

According to classical genetics, although we are each the result of an interaction of our genes and our
environment, the way we live shouldn't directly affect the genetic traits passed to our children. The
understanding derived from Darwinian evolution is that we pass on one fresh unmarked variant of
each of our approximately twenty three thousand genes to our progeny. Except in the extreme sense
where there is physical DNA damage from toxics or radiation, our environment or life experience
should not alter the basic characteristics of these genes. The idea that inheritable gene changes occur
in response to our environment or experience was abandoned almost as soon as it was first proposed
by LaMarck (a rival of Darwin). However, it appears that Lamarck may have been at least little right
and we may, in fact, pass on genes that are marked up based on our own experience.
Examples of Epigenetic Inheritance
There are very clear examples of epigenetic inheritance in lower animals. Fruit flies exposed to certain
chemicals have baby flies with bristly outgrowths on their eyes. More interesting examples in higher
animals, though, suggest how life experiences may shape the genetic deck of cards children receive.
For example, with rats, it has been shown that stressed mothers have more anxious rat babiesthe
hormonal difference and anxious behaviors can be reliably measured in the progeny through
adulthood. Although this tendency can be explained by nurture, it turns out that, even when the rat
babies are transferred to a less stressful environment with an unstressed adoptive mother, the
progeny still grow up just as apprehensive. It seems the genetics have been reprogrammed as a result
of the mother's experience. In another example, researchers found that, in an isolated community in
Northern Sweden, people whose parents and grandparents gorged themselves through a few rare
years when an overabundant amount of food was available have much shorter lives than people whose
ancestors consistently struggled to get enough to eat and occasionally were near starvation due to
crop failures.
Although not as well established as the studies above, there is also some evidence to suggest that the
tendency for some psychological disorders to run in families may be a result of epigenetic inheritance
and some researchers even go so far as to suggest that some lifestyle behaviors or habits may
develop into inheritable traits. While a few of these conclusions may be far reaching based on current
data, there does seem to be a strong link between health, including metal health, and epigenetic
changes in DNA. This observation has made epigenetics a very hot topic in many areas of medical
research.

understand that risk and protective factors are negative and positive life ingredients
that influence development and be able to identify them in case examples; understand
that they are probabilistic, not deterministic

Chapter 4
Risk and Protective Factors
Neglect occurs to children of all races, socio-economic classes, religions, family
structures, and communities. However, there are some factors that appear to make
children more or less likely to be neglected. Having one or more risk factors does not

necessarily mean that a child will be neglected; families and children react to personal
and societal factors differently. But they are warning signs, nevertheless.
One or two major risk factors for neglect may have little effect on a child's development,
but having three or more risk factors exponentially increases the potential for
developmental problems. Risk factors may be cumulative so that the more risk factors a
child or family is exposed to over the course of the child's development, the greater the
potential for problems to arise.98 The risk and protective factors in a child or family's life
also may interact with each other. Exhibit 4-1 provides a conceptual model of the
interplay of various risk and protective factors related to child neglect.
An instance of possible neglect may be related to one or more contributing factors. For
example, if a child is exposed to lead paint in the home, there may be many
contributing factors to the neglect. The parent may be unwilling or unable to move to a
home where lead paint is not present, the landlord may be unwilling to remove the lead
paint from the walls, the city may not have an adequate lead abatement program, or
the community may not have placed enough emphasis on making sure that low-income
housing is safe.99 The caseworker would need to assess the situation to determine if this
is a case of neglect by the parent.
Child welfare professionals and others who interact regularly with children and families
should be able to recognize risk factors so that they can identify situations where
neglect is likely and determine the most effective interventions. This chapter highlights
several types of risk and protective factorsenvironmental, family, parent or caregiver,
and childfor neglect.
(Back to Top)

Environmental Factors
Neglectful families do not exist in a vacuum; numerous environmental factors can
contribute to child neglect. Some of these include poverty, community and society
characteristics, and access to social supports. These factors may be interrelated (e.g.,
families who are poor often live in high-risk or unsafe communities or lack social
supports

D-link

Poverty
The level of child well-being in a State is strongly associated with its rate of child
poverty.100 While child poverty has declined over the past decade, it currently stands at
17.6 percent.101 Compared to other types of child maltreatment, neglect is more directly
associated with poverty.102 Of course, most poor people do not neglect or otherwise
maltreat their children, but poverty, when combined with other risk factors, such as
substance abuse, social isolation, financial uncertainty, continual family chaos, or a lack
of available transportation and affordable child care can put a child at greater risk for
neglect.104 Another study found that within an economically disadvantaged sample,
particular aspects of poverty are more strongly correlated with physical neglect reports
than others.105 For example, the perception by the caregiver of economic hardship was
positively correlated with child neglect, even more than actual variations in household
incomes. Therefore, self-reports of economic hardship may be an important signal for
engaging in interventions with families to prevent subsequent neglect. In contrast,

employment had an inverse relationship to reports of physical neglect. No difference

existed between income groups for rates of fatal injury or emotional neglect. 106
It is important to note that many poor families are well adjusted and competent; they
have healthy marriages and do not express their stress in violent or otherwise hurtful
ways. Many children who live in poverty are able to perform well in school, are socially
well-adjusted, do not engage in illegal activities, and are not poor as adults. These
children may have protective factors, such as affectionate parents, high self-esteem, or
a role model, that help them to achieve these positive outcomes. 107
As discussed in Chapter 2, Definition and Scope of Neglect, many States include an
exception for poverty in their definitions of neglect. There is usually a distinction
between a caregiver's inability to provide the needed care based on the lack of financial
resources and a caregiver's knowing reluctance or refusal to provide care, even though
the initial effect on the child is the same.108 For example, a family may not be able to
afford food for their children; therefore, their children's basic nutritional needs will not
be met. If the parents do not know about food assistance, they would not be considered
neglectful, but if they have been told about a food assistance program and failed to use
it, they may be guilty of neglect.

Risk & Protective Factors

Research has shown that there are a variety of factors that influence whether or not a young person will
struggle with problems such as underage drinking, drug abuse, delinquency or violent behavior. Risk
factors may increase the probability that a youth will engage in such risky behaviors. Protective factors,
on the other hand, may decrease the probability a youth will engage in risky and unhealthy behaviors.
Both risk factors and protective factors are complex and cumulative. Their impact on a persons future
behavior depends on how many risk or protective factors occur at the same time, how intense they are
and how long they persist.
For example, having positive relationships with caring adults is a powerful protective factors for youth in
avoiding a variety of risky and unhealthy behaviors. A strong relationship with an adult role model over a
number of years will have a more protective impact than a positive, but short-term, connection with the
same adult over the course of a single event (e.g. a guest speaker at a school assembly).
While a child may be exposed to certain risk factors over his or her whole life (such as the negative
impact of growing up in a poor neighborhood), the negative influence of such risk factors may be

lessened by other protective factors such as a structured and nurturing home environment, and a
connection to religious or community groups.

know what a turning point is and the common reasons for positive turning points in
peoples lives
??? STILL DONT KNOW

know the list of things that matter for development from lecture; understand the
concept of linked lives
Both in Notebook
know that we develop all our major organ systems and limbs in the first 2 months of our
gestational life (embryonic phase)
The embryonic period comprises the first 8 weeks of pregnancy. It is divided into
apreembryonic phase (from the 1rst to the 3rd week), in which the three germinal
layers arise, and into the embryonic phase proper (from the 4th to 8th week), in which
the embryonic organ anlagen arise.
Development takes place thanks to the genetic program and environmental factors that
are precisely tuned to each other.
During the embryonic period the risk of congenital abnormalities is the greatest. Before,
spontaneous miscarriages mostly occur. Later, the frequency of abnormalities and their
effects are smaller.
The most important teratogenic factors are infectious diseases, chemical substances,
medications, and ionizing radiation.

know how tobacco, alcohol & other drug use by mothers and fathers affect pre- and postnatal development; know that there is no safe level of alcohol during pregnancy or safe
phase of pregnancy in which to drink
The lives of millions of children are touched by substance use disorders (SUDs). The
2007 National Survey on Drug Use and Health reports that 8.3 million children live with
at least one parent who abused or was dependent on alcohol or an illicit drug during the
past year. This includes 13.9 percent of children aged 2 years or younger, 13.6 percent
of children aged 3 to 5 years, 12.0 percent of children aged 6 to 11 years, and 9.9
percent of youths aged 12 to 17 years.48 These children are at increased risk for abuse
or neglect, as well as physical, academic, social, and emotional problems.49
A predictable, consistent environment, coupled with positive caregiver relationships, is
critical for normal emotional development of children. Parental substance abuse and
dependence have a negative impact on the physical and emotional well-being of
children and can cause home environments to become chaotic and unpredictable,

leading to child maltreatment. The children's physical and emotional needs often take a
back seat to their parents' activities related to obtaining, using, or recovering from the
use of drugs and alcohol.50
This chapter discusses how prenatal and postnatal substance use by parents affects
fetal and early childhood development. It is intended to help child protective services
(CPS) caseworkers understand the behaviors and problems that some children in the
child welfare system may exhibit and that hold implications for their potential need for
services.
A Definition of Child Maltreatment
The Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, reauthorized in the Keeping
Children and Families Safe Act of 2003 (P.L. 108-36), provides the minimum
standards for defining child physical abuse, neglect, and sexual abuse that
States must incorporate into their statutory definitions in order to receive
Federal funds. Under this Act, child maltreatment is defined as:
"Any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caregiver, which
results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or
exploitation, or an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of
serious harm."51
A "child" under this definition generally means a person younger than age 18 or
who is not an emancipated minor. In cases of child sexual abuse, a "child" is
one who has not attained the age of 18 or the age specified by the child
protection law of the State in which the child resides, whichever is younger. 52
(Back to Top)

The Impact on Prenatal Development

In 2006 and 2007, an average of 5.2 percent of pregnant women aged 15 to 44 years
used an illicit drug during the month prior to being surveyed, and 11.6 percent had
consumed alcohol.53 Nationwide, between 550,000 and 750,000 children are born each
year after prenatal exposure to drugs or alcohol.54 These children often are medically
fragile or born with a low birth weight. Some are born prematurely and require intensive
care.
Identifying the effects of drugs and alcohol on fetuses has posed challenges for
researchers. While there has been some success researching the effects of alcohol on
fetal development, securing accurate information regarding the use of illicit drugs from
pregnant women or women who have given birth has proven to be very difficult. In
addition, women who abuse substances often have other risk factors in their lives (e.g.,
a lack of prenatal care, poor nutrition, stress, violence, poor social support) that can
contribute significantly to problematic pregnancies and births.
The sections that follow summarize some of what is known about the effects of
substance use on prenatal development.

know the risks that STIs pose to infants

What Effects Can STDs Have on My Baby?

Different STDs pose different health risks for pregnant women and their babies. Here is a list of some of
the more common STDs and the threats they pose to a healthy pregnancy:

Herpes/Genital Herpes: Herpes is one of the most common STDs a pregnant woman can be
infected with; fortunately, however, herpes do not pose any major risks to a developing fetus.
However, any lesions that are exposed near the vaginal opening during delivery could cause the
disease to be passed on to the infant. That is why many women with herpes or other genital warts
choose to deliver via a cesarean section.

Chlamydia: For mothers affected by chlamydia, you should be aware that you are at an
increased risk of miscarriage and preterm delivery. Furthermore, if the baby is exposed to the
disease during delivery, he or she could be at risk for eye infections or pneumonia.

HPV: Genital warts resulting from HPV usually take the form of itchy cauliflower-like clusters.
These warts may enlarge during pregnancy due to hormones. Unlike some other STDs, treatment for
HPV will likely be postponed until after giving birth. If the warts are large enough, however, they
could present an obstacle to delivery, resulting in a cesarean section.

Syphilis: Because syphilis is a viral infection, it can be easily passed along from mother to
child, which can pose a variety of very serious risks including fatality. Babies that do survive are
often born prematurely and tend to have birth defects affecting their brain, eyes, ears, skin, heart
and bones.

Gonorrhea: If gonorrhea is contracted during pregnancy it will likely become noticeable in the
form of vaginal discharge and a burning sensation during urination. Left untreated, pregnant women
with gonorrhea are at an increased risk of miscarriage and premature birth. If the infection is present
at the time of birth the baby may be born blind, or with a joint or blood infection.

HIV/AIDS: Due to recent medical advancements in HIV/AIDS research, transmission of

HIV/AIDS from mother to child has become almost completely preventable. That said, without
treatment it is likely the baby will be born with the virus.

Hepatitis B: Hepatitis B is disease that affects the liver, and as such it can be passed to the
baby through the placenta during pregnancy as well as childbirth. Women with hepatitis B are also

more likely to give birth prematurely. With screening and vaccines now available, however, it is
hoped that the disease will soon become a thing of the past.

Trichomoniasis: Symptoms of trichomoniasis include yellowish vaginal discharge and painful

sex and urination. Having this STD during pregnancy can increase your risk of preterm birth and,
more rarely, cause the newborn to contract the disease during delivery.

Other harmful effects of STDs in babies may include stillbirth, neurological damage (such as brain
damage or lack of coordination in body movements), deafness, acute hepatitis, meningitis, and chronic
liver disease.

How Can STDs be Treated During Pregnancy?

Treatment for STDs generally includes a combination of medications, including antiviral pills and
antibiotics. Treatment is especially promising for bacterial infections such as herpes, gonorrhea, syphilis
and Chlamydia, as these can almost always be cured through the use of antibiotics. Recently, natural
cures for herpes have become popular as well.
Certain diseases may require postponed treatment due to possible risks treatment may pose to the fetus,
as is the case for HPV (genital warts).
But as is the case with any STD, the best treatment is prevention, so be sure to undergo routine
screening for STDs and always practice safe sex. For more information on STDs, check out
this guide provided by epigee.org.

know what Rene Spitz found re: infants and toddlers who were fed and housed, but not
given any nurturance/close human contact and holding
know that infants/toddlers form attachments to both mothers and fathers; know that we
form attachments to various close others across our lifespan; understand that our sense
of attachment, secure or insecure/avoidant, both reflects the realities of a particular
relationship and influences the quality of our (usually future) close relationships (as well
as influencing a range of other long-term outcomes)
Attachment is the emotional bond of infant to parent or caregiver. It is described as a pattern of emotional and
behavioural interaction that develops over time, especially in contexts where infants express a need for attention,
comfort, support or security. Parents ability to perceive, interpret and react promptly to their infants needs and
attention, in turn influence the quality of their attachment relationships. Based on Bowlbys attachment theory, the
relationship developed with primary caregivers is the most influential in childrens lives. A secure relationship fosters
not only positive developmental outcomes over time, but also influences the quality of future relationships with peers
and partners.

Secure parent-child relationships help children to a) regulate their emotion in stressful situations, b) explore their
environment with confidence, and c) foster their cognitive, emotional and language development. Furthermore,
children who are securely attached are predisposed to display positive social behaviours (e.g., empathy and
cooperative behaviours) helping them to develop future positive relationships. On the other hand, insecure and
disorganized attachment put children at increasing risk ofproblem behaviours and psychopathologies. Examples
include preschool and school-aged aggression, depression and emotional dysregulation.

So far, we have seen that there is a link between the quality of infant attachment and the
quality of care an infant receives during the first year of life. Although interesting, this
research would be less important if the effects applied only to the first year. They do not.
Alan Sroufe, a psychologist at the University of Minnesota, and his colleagues continue to
report on a longitudinal study of a large group of low-income families who were originally
recruited in Minneapolis in the early 1970s (Sroufe, Egeland, Carlson, & Collins, 2005).
Researchers observed these families' infants with their mothers in the Strange Situation
when the infants were 12 and 18 months of age, and they then collected information on
these children as they grew older. During the preschool years, teachers and observers rated
children who had been securely attached as infants as happier and more socially skilled,
competent, compliant, and empathetic than children who were insecurely attached as
infants. Preschoolers with secure attachments also were more popular with their peers, had
higher self-esteem, and were less dependent and negative.
By age 10 years, children in the securely attached classification were still less dependent
and received higher ratings on self-esteem, self-confidence, social skills, and emotional
health. They made more friends than did children who had been insecurely attached as
infants, and they spent more time with their friends.
Adolescents who had been securely attached were more likely to be leaders in their social
groups, they had longer-lasting dating relationships, and in early adulthood they reported
greater satisfaction in their romantic relationships. The secure attachment they experienced
with their parents had evidently carried through to their relationships with peers in
childhood and with romantic partners later in life. Adolescents and adults who had insecure
attachments as infants with their parents, however, had more emotional and psychological
problems including anxiety disorders and depression.
How do these long-term attachment effects work? According to Sroufe, infants and children
internalize the significant relationships that they have early in life, and use those early
experiences as interpretive filters when they develop later relationships. People come to
expect others to interact with them in a way that mirrors their early attachment
relationships. Securely attached infants, therefore, grow up to seek and expect others to be
supportive and positiveand they behave in ways that elicit these qualities in people around
them. Insecurely attached infants, however, might later expect and provoke hostility,
ambivalence, or rejection in their relationships.

Michael Lamb, a researcher at the National Institute of Child Health and Development,
provides a different explanation (Lamb, 1987; Lamb, Thompson, Gardner, & Charnov,
1985). Lamb points out that parents who show sensitivity early on with their infants tend to
be parents who remain warm and sensitive as their children grow older. Warm parenting
during these later childhood years might be more important than first-year attachment in
helping children to maintain positive behavioral, social, and personality characteristics.
When parenting remains warm and supportive, we see secure attachments in infancy and
correlations with positive characteristics later in the child's life. When the parenting and
family circumstances change, however, these correlations can be disrupted. For example,
divorce, illness and other negative circumstances can disrupt relationships even when
children were securely attached as infants. And conversely, insecurely attached infants can
benefit from later improvements in the quality of their care. Although the quality of the
initial attachment is important in getting the infant off to a good start, it is clear that the
quality and consistency of parental care after infancy also plays an important role
(Thompson, 2006).

understand that we, women and men, are wired for long-term close
bonds with othersknow that this is reflected in our neurobiology and our
behavioral and social-emotional self across the lifespan

Review
Ch 1History/Theory
Understand links between types of learning and the behaviorist tradition
of Watson & Skinner
Question: What Is Behaviorism?
Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll
guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents,
penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.
--John Watson, Behaviorism, 1930
Answer:
The term behaviorism refers to the school of psychology founded by John B. Watson based on the
belief that behaviors can be measured, trained, and changed. Behaviorism was established with the
publication of Watson's classic paper Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It (1913).
Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all
behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the
environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shapes our behaviors.

According to behaviorism, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no
consideration of internal mental states. This school of thought suggests that only observable behaviors
should be studied, since internal states such as cognitions, emotions and moods are too subjective.
There are two major types of conditioning:
1.

Classical conditioning is a technique used in behavioral training in which a naturally occurring

stimulus is paired with a response. Next, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally
occurring stimulus. Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response
without the presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. The two elements are then known as
the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.

2.

Operant conditioning Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental

conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior.
Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for
that behavior.

- Know the basic assumptions of Freuds perspective &

the humanist-existential perspective
Major Themes & Assumptions
of Psychoanalytic Theory

Last updated:
21 Sep 2003

Firstly, it is important to understand that psychoanalytic theory was not designed

as a personality theory per se. Rather, it was the first major, coherent,
psychological theory. Psychoanalytic is broad in scope and offered unique,
controversial insights into how the human mind worked. In addition,
psychoanalytic theory provided a new approach to psychotherapy, thus it provided
new treatment techniques for psychological problems that had previously puzzled
doctors and others. Unlike other personality theories, the psychoanalytic theory is
relatively cohesive (e.g., the Biological Theory consists of many different, separate
ideas, models and theories). This approach to personality takes up the challenge
of explaining what is going on when what is going on is difficult to understand.
The main thrusts of the psychoanalytic perspective on personality are that:
1. Psychic energy is needed to make the mind go & the energy
(motivation) cannot be destroyed, it must be expressed: The
psychoanalytic approach assumes that the psychological apparatus of the
mind needs some kind of energy to make it go. This energy is used in
psychological work such as planning, thinking, feeling, remembering. The
psychic energy is thought to come from 2 main drives: Eros (or libido, the
life and sexual instincts) and Thanatos (death instinct). The thinking is that
at any time there is only a finite amount of energy available and if its
busily being used say to repress memories, and deal with anxieties, then
its not being used fruitfully. If the neuroses can be resolved, then the
psychic energy can be freed to use more creatively and productively.

2. Psychic Determinism: Everything that happens in a persons mind and

everything a person does has a specific, identifiable cause i.e. psychic
determinism. Psychoanalysis has no room for miracles, accidents or free
will. All seeming contradictions of mind and behaviour can be
resolved: nothing is accidental, e.g., it is not accidental when you forget
someones name, drop something, say one thing and do another. The
purpose of psychoanalysis is to dig these hidden causes out, bring them
into conscious awareness, and through this insight, the cause can be
resolved.
3. Humans have base instincts (unconscious urges): In Freudian
psychology, the unconscious is extremely important in determining
behaviour. This is a pervasive theme of the approach: that a lot of desires,
motivations and conflicts are seething below the surface, below the level of
consciousness. Freud believed that people are driven, fundamentally, by
unconscious, animalistic, instinctual urges, particularly lust (eros) and
aggression (thanatos). These urges are often in conflict with the demands
of society. For example, humans desire pleasure, but society places limits
on the kinds of pleasure-seeking which it deems acceptable. Freud
emphasizes the extent to which humans are motivated by psychosexual
pleasure.
4. Topography of the psyche (unconscious, pre-conscious,
conscious): Using an iceberg metaphor, the unconscious is understood to
be the large part of the mind, which is hidden from view. The preconscious is represented by the waterline - but it is the zone in which there
are fleeting glimpses of the unconscious, "flickering" across the screen of
consciousness. Finally, the relatively small part of the iceberg which sticks
of the water is seen as equivalent to the small amount of conscious
awareness that the human experiences. Freud also believed that if there
was information that was too painful for the conscious part to bear, that
defense mechanisms would act to push it down it into the unconscious part
of the mind.
5. Structure of Mind (Id, Ego, Superego): The mind has an internal
structure -- three parts with separate motivations: Id (irrational and
emotional part of the mind); the Ego (rational part); and the Superego (the
moral part).
6. The Way Psychic Conflicts are Resolved Shapes Personality:
Personality characteristics are determined by the way in which a person
learns to resolve unconscious conflicts amongst the Id, Ego & Superego.
This evolves from how people handle several psychosexual stages during
childhood. Personality is very strongly influenced by early experiences.
Freud was the first to really emphasize the importance of early childhood
experiences. People's Id, Ego and Superego develop characteristic patterns
of interaction which for them resolve the urges for psychosexual pleasures.
However, in some people, a psychosexual stage may not be effectively
resolved and this leads to adult personalities characterized being "stuck" at
a particular psychosexual stage (e.g., anally retentive or anally expulsive if
the 2nd psychosexual stage "anal" (learning how to "let go" of faeces)) is
not resolved, depending on which of the Id, Ego, and Superego becomes
more dominant. The quality of a person's mental health was seen as
determined by the extent to which psychic conflicts had been effectively

resolved. If the forces of mind are in balance, according to Freud, then

good psychological health ensued. Personality is viewed as a dynamic set
of process which are always in motion i.e.psychodynamic. Because of the
dynamism, it is possible for an adult personality characteristic to be altered
quite dramatically through therapeutic (psychodynamic) insight.
7. Life is Painful, Therefore We Use Defense Mechanisms to Shield Our
Psyche's from the Pain: Psychological defenses are proposed as
important aspects of human functioning. Because of human's desire for
pleasure (note, they also have destructive instincts), life is essentially too
painful for the human being to endure consciously, therefore much of the
pain and conflict is diverted via defence mechanisms and kept within the
unconscious. It is within the hidden unconscious that much of the conflict
takes place, and these conflicts in the unconscious mind are seen as the
root of behavior and conscious experience. Apparently paradoxical or
irrational behaviors can be accounted for by these inner conflicts, i.e.,
psychic determinism.
8. Unconscious Leaks Into Conscious Awareness via dreams, slips of
the tongue, psychosomatic symptoms, and so on: The unconscious is
dynamic, and the psychic energy must go somewhere, plus there is psychic
determinism. In other words, whilst the unconscious conflicts may be
largely kept from conscious awareness, they still significantly influence
behaviors, psychosomatics, plus leak into the preconscious.
9. Therapeutic Relief Can be Achieved Through Insight into the
Unconscious: Therapeutic relief can be effected by helping a person to
bring underlying conflicts, often related to past negative learning
experiences during critical psychosexual stages. To the extent that insight
and understanding can be achieved, and a person can resolve many
psychological problems. Note that the therapeutic emphasis on the role
and value of achieving "self-insight" is a notion later explored by humanistic
psychology. Psychoanalytic therapy was the first "talk therapy" -- it was
noticed for the first time formally in psychology that talking about it helps!
Psychotherapy may also use project assessment techniques, such as the
Rorschach Inkblot Test.

Assumptions of the H-E Perspective

1.
Focus on the self and selfs potential
*
personal growth as a goal
2.

3.

Promise of human potential

*
psychological change is possible
*
Individuals construct their realities
*
Self-actualization
Importance of authenticity, freedom, and responsibility

Self-awareness affords the ability to make choices and control our

destinies

Humanistic-Existential Treatment
*
Phenomenological approach: listening with maximum empathy
to everything the patient communicates

Therapist as facilitator, not leader

Humanistic-Existential Perspective
Carl Rogers:

Behavior is motivated by self-actualization

counteracting conditions of worth: I must ____ to be deserving of love.

Ideal vs. Actual Self

client-centered therapy

Empathy

Unconditional Positive Regard

Genuineness
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Existential Psychology

Difficulty living authentically in the modern world

o Loss of values and sense of personal responsibility
o Conformity vs. active choice
o Conformity leads to denial of the authentic self

Alienation= sense of meaninglessness and terror over the nothingness of

death

Psychological Adaptivenss=
o Acceptance of emotion
o Embracing the authentic self
o Recognizing active choice in daily living

Interpersonal Perspective

A cluster of approaches emphasizing interactions among people

o Sullivan as first systematic theorist
Emphasized chumship
Self-concept emerges from interpersonal relations

IPT: interpersonal therapy

o Marital difficulty, lack of social support, etc. as contributors to disorders
Klerman approach to depression

Ch 4Sensation & Perception

-understand the difference between sensation & perception, including the role of the cortex
-understand (be able to recognize) sensory adaptation of different kinds
-know what rods and cones are specialized to do
-understand what was going on in the change blindness research, both in terms of sensation &
perception, and memory
Ch 3-- Neurobiology
-know the basic anatomy of the neuron and basics of how our neurons workthat when they
reach their action potential (from changes in voltage or charge related to levels of sodium and
potassium ions inside vs. outside the neural cell)they fire, and release neurochemicals into
the synapse (synaptic cleft or gap between neurons) with their neighbor neuron(s), which then
pass on the message to their neighbors
-understand that the neurochemicals released by our neurons run everything going on in our
brainits how we feel emotion , engage in behavior, think about things, remember things,
respond to stress, plan and problem-solve, reach for our goals, etc.
-know that our brains are constantly changing in response to our experiences! ALL learning,
of whatever kind, involves the formation of new SYNAPSES (not new neurons), or synaptic
connections, between neuronshabits and conditioning and memories, etc., are a result of
neurons connecting (through more synapses), forming new brain pathways or circuits
-know the basic specializations/functions of the amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex
(PFC)

Ch 7Memory
- Know what encoding is and how attention, motivation (to remember), and
levels of processing are related to encoding and likelihood of memory
retrieval
- Recognize common means of enriching encoding and improving memory--see
p. 305-307
- Know why emotional stimuli/experiences are more likely to be remembered
what is the role of the amygdala in this?

Know that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is critical to working memory, and the
hippocampus is critical in forming/storing long-term memory
Understand the misinformation effect studied by Loftus, and its implications
for interviewing eyewitnesseswhat policies are recommended to reduce this
problem? How does this affect how those in law enforcement and therapists
should approach peoples reporting of memories for difficult/legal issues and
experiences? What recommendations does the book give for all of us on p.
308-09 re: hindsight bias and overconfidence?
Know that repression of difficult/painful or overwhelming memories does
occur and may be part of a persons coping style or response
Know that failing to report verifiable cases of abuse at any one time is
common, that the vast majority of reported abuse cases are genuine, and
even children can be competent witnesses to experienced abuse

Ch 5Meditation
-understand what mindfulness is/involves, and know what kinds of outcomes are associated
with practicing mindfulness
-understand the concept of top down vs. bottom up processes, in terms of which is a
deliberate vs. automatic process, and how the cortex is involved