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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Handbook of fat replacers / edited by Sibel Roller, Sylvia A. Jones.


p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.
ISBN 0849325129 (alk. paper)
1. Fat substitutes. I. Roller, Sibel. II. Jones, Sylvia A.
TP447.F37H36 1996
664 .3--dc20

95-48346
CIP

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1996 CRC Press LLC

Preface
The nutritional need for fat reduction in the Western diet has been recognized for over
a decade. However, a thorough understanding of the technical complexities involved in
fat reduction in foods has lagged behind. This has constrained work in product development and, in many cases, has led to the development of less than optimal products.
Meanwhile, in response to the needs of the food industry, an extensive number of
ingredients has been developed solely for the purpose of fat replacement, using a variety
of approaches and base materials. In addition, some of the well-established texturemodifying food ingredients have been found to be effective in fat replacement. Thus,
over 200 ingredients are now commercially available, or are at different stages of development, that can be used to replace fat in foods. The sheer number of ingredients can
be seen as a measure of the difficulties experienced in matching the multifunctional
characteristics exhibited by fat in foods, and presents product development teams with
a rather onerous task. Meanwhile, the issue of fat reduction remains a priority area from
the perspective of both the consumer and the food industry.
The purpose of this handbook is to provide, in a single volume, as much information
as is practicable on the science and application of fat replacers in food products, including
the multiplicity of technological, legislative, sensory, and marketing issues involved in
fat replacement. Due care has been given to provide an international perspective and a
multidisciplinary approach. The book is intended not only for food scientists and food
technologists who wish to formulate new, low-fat food products based on an understanding of the ingredients available, but also for all food industry professionals, including
ingredient manufacturers/developers who seek information on latest developments in the
industry. Academic researchers and students of food science should also find the book
of interest. In short, we hope the book will help fill an important gap in the food science
and technology area.
Part I of the book, containing five chapters, is an overview of fundamental issues
important in the development of low-fat foods and ingredients used to replace fat. This
section includes a historical perspective on developments in fat replacers and a critical
assessment of available technological strategies, as well as chapters on nutritional implications, marketing considerations, the inter-relationships between physical and chemical
aspects of fat replacement and sensory quality, and legislative implications.
In Part II, commercially available fat replacers are reviewed individually and in detail.
In a book of this size, it is impossible to cover all the commercial fat replacers available
today. We have, therefore, selected a limited number of fat replacers each of which is
representative of a group of compounds. The chapters are arranged principally according

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to chemical structure, namely, carbohydrate-based, protein-based, and lipid-based. Since


a large proportion of the commercial fat replacers have been derived from carbohydrate
materials, there are several chapters within this group to represent the different
categories i.e., starches, various fibers, gums and bulking agents. There is also a
chapter on combination systems. Combination systems comprise blends of ingredients,
the functionality of which develops in situ upon processing, and may be of an interactive
or non-interactive nature. Only combination systems based on interactive blends are
considered here since systems of a non-interactive nature are merely a sum of the
functionalities of the different ingredients used in the blend (possibly with some synergistic effects). Furthermore, synthetic fat substitutes, which have been developed but not
so far permitted for use in foods, are discussed. Among the issues covered in each chapter
are: history and use of the fat replacer; production process; chemical structure and
functional properties; interactions with other food ingredients; nutritional, toxicological,
and legal status; and selected examples of food product formulations.
The Appendix contains a comprehensive list of fat replacers classified according to
their basic compositional parameters, with details on chemical composition, names of
manufacturers, applications, etc. This list should allow the reader to look up a fat replacer
by trade name, determine its principal composition, and then turn to a chapter in the
handbook which describes in detail the fat replacer or one belonging to the same class.
For example, a reader wishing to find out more about a fat replacer called Paselli SA2,
when referring to the Appendix, will find it among the starch-derived group of fat
replacers, and described as being a potato maltodextrin. The reader could then turn to
Chapters 6A and 6B for more detailed information on maltodextrins and their role as fat
mimetics. It should be noted that the inclusion of a fat replacer in this list does not
indicate endorsement of the product nor does absence from the list have any negative
implications.
Finally, a word of explanation is required regarding terminology. Throughout this
book, we have used the term fat replacer collectively to cover all fat mimetics and fat
substitutes. In this context, the term fat mimetic is used to denote those ingredients
which modify the aqueous phase of a food, and hence simulate some of the physical
properties exhibited by fat. By contrast, the term fat substitute is used to denote
synthetic ingredients which are purposely designed to replace fat on a weight-by-weight
basis (mostly with a chemical structure resembling that of a triglyceride) but with an
inherent low digestibility, which makes these ingredients non- or low-caloric, and at the
same time stable at high processing temperatures (e.g., in frying). Since fat substitutes
so far are not permitted for use in foods*, and this book is intended to be a practical
sourcebook, fat mimetics are given most prominence.
Last but not least, we would like to thank the authors of the individual chapters for
their contributions, without whom a book of this nature could not have been written.
Their time and effort spent on the preparation of the chapters, and their endeavors to
accommodate our editorial requests, are much appreciated.**
Sibel Roller
Sylvia A. Jones

* Since completing this manuscript, the U.S. FDA announced on January 24, 1996 their approval for the
use of olestra in selected savory snacks.
** Views and opinions expressed by the authors of the various chapters are their own and do not
necessarily reflect those of the editors.

1996 CRC Press LLC

The Editors
Sibel Roller, M.Sc., Ph.D., is Professor of Food Biotechnology at South Bank University
in London, U.K. Professor Roller obtained her B.A. degree in Biology in 1976 from
Hunter College in New York and her M.Sc. degree in Environmental Health Sciences in
1978 from the School of Hygiene and Public Health of the Johns Hopkins University in
Baltimore. She then moved to England to obtain her Ph.D. degree in 1981 in Food
Microbiology from Queen Elizabeth College (now Kings College) of the University of
London. While remaining at the same university, Professor Roller worked for 3 years as
a Postdoctoral Research Associate on microbial fuel cells as alternative sources of energy.
In 1985, she joined the Leatherhead Food Research Association in Surrey, U.K., where
she initiated, developed, and led the research group in the Biotechnology Unit. As Head
of the Unit, she was responsible for directing numerous short- and long-term research
projects sponsored by the U.K. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, the Department of Trade and Industry, the European Commission, and a range of national and
multinational food companies. In 1994, she was appointed to a Professorship in Food
Biotechnology at South Bank University.
Professor Roller is a Fellow of the Institute of Food Science and Technology (U.K.)
and is an active member of the Institutes Technical and Legislative Committee. She is
a member of Sigma Xi, the Honorary Scientific Research Society, and is a Professional
Member of the Institute of Food Technologists (U.S.). She is also a member of the Society
of Applied Bacteriology and the Society of General Microbiology. Professor Roller
currently serves on the Editorial Board of Food Biotechnology and has served on the
Public Awareness Working Party of the Bioindustry Association in the U.K.
Professor Roller has published over 40 refereed papers and patents and is a frequent
invited speaker at international conferences. Her main research interests are in the
application of biotechnology to food processing with special emphasis on developing
new and upgrading old food ingredients using enzymes and microorganisms. The enzymic modification of food polysaccharides to prepare novel fat replacers, gelling agents,
and thickeners is an important focus of her research work.
Sylvia A. Jones, M.Sc., Ph.D., is Head of the Food Product Research and Development
Department at the Leatherhead Food Research Association, U.K. Dr. Jones obtained her
B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in Food Chemistry/Food Technology, including specialization
in Human Nutrition, at the Agricultural University of Warsaw. She was awarded her
Ph.D. degree at Cranfield University, U.K., following research on extrusion cooking
technology.

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From 1975 to 1981, Dr. Jones was Lecturer in Food Science and Industrial Food
Technology at the Agricultural University of Warsaw, during which time she also acted
as a consultant for several food companies in Poland. In 19811982, she was Research
Fellow in the Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences at Queen Elizabeth College
(now Kings College), University of London, where she did research on the rheology of
emulsion systems. In addition, between 1979 and 1983, she acted as technical consultant
for a number of international food ingredient companies. She joined the Leatherhead
Food Research Association as Principal Scientist in 1983, and progressed through Section
Manager to Head of Department.
Currently, she leads a multidisciplinary team of 26 scientists involved in research and
development studies in a wide range of food product areas and novel processing methods.
Her department comprises five sections, namely, Food Technology, Product Research
and Development, Sensory Analysis and Texture Studies, Nutrition, and Microscopy.
Furthermore, during the last 12 years, she has been Research Manager for both the
Confectionery Products Panel and the Fruit and Vegetable Products Panel, thus responsible for undertaking research on behalf of some 400 member companies worldwide,
and has directed a number of innovative research projects sponsored by the U.K. Ministry
of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries, and by the European Union. In addition, over the
years, Dr. Jones has developed and considerably expanded research and development
consultancy activities at the Leatherhead Food Research Association; at present, a major
part of her work is in the form of confidential and proprietary research undertaken for
individual member companies.
Dr. Jones is a Fellow of the Institute of Food Science and Technology (U.K.), and a
Professional Member of the Institute of Food Technology (U.S.). She has been a member
of technical committees of several food industry associations, including the U.K. Biscuit,
Cake, Chocolate and Confectionery Alliance, the Food and Drink Federation, and the
Microwave Working Group led by the U.K. Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Fisheries.
Her achievements in the field of food research were recognized early in her career when
she received twice, in 1976 and 1979, respectively, the Rectors Award at the Agricultural
University of Warsaw, and, in 1978, she was presented with the Minister of Science,
Higher Education and Technology Award.
The main research interests of Dr. Jones have continued to be in the fields of food
emulsions, fat reduction, food texture, food rheology, and overall structure/function
relationships in foods. She has published and presented over 70 papers and patents, and
has been an invited speaker to numerous international meetings throughout Europe, in
the Middle East and in the United States. Her first paper on fat reduction in foods was
published in 1977. Since then, she has maintained her interest in technological approaches
to fat reduction, and, for the last 7 years, her major preoccupation in research and
confidential work at the Leatherhead Food Research Association has been concerned
with fat replacement and fat replacers.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Contributors
David A. Bell
Dow Food Stabilizers
The Dow Chemical Company
Midland, Michigan

Debra L. Miller
Biobehavioral Health and Nutrition
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania

Stuart M. Clegg
Food Product Research and
Development Department
Leatherhead Food Research Association
Leatherhead, Surrey, United Kingdom

Helen L. Mitchell
Consultant Food Technologist
Kent, United Kingdom

Eric Flack
Grindsted Division
Danisco Ingredients (U.K.) Ltd.
Suffolk, United Kingdom
Jaap Harkema
Business Unit Ingredients for Food and
Pharmacy
AVEBE
Ter Apelkanaal, The Netherlands
William M. Humphreys
Food Ingredients Division
FMC Europe NV
Brussels, Belgium
Sylvia A. Jones
Food Product Research and
Development Department
Leatherhead Food Research Association
Leatherhead, Surrey, United Kingdom
Pablo de Mariscal
Research and Development
Dow Europe, S.A.
Horgen, Switzerland
1996 CRC Press LLC

Guy Muyldermans
R & D Laboratory
Tessenderlo Chemie n.v.
Tessenderlo, Belgium
Beinta Unni Nielsen
Copenhagen Pectin A/S
Hercules Inc.
Lille Skensved, Denmark
Sibel Roller
Food Research Centre
South Bank University
London, United Kingdom
Barbara J. Rolls
Laboratory for the Study of
Human Ingestive Behavior
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
Norman S. Singer
Ideas Workshop, Inc.
Highland Park, Illinois
Jane Smith
Legislation Department
Leatherhead Food Research Association
Leatherhead, Surrey, United Kingdom

Barry G. Swanson
Department of Food Science and
Human Nutrition
Washington State University
Pullman, Washington

1996 CRC Press LLC

John N. Young
Market Intelligence Section
Leatherhead Food Research
Association
Leatherhead, Surrey, United Kingdom

Contents
PART I: FUNDAMENTAL ISSUES
Chapter 1
Issues in Fat Replacement
Sylvia A. Jones
Chapter 2
Implications of Fat Reduction in the Diet
Debra L. Miller and Barbara J. Rolls
Chapter 3
Market Considerations in Fat Replacement
John N. Young
Chapter 4
Physical, Chemical, and Sensory Aspects of Fat Replacement
Sylvia A. Jones
Chapter 5
Legislative Implications of Fat Replacement
Jane Smith
PART II: FAT REPLACERS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
Chapter 6A
Starch-Derived Fat Mimetics: Maltodextrins
Sibel Roller
Chapter 6B
Starch-Derived Fat Mimetics from Potato
Jaap Harkema
Chapter 7A
Fiber-Based Fat Mimetics: Microcrystalline Cellulose
William M. Humphreys

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Chapter 7B
Fiber-Based Fat Mimetics: Methylcellulose Gums
Pablo de Mariscal and David A. Bell
Chapter 7C
Fiber-Based Fat Mimetics: Pectin
Beinta Unni Nielsen
Chapter 8
Microparticulated Proteins as Fat Mimetics
Norman S. Singer
Chapter 9
The Use of Hydrocolloid Gums as Fat Mimetics
Stuart M. Clegg
Chapter 10
The Role of Emulsifiers in Low-Fat Food Products
Eric Flack
Chapter 11
The Role of the Bulking Agent Polydextrose in Fat Replacement
Helen L. Mitchell
Chapter 12
The Use of Blends as Fat Mimetics: Gelatin/Hydrocolloid Combinations
Guy Muyldermans
Chapter 13
Low-Calorie Fats and Synthetic Fat Substitutes
Barry G. Swanson
Appendix
Classified List of Fat Replacers and Their Applications
Sylvia A. Jones

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Part

Fundamental
Issues

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Chapter

Issues in
Fat Replacement
Sylvia A. Jones
CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Nutritional Background
1.3 The Functions of Fat in Food
1.3.1 Nutritional Functions of Fat
1.3.2 Physical and Chemical Functions of Fat
1.3.3 Sensory Functions of Fat
1.3.4 Overall Implications for Fat Replacement
1.4 Terminology and Classification of Fat Replacers
1.4.1 Terminology
1.4.2 Classification
1.5 Fat Replacement Strategies
1.5.1 Direct Fat Removal No Compensation
1.5.2 Formulation Optimization
1.5.3 Technological Approach
1.5.4 Holistic Approach
1.6 Developments in Fat Replacers
1.6.1 Olestra and Its Impact
1.6.2 Maltodextrins and other Starch-Derived Fat Mimetics
1.6.3 Microparticulates
1.6.4 Fat Replacers in the Context of Functional Foods
1.6.5 Recognition of the Role of Established Food Ingredients
1.6.6 Development of Combination Systems
1.6.7 Replacing Standard Fats with Low-Calorie Fats
1.6.8 Improving the Quality of Fat Replacers
1.7 Important Considerations in the Development of Low-Fat Foods
1.7.1 Product Quality/Consumer Preference/Marketing Drive

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1.7.2
1.7.3
1.7.4
1.7.5
References

Knowledge of Ingredients
Microbiological Implications
Legislative Considerations
Pricing and Marketing

1.1 INTRODUCTION
With over a decade of fat replacement activities in the commercial world behind us, it
is appropriate to take a comprehensive view of the principal issues involved, and examine
the mechanisms and the directions of the progress made, in order to gain a better
understanding of the developments and draw conclusions for the future from the learned
experience.
As a point of departure, it is useful to address first the principal question: is fat
reduction a passing fad? To address this question, we need to look at the nutritional
background to this issue, and, in particular, to assess the recent developments in nutrition
science. After all, it is the consumption of fat in relation to the etiology of cardiovascular
disease that triggered the sudden interest in food products with less fat (or even zero
fat), both within the food industry and among the public at large. The challenge has been
to produce low-fat variants with physical and sensory characteristics that resemble as
closely as possible the full-fat standard products to which people were accustomed. The
food industry during the last 10 to 15 years has invested considerable resources and
effort into the task.
One problem has been that, often, product development has been carried out without
a full awareness of the different consequences of removing substantial quantities of fat
from a particular product. In order to combat that, and hence develop successfully lowfat variants, it is essential to understand the multiplicity of functions of fat in foods, and,
in this context, to examine the particular food matrix in which the fat is to be replaced.
Because of the crucial role played by fat in foods, it quickly became obvious that the
development of low-fat variants with matching quality of the full-fat counterparts
depended on replacing the fat with alternative ingredients. Hence, many ingredients have
been developed for the specific purpose of fat replacement. Others are food ingredients
that have been used for other purposes before researchers realized that they had a role
to play in fat replacement. The result is that over 200 ingredients now exist (either
commercially available or at different stages of development) which can be used in fat
replacement. The sheer number of ingredients is quite outstanding, but it well illustrates
the difficulties encountered in matching the functionality of fat. Indeed, fat can be seen
as a gold standard similar to sucrose in the case of sweeteners. However, sucrose
replacement can now be seen as a relatively easy task compared with fat replacement.
With the increase in the number of ingredients available, new terms have been introduced,
causing some confusion. Thus, steps need to be taken toward a more systematic approach
to both terminology and classification of the ingredients developed for the purpose of
fat replacement.
Another issue needing consideration is what are the different strategies that can be
adopted in product development and how these have evolved and why. A holistic approach
to fat replacement needs to be considered, and will be exemplified in Chapter 4 where
physical, chemical, and sensory aspects of fat replacement are discussed. Meanwhile,
the development of fat replacers has gone through a number of different stages. It is
appropriate now to put these developments into a historical perspective and provide a
logical framework by identifying the constraints and particular problems of fat replacement,

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and the driving forces behind the developments. This will therefore set the scene for the
detailed discussion on the different fat replacers or categories of fat replacers given in
Chapters 6 to 13.
Last, but not least, when developing low-fat foods, a number of important considerations need to be taken into account. These need to encompass technological, microbiological, and legislative implications, together with marketing aspects, while keeping a
watchful eye on changing consumer preferences.

1.2 NUTRITIONAL BACKGROUND


Up to the 1970s, the issue of fat in the diet and its effect on health was hardly considered,
except in cases of obesity where an overall reduction in energy was recommended.
Reduced-calorie foods, therefore, were mainly a small niche market directed toward a
minority of consumers who were obese or otherwise wished to lose body weight, and
thus were interested in reducing their calorie intake. Moreover, the nutritional advice for
weight loss at that time tended to focus more on carbohydrates than on fat, despite the
fact that fat is the most dense source of calories (9 kcal/g vs. 4 kcal/g for carbohydrates
and proteins). By the 1980s, a radical change had taken place in consumers attitudes.
This can be traced directly to developments in the science of nutrition, and to a better
understanding of the relationships between diet and health, which, in the developed
countries, led to significant changes in official nutritional recommendations.
In the U.K., this reevaluation was brought to public attention by the publication of
two major reports which were, respectively, the so-called NACNE Report, produced
in 1983 by the National Advisory Committee on Nutrition Education (NACNE, 1983),
and Diet and Cardiovascular Disease, known as the COMA Report, produced in 1984
by the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy (COMA) (Department of Health
and Social Security, 1984). The recommendations of the NACNE Report were oriented
toward a diet that would benefit the nations health generally, whereas those of the COMA
Report were intended more specifically to prevent coronary heart disease (CHD). The
major recommendation of both reports was to reduce the intake of fat from the 42% at
the time to 34% (NACNE) or 35% (COMA) of total food energy in the diet. Furthermore,
they recommended that the intake of saturated fat should be reduced to 10% (NACNE)
or 15% (COMA) of food energy. They also advised a reduction in salt intake and
increased consumption of complex carbohydrates and dietary fiber. The recommendations
were widely debated and given extensive publicity in the media. The reports, therefore,
had a significant impact on increasing consumer awareness of the relationship between
diet and health.
Similar developments took place in the United States. In 1988, the U.S. Surgeon
General published a major review on nutrition and health. It proposed that energy in the
diet derived from fat should be reduced to 30% (USDHHS, 1988). A further review
carried out on behalf of the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of
Sciences (NAS, 1989) provided a broad scientific consensus for the U.S. government
report: Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for Americans (USDA/USDHHS,
1990). The recommendations of the Surgeon General were supported by a number of
health-related organizations such as the American Heart Association and the American
Cancer Society, on the basis that the incidence of coronary heart disease and cancer
would be reduced by decreasing the amount of fat and cholesterol in the diet (Przybyla,
1990). By the end of the 1980s, the governments of most developed countries in the
western hemisphere had drawn up nutritional recommendations advising consumers to
reduce fat intake from the prevailing level of 40 to 49% (depending on the country) to

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approximately 30% of total energy in the diet. In most cases, the goal was set to reduce
fat consumption to the recommended level by the year 2000.
In 1992, the U.K. government issued a set of targets to reduce the incidence of
coronary heart disease (CHD) in the White Paper The Health of the Nation: A Strategy
for Health in England (Department of Health, 1992). One target was to reduce the number
of premature deaths (in people under 65 years old) by 40% by the year 2000 (using 1990
figures as a baseline). Dietary targets were set on the basis of the recommendations given
in a second report by the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy on dietary
reference values (Department of Health, 1991), which, in the case of fat, was that it
should not exceed 35% of total food energy in the diet (the same as in the COMA Report
of 1984), with the consumption of saturated fatty acids no more than 11% of total food
energy (4% lower than in the COMA 1984 Report). At the time, the average fat intake
of the British population was at 40% of total food energy and 17% of food energy was
derived from saturated fats.
It would appear, therefore, that relatively little progress has been made in achieving
the targets suggested by NACNE and COMA in the mid-1980s, despite the concurrent
increase in sales of low-fat foods (see Chapter 3). Dietary fat in the American diet is
considered to account for 36% of energy content (Buss, 1993), indicating that greater
progress in adopting dietary recommendations has been made on average compared with
the U.K. However, the analysis of a nutritional survey among British adults (Ministry
of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 1994a) found that 10% of the adult population had
less than 35% of their food energy derived from fat, thus indicating a significant segmentation in consumers response to nutritional guidelines. The extent to which consumers might be compensating for low-fat intakes when consuming low-fat products
remains to be established (see Chapter 2). If that is so, a further point of interest would
be to find out the extent to which the process was a physiological, as opposed to a
psychological, response.
Meanwhile, scientific research oriented toward understanding better the relationship
between diet and health was a major growth area. One noteworthy study was that carried
out by Watts et al. (1992), which was the first to support the hypothesis that a low-fat
diet can actually prevent narrowing of the coronary arteries.
More recently, the complex relationship between diet and heart disease has been
reviewed by Ashwell (1993). While it is acknowledged that CHD is a multifactorial
disorder, it is considered that diet is one component which can be modified by everybody.
The report concludes that the development of CHD can be viewed simplistically as a
three-stage process starting from an initial arterial injury that is followed by atherosclerosis and the formation of a blood clot which eventually blocks the artery thus causing
a heart attack. Each stage can be influenced by several physiological conditions (e.g.,
high blood pressure, high levels of plasma lipids, and low levels of antioxidants), and
these can be affected by controllable factors, including diet. A round table model was
derived to elucidate the relationships between the stages of the disease, physiological
conditions, and dietary components. The level and composition of the fats consumed is
shown to be of importance at all three stages, and overall the dietary advice given includes
reduction of fat intake through the consumption of low-fat products and increased intake
of fish oils.
There is a general consensus that the type of fat consumed is of importance in relation
to the aetiology of chronic diseases. In particular, increasing the proportion of polyunsaturated fats in the diet, e.g., through the consumption of oil-rich fish, appears to play
a protective role against CHD, as evident from the fact that Eskimos subsisting on a high
fat diet based on fish are less prone to heart disease and thrombosis than people on high

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fat diets based more on saturated fats (Dyerberg et al., 1978; Dyerberg and Bang, 1979).
The crucial factor, it seems, is the effect of consumption of different fats on the proportion
of serum cholesterol associated with high-density lipoproteins (HDL cholesterol) vs. that
associated with low-density lipoproteins (LDL cholesterol). Thus, consumption of fats
favoring a higher proportion of HDL cholesterol and/or a lower proportion of LDL
cholesterol, such as diets in which a higher proportion of fats consumed are polyunsaturated (e.g., from fish or certain vegetable sources) or monounsaturated (e.g., from olive
oil), tend to reduce risk from CHD (helped also by the consumption of dietary antioxidants such as Vitamin E, which blocks the oxidative modification of LDL). Conversely,
a higher proportion of saturated fats in the diet tends to increase the ratio of LDL
cholesterol to HDL cholesterol, thus increasing risk of CHD (Grundy, 1994). However,
it is now evident that different saturated fats and dietary sources of saturated fat vary in
their influence on the level of LDL cholesterol (Richardson, 1995). For instance, butter
and other dairy products, which are high in myristic acid (14:0), appear to strongly
increase levels of LDL cholesterol, whereas beef fat, containing palmitic (16:0) and
stearic (18:0) acids does so to a lesser extent, and cocoa butter, with a high proportion
of stearic acid, increases LDL cholesterol only slightly.
In addition, there has been increasing concern and controversy on the consumption
of trans fatty acids in relation to health (Mensink and Katan, 1990; Grundy, 1994).
Epidemiological data (Willett et al., 1993) have shown a positive association between
higher intakes of trans isomers (derived from partially hydrogenated vegetable oils) and
the risk of CHD. Wahle and James (1993) have published a comprehensive review on
this topic, and concluded that some evidence exists to suggest that trans fatty acids have
deleterious effects on blood plasma lipids (i.e., they tend to increase the levels both of
LDL and HDL cholesterol present, as well as the concentration of lipoprotein a (which
is a genetic marker for CHD acting as an independent risk factor). However, other studies
have given conflicting results, so that the issue at present remains unresolved, with a
majority of studies implicating trans fatty acids. Clearly, more research is required on
this issue. Meanwhile, the FAO/WHO Expert Committee concluded that the effects on
plasma cholesterol concentrations exerted by trans unsaturated fatty acids are similar to
saturated fatty acids and hence they have recommended that in order to improve plasma
lipid profile, the intake of trans fatty acids should be cut back when the intake of saturated
fats is reduced (Sanders, 1995).
In short, while our knowledge of the relationship between diet and health continues
to progress, the adoption of dietary recommendations derived from that knowledge
consistently lags behind. It is possible that a better consumer response could be achieved
primarily by more extensive nutritional education and secondly, by improving the quality
of existing or new low-fat foods. On the other hand, it is likely that as the market matures,
with increasing availability of low-fat foods to a wider range of social strata, consumers
might more readily adhere to the guidelines regarding fat consumption.

1.3 THE FUNCTIONS OF FAT IN FOOD


The level of fat determines the nutritional, physical, chemical, and sensory characteristics
of foods. Before the replacement of fat in food products can be considered, however, it
is essential to understand what its various functions are.
1.3.1 NUTRITIONAL FUNCTIONS OF FAT
Physiologically, fats in foods have three basic functions: they act as a source of essential
fatty acids (linolenic and linoleic acids); they act as carriers for fat-soluble vitamins

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(A, D, E and K); and they are an important source of energy. From a nutritional point
of view, only the first two may be considered as essential because other nutrients (namely
carbohydrates and proteins) can act as sources of energy. Normally, even diets very low
in fat can satisfy those requirements. The overriding issue today is that changes in
peoples lifestyles over the years have meant that the requirements for energy from food
have decreased significantly. At the same time, the proportion of energy derived from
fat (the consumption of which, as noted already, apart from being the most concentrated
source of energy, has other adverse effects on health) has remained high. Figure 1.1
illustrates the relative contribution of fat from different foods in an intake of 88 g/day
which is the average for the U.K., and represents 38% of total energy or approximately
40% of energy from food, i.e., excluding alcohol (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Food, 1994a).

Figure 1.1 Sources of fat in diet of U.K. consumers. (Compiled from Ministry of Agriculture,
Fisheries and Food, 1994a).

The nutritional function of fat in food would not be complete without mentioning its
physiological/psychological aspect, mainly the extent to which fat plays a role in achieving satiety. Research has shown that the consumption of fat is associated with a subsequent state of fulfillment, such that, by implication, fat reduction might lead to energy
compensation and the increased consumption of food. This issue is discussed in detail
in Chapter 2. However, it should be pointed out that most studies on satiety have been
carried out using noncaloric, nonabsorbable fat substitutes (such as sucrose polyesters).
As will be discussed, so far such fat substitutes have not been approved for use in foods,
and therefore the studies do not address the current market reality where fat mimetics
are used to reduce the fat content of food products. A study on satiety involving three
different types of fat mimetics is currently being undertaken at the Leatherhead Food
Research Association, supported by the U.K. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food.

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1.3.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL FUNCTIONS OF FAT


Physical and chemical functions of fat in food products can be grouped together since
the chemical nature of fats determines more or less their physical properties. Thus, the
length of the carbon chain of fatty acids esterified with the glycerol, their degree of
unsaturation, and the distribution of fatty acids and their molecular configuration (i.e.,
whether in the form of cis or trans isomers), as well as the polymorphic state of the fat,
will all affect the physical properties of foods (for example, viscosity, melting characteristics, crystallinity, and spreadability).
Furthermore, fat affects the physical and chemical properties of the product, and hence
has several practical implications, the most important of which are (1) the behavior of
the food product during processing (e.g., heat stability, viscosity, crystallization, and
aerating properties), (2) post-processing characteristics (e.g., shear-sensitivity, tackiness,
migration, and dispersion), and (3) storage stability, which can include physical stability
(e.g., de-emulsification, fat migration, or fat separation), chemical stability (e.g., rancidity
or oxidation), and microbiological stability (e.g., water activity and safety).
1.3.3 SENSORY FUNCTIONS OF FAT
Last, but not least, fats have an important function in determining the four main sensory
characteristics of food products, which are (1) appearance (e.g., gloss, translucency, color,
surface uniformity, and crystallinity) (2) texture (e.g., viscosity, elasticity, and hardness),
(3) flavor (namely, intensity of flavor, flavor release, flavor profile, and flavor development), and (4) mouthfeel (e.g., meltability, creaminess, lubricity, thickness, and degree
of mouth-coating). Sensory and related aspects of fat reduction are discussed in detail
in Chapter 4.
1.3.4 OVERALL IMPLICATIONS FOR FAT REPLACEMENT
Reducing fat in a food product must take into account its multifunctional role, in
particular how its location in the food matrix determines the chemical, physical, and
sensory properties of the food, as well as its processing characteristics. The relative
importance of the different functions of the fat in a food vary according to the particular
food product and according to the type of fat used. The greater number of product quality
characteristics determined by the fat, the more pronounced will be its effect, and the
more complex will be the approach required when a substantial part of the fat is to be
replaced.
In the development of low-fat products, it has been found useful to visualize the
overall functionality profile of a product making use of a fishbone diagram. This
approach was used, for instance, by Loders Crocklaan for designing speciality fats for
particular product applications (Anon., 1994). Figure 1.2 illustrates the basic technique
whereby a full functionality profile for a given product can be translated into a detailed
set of physical/chemical and sensory attributes. By the same token, a detailed functionality profile resulting from the presence of fat in a product can be defined and used as
a tool in product development for finding ingredient systems that will deliver the required
profile. Fishbone diagrams have also been used to illustrate the multifunctional aspects
of fat reduction (Anon., 1992).

1.4 TERMINOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION OF FAT REPLACERS


1.4.1 TERMINOLOGY
Over the years, different terms have been used for ingredients that have been specifically
developed to replace fat in food products. This has created some confusion over the

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Figure 1.2 Basic fishbone diagram for product development and reformulation purposes.
(From Source, Issue No. 13, January, 6, 1994. Reprinted with the permission of Loders Croklaan.)

terminology used for fat-replacing ingredients in the literature. Thus, there is a need to
introduce a more systematic approach to this issue. Initially, the term fat substitute
was used for all such ingredients regardless of the extent to which they were able to
replace fat and principles determining their functionality. However, the main interest then
had been directed toward discovering an optimal ingredient able to replace fat fully in
all food systems. Such an ideal ingredient would need to have a similar chemical structure
and similar physical properties to fat, but would need to be resistant to hydrolysis by
digestive enzymes in order to have preferably a zero or very low caloric value. In the
second half of the 1980s, the only ingredients able to fulfill all those requirements were
synthetic compounds such as olestra. The main practical difference between these synthetic compounds and other ingredients launched for the purposes of fat replacement
was that only the former were able, by definition, to replace fat on a weight-by-weight
basis. All other ingredients, on the other hand, required water to achieve their functionality, and their ability to replace fat was based on the principle of reproducing (mimicking)
some of the physical and sensory characteristics associated with the presence of fat in
the food. Hence, the term fat mimetic evolved to distinguish this group of ingredients.
With separate terms now being used to define these different types of ingredients,
there was the need for an overall term that referred to all ingredients used for
fatreplacement purposes, and the general term fat replacer began to be used in that
context. However, many authors continue to use the term fat substitute for all fat
replacing ingredients, and an even greater number use the terms fat substitute, fat
mimetic, and fat replacer more or less interchangeably, thus causing confusion on the
meanings of these terms.
In addition, as a result of further developments, other terms have been introduced by
ingredient manufacturers. For instance, the term fat extender has been used by Pfizer
to describe a system comprising a mixture of ingredients, containing standard fats or
oils, such as Veri-Lo 100 and Veri-Lo 200, which are emulsions containing 33 and
25% fat, respectively. On the other hand, ingredients such as Caprenin and Salatrim,

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which are true fats (i.e., they are triglycerides) but with a fatty acid composition different
from standard fats designed to provide fewer calories (see below), may also be described
as fat extenders. However, when Salatrim was launched, the term low-calorie fat
was promoted, and has since evolved as a term in its own right, distinct from fat
extenders. Thus, Caprenin and Salatrim are now more usually placed in an independent
group under the heading low-calorie fats. Hence, the term fat extender now tends to
be reserved for systems combining standard fats or oils with other ingredients, as in the
case of Veri-Lo.
In summary, the five terms used to describe ingredients which can replace fat may
be defined briefly as follows:
Fat replacer: a blanket term to describe any ingredient used to replace fat
Fat substitute: a synthetic compound designed to replace fat on a weight-by-weight
basis, usually having a similar chemical structure to fat but resistant to hydrolysis
by digestive enzymes
Fat mimetic: a fat replacer that requires a high water content to achieve its functionality
Low-calorie fat: synthetic triglyceride combining unconventional fatty acids to the
glycerol backbone which results in reduced caloric value
Fat extender: a fat replacement system containing a proportion of standard fats or
oils combined with other ingredients

It should be added that the current lack of development activity for the last category of
fat replacers might lead to the disappearance of the term in due course; however, it is
included in the above list for completeness.
1.4.2 CLASSIFICATION
One of the main characteristics of the ingredients used to replace fat is that they lack
similarity both in terms of chemical structure and in a specific physical structure. All
they have in common is that under certain conditions, they are able to replace fat and
fulfill at least some of the functional properties associated with fat in a given product.
By definition, therefore, they represent a disparate group of ingredients for which it is
not easy to provide a simple classification. An additional problem is that the group as a
whole is quite unbalanced in which some subgroups of ingredients of similar chemical
structure and functional properties comprise a large number while others may contain
only one or two ingredients developed so far. In short, a systematic approach (i.e., based
on a single feature or characteristic) cannot be used because too many ingredients would
be excluded. Furthermore, there is the issue as to whether to include in any classification
all ingredients currently used, or have potential use as fat replacers, or whether it should
consist only of those ingredients that have been purposely designed to act as fat replacers.
The classification of fat replacers given below aims to give the reader a comprehensive
view of ingredient categories that can be considered for product development of low-fat
foods (including the synthetic fat substitutes, none of which, as yet, are permitted for
use in foods)*. The list is based partially on chemical composition and partially on
functionality of the ingredients, and includes combination systems (i.e., blends).
1. Starch-derived
2. Fiber-based
* Since completing this manuscript, the U.S. FDA announced on January 24, 1996 their approval for the
use of olestra in selected savory snacks.

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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Protein-based
Gums, gels and thickeners
Emulsifiers
Bulking agents
Low-calorie fats
Fat extenders
Synthetic fat substitutes
Combination systems

As may be seen, a certain degree of overlap cannot be avoided. For instance, it can
be debated whether low-calorie fats should be considered as a separate entity, or be
included in the synthetic fat substitute category. However, since the low-calorie fats
structurally are lipids, and were assigned a separate term from other fat replacers when
launched on the market, it is considered more appropriate to differentiate them from the
category of the, as yet, unpermitted fat substitutes in the above classification.

1.5 FAT REPLACEMENT STRATEGIES


A number of approaches have evolved in the development of reduced-fat foods. In this
section, the main options will be discussed briefly in the order that they were introduced.
1.5.1 DIRECT FAT REMOVAL NO COMPENSATION
During the rush of publicity of the new nutritional recommendations in the early 1980s,
the first strategy to evolve was simply to remove fat from the standard product, without
any attempt to address the organoleptic changes resulting from the reduced presence of
the fat. The dairy industry was the first to adopt such a strategy, with the introduction
of semi-skimmed, and subsequently, skimmed milk. Fat content was reduced from the
3.5% in the standard product, to, respectively, 1.7% (i.e., a 50% fat reduction) and 0.1%
(i.e., a more or less 100% reduction), in effect, replacing the fat with a proportional
increase of all the other constituents of milk. This somewhat drastic strategy, which
changed considerably the organoleptic quality of the final product, had many skeptics
who doubted whether consumers would accept such a change. It was thought that after
the initial hype period, consumers would gradually go back to the standard full-fat
milk, and demand for the reduced-fat varieties would dwindle to a small niche market.
However, history proved otherwise. In the U.K., for example, as indicated in Figure 1.3,
the consumption of reduced-fat liquid milk grew at a remarkable rate. According to the
most recent National Food Survey in Britain, the consumption of reduced-fat milk has
now overtaken that of whole milk (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 1994b).
In other words, the strategy of direct fat removal adopted by the dairy industry proved
a major success, gaining widespread consumer acceptance in spite of the obvious changes
in product characteristics.
Similar developments subsequently took place in the meat industry. Thus, lean and
extra lean raw beef, pork and lamb (mostly in a minced or diced form, chilled or frozen)
are now readily available in the supermarkets of many of the developed countries, with
a fat content ranging from 15 to 10%, and even as low as 5%.
Such a strategy is less possible for most other food products because, for the majority,
physical stability, functional properties, and, in many cases, microbiological stability, are
adversely affected. The same applies when fat is replaced by water alone. Direct fat
removal without compensation, therefore, has limited applicability, depending on the
type of product, and the level of fat reduction intended. Since this strategy expects the
consumer to accept considerable change in the organoleptic characteristics of a product,

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Figure 1.3 Consumption of liquid milk (g/d) in the U.K. (Compiled from Ministry of Agriculture,
Food and Fisheries, National Food Surveys for 19841993.)

it can only work well when the consumer is highly motivated, and where, therefore, fat
content and nutritional concerns in general will influence purchasing behavior. In short,
the limited number of products to which this strategy can be applied has meant that other
ways of achieving fat reduction have had to be sought.
1.5.2 FORMULATION OPTIMIZATION
The major challenge in the development of reduced-fat foods is to achieve fat reduction
while matching as closely as possible the eating qualities of the traditional full-fat
product. This involves the creative use of established functional ingredients, including
the range of fat replacers now available.
For most food products, reduction of fat is associated with an increase in water content.
The first need, therefore, in order to mimic the quality of the full-fat product, is to attempt
to structure the water phase, through the use of such functional ingredients as proteins,
starches and other thickeners, gums, stabilizers, gelling agents, bulking agents, emulsifiers and fibers. The choice of ingredients will depend on product type and the level of
fat reduction intended, and needs to be carefully balanced against their effects on the
multiplicity of product characteristics. The strategy requires a thorough knowledge of
the ingredients available, and an understanding of the structure/function relationships in
a given product matrix. During the second half of the 1980s, when the emphasis was
narrowly focused on the search for an optimal new fat replacer, developments in other
directions were somewhat limited. However, once the inherent limitations of the various
fat replacers introduced to the market were realized, interest in the creative use of the
standard functional ingredients increased considerably.
The introduction of new ingredients designed specifically to replace fat (i.e., fat
replacers) significantly increased the scope for matching the quality of reduced-fat
variants. Currently, as noted already, there are over 200 ingredients with some claim for

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aiding fat replacement, either available commercially, or at an advanced stage of development (see Section 1.6). Most of the fat replacers on the market are based on the ability
to structure the water phase toward achieving fat-like structures that mimic the physical
and/or perceived sensory characteristics of fat.
1.5.3 TECHNOLOGICAL APPROACH
The use of specially designed fat replacers in products often requires changes in processing conditions or additional processing stages in order to achieve optimal functionality. However, the technological approach can be extended much further in fat replacement strategies. One example would be to explore interactive processing. This is based
on the principle of employing a processing method purposely designed to cause interactions between ingredients, and changes in ingredient functionalities within the food
matrix, in such a way that they compensate for the removal of fat in the final product.
On the other hand, the application of a new technology, or an existing technology that
is not normally used in the production of the standard product, can be sought. To date,
neither of these approaches has been explored to any great extent.
1.5.4 HOLISTIC APPROACH
The holistic approach to fat reduction is based on the fact that, on the one hand, the vast
majority of food products are relatively complex systems, and, on the other hand, any
one fat mimetic has limitations in its ability to cover the many different functions of fat.
The strategy has evolved because in most cases it has been found that no single approach
to fat replacement gives a satisfactory final product with significant fat reduction, without
compromising some of the quality characteristics (e.g., sensory, physical stability, microbiological stability) of the standard product. It has normally taken the form of using a
chosen fat replacer in conjunction with other ingredients (e.g., stabilizers, emulsifiers),
or the use of a blend of ingredients designed for a particular product application. More
recently, this has shifted toward using more than one fat replacer in conjunction with a
range of standard ingredients. However, the ultimate holistic strategy, with the goal of
producing optimal quality products with low-fat levels or in fat-free versions, needs to
go beyond the issue of ingredients used, toward encompassing all technological means
for achieving the required fat reduction. Indeed, this does not only apply to the development of low-fat products, but to all food product development. In a holistic strategy
even greater attention must be directed toward achieving an understanding of the functionality of the various ingredients, and how they interact with one another. Many of the
advances in product development activities have been predominantly empirically based.
In general, low-fat products, because they are deprived of the functionality of fat, are
much more sensitive to molecular interactions, especially those between flavor and other
ingredients, and those which affect texture. Thus, when developing low-fat products,
much more attention needs to be given to all aspects of the often complex and finely
balanced physical and chemical system as a whole. This emphasizes the need for a
holistic strategy.

1.6 DEVELOPMENTS IN FAT REPLACERS


Although the fat replacement issue has been on the agenda for more than a decade, it
was not until the late 1980s and early 1990s that the development of ingredients specifically for fat replacement really took off. The fact that there are so many ingredients
now available for use in fat replacement means that this has been one of the strongest
growth areas in the field of ingredient development for some time. In this section, the
various developments in fat replacers are put in a historical context, highlighting the
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main events, in order to show how each development had an impact on further research
activities. It sets the scene for the more detailed discussion on the different fat replacers
or categories of fat replacers in Chapters 6 through 13.
1.6.1 OLESTRA AND ITS IMPACT
Initially, as previously mentioned, the desire was to find an ingredient that would behave,
both physically and chemically, like fat, while contributing fewer calories, and which
could be used in all product types by directly substituting for the fat, with little or no
need to reformulate the product. Olestra, a sucrose polyester, first synthesized in 1968
and patented by the Procter & Gamble Company in 1971, precisely fitted those criteria
(Mattson and Volpenheim, 1971). With sucrose substituting for the glycerol moiety in
triglycerides, and six to eight of the hydroxyl groups of the sucrose esterified by fatty
acids, the chemical structure of olestra is rather similar to fat. The main difference is
that the molecule cannot be hydrolyzed by pancreatic lipases, and hence passes straight
through the gastrointestinal tract unchanged without being absorbed. It thus contributes
no calories. Furthermore, its physical properties could be manipulated by varying the
chain length, the degree of unsaturation and the proportions of different fatty acids used
to esterify the hydroxyl groups of the sucrose molecule. Finally, because it is inherently
heat stable, it can substitute for fat over a wide range of applications in the food industry
(including in frying oils), and in virtually every type of food product.
It was not until the late 1970s and early 1980s, when the nutritional arguments for
reducing fat consumption were being publicized, that a viable market for olestra started
to become apparent. Its current status is that it is still awaiting official approval for use
in food. Procter & Gamble submitted its first petition for approval to the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) in April 1987. A further petition was submitted in July 1990,
restricting its use to savory snacks (Anon., 1991a). The company has also filed for the
approval of olestra in Canada and in the U.K. (Anon., 1990). It was hoped that approval
would be obtained in 1995, especially since a second 1-year interim extension to the
Procter & Gambles patent awarded by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office is due to
expire in January 1996 (Anon., 1995). Under the current U.S. legislation concerning
products which require lengthy regulatory review, if olestra were to be approved before
this date, then it would be possible for Procter & Gambles patent to be extended for an
additional 2 years from the time of its approval by the FDA. There is also the issue that
even if approved, it is not certain whether olestra will gain consumer acceptance. However, it is noteworthy that, despite, on the one hand, its synthetic nature, and, on the
other hand, a concurrent consumer trend in the 1980s toward natural and additivefree products, olestra has continued to receive remarkably positive publicity.
For completeness, it should be added that a number of other synthetic fat substitutes
have been developed. These include esterified propoxylated glycerols, carboxy-carboxylate esters, malonate esters, alkyl glyceryl-ethers, alkyl glycoside fatty acid polyesters,
esterified polysaccharides, polyvinyl oleate, ethyl esters, polysiloxanes, and many more
(Bowes, 1993). These are discussed in Chapter 13. It is interesting to note, though, that
none of the companies developing these synthetic fat substitutes have so far attempted
to go through the hurdles of gaining approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, but rather have resigned themselves to waiting for the outcome of the application
for olestra. However, it should be pointed out that a joint agreement was signed in 1990
between the companies Arco and CPC International to develop esterified propoxylated
glycerol, and subsequently to prepare the necessary scientific data required if the ingredient is to gain approval (Anon., 1991a).
Meanwhile, the nonavailability of olestra in the 1980s had the effect of stimulating
developments in fat replacers in other directions.
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1.6.2 MALTODEXTRINS AND OTHER STARCH-DERIVED FAT MIMETICS


In the early days of fat replacement, relatively small reductions in fat were considered
an acceptable goal, perhaps by a quarter or a third compared with the fat content of the
standard product. In many cases, this could be achieved with the use of different types
of starch-derived fat mimetics, which, in contrast to olestra, do not have any regulatory
hurdles to pass over.
One of the first starch-derived mimetics to enter the market was N-Oil, a tapioca
dextrin, which had been produced by National Starch & Chemical Corporation since
1984 (Dziezak, 1989). The most significant amount of research activity on starch-derived
mimetics has centered around the development of maltodextrins i.e., starch hydrolysis
products obtained by acid or enzymic hydrolysis of starch materials and characterized
by a low dextrose equivalent (DE) value. The concept of starch hydrolysis products with
DE<10 was pioneered at the Academy of Science in the former German Democratic
Republic, where potato starch was partially degraded using a-amylase, a process that
was subsequently patented (Richter et al., 1973). Since such maltodextrins when used
in solution at a concentration greater than 20% form thermoreversible gels, with some
of the sensory characteristics of fats, and caloric value amounts to approximately 1 kcal/g,
there was scope for exploring these ingredients for the purposes of fat replacement. On
the other hand, both enzymic and acid hydrolysis methods can be applied to any type
of starch or material high in starch content, and hence, not surprisingly, a large number
of maltodextrins from different sources have been developed and are available commercially. A detailed discussion of these fat mimetics is given in Chapter 6A, and Chapter 6B
covers the maltodextrins derived from potato starch. A list of commercially available
maltodextrins is given in the Appendix. Although the main focus was concentrated on
maltodextrins, a few modified starches were also introduced to the market for fat replacement purposes toward the end of the 1980s and in the beginning of the 1990s (e.g., the
Sta-Slim range from the company A. E. Staley and the Amalean range from the American Maize Products Company). Some further developments in starch-derived fat mimetics will be highlighted later.
In the late 1980s, when the trend had shifted toward developing food products
containing even lower amounts of fat, and in the midst of the hype associated with
synthetic fat substitutes at that time, fat mimetics, such as those derived from starch,
were at a serious disadvantage because they could not fulfill all the criteria for an optimal
(ideal) fat replacer. Furthermore, under the influence of olestra, which had been submitted
to the FDA for approval, the whole climate of opinion then was dominated by the
perceived need to find a single ingredient that had the potential of replacing fat across
the whole spectrum of product applications. Thus, fat replacement reached something
of an impasse: a market existed for low-fat foods, but while synthetic fat substitutes were
not approved for use in food, other ingredients, such as starch-derived fat replacers, could
only replace some of the functions of fat in foods, and, as fat mimetics, had restricted
applications.
1.6.3 MICROPARTICULATES
The first technological breakthrough (or, more precisely, what was perceived as a breakthrough at the time) came with the development of Simplesse, a microparticulated
protein fat mimetic introduced by the NutraSweet Company, the main version of which
is based on whey protein concentrate (Singer et al., 1988) see Chapter 8 for a detailed
discussion on Simplesse. It was launched in January 1988, receiving much publicity in
the media.
It should be added that while John Labatt Ltd., Canada, the originator of the Simplesse concept sold the rights to Simplesse to the NutraSweet Company, further
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developments were on-going at Ault Foods Ltd., a division of John Labbatt Ltd., which
culminated in 1989 with the launch of a whey protein concentrate-based fat mimetic
under the name Dairylight (Anon. 1991b). The difference between Simplesse and
Dairylight lies in the processing method employed, whereby the latter involves only a
mild treatment which leads only to partial denaturation of protein (60 to 80%), and hence
it is not a microparticulated protein (Asher et al., 1992). Four years later, in 1993, the
company Pfizer relaunched Dairylight under the Dairy-Lo name as a result of an
agreement reached between Pfizer Company and Ault Foods Ltd., whereby Ault Foods
would produce Dairy-Lo and Pfizer would market it in all countries with the exception
of Canada (Anon., 1993).
The concept of a microparticulated protein as a fat mimetic was seen by many as the
ultimate development in ingredient technology with the potential of resolving all the
problems associated with fat replacement, including that of total fat replacement. These
beliefs were compounded by the strong marketing strategy of the NutraSweet Company.
However, strong marketing was needed at the time in order to combat the general opinion
that fat mimetics were by definition underperformers as compared with the true fat
replacers such as olestra which, in spite of their failure to gain approval for use in foods,
were still seen as the ideal fat replacers. The concept of a special processing method
leading to a microparticulated form of an ingredient was seen as one that can actually
mimic the fat droplets in an oil-in-water emulsion, and hence the developments in proteinbased fat replacers were oriented toward some form of microparticulates (see Chapter 4
for a more detailed discussion of this issue). While LITA (from the company Opta Food
Ingredients, Inc.) and Trailblazer (from Kraft General Foods) followed this concept using
multicomponent systems based on proteins, a large number of insoluble fat mimetics
also started to be marketed as having what had become the fashionable microparticulated
form (e.g., the Avicel range from FMC, and Stellar a crystalline starch from A. E.
Staley).
Back in the late 1980s, Simplesse was also promoted on the basis of its natural (as
opposed to synthetic) character, since it was produced from a well-recognized natural
ingredient (i.e., whey protein concentrate or egg white/skimmed milk/sugar/pectin for
Simplesse 100 and Simplesse 300, respectively). The fact that these ingredients were
originally produced only in a liquid form, and hence had a short shelf-life and required
refrigeration was probably (at least initially) a contributing factor to the positive image
of these ingredients. (Further developments of Simplesse 100 are outlined in
Section 1.6.8.)
However, in due course, the publicity surrounding Simplesse turned into a two-edged
sword, since it was loaded with high levels of expectancy and hence was thought able
to deliver much more than other fat mimetics. In many applications, however, it was not
technically possible for it to come up to those expectations, and moreover, it was
becoming increasingly apparent that in order to achieve a significant fat reduction, in
most cases, other ingredients were also necessary for obtaining optimal quality.
1.6.4 FAT REPLACERS IN THE CONTEXT OF FUNCTIONAL FOODS
The link between fat replacers and functional foods has not previously been made.
However, that an association does exist, as will be demonstrated here, is worth pointing
out amidst the current high level of interest in functional foods.
One definition for a functional food states that it is a food which positively affects
physiological functions of the body in a targeted way as a result of it containing ingredients which may, in due course, justify health claims (Roberfroid, 1995). Taking this
issue broadly, it can be argued that all foods with reduced fat content can be considered
as functional foods given the nutritional benefits of fat reduction as discussed in
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Section 1.1. Most of the ingredients used to replace fat, of course, do not provide any
special positive physiological benefits themselves. However, fiber-based fat replacers can
claim such benefits since there is a growing recognition for the role of dietary fiber in
disease prevention, particularly in relation to colonic cancer and heart disease (e.g., Asp
et al., 1993; Stark and Madar, 1994; Kritchesky, 1994).
Thus, a number of fat replacers have been launched based on fiber from a number of
different sources, such as oats, sugar beet, soy beans, almonds, and peas. For instance,
Advanced Oat Fibers manufactured by the company Williamson Fiber Products in Ireland
were first introduced in 1988. Oat fiber is also a good source of b-glucan which is claimed
to have cholesterol-lowering properties (Duxbury, 1990). Oatrim fat replacer, developed
and patented by the U.S. Department of Agriculture is obtained through the enzymic
modification of oat starch in the oat flour or bran, and contains from 1 to 10% of bglucan (Inglett and Grisamore, 1991). Both ConAgra and Rhne-Poulenc/Quaker Oats
Company are currently producing Oatrim under separate license agreements. Another
fiber ingredient, Fibercel, developed by Alpha-Beta Technologies, is composed of 85 to
90% -glucan obtained from a food-grade yeast product (Jamas et al., 1990). A range
of cellulose-based fat replacers should also be mentioned as a source of fiber (see
Appendix). Moreover, in the particular case of inulin fat replacers (for instance Raftiline
from Orafti, Belgium, and Fibruline from Cosucra SA, Belgium), positive physiological
benefits arise from their bifidus stimulating properties (Roberfroid, 1995).
1.6.5 RECOGNITION OF THE ROLE OF ESTABLISHED
FOOD INGREDIENTS
Gradually, the realities of the market place began to shift away from the mythical one
ingredient can solve it all and toward a more holistic strategy. Moreover, meanwhile,
commercial pressures were moving the goal-posts of fat reduction to well beyond the
50% mark, thus making it even more difficult to achieve fat replacement without a holistic
strategy in which ingredients such as, gums, emulsifiers, thickeners, stabilizers, and
bulking agents, along with gelatin and other proteins and untreated starches could play
crucial roles. Previously, this group of ingredients had been overshadowed by the orientation toward discovering the optimal fat replacer.
However, the important role of these well-established ingredients is clearly evident
when examining low-fat or zero-fat products currently on the market (Bavington et al.,
1992). While in many cases, these ingredients are used in conjunction with those developed purposely for replacing fat, in some products, fat reduction has been achieved by
structuring the water phase using only gums and stabilizers (e.g., Krafts Free Choice
Vinaigrette Style Fat-Free Dressing). Thus, the role of ingredients such as gums, stabilizers, thickeners and emulsifiers needs to be firmly emphasized in the context of fat
replacement. That is why this group of ingredients has been placed in a separate category
in the classification of ingredients given earlier. Details on the uses of gums, bulking
agents and emulsifiers are given in Chapters 9, 10, and 11, respectively, and cellulosebased stabilizers, and their use for fat mimicking purposes, is discussed in Chapters 7A
and 7B. The scope for utilizing functional food ingredients in fat replacement was further
highlighted in 1991 by the commercialization of Slendid, a proprietary pectin developed
by Hercules, Inc., and marketed by Copenhagen Pectin A/S (see Chapter 7C).
1.6.6 DEVELOPMENT OF COMBINATION SYSTEMS
The launch of the N-Lite range of fat mimetics by National Starch & Chemical Corporation in January 1992, as well as widening the scope for the use of starch-derived
ingredients for fat replacement purposes, was of considerable significance because it
established a new trend. This was the development of combination systems (i.e., blends
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of ingredients) for use in fat replacement in specific product applications. For example,
N-Lite F, specifically designed for use in icings, fillings, frozen desserts and dry mixes,
was a blend of modified starch, non-fat milk solids, polyglycerol ester and guar gum. In
effect, therefore, the necessity for the holistic approach to fat replacement has been
acknowledged. Most notably, it was in this context that modified starch was shown to
have a useful role in fat replacement.
In fact, some blends were on the market before 1992. Indeed, a number were launched
in the second half of the 1980s, but received few headlines, because, at the time, the
search for the single magic ingredient was the dominant theme. Developments in the
use of blends as fat replacers have taken a number of forms, but, in the main, the approach
has been to prepare a formulation containing three or more ingredients which, either
could be more universally applied, or, were designed for a specific product category. The
latter approach has tended to dominate (for obvious reasons), and the blends typically
included as ingredients are gums, stabilizers, thickeners, and emulsifiers, together with
standard protein sources (see Appendix for a list of blended ingredient systems that are
on the market).
Most combination systems are composed using a passive approach, whereby each
ingredient has its particular functionality, and it is the sum of those functionalities that
is devised to result in optimal product characteristics. However, one group, interactive
combination systems, is based on the principle that a particular combination of ingredients interact during processing, resulting in different characteristics to those that would
have been expected from each of the ingredients separately or together. A good example
of an interactive combination system is the Slimgel range launched by P.B. Gelatins,
Belgium, at the end of 1993. It is composed of gelatin and galactomannans, and its
performance is based on thermodynamic incompatibility between these two hydrocolloids, which, in turn, leads to phase separation (Muyldermans, 1993, see also Chapter 12).
The advantage of blends, ideally, is that they shorten the time and effort required to
develop new low-fat or fat-free products. However, the disadvantage is that when significant development work is required to best match a given full-fat variant, the use of
a blend might prove too inflexible, and inhibit the ingredient optimization process, since
the precise composition of the main functional system used is not known. The concept
of using a range of ingredients in an attempt to reproduce the different functions of fat
in the full-fat product goes some way toward a holistic strategy. This was particularly
necessary by early 1990s, by which time, partly due to commercial pressures and partly
due to new legislative restrictions regarding claims (see Chapter 5), the goal-posts for
fat reduction had moved yet again, this time toward the ultimate limit i.e., zero fat.
1.6.7 REPLACING STANDARD FATS WITH LOW-CALORIE FATS
The concept of replacing fat with a low-calorie fat entered the scene in the early 1990s.
By that time, the likelihood of obtaining FDA approval for the use of olestra within a
short time-scale was dwindling rapidly, and, on the other hand, it was recognized that
the commercially available fat mimetics did not provide an easy answer to fat replacement, and, moreover, their use was restricted, in general, to water-based food systems.
In this context, the idea of using the basic structure of a triglyceride molecule, but
changing the composition of the fatty acids esterified with the glycerol backbone in order
to achieve caloric reduction appeared to be very plausible. Moreover, the fact that
medium-chain triglycerides, which usually comprise caprylic (C8) and capric (C10) fatty
acids, are GRAS ingredients with a 35-year track record in clinical medicine (e.g., for
treating patients suffering from lipid malabsorption symptoms or for use in infant formulae) was a distinct advantage (Latta, 1990; Megremis, 1991). These compounds
provide energy (8.3 kcal/g) but are metabolized through the liver, and are characterized
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by a low tendency for becoming incorporated into tissue as depot fat. Currently, mediumchain triglycerides are marketed by the U.S. company Karlshamns Food Ingredients
(Captex 300, 350 and 355, now known as AKomed range) and by Stepan Company
(Neobee M-5). However, as pointed out by Thayer (1992), there are certain limitations
to the use of medium-chain triglycerides in foods since, upon hydrolysis, the free fatty
acids released give strong off-flavors.
The concept of using medium-chain triglycerides together with long-chain fatty acids
(e.g., behenic acid C22) was developed jointly by Procter & Gamble and Grinsted
Products, Inc. and commercialized under the name Caprenin. The incorporation of
behenic acid (which is only partially absorbed in the gut), together with caprylic and
capric acids, gives further caloric reduction, and the net result is that Caprenin provides
only 5 kcal/g (Peters et al., 1991; Webb and Sanders, 1991). More information on
Caprenin is given in Chapter 13. Caprenin has been used commercially as a substitute
for cocoa butter in the product Milky Way II produced by M & M Mars (introduced into
a test market area in the U.S. in March 1992), and (in September 1992) in Hersheys
Reduced Calorie and Fat Candy Bar. In both cases, the Caprenin was used in conjunction
with polydextrose to achieve a 25% reduction in caloric value compared with the standard
product. However, since then, there seems to have been no apparent progress in the use
of Caprenin as a fat replacer.
The most recent addition to the low-calorie fat category is Salatrim, developed by
Nabisco Foods Group in conjunction with Pfizer Food Science, and launched in July
1994. Salatrim is a family of triglycerides comprising mixtures of long-chain fatty acids
(predominantly stearic acid) and short-chain fatty acids (mainly acetic acid, propionic
acid, and/or butyric acid) esterified with glycerol. As a result of this chemical structure,
the caloric value of Salatrim is 5 kcal/g (Smith et al., 1994). It is not expected that the
commercial availability of Salatrim will be hindered by the FDA approval process since
it is made from natural substances commonly used in foods and produced by an established interesterification process (petition filed with the FDA in mid-1994). No toxic
effects were observed in animal studies of up to 13 weeks duration and in clinical studies,
Salatrim was found to be well tolerated in doses of up to 30 g/d (Smith et al., 1994). At
the time of writing, Nabisco was hoping to launch chocolate bars containing Salatrim
by mid-1995, and Pfizer Food Science was planning subsequently to launch ice cream,
cheeses, baked goods and table spreads made from Salatrim. However, the incorporation
of Salatrim into frying oils has not been suggested (see Chapter 13). The future will
show whether low-calorie fats will be seen as a commercially viable option for the food
industry.
1.6.8 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF FAT REPLACERS
Developments of fat replacers have not only been confined to the development of new
ingredients. In addition, much effort has been made by ingredient manufacturers to
improve further the quality of the existing fat replacers in terms of their functionality,
ease of use and heat stability, with the aim of expanding their industrial applications.
Three trends can be identified: instantization; alterations in functionality profile; and ease
of use during product manufacture.
Instantization is an obvious and well-established route for ingredient extension. Thus,
a number of ingredient manufacturers have launched instant versions of their fat mimetic.
This is evident from the list of fat replacers given in the Appendix.
The second trend can be seen as a reflection of the realization that no fat mimetic,
however good, can mimic all the functional characteristics provided by a fat in a given
product. Thus, one or more other ingredients were being added to alter and improve the

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functionality profile provided by the original ingredient in order to obtain some additional
fat-like property (e.g., development of the Novagel range of fat replacers by F.M.C.,
based on Avicel). The extreme form of this trend was its extension into the development
of blends, as discussed above.
The need for ingredients which were easy to use during the manufacture of food
products was especially in evidence during the first half of the 1990s. This is associated
with the fact that the use of many of the fat replacers that have been developed necessitated either the preparation of a solution and/or special processing when placed in
solution, prior to addition to other ingredients, e.g., the Rafticreming stage required for
Raftiline, and the high shearing (8000 psi) required for Stellar (Pszczola, 1991).
Hence, the subsequent developments aimed to remove these additional stages in product
manufacture while providing the expected functionality, and new variants entered the
market (e.g., Raftiline HP and Instant Stellar).
In the overall context of improvements in the quality and flexibility of fat replacers,
Simplesse deserves special mention, since the original ingredient (Simplesse 100)
which was commercialized in a liquid form (42.5% solids) with a short shelf-life and
low heat resistance, was developed into a dry form (Simplesse 100D) able to withstand
UHT pasteurization or retorting, without loss of functionality.

1.7 IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DEVELOPMENT


OF LOW-FAT FOODS
A reduced-fat food product, when compared with the standard product it is replacing,
more often than not has different requirements from the points of view of manufacturers,
retailers, and consumers. For instance, a change in the technology used in manufacture
and manufacturing practice may be required, which, furthermore, might have cost implications. A change in pack design, e.g., with improved barrier properties, greater physical
protection or a reduced pack size, may be called for where shelf-life is reduced. In some
cases, changes in temperature or timescale of distribution may be necessary.
While achieving optimal product quality is obviously the primary consideration in
the pursuit of fat reduction, it is crucial to base this on an understanding of how the
ingredients function, and, taking into account microbiological and legislative implications, appropriately designing a marketing strategy. These issues are highlighted in the
following discussion.
1.7.1 PRODUCT QUALITY/CONSUMER PREFERENCE/MARKETING DRIVE
Clearly, the organoleptic properties of the low-fat product ultimately determine the
success or failure of the product, since consumers are unlikely (at least in the first
instance) to sacrifice taste and quality in order to reduce calories in their diet (see
Chapter 4 for a detailed discussion on sensory aspects of fat reduction and flavor release).
However, the success of the dairy industry in applying the strategy of direct fat removal,
which, as noted already, resulted in dramatic organoleptic changes, suggests that consumer perceptions and liking of high-fat products can be modified over time. Indeed,
there is already some evidence that consumer preference is shifting toward products with
a medium, as opposed to those containing a higher level of fat (Wyeth and Kilcast, 1991;
Mela and Marshall, 1992). In other words, consumers attitudes to health and diet are
apparently beginning to have a significant influence on food choice, and a greater desire
for foods with healthier nutritional characteristics is starting to influence organoleptic
preferences. Thus, increased consumption of some low-fat product variants can cause
changes in preferences, which, in turn, changes acceptability patterns. It can be argued,

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therefore, that for these patterns to emerge, the quality of the products with medium fat
reduction may be the key to future developments. In this context, the market drive for
fat-free variants may be seen as being premature for some product categories.
The positioning of a particular product in the diet should, in principle, determine the
level of fat reduction required and the product quality that can be achieved at different
fat levels should be balanced against that before making a marketing decision. This helps
to explain why some of the fat-free variants, despite apparently different characteristics
from the equivalent standard product, appear to be of greater appeal to consumers than
others.
1.7.2 KNOWLEDGE OF INGREDIENTS
When developing a product where fat reduction is achieved through the incorporation
of a fat replacer, it is of considerable importance to know or establish: first, the physical
and chemical characteristics of the functional ingredients used; second, what the possible
interactions with other food components might be; and third, what the implications might
be for the processing operations, i.e., what changes in processing might need to be
employed in order to achieve maximum functionality.
Thus, a full knowledge of a range of fat replacers, which can be used effectively to
narrow down the number of fat replacers suitable for a particular product type, is essential
if product development is to be carried out in an efficient manner. Moreover, any
adjustments in other ingredients present in the standard full-fat formulation need to be
guided by a knowledge of their functionality. It is important to be especially flexible as
far as the processing method is concerned, since, in some cases, small adjustments in
the standard method might be required, whereas in others, the optimal solution might
be to consider other technological options (e.g., through technology transfer, or by
devising a new technology altogether).
1.7.3 MICROBIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS
A reduction in fat content in a given product formulation is usually associated with a
simultaneous increase in moisture content, which thus affects microbiological stability,
and hence the safety of the product must be given due consideration. For example, lowfat spreads require the addition of a preservative such as potassium sorbate which is not
normally necessary for full-fat margarine, and, moreover, they have a considerably shorter
shelf-life. Similarly, many low-fat dressings, unlike the full-fat equivalent, require refrigeration after opening. In other words, for many reduced-fat products, consumers have to
change the way in which they use the product compared with the full-fat equivalent, and
it has to be ensured that consumers are aware of that.
It is well recognized that water activity, acidity, preservatives, and the extent of heat
treatment are the main factors affecting product shelf-life and microbiological safety.
However, it should be mentioned that although water activity measurements have been
used in the food industry for nearly 40 years as a food safety parameter, this is now
considered inadequate by some, who argue that greater emphasis should be placed on
glass transition temperature (Slade and Levine, 1991; Franks, 1991). Franks (1991)
suggests that change in water availability, especially in the case of intermediate or low
moisture products, is related to the rate of water diffusion in the product, which, in turn,
is related to the glass-rubber transition of the material and the sensitivity of the transition
temperature to changes in the moisture content. As yet, there is no consensus on this
topic. Meanwhile, therefore, water activity remains the basic method for ascertaining
microbiological stability.

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In many low-fat products, increasing the acidity of the aqueous phase can be an
effective means to achieve an acceptable shelf-life. For example, Gram-negative pathogens such as the salmonellae may be controlled by ensuring a pH below 4.0. For
coliforms, an even lower pH is required, or a combination of low pH and low temperature
(The International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods, 1980a).
The type of acid used for lowering the pH is critical, since it is the undissociated molecule
of the organic acid or ester that confers antimicrobial activity. Organic acids used as
food preservatives have pKa values of between 3 and 5 (pKa is the pH at which 50% of
the total acid is undissociated). Lowering the pH of a food increases the proportion of
undissociated molecules of an organic acid, thus increasing its effectiveness as an antimicrobial agent (The International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for
Foods, 1980b). Acetic, citric, lactic, propionic, benzoic, and sorbic acids are the most
commonly used food acidulants and preservatives. At pH 4.0, for instance, the proportion
of acetic acid molecules in an undissociated state is over four times that of citric acid,
which reflects the formers greater effectiveness as a preservative. This is well illustrated
by the occurrence of outbreaks of Salmonella in Spain associated with the practice of
using lemon juice instead of acetic acid in mayonnaise in which the importance of
selecting the right acid to maintain a preservative function was simply overlooked (Perez
et al., 1986). In a later study (Perales and Garcia, 1990), it was found that 45% of
mayonnaise made in different restaurants in Spain had a pH greater than 4.5, with 17.5%
using vinegar and lemon, and 2.5% did not use any source of acid, and 60% of the
restaurants surveyed had recipes that allowed Salmonella enteriditis to survive, thus
presenting health risks to consumers. The importance of selecting the right acid is even
more important in the case of reduced-fat products, where microbiological risks are that
much greater.
Finally, it is important to bear in mind that if strongly acidic notes perceived in a
product adversely affect overall sensory quality, it is possible to design blends that
produce an acceptable flavor profile, while maintaining the preservative function.
1.7.4 LEGISLATIVE CONSIDERATIONS
When developing reduced-fat variants, the legislative issues in the country of sale need
to be taken into account. This topic is discussed in detail in Chapter 5, but here the issue
of nutritional claims will be outlined briefly due to its importance in product marketing.
In the European Union, harmonized provisions for nutrition claims across the member
states has been under consideration for some time now, but final agreement has yet to
be reached. The current draft proposes that the term reduced-fat can be used if the fat
content is reduced by at least 25% of that present in the standard product, and that the
low-fat claim can only be used if not more than 3 g of fat is present per 100 g of
product. The term without fat would be considered acceptable if the amount of fat did
not exceed 0.15 g per 100 g in a product. However, in the absence of harmonized
European Union regulations, national regulations or guidelines need to be adhered to.
The U.S. regulations for nutrition claims produced by the FDA differ from the current
draft for the European Union in the way the latter two claims are defined. The FDA
low-fat claim can be used if a reference amount customarily consumed is greater than
30 g, or greater than two tablespoons, and the food contains 3 g or less of fat per reference
amount. In cases where the serving size is 30 g or less, or up to two tablespoons, a lowfat claim can be used under the conditions stated above, but providing that 3 g or less
of fat is present in 50 g of the food. The fat-free claim can be used when the food
contains less than 0.5 g of fat per reference and per labeled serving.

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A further important difference between current regulations in member states of the


European Union and the U.S. is that in the former nutritional labeling remains voluntary
unless a nutritional claim is made for the particular food, whereas the U.S. Nutrition
Labeling and Education Act as from May 1994 amended the Federal Food, Drug and
Cosmetic Act to make nutrition labeling mandatory for most foods, and it also became
compulsory to state on the label the amount of calories from fat in addition to the total
amount of calories present. Furthermore, where regulations exist regarding compositional
requirements, as with butter, chocolate, or ice cream, the reduced-fat product necessitates
careful naming and labeling from a legal standpoint.
1.7.5 PRICING AND MARKETING
The cost of ingredients used to replace fat is another important factor in the development
of low-fat foods. More often than not, product development activities are carried out
within financial constraints which require costs of those ingredients not to exceed the
cost of the fat they are supposed to replace. Although the initial prices of most fat
mimetics have often been relatively high, competition and economies of scale have
usually brought prices down over time. However, in order to survive in the market, an
ingredient will need to have a clear performance advantage over existing alternatives. In
this context, it is important to bear in mind that cost analysis is an additional element
that needs to be incorporated into the holistic approach to the development of low-fat
foods already advocated from a technical point of view. A complication here is that direct
price comparison between different fat mimetics does not necessarily reflect real cost
differentials since, more often than not, each fat mimetic will require different adjustments in the type and concentration of other ingredients in the formulation in order to
produce an end product of comparable quality. This issue is of particular importance
when there are significant differences in the chemical composition of the fat mimetics
being compared, since they would be more likely to have an impact not only on textural
characteristics, but also on flavor and the overall flavor release mechanism, as discussed
in Chapter 4.
Finally, the retail price of a low-fat product compared with the standard product will
have an effect on relative sales volumes. In this context, it is worth noting that there are
many low-fat variants currently on the market priced at the same level or even lower
than the equivalent full-fat products (Dibb, 1994). This trend can be seen as a positive
initiative of food manufacturers and retailers to achieve a wider public appeal and
increased sales of low-fat products, and further emphasizes the need for a macromarketing approach to popularize products that are nutritionally more beneficial.

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88-50215, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington D.C., 1988.
Wahle, K. W. J. and James, W. P. T., Review: Isomeric fatty acids and human health, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr.,
47, 828, 1993.
Watts, G. F., Lewis, B., Brunt, J. N. H., Lewis, E. S., Cottart, D. J., Smith, L. D. R., Mann, J. I. and Swan,
A. V., Effects on coronary artery disease of lipid-lowering diet, or diet plus cholestyramine in the
St. Thomas Atherosclerosis Regression Study (STARS), Lancet, 339, 563, 1992.
Webb, D. R. and Sanders, R. A., Caprenin 1. Digestion, absorption, and rearrangement in thoracic ductcannulated rats, J. Am. College Toxicol., 10 (3), 325, 1991.
Willett, W. C., Stampfer, M. J., Manson, J. E., Colditz, G. A., Speizer, F. E., Rosner, B. A., Simpson,
L. A. and Hennekens, C. H., Lancet, 341, 581, 1993.
Wyeth, L. J. and Kilcast, D., The importance of sensory and nutritional factors in consumer acceptance
of reduced-fat foods, Leatherhead Food R. A. Res. Rep. No. 686, 1991.

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Chapter

Implications of Fat
Reduction in the Diet
Debra L. Miller and Barbara J. Rolls
CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Background and Significance
2.3 Why Is Fat Overeaten?
2.3.1 Palatability
2.3.2 Development of a Fat Preference
2.3.3 Differences in Fat Preference
2.3.3.1 Gender Differences
2.3.3.2 Obese/Lean Differences
2.3.4 Energy Density
2.3.5 Satiety Value of Fat
2.4 Low-Fat Diet Research
2.4.1 Short-Term Fat Manipulations
2.4.2 Longer-Term Fat Manipulations
2.5 Noncaloric, Synthetic Fat Substitute Research
2.6 Fat Replacers and Fat Preference 39
2.7 Population-Based Studies
2.8 Conclusions
References

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Fat-Free, Low-Fat, Reduced-Fat these labels pervade the supermarkets, the
media, and even restaurants and are found on a wide range of products. While some
individuals may purchase such products because they prefer the taste, it is likely that

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most will do so to bring about improved health and/or body weight changes. The question
is then Will these products be effective in producing the desired results?
The safety of using fat replacers has received much attention, but comparatively few
data are available to address the issue of how these products influence human food intake
and energy regulation. Until recently there were few studies examining the effects of
variations in the level of fat in foods on energy intake and body composition. This was
because until the mid-1980s there was relatively little emphasis on the role of dietary
fat in obesity and related disease states, and the technology for formulating palatable
reduced-fat foods was limited. Hence, we are only beginning to assess the effectiveness
of such substances in reducing both dietary fat and energy intake.
Because of the paucity of relevant literature, nutrition professionals and the general
public alike may make assumptions that the use of fat-replaced products will bring about
automatic reductions in the high intake of dietary fat in Western society. However, we
know very little about how consumers use fat-replaced foods. Will fat-replaced foods be
substituted for higher fat versions of foods? (I use low-fat mayonnaise instead of regular
mayonnaise.) Will they be used as substitutes for forbidden foods? (Ill eat fat-free
potato chips, but not regular potato chips.) Will they be used as a license to increase
intake of other types of foods? (If I use the fat-free salad dressing, I can have a piece
of cheesecake for dessert.) There is also considerable debate in the scientific community
regarding whether the overconsumption of dietary fat alone leads to negative health
outcomes, or if it is the resultant increase in overall energy intake due to the overconsumption of dietary fat that contributes to these outcomes. In many cases, the trickle
down message the general public has received is I can eat as much food as I want as
long as it is low in fat or fat-free.
This chapter examines these questions and the existing scientific literature regarding
low-fat/fat-replaced foods and diets to determine the efficacy of using fat replacers as a
strategy to reduce intake of dietary fat and total energy.

2.2 BACKGROUND AND SIGNIFICANCE


In Western societies, high consumption of dietary fat has been linked to obesity, coronary
artery disease, and certain types of cancer, and it is regarded as the top dietary problem
in America (Drewnowski, 1990). Currently, dietary fat comprises nearly 36% of the
energy content of the American diet. The guidelines of a number of health organizations
recommend that no more than 30% of daily energy be derived from dietary fat in order
to reduce the incidence of related morbidity and mortality (National Resource Council,
1989; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1989).
An obvious method to decrease the percentage of energy from fat is to substitute lowfat foods for high-fat foods. However, it is difficult for many people to limit their food
choices to the low-fat varieties. Controlled laboratory-based experiments indicate that
high-fat foods are overeaten because they are highly palatable. When a considerable
amount of fat is removed from the diet, the diet is often bland and monotonous, and
even those whose health status is dependent upon reducing their fat intake, such as cardiac
patients, find it difficult to maintain long-term compliance (Drewnowski, 1990). Recent
advancements in food technology, particularly the development of fat replacers, may
offer one way of reducing fat and energy consumption while satisfying the preference
for a high-fat diet. The advent of highly palatable reduced-fat or fat-free foods offers
consumers choices that were not previously available, but because there have been few
controlled studies of how these products are used by consumers, questions remain about
their efficacy in reducing dietary fat intake.

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Several key points to consider when regarding products made with fat replacers
include:
1. Why do many people eat more dietary fat than is recommended (30% of total energy)
and will fat replacers satisfy peoples desire to consume fatty foods?
2. Will eating foods that use fat replacers aid in lowering the amount of fat consumed?
That is, will the fat and/or energy reduction be compensated for in subsequent intakes?
3. How will these products be used by the consumer (in place of regularly eaten foods,
as a license to eat previously forbidden foods, or to allow for increased consumption
of other foods)?
4. Will individuals learn with repeated experiences that reduced-fat and reduced-energy
foods do not satisfy hunger as well as their high-fat counterparts? If such learning
takes place, will this reduce palatability so that such products are no longer included
in the diet?

2.3 WHY IS FAT OVEREATEN?


2.3.1 PALATABILITY
Fats are responsible for the texture, flavor, and odor of many foods. However, dietary
fat is rarely consumed in pure form, instead, it is consumed as part of a complex food
containing other nutrients (protein and carbohydrate) in varying degrees. This makes it
difficult to assess a fat-specific preference in foods. Fats contribute to many different
sensory properties of food. The first sensory response to fats is olfactory, through perception of volatile fat-soluble molecules that impart the characteristic flavor or aroma to
many foods (Drewnowski, 1990). Secondly, fats contribute to the oral sensation by
endowing foods with certain textures (such as being hard or soft, oily or juicy, elastic
or flaky, heavy, viscous, or smooth) and mouthfeel, which is described by Drewnowski
(1990) as its distribution in the oral cavity during chewing and swallowing. These
textural and mouthfeel characteristics enhance the richness of food flavor, and strongly
influence the palatability of the diet (Drewnowski, 1987; Mela, 1990).
The desirable characteristics that fats endow to food have been identified by various
studies (Drewnowski et al., 1985; Drewnowski and Greenwood, 1983; Drewnowski et al.,
1989). Sensory panels have determined preferences for sweet/fat mixtures such as milk
shakes, cake frostings, and ice cream (Drewnowski, 1987; Drewnowski et al., 1985;
Drewnowski and Greenwood, 1983). In one study, sweetened skim milk and unsweetened
cream were rated relatively low, but the combination of sugar and fat in sweetened heavy
cream was highly appealing (Drewnowski et al., 1985). Of course, it is fat, not sugar,
that provides the majority of the energy in such a mixture and in other sweet, fat-rich
desserts. In a survey of U.S. military personnel (Meiselman and Waterman, 1985), it was
found that the most preferred foods were steak, French fries, and milk which are high
in dietary fat. In contrast, some of the least preferred foods in this survey were vegetables,
skim milk, diet soda, and cottage cheese, which are very low in fat (Meiselman and
Waterman, 1985). Surveys of attitudes toward dietary fat (Shepherd and Stockley, 1985;
Shepherd and Stockley, 1987) indicate that highly preferred foods often have a high-fat
content. In these studies, taste is the primary reason given for the selection of a particular
food. Since fat imparts characteristics associated with high palatability, high-fat foods
are often chosen.
2.3.2 DEVELOPMENT OF A FAT PREFERENCE
Is our preference for high-fat foods innate or learned? Just as the preference for sweet
taste, which is thought to be innate, is useful in identifying foods that are safe to eat, an

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innate fat preference could have been adaptive for survival by encouraging consumption
of a dense, easily stored energy source for periods of scarcity. However, if humans did
acquire adaptations that encouraged fat consumption, these adaptations have become
maladaptive in todays society, which is characterized by an overabundance of foods
(Birch, 1992).
There is some evidence that children display preferences for high-fat foods (Birch,
1992; Johnson et al., 1991; Kern et al., 1993). In experiments with high- and low-fat
yogurt shakes, Johnson and colleagues (1991) found that preferences for initially novel
foods high in fat content can be learned, and that conditioning of these preferences is
the result of the postingestive consequences of consumption. Rozin and Zellner (1985)
argue that this type of Pavlovian or associative conditioning is central to the acquisition
of food preferences. Because high-fat foods are palatable and satisfying, which are
positive consequences of consumption, children learn to like these foods (Birch, 1992).
Such foods are also often used as treats or rewards for children, which may enhance this
preference (Birch, 1992).
The animal literature suggests that fat may be preferred at an early age in rats (Ackroff
et al., 1990; Sclafani, 1990). Ackroff and colleagues (1990) measured fat appetite in
infant rats. In this study, which used intake as an index of preference, 12 to 15 day old
pups consumed nearly as much oil emulsion solution as a dilute sucrose solution (0.03 M)
and only slightly less than a milk formulation similar to rats milk; they concluded that
the taste for fat was as pleasant to the pups as sweet solutions and mothers milk.
However, in humans, there is no evidence to support the hypothesis that there is an
innate, unlearned preference for fat, and the possibility of such seems unlikely because
the form and function of fat is not unitary across food systems (Drewnowski, 1987).
Furthermore, Drewnowski and colleagues (1991) have shown that there is no relationship
between taste preferences for high-fat foods and early age (<10 years) of onset of obesity
(thought to be a measure of familial risk); they concluded that environmental as opposed
to familial factors may be more immediate determinants of taste preferences and food
choice.
2.3.3 DIFFERENCES IN FAT PREFERENCE
2.3.3.1 Gender Differences
Just as Jack Sprat would eat no fat and his wife would eat no lean, differences in fat
preferences between men and women have been noted anecdotally. Recent epidemiological surveys have provided evidence that there are indeed gender differences in regard
to fat preferences. Although both men and women seem to find high-fat foods highly
palatable, men seem to derive the bulk of their dietary fat from red meat, whereas women
derive dietary fats mainly from margarine, whole milk, shortening, and mayonnaise
(Block et al., 1985). Women are also more likely than men to express preferences for
sweet/fat desserts like cake and ice cream (Block et al., 1985). These gender differences
persist among obese individuals as well. Drewnowski and colleagues (1992) surveyed
the favorite foods of obese men and women and found that obese men listed predominantly fat-protein sources (meat dishes) among their favorite foods while obese women
listed more carbohydrate/fat sources and more sweet foods (doughnuts, cookies, cake,
and chocolate).
2.3.3.2 Obese/Lean Differences
It has been proposed that obese persons may have an enhanced preference for high-fat
foods leading to overconsumption of energy dense foods. In sensory tests, obese individuals have shown a preference for higher levels of fat in foods than lean individuals

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(Drewnowski, 1987). Several investigators have found that body weight was related to
preferences for fat. In 1985, Drewnowski and colleagues found that obese and formerly
obese individuals preferred higher levels of fat in mixtures of dairy products and sugar
than did lean individuals. However, in a 1991 study, Drewnowski found that only a subset
of obese, those with a history of large weight fluctuations, showed an enhanced fat
preference. Mela and Sacchetti (1991) found a positive relationship between sensory
preferences for fat in a variety of foods and percent body fat in normal weight subjects.
It has been shown that as body fat increased, the percent of energy derived from fat
increased (Miller et al., 1990; Strain et al., 1992), and, in a 3-year longitudinal study
(Klesges et al., 1992), high weight gain was associated with high fat intake in both men
and women. This work taken together indicates that enhanced preferences for fat could
be important in the development and maintenance of obesity; however, no controlled,
laboratory-based experiment has looked at this issue directly. Additional research is
needed to understand how the sensory qualities of fat and individual differences in
preferences for dietary fat influence human food intake and body composition.
2.3.4 ENERGY DENSITY
Dietary fat provides approximately 9 kcal/g compared with 4 kcal/g for carbohydrate or
protein (Burton and Foster, 1991). The relatively high energy density of fat could be a
factor in its overconsumption if there is a tendency to eat a certain volume or weight of
food. For example, 100 g of potato chips (which are typically 60% energy from fat) has
538 kcal, while an equal amount of pretzels (which are typically about 8% energy from
fat or less) has only 375 kcal. Several studies which have varied the fat content of foods
(Duncan et al., 1983; Lissner et al., 1987; Kendall et al., 1991; Tremblay et al., 1991)
have found that subjects consumed a nearly equal volume of food despite differences in
energy density. Thus, the more energy-dense, high-fat diets were associated with
increased daily energy intakes when compared to the low-fat diets. In some of the studies
which have manipulated dietary fat (Duncan et al., 1983; Lissner et al., 1987; Kendall
et al., 1991), subjects were given access only to foods within a specified (high or low)
fat content, i.e., energy density. The results from these studies showed reduced energy
intake on low-energy-density diets. However, in such situations, there appeared to be a
tendency to eat a relatively constant amount of food, and it is possible that if the
experiments lasted longer, the amounts of the low-fat foods eaten would gradually
increase so that daily energy intake would be maintained. These studies will be discussed
in more detail in following sections regarding low-fat diet research.
2.3.5 SATIETY VALUE OF FAT
Dietary fat may be overconsumed because it does not satisfy hunger as well as other
nutrients. This hypothesis is related to the physiological consequences of ingested fat
such as stomach distention, stomach emptying, nutrient absorption, hormonal release,
oxidation of nutrients, and so on. Several sources suggest that fat and carbohydrate have
very different postingestive consequences. Data from experiments measuring postabsorbtive metabolism suggest that dietary fat is not metabolized as rapidly as carbohydrate
and protein (Schutz et al., 1989). Ingested carbohydrates produce rapid rises in blood
glucose (Van Amelsvoort et al., 1989), while fats often depress blood glucose (McHugh
et al., 1975). Thus, depending on the accuracy of the glucostatic theory, which suggests
that the sensation of hunger is maintained until blood glucose levels reach adequate
levels, it is possible that carbohydrates produce more rapid satiety than fats. Conversely,
there are factors associated with fat intake that may influence satiety as well. One of
these factors is the release of satiety hormones.

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Cholecystokinin is one such putative satiety hormone (Smith and Gibbs, 1988) that
is released when some types of fat enter the intestine (Canton, 1992). Thus, the ingestion
of fat, in theory, could lead to early satiety as well. On the basis of these differing
physiological effects, it is difficult to make any definitive statements regarding the satiety
value of fat vs. carbohydrate.
A recent paper by Rolls and Hammer (1995) reviewed various studies that utilized a
preloading paradigm (giving fixed amounts of the macronutrients and determining the
effects on subsequent hunger, satiety and food intake) to detect a difference in the satiety
value of fat vs. carbohydrate. In this review, they concluded that carbohydrate may have
a greater satiety value than fat in individuals with certain subject characteristics (e.g.,
obese and those concerned with their body weight). However, overall there is little
evidence that carbohydrate has a greater satiety value than fat, and it remains to be
determined whether the overconsumption of fat and energy is due to a physiological
insensitivity to the amount of fat in foods.

2.4 LOW-FAT DIET RESEARCH


Much of the research regarding dietary fat intake has predated the development of many
fat replacers. This section reviews research that has manipulated dietary fat intake. Some
studies have used foods naturally low in fat (fruits, vegetables, and grains) to reduce the
fat content of the diet. Others have used certain fat-replaced products that were available
at the time of study or a combination of naturally low-fat foods and fat-replaced foods.
The following studies will be used to illustrate the effects of reducing the fat content of
the diet on both energy and fat intake.
2.4.1 SHORT-TERM FAT MANIPULATIONS
Several studies have investigated the effects of manipulating the fat content in certain
meals on energy intake on a short-term basis ( 5 days). Caputo and Mattes (1992)
manipulated the energy and fat content of a midday meal for 5 days by using traditional
low-fat foods and some commercially available reduced-fat foods. They found that both
males and females compensated for energy dilutions in their diet; however, compensation
for a surfeit of energy was weaker, especially when the additional energy was derived
from dietary fat. Firm conclusions cannot be drawn from this study because the data for
fat intake were obtained via diet records, and such data should be interpreted cautiously
due to the potential errors and biases in using self-reported measures. However, similar
results were found in a well-controlled residential laboratory study (Foltin et al., 1988)
that manipulated the carbohydrate and fat content in certain meals. In this study, subjects
(lean males) compensated well and quickly for the caloric dilution, but when the energy
level was again raised to baseline levels subjects did not compensate and overate. In a
subsequent residential study (Foltin et al., 1990) that manipulated the fat and carbohydrate content of a lunch meal using four conditions (high-fat, high-carbohydrate, lowfat, low-carbohydrate; with 3 days per condition), energy compensation was observed
regardless of macronutrient composition (mean daily energy intakes: 2824, 2988, 2700,
and 2890 kcal, respectively). However, energy intake from dietary fat was fairly constant
in all conditions except the high-fat condition which was significantly greater than the
other three conditions. The results of these studies indicate that when there is a decrease
in the fat content (and thus the energy content) of the diet, the energy reduction may be
compensated for in subsequent meals or snacks, but the fat reduction per se may not.
Furthermore, there is some evidence that when additional fat is included in the diet, it
is unlikely that a spontaneous reduction in energy and fat intake will occur to compensate

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for this surfeit (Caputo and Mattes, 1992; Foltin et al., 1988). These findings are, however,
dependent on the magnitude of the manipulation and the characteristics of the subjects
being tested (e.g., lean/obese, restrained [concerned about body weight]/unrestrained [not
concerned about body weight]).
2.4.2 LONGER-TERM FAT MANIPULATIONS
The studies mentioned above (Caputo and Mattes, 1992; Foltin et al., 1988; Foltin et al.,
1990) manipulated fat intake within specific meals or over the course of a day. These
types of interventions provide useful information about short-term regulation of fat and
energy intake when dilutions and surfeits are introduced into the diet; however, they
provide no information about long-term regulation or the ability to maintain compliance
to a low-fat diet. A few naturalistic studies (Schlundt et al., 1993; Mattes, 1993; Gatenby
et al., 1993; Sheppard et al., 1991) have been designed to reduce the overall intake of
dietary fat in certain groups over longer periods of time. These studies used various
strategies (nutritional counseling, behavioral therapy, or financial incentives) to aid subjects in reducing their dietary fat consumption. Results of these studies generally showed
that the intervention groups consumed less dietary fat than control groups. Intervention
periods in these studies ranged in duration from 12 to 20 weeks, which indicates that
compliance to a low-fat diet can be maintained over a moderate amount of time; however,
there are few data regarding the long-term compliance to a low-fat diet. Sheppard and
colleagues (1991) followed 303 women participating in the Womens Health Trial for
one and two years. These women either received intensive instruction in maintaining a
low-fat diet (reducing cooking fats, substituting low- or no-fat variants of high-fat foods
and increasing traditional low-fat foods in the diet) or they were part of the control group.
After 1 year, the intervention group had reduced their dietary fat intake by 45% of their
baseline intake and energy intake by 59%. Most of the reductions occurred within the
first 6 months of the intervention and were maintained at the 1- and 2-year follow-ups.
Results of naturalistic studies such as these (Schlundt et al., 1993; Mattes, 1993; Gatenby
et al., 1993; Sheppard et al., 1991) are often used as the basis for advocating low-fat
diets and that compliance to low-fat diets can be maintained over time. However, although
these studies may have some external validity, they relied heavily on self-report and diet
records as a source of data for fat intake, and should therefore be interpreted cautiously.
In this review, we will next focus on laboratory-based experiments that provide more
accurate intake measurements and stringent controls over the experimental setting.
Three controlled, laboratory studies (Duncan et al., 1983; Lissner et al., 1987; Kendall
et al., 1991) have investigated the effects of high- and low-fat diets on energy intake and
body weight over varying periods of time. In 1983, Duncan and colleagues fed lean and
obese subjects a low-energy density diet comprised of traditionally low-fat foods (fruits,
vegetables, and grains) and a high energy density diet for 5 d (0.7 kcal/g vs. 1.5 kcal/g).
Subjects could eat the foods ad libitum. The results showed that both obese and nonobese groups significantly reduced their energy consumption on the low-energy diet.
Nearly twice as many calories were consumed during the high-energy density diet
compared to the low-energy density diet (3000 vs. 1570 kcal/d). No data were supplied
regarding weight change during the test periods.
Two other studies which were conducted at Cornell (Lissner et al., 1987; Kendall
et al., 1991) are often cited in both scientific and popular literature as proof that ad
libitum consumption of low-fat foods can reduce fat intake and produce weight loss. The
low-fat diets in these studies included currently available fat-replaced foods, primarily
margarines, salad dressings, and mayonnaise as well as traditionally low-fat foods. The
first of these studies, conducted by Lissner and colleagues in 1987, provided all food

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(meals and snacks) to 24 women who were divided into groups of <101% ideal body
weight (IBW) and >101% IBW. Subjects were each fed 3 diets: low-fat 15 to 20%,
medium-fat 30 to 35%, and high-fat 45 to 50% of energy. Subjects could eat the foods
ad libitum. Each diet was fed for 14 d with a 7-d washout between the test periods. The
results showed that energy consumption was positively correlated with the level of dietary
fat, with the total daily energy consumed on the low-fat diet being 2087, the mediumfat diet 2352, and the high-fat diet 2614 kcal. Over the two-week periods, the diets did
not produce any statistically significant weight changes. The second Cornell study,
conducted by Kendall and colleagues (1991), was similar but extended the intervention
period to 11 weeks. It is unclear whether lean or obese women were studied; although
a mean subject height was reported, there was no mean weight reported. It is noted that
individuals <101% of ideal body weight (according to Metropolitan Life standards) were
excluded from the study. This study examined two diets that differed in fat content: one
diet was comprised of 20 to 25% fat (low-fat) and the other diet was 35 to 40% fat
(control). Again, the women were given free access to foods. Results showed that the
subjects consumed an average of 286 kcal/d less on the low-fat diet. The subjects in this
experiment, in contrast to the Lissner and colleagues study (1987), did lose weight.
Weight loss was significantly greater on the low-fat diet; however, subjects lost weight
on both diets (low-fat: 2.54 kg and control: 1.26 kg). There were no reasons given by
the authors for the weight loss on the control diet.
A recent animal study by Harris (1994), examined the effect of three groups of 20
female Sprague-Dawley rats (60 rats in total) chronically fed either a high-fat diet (45%
energy from fat) or a low-fat diet (25% energy from fat) containing either no added fat
replacer (control diet) or the maltodextrin Paselli, a starch-derived fat mimetic produced
by Avebe and described in more detail in Chapter 6B. All three diets in this study had
different textures. Rats were fed the control diet for 10 d, and were then divided into
three groups, receiving one of the three diets for 42 d. Preference tests for the three diets
were assessed before and after the 42-d period. Results showed that all but two of the
rats preferred the fat mimetic diet over the high-fat and control diets and food intake
was the greatest in the group fed the fat mimetic diet (741 g/58d = control, 736 g/58d =
high-fat, 900 g/58d = fat mimetic). However, energy intake was greatest in the group fed
the high-fat diet (3250 kcal/58d = control, 3871 kcal/58d = high-fat, 3585 kcal/58d = fat
mimetic). The higher energy intakes of the high-fat and mimetic-fed animals resulted in
greater weight gain during the experimental period and a heavier carcass weight at the
end of the experiment, compared with control rats, largely due to an increase in carcass
fat. Harris (1994) concluded from these data that the inclusion of highly preferred, fatmodified foods in the diet may result in a reduction in fat intake, but including such
foods may not aid in limiting energy intake.
The evidence from human studies presented here indicates that low-fat diets are
potentially useful for reducing both the total energy intake and the amount of fat consumed. However, although these early results have some validity, their interpretation is
often oversimplified. When reviewing research on the effects of low-fat diets, it is
important to recognize that the methods available have limitations which may influence
outcome. The three laboratory-based studies reviewed above (Duncan et al., 1983; Lissner et al., 1987; Kendall et al., 1991) have allowed subjects to consume food ad libitum
in their dietary interventions; however, this access was limited to the particular fat level
that was under study. In other words, during a low-fat condition, the subjects could only
choose from low-fat foods, and in the high-fat condition, only high-fat choices were
available. And, although the subjects rated the diets equally palatable, this does not mean
that, given a choice, they would voluntarily eat the low-fat foods. Thus, it is difficult to

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determine if these findings in the human studies would be applicable to free-living


individuals. And, as shown in the recent animal study (Harris, 1994), even when restricted
to a highly palatable low-fat diet, overall energy intake may not be reduced and may
even be increased.
Also, these initial studies did not provide subjects with any information (nutritional
or otherwise) about the foods that they were eating. Food products are labeled with
claims such as lite, reduced-fat, fat-free that send powerful messages to the consumer. The results of the low-fat diet studies cited above (Duncan et al., 1983; Lissner
et al., 1987; Kendall et al., 1991) might be different for individuals who knowingly
choose to substitute a low-fat food for a high-fat food. Shide and Rolls (1995) have
examined the impact of such information on subsequent food intake. This study, using
yogurt preloads, found that intake at a self-selection meal was higher following preloads
labeled low-fat than following equicaloric preloads labeled high-fat indicating that
information about fat content can influence food intake regardless of the actual energy
content of the food. It seems that cognitive processes can override or interact with
physiological processes in regard to food intake and, therefore, play an important role
in energy balance.
Cognitive processes may also be involved in the regulation of food intake by controlling the amount of food consumed by its weight or volume rather than by its energy
content. In other words, individuals may control how much they eat by setting a standard
portion size of food consumed rather than a standard energy amount. As discussed
previously, it is likely that it is the energy density of the diets provided in these low-fat
diet studies (Duncan et al., 1983; Lissner et al., 1987; Kendall et al., 1991) and not some
physiological satiety mechanism that at least partially accounts for the differences in the
amount of energy consumed. In each of these studies, subjects ate similar gram weights
of food on both low-fat and high-fat diets. It is likely that subjects are eating a standard
weight or volume and not responding to the covert energy manipulation. Thus, a diet of
low-energy-density consumed in equal amounts as a higher-density diet would provide
less energy. It may be that fat-replaced foods may have their greatest impact on fat and
energy intake by reducing the energy density of the foods we consume. By replacing a
wide-range of high-fat foods with low- or no-fat variations of those foods, the net result
could be to reduce the energy density of the diet and, in turn, the amount of overall
energy consumed.
If fat-replaced foods are consumed in much greater quantities than their high-fat
counterparts, this net energy reduction will be nullified. The hypothesis that one can
consume an unrestricted amount of low- or no-fat food and still expect to bring about
desirable dietary change and/or weight loss or maintenance is not supported by animal
or human literature. Sclafani and colleagues (1993) fed Sprague-Dawley rats high-fat
(41%) or no-fat (0%) cakes in addition to chow for 30 d. The test foods were a no-fat
pound cake and a high-fat pound cake both marketed by Entenmanns. The no-fat pound
cake was prepared with non-fat milk and egg whites, and used modified cornstarch,
xanthan gum, and guar gum to simulate the orosensory properties of fat. The rats fed
high-fat cake and chow consumed more energy (p<0.05) and gained more weight
(p<0.05) than did rats fed no-fat cake and chow. The rats fed no-fat cake, however,
overate and gained more weight than did the chow-only controls (Figure 2.1). The authors
concluded that removing the fat from the cake reduced, but did not eliminate, its obesitypromoting effects, and that low-fat diets have to be consumed in moderation if used for
weight loss purposes.
To examine the question of whether fat reduction with no other dietary restriction
leads to weight loss in humans, Schlundt and colleagues (1993) tested the effects of both

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Figure 2.1 Mean ( SEM) daily caloric intake of rats fed chow only (Control group), chow and
high-fat cake (High-fat group), or chow and no-fat cake (No-fat group). Intakes were averaged
over 5-day blocks; BL represents 5-day chow baseline period. Top panel: total calories; center
panel: calories derived from cake; bottom panel: calories derived from chow. (From Sclafani,
A., Weiss, K., Cardieri, C., and Ackroff, K., Obesity Res., 1, 173, 1993. With permission.)

a low-fat ad libitum consumption diet and a low-fat caloric restriction diet on adult men
and women who were at least 20% above ideal body weight. They found that subjects
on the caloric restriction diet lost significantly more weight and reduced fat intake to a
greater extent than those on the ad libitum low-fat consumption diet. Hence, advocating
that an individual can eat as much as he/she desires and lose weight as long as the food
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is low in fat content (Kendall et al., 1991) is unwarranted based on these data. For weight
loss purposes, energy intake must also be limited.
The next question is whether varying the fat content, while keeping energy equal, on
an energy-restricted diet is beneficial in regard to weight loss. This question has been
addressed in an animal study by Boozer and colleagues (1993). They found that when
rats previously fed a high-fat diet (40% of energy) were switched to equicaloric diets
(75% of their previous ad libitum intake) that varied in fat content (12, 28, or 45% fat),
rats fed the 12% fat diet lost significantly more body fat than the rats fed the 45% fat
diet. These results indicate that an energy-restricted diet produces greater weight loss
when it is also low in fat in these experimental animals. Although similar data are not
available for humans, if weight loss is a goal, it seems prudent to advise restriction of
both dietary fat and overall energy intakes to achieve maximum results. It follows that
reduced-fat foods may provide one strategy for weight loss if an individual who is
consuming greater than 30% of energy from fat can restrict food choices to those low
in fat but not high in energy, while keeping the volume of food consumed constant.

2.5 NONCALORIC, SYNTHETIC FAT SUBSTITUTE RESEARCH


Because noncaloric, synthetic fat substitutes have the greatest potential range of applications as fat replacers, it is important to review the current research on the effects of
consuming these materials on food intake and body composition. Sucrose polyester or
olestra (its generic name) by the Procter and Gamble Co. has recently been approved
for use in the U.S. in savory snacks, using the tradename Olean. SPE is a fat-like material
consisting of hexa-, hepta-, and octa-esters of sucrose and long-chain fatty acids with
physical properties entirely similar to those of conventional dietary fats (Mattson and
Volpenhein, 1972a and b). The resulting molecule is too bulky to be hydrolyzed by
pancreatic lipases, and consequently it is not taken up by the intestinal mucosa and
absorbed (Mattson and Volpenhein, 1972a and b). Because SPE is not absorbed, it passes
through the digestive system intact and adds no energy to the diet and is excreted in the
feces.
Animal studies comparing varied levels of fat and SPE have shown that the higher
the percentage of fat in the diet, the greater the fat intake and in some cases, the body
weight. Grossman and colleagues (1994), for example, examined the effect of SPE
replacement on the body weights of lean and obese Zucker rats. In this study, 8-week
old lean and obese animals received either a control diet (15% corn oil) or an SPE diet
(5% corn oil and 10% SPE). The obese control-fed animals gained more weight than
the animals fed the SPE diet. Lean rats given the fat substitute did not have significantly
different body weights as compared to the lean controls. The authors concluded that the
obese rats could not maintain their higher weights when the fat content of their diet was
diluted using SPE.
The first controlled study using sucrose polyester in humans was conducted in 1982
by Glueck and colleagues. These authors were investigating the effect of using SPE in
hypocaloric diets in obese persons for weight loss purposes. In this study, the effects of
SPE and a hypocaloric diet were studied in a counterbalanced, crossover design over
two 20-d periods. Subjects also had access to non-SPE modified snacks in the evening,
which provided a limited opportunity for subjects to compensate for the calorie/fat
dilution. Subjects showed weak compensation for the missing calories resulting in a
significant overall reduction in energy intake (p< 0.05) and fat intake (p< 0.05). However,
a potential confound exists because subjects were actively trying to lose weight in this
study, which may have reduced their likelihood of consuming snacks. Thus, this study
does not provide an adequate design to assess energy/fat compensation.
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In 1983, Porikos and colleagues diluted the fat content of the diet of five obese men
confined to a metabolic ward for 36 d by replacing fat in margarine and mayonnaise
with SPE. Energy intake was measured in three conditions: pre-intervention baseline
(days 1 to 9), intervention (days 10 to 28) and post-intervention baseline (days 29 to
36). In the intervention period the manipulation created a 10% reduction of overall energy
of the diet. The results showed that subjects increased the amount of food consumed
during the SPE period relative to the pre- and post-intervention baselines so that there
was no significant effect of diet on energy intake (baseline = 3924 kcal/d and SPE =
3812 kcal/d). Subjects did not selectively ingest more fat but rather increased their intake
of all three macronutrients to compensate for the energy dilution due to the addition of
the SPE. Rolls and colleagues, in the U.S. (1992), and Burley and Blundell, in the U.K.
(1991), ran parallel studies that were the first to focus on the use of olestra in lean
individuals. In each trial that investigated a SPE manipulation in a breakfast meal
(biscuits/scones and margarine), 24, healthy, lean males participated. Subjects were fed
the three breakfasts (control = 765 kcal, 20 g SPE = 582 kcal, and 36 g SPE = 445 kcal)
in a counterbalanced, crossover design followed by self-selection lunch and dinner meals.
Subjects also recorded any evening snacks to account for 24 h energy intake. Despite
differences in the country of the testing, similar results were obtained in both studies.
The lean men compensated well for the energy dilution due to SPE replacement
(Figure 2.2), but there was very little fat-specific compensation resulting in a significant
reduction (p<.0034 and p<0.0066) in fat consumption with 20 and 36 g SPE substitution,
respectively, compared to placebo (Rolls et al., 1992).

Figure 2.2 Mean cumulative (bottom to top of bars) energy (kJ) consumed for all subjects
under each condition for all meals during which data was collected. , next-day breakfast; ,
snack; , dinner; , lunch; and , test breakfast. (From Rolls, B.J., Pirraglia, P.A., Jones,
M.B., and Peters, J.C., Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 56, 84, 1992. With permission.)

Similar energy compensation was observed with children (Birch et al., 1993).
Researchers measured 29 normally developing 2 to 5 year olds during five, 2-d periods
over 5 weeks. Approximately 14 g of SPE was substituted for fat (-125 kcal) in the
childrens diet over the course of the morning and afternoon. The children compensated
for some of the energy dilution by the end of the first day, and by the end of the second
day they had compensated for all but 23.9 kcal. Similar to adult men, children did not
show macronutrient compensation, but instead the manipulation produced a reduction in
the percent of fat consumed without reducing the total energy of the diet through an
increase in carbohydrate intake.
In other recent studies reported in abstracts, neither complete fat nor energy compensation was found when SPE was incorporated into foods. In one study, the incorporation

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of 55 g of SPE in either meals or snacks across a day was associated with a decrease in
fat and energy intake on that day (Cotton et al., 1993). This energy reduction was not
fully compensated for the following day either (Cotton et al., 1993). In preliminary work
by Hulshof and colleagues (unpublished a and b), incorporation of SPE into croissants
and warm meals was followed by incomplete caloric compensation so that daily energy
intake was reduced. However, the social setting, which has been shown to have a
substantial impact on food intake (Shide and Rolls, 1991), was not controlled in these
studies. These findings may be further confounded by methodological issues such as
overt weighing of subjects food and the lack of compliance checks (Hulshof, 1994).
Thus, the results are equivocal regarding the efficacy of using foods prepared with
SPE to reduce fat and/or energy intake. The existing evidence (derived from relatively
few studies that have been conducted and published), suggests that SPE incorporation
into foods may aid in reducing the amount of fat consumed. The evidence is, however,
less clear regarding its use in reducing total energy intake. Again, it is necessary to note
that these studies used covert manipulations; that is, subjects were unaware of the fat
manipulation. It is difficult to assess whether or not this will be representative of how
individuals will consume such products when provided with information about the
product. Clearly, more studies are needed to clarify the effects of fat replacers on energy
intake. The variable effects of SPE on energy intake notwithstanding, the availability of
palatable low-fat foods is likely to aid in the reduction of fat intake if such items are chosen
instead of the full-fat versions of the same foods and if they are eaten in the same quantity.
These issues were examined in a study in which 96 habitual potato-chip eaters (lean
and obese men and women) ate regular fat potato chips (5.3 kcal/g, 60% energy from
fat) and SPE (olestra) chips (2.8 kcal/g, 0% energy from fat) equal in palatability in a
counterbalanced study for 10-d periods (Miller et al., 1995). Fifty subjects were given
information about the energy and fat content of the chips and 46 were not. The consumption patterns of both types of chips were similar, both showing decreased consumption over time (most likely due to monotony). Furthermore, in unrestrained subjects (lean
and obese), there was no significant difference in gram intake between the regular-fat or
SPE chips regardless of whether they were aware of the fat and energy content of the
chips or not. When restrained individuals (lean and obese) were given information about
the chips, they ate significantly more of the SPE chips (+10g/d) than the regular chips,
but, because of the considerable fat and energy dilution of the SPE chips, they still
consumed less energy and fat in the SPE condition than when consuming the full-fat
version of the product. Body weight (lean vs. obese) was a nonsignificant factor. The
results of this study suggest that, for some groups, when palatability is maintained, fatreplaced foods may be eaten in a similar manner as their full-fat counterpart even when
provided with complete nutritional information. These data also indicate that restrained
individuals may increase their consumption of fat-free products when they are aware of
the fat content. Because of the complete fat-replacement allowed by the use of SPE in
this study, the increased gram consumption of the chips by the restrained subjects did
not result in increased fat or energy intakes. However, it is important for such individuals
to be aware of the magnitude of the fat and energy dilutions in reduced-fat foods and to
be careful not to overconsume such products to such an extent that they minimize or
negate the net benefit of using fat-replaced foods.

2.6 FAT REPLACERS AND FAT PREFERENCE


There is a concern about the use of fat replacers, especially products like SPE that mimic
the properties of fat so closely, that they may reinforce and maintain the preference for

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fatty foods. It may be that the most effective strategy for fat reduction would be to
decrease the preference for dietary fat. Mattes (1993) has examined the effects of two
different reduced-fat diets, one which allowed the use of fat mimetics (commercially
available reduced-fat products such as salad dressings, table spreads, mayonnaise) and
one which did not, on the preference for a limited number of high-fat foods. The results
indicated that the group which did not experience fatty flavors showed a decrease in the
preferred level of fat in test foods, whereas the group using fat replacers showed no such
shift. Mattes (1993) concluded that the preference for fat in foods is governed more by
exposure to fatty flavors than by the level of fat in foods. Mattes (1993) further suggested
that the preference for fat can be lowered and that the best strategy for lowering fat preference
is to avoid fat mimetics and fat replacers. However, due to methodological limitations firm
conclusions should not be based on this research. First, hedonic measures were obtained on
only four foods, and since fat imparts so many sensory properties to foods, it seems unlikely
that changes in preferences for fat in one type of food will generalize to other types of foods.
Second, because subjects consumed products at home there was little control over the
experimental setting. Third, the observed shift in preference did not lead to a reduction in
fat intake during a 3-month follow-up period. Finally, data were obtained from diet records
with few checks for compliance. Thus, although this hypothesis may have merit, this research
needs to be replicated under stricter controls with expanded preference assessments to
provide more salient information (Rolls, 1994). However, other long-term studies, such as
the Womens Health Trial (Sheppard et al., 1991), have shown, albeit through self-report
and diet records, that reduced-fat foods may be helpful in maintaining compliance on lowfat diets.

2.7 POPULATION-BASED STUDIES


As population-based data are not yet available on the impact of low-fat diets, several
reports have examined theoretical ways of reducing dietary fat intake to the recommended
level of 30%. Computer modeling has been used to examine the impact of several
general strategies for fat reduction currently available to consumers. These computer
modeling studies are based on existing nutrient intake databases and use the documented
food and energy intakes of Americans as a reference to examine the effects of manipulating dietary composition. Using this technique, Lyle and colleagues (1992), found that
diets can be modified to approach dietary recommendations when fat-free products are
substituted for current comparable food choices. Smith-Schneider and colleagues (1992)
found that for males, the use of lean meat exchanges alone or in combination with other
strategies appeared to be the most effective way to reduce fat intake to recommended
levels. Because females have a lower caloric intake, no single strategy was effective in
reducing fat intake to 30%; however, combinations of strategies, including lean meat
exchanges plus use of fat-modified products, proved effective. Finally, using a unique
USDA database chronicling energy and macronutrient intakes over an entire year, Beaton
and colleagues (1992) examined the effects of using fat replacers on dietary fat intake.
Their model predicted that use of low-fat foods or fat replacers could effectively reduce
fat consumption, resulting in a net increase in carbohydrate intake. Results from the
modeling studies discussed above suggest that a reduction of fat intake can be realistically
achieved through use of several different dietary strategies; however, it must be emphasized that these studies are based on hypothetical calculations which as yet have not been
tested experimentally.

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2.8 CONCLUSIONS
The question that we have examined in this chapter is whether or not reduced-fat foods,
especially those utilizing fat replacer technology, are useful in reducing the current trend
to overconsume dietary fat in Western societies. This question is difficult to answer
considering: (1) only since the 1980s has dietary fat consumption been the focus of
nutritional research and (2) many of the advancements in fat replacer technology are
even more recent. What we do know is that we consume foods that taste good more
readily than those that do not taste good. Therefore, it seems reasonable that the
availability of low- or no-fat foods that are also highly palatable may aid in compliance
to low-fat diets that were previously bland and unsatisfying. However, although fatreplaced foods may offer new food choices to consumers, it still should not be assumed
that the use of fat-replaced foods will bring about significant reduction in fat and
energy intakes.
The research cited in this chapter regarding currently available fat replacers supports
the notion that such products may aid in reducing dietary fat intake but perhaps not
overall energy intake. Most studies using traditional low-fat foods and currently available
fat-replaced foods have resulted in compensation for energy reductions, but not macronutrient compensation. Results from sucrose polyester studies are equivocal in respect
to energy and fat compensation, with some reporting energy compensation while others
do not. More tightly controlled, laboratory-based human studies are needed to determine
how useful fat replacement will be in reducing overall fat and energy intakes.
It is also not known how consumers will use new and existing fat-replaced products.
Will they be used as a one-to-one substitution for foods previously high in dietary fat
or as license to overeat other rich foods? It may be that the key to the successful use of
fat-replaced products lies in the motivation of the consumer to bring about a reduction
in his/her intake of dietary fat. Again, more naturalistic studies exploring the potential
usage patterns of fat-replaced products are needed to determine their usefulness in
bringing about desired dietary changes.
Because overall energy intake has been shown to be a factor in weight loss and weight
maintenance, the use of fat-replaced foods alone should not be expected to produce
spontaneous improvements in body weight management or obesity. Such improvements
will still be dependent upon long-term behavioral changes that include not only modifications in fat intake, but also modifications in overall energy intake and increases in
energy expenditure. Because fat is the most energy dense macronutrient, substituting
low-fat foods can substantially reduce the energy density of the diet provided these foods
are also low in energy. If the energy density of the diet is reduced and volume of intake
remains constant, reductions in energy intake are likely.
These caveats stated, fat-replaced foods could aid motivated individuals to reduce
their intake of dietary fat and energy. In this regard, fat replacers may prove to be a
useful tool in reducing fat intake, but as with most novel approaches more detailed
investigations should be conducted to determine the efficacy of such products in reducing
fat intake. Future studies are needed to resolve issues of fat and energy balance using
fat-replaced foods, and whether it is the energy density, the fat content, or the total energy
of the diet that is critical for the prevention of such disease states as obesity, cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Additionally, longitudinal studies (both in the natural environment and the laboratory) need to be conducted to determine the best strategies for
long-term compliance to a low-fat diet.

1996 CRC Press LLC

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Strain, G.W., Hershcopf, R.J., and Zumoff, B., Food intake of very obese persons: Quantitative and
qualitative aspects, J. Am. Diet. Assoc., 92, 199, 1992.
Tremblay, A., Lavallee, N., Almeras, N., Allard, L., Despres, J., and Bouchard, C., Nutritional determinants of the increase in energy intake associated with a high-fat diet, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 53, 1134,
1991.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Promoting health/preventing disease: year 2000 objectives for the nation, Washington, D.C., Health Services, 1989.
Van Amelsvoort, J.M.M., Van Stratum, P., Kraal, H.H., Lussenburg, R.N., and Houtsmiller, U.M.T.,
Effects of varying the carbohydrate:fat ratio in a hot lunch on post-prandial variables in male
volunteers, Brit. J. Nutr., 61, 267, 1989.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Chapter

Market Considerations in
Fat Replacement
John N. Young
CONTENTS
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Consumer Attitudes to Diet and Health
3.3 Market Developments in Reduced-Fat Foods
3.3.1 United Kingdom
3.3.2 Europe
3.3.3 United States
3.4 Market Developments for Fat Replacers
3.5 Conclusions
References

3.1 INTRODUCTION
There is no doubt that for most developed economies, the consumers awareness of the
relationship between diet and health has grown considerably in recent years. With fat
consumption having been identified by the media, government bodies, and consumers
alike as one of the most important factors (if not the most important) contributing to ill
health, e.g., heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure, etc., it comes as no surprise
that this has resulted in the growing popularity of reduced-fat foods. This has itself fueled
intense research and development activity in the area of fat replacers.
While there clearly exists a growing market for fat replacers, initial sales projections
for the U.S. and Western Europe appear to have been over-optimistic. After a more
detailed examination of the consumer issues that have led to the development of the lowfat food market in the U.S. and Western Europe, and a review of the current status of
these markets, various reasons for the comparatively poor market performance of fat
replacers to date will be proposed.

1996 CRC Press LLC

3.2 CONSUMER ATTITUDES TO DIET AND HEALTH


In 1993, the Leatherhead Food Research Association (Leatherhead Food RA) in the U.K.
undertook a program of qualitative and quantitative consumer research based on group
discussions and in-home interviews, respectively, in order to gain a better insight into
consumer issues affecting market developments in reduced-fat foods and, as a consequence, the potential market need for fat replacers (Cathro, 1993). In group discussions,
respondents agreed that the high fat content of many foods was one of the most important
health issues facing them today. Quantitatively, 58% of 509 respondents interviewed in
the home rated dietary fat intake as the most important health issue. This was followed
by additives (49%) and sugar contained in foods (41%), while salt and fiber were rated
as the least important issues, cited by 24 and 16% of respondents, respectively. One of
the most worrying aspects about fat intake and cholesterol from a consumers point of
view was that there were no outward signs of high cholesterol levels and consequently
no way of knowing whether an individual was at risk. From a variety of low and light
sectors, low-fat foods generated highest consumer interest (mean score 3.49 out of a
possible 5), followed by low-sugar (Table 3.1). In group discussions, respondents found
it difficult to distinguish between cholesterol and fat. On the whole, it seemed that
respondents viewed cholesterol more seriously, thinking of it as the substance produced
from eating too much fat; cholesterol was most closely associated with blocking arteries
and being a contributory factor to heart disease.
Table 3.1 Degree of Interest in Low and Light
Foods Among 509 Respondents in the U.K.
Type of product
Low-fat
Low-sugar
Low-cholesterol
Low-salt
Low-calorie
Low-alcohol

Interest score
(mean of 5)
3.49
3.30
3.03
2.94
2.78
2.11

From Cathro, J., Industry and Market Reviews, No. 19,


1993. With permission.

Over half the sample (56%) of the 509 respondents in the U.K. study claimed to be
very/quite interested in low-fat foods, and 30% claimed to be very interested. Female
respondents showed a higher degree of interest in low-fat foods than their male counterparts; i.e., 62% of female respondents were very/quite interested in low-fat foods
compared with only 50% of male respondents. Not surprisingly, interest in low-fat foods
varied considerably across the different age groups, and while all respondents were
concerned about eating too much fat, actual purchase of low-fat foods was more limited.
Interest was lowest for respondents aged 16 to 24 and highest for respondents aged 45
to 64, where 68% of respondents claimed to be very/quite interested in low-fat food. In
terms of socioeconomic group, respondents with the highest levels of income (known
as AB groups in the U.K.) were most interested in low-fat foods, with 69% stating that
they were very/quite interested, compared with only 49% of the respondents in the lowest
income brackets (known as DE groups in the U.K.). Regional variations were also
apparent, possibly due to regional variations in living standards, with 62% of respondents
from the South and Midlands claiming to be very/quite interested in low-fat foods
compared with 46% for the North.
1996 CRC Press LLC

When asked which foods they felt were the main sources of fat in their own personal
diets, butter came top, being cited by 40% of respondents (Table 3.2). Interestingly, only
one fifth of respondents believed margarine to be a major source of fat in their diet,
despite the fact that many margarines have the same fat content as butter. When asked
what they felt about the level of fat in their own diet, the consensus of opinions was that
fat levels were probably on the high side simply because of the way in which consumers
have become used to eating in the U.K. However, over half of the sample (53%) of the
509 interviewed respondents claimed that the levels of fat were probably about right in
their own diets while one third claimed that they were a little too high, suggesting a
certain degree of complacency among consumers. A small number of respondents who
felt that their fat levels were acceptable were those who had had their cholesterol levels
measured and had since taken action to reduce fat intake, although even here respondents
admitted that they often had difficulty in keeping to such a strict regime.
Table 3.2 Main Sources of Fat
in Own Diet Cited by 509
Respondents in the U.K.
Food product

Butter
Chocolate
Cakes
Milk
Meat
Biscuits
Snack foods
Margarine

40
30
26
24
22
21
20
19

From Cathro, J., Industry and Market


Reviews, No. 19, 1993. With permission.

Respondents in the group discussions cited cutting down on foods such as snacks and
chocolate while increasing intake of fresh fruit and vegetables as principal ways of
reducing their fat intake. In the quantitative survey, however, cutting down on foods such
as cakes and biscuits (cookies) and changing cooking methods were cited by 47 and
31% of the 509 respondents interviewed, respectively (Table 3.3). Of most significance
was that nearly one third of the respondents advocated consumption of low-fat foods
and low-fat spreads as a means of reducing fat intake while cutting down on dairy
products, snacks, and butter/margarine did not feature highly. This finding supports the
view that U.K. consumers still have a far from perfect understanding of the relative
contributions of different components of the diet to overall fat intake. By contrast,
consumers in the U.S. may be more knowledgeable about the main sources of fat in the
diet; in one California survey, the overwhelming majority (70%) of respondents identified
potato crisps (chips), mayonnaise, ice cream, cheese, and whole milk as important sources
of fat in the diet (Bruhn et al., 1992). Furthermore, nationwide surveys in the U.S. have
shown that American consumers are eating fewer dairy products and less red meat
(Gallup, 1990).
Consumers views on fat replacers were also explored in the Leatherhead Food RA
survey. Some respondents were aware that manufacturers used fat replacers in foods to
reduce the fat content; however, few were able to name any such products. Simplesse
produced the highest level of awareness at 5%. The vast majority of respondents (90%)
were not aware of any fat replacers and this rose to 98% for respondents aged 65+. A

1996 CRC Press LLC

Table 3.3 Main Ways to Reduce


Fat Consumption Cited by 509
Respondents in the U.K.
Activity

Cut out cakes and biscuits


Change cooking methods
Use low-fat foods
Use low-fat spreads
Cut out chocolate
Cut down on red meat
Follow healthy diet
Cut out chips
Eat leaner meat
Eat more salads/veg
Cut out butter/margarine
Cut out snacks/snacking
Eat more fruit
Use low-fat milk
Drink less beer
Cut out fried food
Cut down on dairy produce

47
31
30
26
4
4
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

From Cathro, J., Industry and Market


Reviews, No. 19, 1993. With permission.

number of respondents perceived fat replacers as unnatural and consequently


unhealthy. These findings were in stark contrast with reports on the American consumers awareness of fat replacers. For example, according to Bruhn and colleagues, 36
and 14% of Californian participants in a survey had heard of Simplesse and olestra,
respectively, although no products containing either of the two ingredients were available
on the market at the time of the survey (Bruhn et al., 1992).
Regarding usage of low-fat foods, within the quantitative U.K. survey, respondents
were given a list of nine food sectors and asked whether they had tried any of the listed
products in low-fat form. Table 3.4 shows that low-fat milk and low-fat spreads were the
most popular items that had been tried, cited by 83 and 73% of the respondents, respectively. The least popular products were low-fat sausages and low-fat burgers. Low-fat
milk was the most popular low-fat product eaten regularly and this was cited by nearly
two-thirds (65%) of the sample, while again low-fat sausages and burgers proved to be
less popular (Table 3.4).
Through the discussion groups, it was possible to identify factors influencing the
acceptance and purchase of these products, which is particularly important when considering the future requirement for low-fat foods and fat replacers. On the whole, respondents felt that skimmed and semi-skimmed milk were very healthy products because
they were perceived as low-fat and natural. Most respondents now consumed semiskimmed milk on a regular basis and a number had actually grown up with it, many
preferring the taste. However, respondents were less enthusiastic about skimmed milk,
which they claimed had a particularly watery taste and consistency, although respondents
who had been advised to try this by their doctors persevered with it.
It was apparent that a wide variety of low-fat spreads had been tried, the prime reason
for doing so being health grounds. However, while a number stated that health reasons
had prompted initial purchase, such products had now attained the status of a staple
purchase, rather than being anything special. Of particular interest was the comment that
1996 CRC Press LLC

Table 3.4 Low-Fat Products Tried and Eaten Regularly


by 509 Respondents in the U.K.
Food product
Low-fat milk
Low-fat spread
Very-low-fat yogurt
Low-fat salad dressing
Low-fat cheese
Low-fat crisps (chips)
Low-fat cream
Low-fat sausage
Low-fat burger

Ever tried
(% of respondents)

Eaten regularly
(% of respondents)

83
73
56
51
47
42
30
28
18

65
55
40
40
19
16
11
9
5

From Cathro, J., Industry and Market Reviews, No. 19, 1993. With permission.

taste was not such a critical factor in acceptance as the product was eaten in combination
with other foods, e.g., toast and marmalade.
In the discussion groups, consumers were clearly confused about the necessity for
very low-fat yogurts, especially as yogurt was perceived as a healthy food anyway. The
wide variety of products on the market also added to the confusion. However, despite
this confusion, 40% of the 509 interviewed respondents claimed to purchase very lowfat yogurts on a regular basis (Table 3.4). However, it is important to note that with
yogurt there is also a question of calorie and sugar content as well as fat levels.
While respondents were aware of the high fat content of many snack products, regular
purchase of low-fat crisps (chips) was comparatively low at 16%. From the discussion
group it could be inferred that the reason for this was their generally unacceptable flavor
and texture compared with standard products. Low-fat meat products also came in for a
fair amount of criticism on flavor grounds, this being reflected in low purchase frequency,
i.e., 9 and 5%, respectively.
On exploring the reasons for trying low-fat foods, previous studies by Boyle and
colleagues (1991) had indicated that, while health was the prime reason, this tended to
be concentrated on those products that were consumed on a regular basis, e.g., milk,
spreads, etc. It was not perceived to be important to buy low-fat versions of luxury items,
because they were not considered to make much difference to fat intake overall. The
1993 Leatherhead Food RA study, however, suggests that a change in consumer attitudes
may have occurred in that consumers considered that if a product existed in low-fat form,
it made sense to try it, and, providing the taste was acceptable, it could well replace the
standard product. This point is further supported by the dynamic performance of the socalled healthy ice cream category in the U.K. (Table 3.5) and the U.S. in recent years.
Healthy ice cream is one of the most dynamic sectors of the U.K. low-fat dairy products
market, with sales increasing more than threefold between 1990 and 1992. Furthermore,
in the Leatherhead study, respondents who had not tried any products in low-fat form
(only 42 from a total of 509) were asked why they were not interested in trying them
(Table 3.6). Here it is interesting to note that one third of respondents claimed to prefer
the taste of the standard product, suggesting that as technological advances give rise to
improvements in flavor, more consumers will be tempted to try low-fat versions of foods.
When respondents were asked which foods they would like to see made available in
low-fat form, chocolate was the most common response, followed by a variety of bakery
items. Some respondents did, however, have reservations about the artificial nature of
such products. Overall, respondents seemed to be divided into two distinct camps over

1996 CRC Press LLC

Table 3.5 U.K. Healthy Ice


Cream Market by Value, 1989-92
Year

Value
(m rsp)

% Growth

1989
1990
1991
1992

2
5
10
23

+150
+100
+130

From Comber, L.R., Cutler, A.J., and


Griffin, P.F., Industry and Market
Reviews No. 19, 1993. With permission.

Table 3.6 Reasons for Lack of


Interest in Low-Fat Foods Cited
by 42 Respondents in the U.K.
Reason given

Prefer taste of standard product


Not trying to lose weight
Never thought about it
Healthy as I am
Too expensive
Follow proper diet
Low-fat foods are a con
Am underweight
Diabetic

33
29
7
7
5
5
5
2
2

From Cathro, J., Industry and Market


Reviews, No. 19, 1993. With permission.

the usefulness of such products. One group claimed that if a low-fat option was provided
(and taste was on a par with that of the standard product) then it made sense to try it,
since it was likely to be healthier than the standard product and since the consumer was
unlikely to be at risk of eating too little fat. Conversely, the second group of respondents
claimed that this was actually moving away from a healthy balanced diet and that if
traditional treat items started to appear in low-fat form, consumers would simply eat
more of them. Respondents agreed that if the move toward low-fat foods incorporated
foods traditionally perceived as unhealthy, then consumers as a whole would tend to eat
more of the unhealthy items. In this case, the benefits of low-fat foods were not likely
to be apparent. Finally, the cost of low-fat foods was also criticized for being unnecessarily high. Clearly, there still exists the view that if a product is promoted as containing
less of an ingredient, in this case fat, it should cost less than the standard product. That
a food manufacturer may have incurred higher formulation costs to develop an acceptable
reduced-fat product is an issue that many consumers seem unaware of and indeed
probably have little interest in.
A survey of European consumers funded jointly by the Pfizer Speciality Chemicals
Group and the Calorie Control Council in 1991 showed similar trends in Europe to those
identified in the U.K. study described above (Wagner, 1992). The research showed that
the driving motivation among Europeans for consuming low-fat products was, generally,
to stay in better overall health, although this reason stood out less prominently from
others than it did in a comparable U.S. study by the same parties. For example, in France,
1996 CRC Press LLC

reducing fat ranked higher than staying in better health, and reducing calories, maintaining weight, and maintaining an attractive physical appearance were ranked nearly as high
as better overall health. In general, the findings suggested that the message of reducing
fat had a stronger appeal to European consumers than Americans.
Fat is also the number one dietary worry of U.S. consumers according to several statespecific and national surveys (Bruhn et al., 1992; Buss, 1993; CPQ, 1991; Gallup, 1990).
For example, in a 1991 poll by the Food Marketing Institute, 42% of respondents ranked
fat as the most important nutritional concern (Buss, 1993) while a California survey
showed that as many as 62, 61, and 58% of respondents considered total fat content,
saturated fat content, and cholesterol as very important in food selection (Bruhn et al.,
1992). It appears that the U.S. consumer is responding not to an old-fashioned urge to
diet, but to broader health recommendations by major groups such as the National
Cancer Institute and the American Association of Diabetes that Americans reduce their
fat intake to an average of 30% of total calories from the current average of 36% (Buss,
1993). However, the findings of a 1991 National Eating Trends study by the NPD Group,
a marketing research firm, also suggest that Americans concerns about fat and cholesterol
intake may be declining. Other studies show similar attitudes toward sugar, salt, and
calorie intake. It should be stressed that this does not necessarily mean that healthful
diets no longer interest people, but rather that the hysteria has subsided. The fact that
the food supply now offers choices that make people feel more comfortable about
cholesterol and fat is cited as one of the reasons for the drop in consumer concern
regarding fat intake.
Clearly, consumers concern and knowledge of the link between fat intake and health
have heightened their receptiveness to the concept of reduced-fat foods, which in turn
has led to increasing demand from food manufacturers for fat replacers.

3.3 MARKET DEVELOPMENTS IN REDUCED-FAT FOODS


In response to consumer concerns over fat intake, an increasingly wide range of food
sectors now offer reduced-fat and reduced-calorie versions of standard products. According to Wagner (1992), 76% of U.S. adults consume low-fat or low-calorie foods and
drinks, while U.K. consumers are not far behind, with 74% claiming to consume lowfat and light products, ahead of German adults with 69% and French adults with 48%.
Two in every three Australians have also been reported to consume reduced-fat and lowcalorie food products (Anon., 1993). While the message of reducing fat appears to
have a stronger appeal to Europeans, they are nevertheless less inclined than Americans
to incorporate low-fat, low-calorie, and sugar-free products into their diets. This phenomenon is put down more to market development and product availability than to a
significant difference in attitudes between U.S. and European consumers.
The most dominant segment of the lite consumer market in France, Germany, and
the U.K. has been reported to comprise consumers of reduced-fat foods and reduced-fat
beverages (Wagner, 1992). Penetration of low-fat foods in the U.K., at 67% of the
population, was reported as virtually identical to that in the U.S. This compares with
54% in Germany, while France is still comparatively under-developed at 39%. In all four
countries the incidence of use among women is 10 to 15% higher than for men. An
examination of the specific types of low-fat products being consumed indicates that dairybased lines, such as low-fat cheese, yogurt, and cream are most popular overall, ranking
number one in France (33% of adults) and Germany (47%). Low-fat beverages, e.g.,
low-fat instant chocolate drinks, are also very popular in the U.K. (35%) and Germany
(33%). A more detailed account of developments specific to European and American
markets for reduced-fat foods is given below.
1996 CRC Press LLC

3.3.1 UNITED KINGDOM


According to a study undertaken at the Leatherhead Food RA, the U.K. market for lowfat foods, including dairy products, meat products, snacks, ready meals, salad dressings,
and pre-packed salads, grew by over 19% in 1992, to a retail value of nearly 2.1 billion
(approximately $3.3 billion) (Comber et al., 1993). Dairy products dominated the market,
accounting for around 90% of sales in 1992. Within the dairy products market, milk
formed the largest sector, accounting for a 79% share. Meat products accounted for
nearly 2.5%, while reduced-fat snack foods accounted for 2% and the other low-fat
food products sector accounted for nearly 6% (Table 3.7).
Table 3.7 U.K. Low-Fat Foods Market by
Value (RSP in Millions of ) and Type, 199192
Year
Product

1991

1992

% Change

Dairy products
Milk
Cream
Cheese
Yogurt
Fromage frais
Ice cream
Spreads
Meat products
Burgers/grillsteaks
Sausages
Pt
Snack foods
Other
Ready meals
Dressings
Pre-packed salads
Total

1,548
1,207
9
92
84
23
10
123
49
10
28
11
40
104
65
29
10
1,741

1,869
1,486
10
107
91
29
23
123
51
10
29
12
40
116
72
31
13
2,076

+20.7
+23.1
+11.1
+16.3
+8.3
+26.1
+130.1
0
+4.1
0
+3.6
+9.1
0
+11.5
+10.8
+6.9
+30.0
+19.2

From Comber, L.R., Cutler, A.J., and Griffin, P.F. Industry


and Market Reviews, No. 19, 1993. With permission.

While most sectors of the low-fat food market in the U.K. are showing steady growth,
some are showing dynamic growth, albeit from a small base, namely ice cream, prepacked salads, and fromage frais. While not evident from Table 3.7, reduced-fat bakery
products are beginning to make an appearance on the U.K. market. The first reduced-fat
biscuit (cookie) of note, namely Light Digestive from McVities, appeared on the U.K.
market in late 1992, and since then reports indicate that it has grown to a 7.5 million
brand (approximately $12.5 million). The product now accounts for an estimated 10%
of the U.K. digestive biscuit (cookie) market. As yet, there has been little activity outside
biscuits (cookies). In this respect, the U.K. market is well behind that in the U.S., where
retail sales of low-fat and low-cholesterol bakery products grew at an annual compound
rate of 23.6% from 1989 to 1993. It is interesting to note that the largest sector, milk,
is still one of those showing strongest growth, at over 23% in 1992, ahead of several
smaller and newer low-fat product sectors such as meat products and snack foods.
While consumer trends toward healthy eating and the reduction of fat in the diet
continue to gain momentum, several low-fat food sectors have struggled to gain acceptance

1996 CRC Press LLC

in the U.K., failing to meet consumer expectations in terms of taste and quality. Products
that have performed best are those where, through the use of fat replacer technology, the
food manufacturer has been able to offer products tasting nearly, and ideally equally as
good as, the full-fat products they replace. This has been comparatively easy for a number
of product sectors, in particular dairy products and dressings, which explains their high
level of acceptance by consumers. The same is not the case for baked goods, where the
technical challenges to be faced are more stringent and exacting.
3.3.2 EUROPE
While data on the European market are somewhat patchy compared with those on the
U.S., there is sufficient information to indicate a considerable and growing interest in
reduced-fat foods, although it should be stressed that a number of market sectors are
beginning to plateau and in some cases decline.
According to several consumer surveys discussed in more detail earlier in this chapter,
growing numbers (ranging from 64 to 76%) of adults (aged 18 and over) in Europe are
selecting light foods and beverages to help them control their intake of fat and calories
to stay in better overall health (Wagner, 1992). Based on these figures, it can be estimated
that 81 million consumers in France, Germany, and the U.K. purchase light products,
which is roughly 60% of the U.S. market (calculated at about 141 million consumers).
Using similar extrapolations of survey data, it is estimated that there are 30.5 million
light food and beverage consumers in the U.K. (75% of the adult population), 31.5 million
light consumers in Germany (69% of adults) and 19 million light consumers in France
(48% of adults). As in the U.S., the popularity of foods and beverages reduced in fat is
the primary force behind the light food trend in Europe. Some 67% of British adults
consume low-fat products, as do 53% of Germans, and 39% of the French. While very
popular among men (as high as 61% penetration in the U.K.), these products are even
more widely consumed by women in the three countries. The most popular low-fat
products among Europeans are margarines, cheese, yogurt, cream and other dairy products, sauces, mayonnaise, and beverages (Wagner, 1992).
Taking a closer look at the German market, it is apparent that, while light products
are firmly established, market growth is modest. As in the U.S., reduced-fat dressings
are the most popular reduced-fat foods. Reduced-fat salad dressings and mayonnaise
accounted for 39% of total salad dressing and mayonnaise sales in the former West
Germany for the period January to November 1992. This compares with penetration
levels of 37 and 32% for the years 1991 and 1990, respectively. However, reduced-fat
margarines appear to be growing in popularity, accounting for 12% of total margarine
sales in 1992. This is 2% up on 1991 and 3% up on 1990. Penetration levels for reducedfat condensed milk and reduced-fat drinking milk have stabilized at 11% and 3%,
respectively. Not surprisingly, penetration levels for light products in the former East
Germany are considerably lower. For example, light salad dressings and mayonnaise
accounted for only 16% of total salad dressing and mayonnaise sales in 1992, the same
level as in 1991 (Staehler, 1992).
A lower level of interest in reduced-fat foods in France compared with Germany and
the U.K. has been reported (Anon., 1992). While sales of reduced-fat foods in France
have in general grown in recent years, there are signs, as in Germany, that consumer
interest is waning. Indicative of this was a 7.8% volume sales decline for reduced-fat
spreads in 1992. While as a general rule the European consumer has shown a growing
preference for healthier alternatives to traditional products, it is important to be aware
of the strong regional variations relating to consumption of reduced-fat foods. As an
example, it is possible to cite the considerable variation for penetration of reduced-fat

1996 CRC Press LLC

milks across Europe. Since the data previously presented indicate that the French consumer has a lower level of interest in reduced-fat foods than the British and the Germans,
it is somewhat surprising that France has one of the highest penetration levels for reducedfat milks in Europe, i.e., around 80%. This compares with penetration levels of around
50% in the U.K. and only around 20% in Germany. Higher preference for semi-skimmed
products for most countries suggests that consumer desires to reduce fat intake are limited
by taste. Other regional variations are also apparent, such as the comparatively more
developed markets for reduced-fat meat products in Germany and reduced-fat bakery
products in France. While the previous data appear at odds with earlier information on
the French consumers attitude to reduced-fat foods, it further illustrates the danger in
viewing the European market as homogeneous.
3.3.3 UNITED STATES
While the numerous articles and reports on the U.S. market for reduced-fat foods may
vary on its current value, all agree that it is a dynamic area. According to Mancini (1993),
U.S. sales of low-fat processed foods are continuing to climb, from $29 billion in 1990,
to $32 billion in 1991, to an expected $55 billion in 1996. Also indicative of the dynamism
of the market was the launch of 519 new low-fat/low-cholesterol products in 1992,
representing an increase of 39% over 1991, according to FIND/SVP (1993).
Dairy products appear to be the most active category, accounting for one third of all
low-fat foods introductions in 1992, followed by bakery products with 88 launches. This
is also reflected in their sales value, which, at $10 billion, accounted for nearly 48% of
total low-fat food sales in 1990 (Lakin, 1993). Sales are forecast to climb to $16 billion
by 1995, or 32% of total low-fat food sales (Table 3.8). A recent study by FIND/SVP
(1993) is even more bullish about the size and prospects for the U.S. market for lowfat/low-cholesterol dairy products. They forecast retail dollar sales to increase yearly,
from $25.7 billion in 1992 to $39.3 billion in 1996, an average gain of more than 15%
compounded annually.
Table 3.8 Actual and Projected Sales of
Low-Fat Food Products in the U.S. ($bn)
Year
Food product
Baked goods
Dairy products
Frozen desserts
Margarine
Frozen ready meals
Processed meats
Salty snacks
Total

1990

1995

1
10
3
2
2
2
1
21

6
16
7
2
6
8
5
50

From Lakin, J., Super Marketing, 46, 1068, 1993.


With permission.

One of the major questions posed by a survey carried out by the Calorie Control
Council has been: Do U.S. consumers really like current reduced-fat products? (Mancini, 1993). In the survey, some 69% of respondents claimed to be satisfied with the
industrys attempts at developing good-tasting products; however, nearly one third of
respondents indicated that there was still scope for improvement. Mancini (1993) has

1996 CRC Press LLC

suggested that one of the prime reasons for salad dressings being given as the category
of low-fat foods most frequently purchased by adult Americans (55% of respondents) is
that good-tasting reduced-fat versions can be achieved by the use of well-tried and tested
ingredients, e.g., starch and hydrocolloids. The second most popular category of products
have been low-fat dairy products (e.g., cheese and imitation sour cream) and reducedfat margarines, both reportedly purchased by 50% of the respondents. Reduced-fat milk,
meat products, and ice cream/frozen desserts were consumed by 48, 39, and 38% of the
consumers in the survey, respectively. It is suggested that since some of these foods are
usually consumed with other foods (e.g., salad dressings and spreads), consumers tend
to be more forgiving about any problems with texture and flavor. The fact that low-fat
dairy desserts were only the sixth most frequently purchased line is felt to indicate that
foods eaten primarily for pleasure rather than health have to satisfy more stringent criteria
by consumers. As a consequence, it is therefore not surprising that low-fat baked goods
and snacks are consumed less often.
Dairy Field reports that despite some setbacks in early attempts at reduced-fat dairy
products, new product development in the low-fat arena continues at a frenzied pace
(Anon., 1993). Significant sales growth for reduced-fat variants is evident for most of
the key dairy product categories, with many manufacturers seeing further opportunities
for growth. There has been a proliferation of reduced-fat products in the sour creams
and dips category, with no-fat and low-fat varieties now accounting for between 20 and
30% of total sales. Significant progress has also been made in reduced-fat cheeses, which,
worth $750 million, account for 10% of total retail cheese sales. A 9% sales increase
for reduced-fat frozen yogurt for the 52-week period ending August 15, 1993, is also
indicative of the buoyancy of the low-fat frozen desserts category (Anon., 1993).
While bakery products represent a relatively small part of the total market for lowfat foods, it is nevertheless one of the fastest growing categories, having grown at an
annual compound rate of 23.6% over the period 1989 to 1993, according to FIND/SVP
(Anon., 1993). However, while some products succeed for example, Pepperidge
Farms reduced-fat cookies, breads, muffins, and pita under the Wholesome Choice
banner others have not fared as well, e.g., Pepperidge Farms Wholesome Choice
crackers, Sara Lees Free and Light, and Nabiscos My Goodness. However, the growing
importance of such products can be gauged from the fact that the market pioneer,
Entenmanns, now derives 20% of its sales revenue from its fat free range of baked
goods. As for most other categories of the reduced-fat food market, good taste and quality
are cited as crucial to success (Anon., 1993).
While pundits may disagree on the level of growth, there is no doubt that the demand
for reduced-fat variants of traditional products in the U.S. will increase. However, crucial
to continued growth will be improvements in product quality, particularly for products
eaten for pleasure rather than purely for health reasons.
One can conclude from the information presented above that the market for reducedfat foods is buoyant internationally, although there are signs that interest may be waning
in certain countries, e.g., France. The dairy sector has been at the forefront of this
development, making a wide range of reduced-fat alternatives available to consumers.
This has been possible due to the comparatively simple technology required to produce
good-tasting reduced-fat alternatives to some dairy products. However, the technical
challenges to be overcome in producing good-tasting reduced-fat baked goods and meat
products are much greater, which explains their comparatively modest success to date.
Based on what has been reported so far, one would expect that sales of fat replacers
mirror those of reduced-fat foods. An examination of market developments specific to
fat replacers now follows.

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3.4 MARKET DEVELOPMENTS FOR FAT REPLACERS


In 1992, Morrison optimistically calculated that the maximum fat replacement potential
in the U.S. was around 21 billion pounds, which equated to sales of around $46 billion,
assuming a fat replacer price of $1.5 per pound. However, more recent reports suggest
that fat replacers have not lived up to expectations. According to Consumer Reports, just
a few years ago some analysts predicted that annual U.S. sales of fat replacers would
quickly exceed $1 billion; however, by 1992 they still had not topped the $100 million
mark (Anon., 1993). Another report states that even with the U.S. market for low-fat,
low-cholesterol foods being worth $12 billion in 1990, fat replacers were only worth
$100 million (Shuckla, 1992). It should be noted that the size quoted for the low-fat,
low-cholesterol foods market, i.e., $12 billion, is considerably lower than that given
earlier in this paper and serves to highlight that there are many contradictory figures
surrounding the issue of low-fat foods and fat replacers. What this demonstrates is that
there is a variety of formulation and processing techniques to reduce fat levels in many
foods without resorting to the use of fat replacers. The consequences of this are reflected
in the lower than expected sales figures for such materials. Data from Market Research
International presented in the proceedings of the third annual IBC Conference, New
Orleans, put U.S. sales of fat replacers even lower, at $60 million in 1991. Therefore, it
seems unlikely that the combined U.S., European, and Japanese market for fat replacers
will be worth $6.75 billion by the year 2000, as estimated by Shukla (1992). Nevertheless,
there is no doubt that the potential exists for fat replacement across a wide range of food
products.
It is clearly unrealistic to expect the fat replacement potential to be fully realized,
particularly as suitable materials are as yet not available, owing to either technological
or legislative barriers. This is very much the case in the major areas of baking and frying
fats. Clearly, heat-resistant fat substitutes have hardly begun to tap the potential that
exists in the U.S. and elsewhere. Based on the data presented and the assumption that
the U.S. fat replacer market is currently worth $80 million and growing at 10 to 15%
per year, it is unlikely that sales will be worth much more than $200 million by the year
2000. With the U.S. accounting for around 50% of the world market, this would suggest
worldwide sales of around $400 million by the year 2000. It should be stressed that this
is a fairly cautious estimate that does not take into account a major influx of secondgeneration fat replacers offering improved levels of heat stability and end-product quality.
However, owing to the considerable cost of developing such materials, both from a
research and development and a safety stance, it is the opinion of this chapters author
that this is unlikely to happen. The considerable problems encountered by Procter &
Gamble in attempting to get olestra to market may also act as a deterrent to companies
investing in this area.

3.5 CONCLUSIONS
Data have been presented to indicate that fat is likely to remain the prime dietary worry
for both U.S. and European consumers for the foreseeable future. This in itself will spur
continued growth in the reduced-fat food markets of Europe and America, which in turn
will increase demand for fat replacers. Many of the reduced-fat foods developed to date
have been achieved through the use of existing carbohydrate-based thickeners and stabilizers combined in some cases with new processing technologies. While it is likely
that carbohydrate-based fat replacers, i.e., maltodextrins, polydextrose, gums, etc., will
continue to dominate the market for the foreseeable future, these will eventually lose
some share to more sophisticated protein-based and synthetic products. However, the

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impact of synthetic fat substitutes on the market could well be blunted by regulatory
delays and high price. Critical to the continued development of the reduced-fat foods
market is the introduction of a wider range of good-tasting and textured products,
particularly in the bakery and snack food sectors. This in turn will require that a broader
range of fat replacers be developed; as has already been indicated, this can be an
extremely expensive and risky business venture. However, for the company bold enough
to tackle these problems, the rewards could be considerable. These views have been
endorsed by a recent study by the Leatherhead Food RA on the current status and future
opportunities for fat substitutes in Europe (Hilliam et al., 1995).

REFERENCES
Anonymous, Lite food is popular, Food Technol., 29(10), 17, 1993.
Anonymous, Reduced-fat bakery foods: meeting the taste challenge, Prep. Foods, 162(8), 79, 1993.
Anonymous, Britain takes a healthy lead in Europe, Grocer, 214(7078), 34, 1992.
Anonymous, Are marketers living a fat-free fantasy? Bakery Prod. Mark., 28(6), 132, 1993.
Anonymous, Schwere Zeiten fr Lights?, Lebensmitt. Prax., 15, 4, 1993.
Boyle, C.S., Cathro, J.S., Comber, L.R., Emmett, S.E., and Hilliam, M.A. The U.K. low-fat food report,
Ind. Mark. Rev. No. 6, 1991.
Bruhn, C.M., Cotter, A., Diaz-Knauf, K., Sutherlin, J., West, E., Wightman, N., Williamson, E., and
Yaffee, M., Consumer attitudes and market potential for foods using fat substitutes, Food Technol.,
April, 81, 1992.
Buss, D., Trimming the fat from fat replacer expectation, Food Process., 54 (10), 44, 1993.
Cathro, J., The U.K. Low-Fat Foods Report, 2nd Edition, Volume II The Consumer, Ind. Mark. Rev.,
No. 19, 1993.
Comber, L.R., Cutler, A.J., and Griffin, P.F. The U.K. Low-fat Food Report, 2nd Edition, Volume I
The Market. Ind. Mark. Rev. No. 19, 1993.
Center for Produce Quality (CPQ), Two years after Alar: A Survey of Consumer Attitudes Toward Food
Safety, CPQ, Newark, Delaware, 1991.
FIND/SVP, Low-fat/low-cholesterol products hit new highs, Food Process., 54(3), 11, 1993.
Gallup, Gallup Survey of Public Opinion Regarding Diet and Health, conducted for the International
Food Information Council and American Dietetic Association, The Gallup Organization, Princeton,
N.J., 1990.
Hilliam, M., Angus, F., Bower, S., and Marriss, L., Fat substitutes An in-depth European review of
current status and future opportunities. Leatherhead Food Research Association Report, March 1995.
Lakin, J., Fact file, Super Market., 46, 1068, 1993.
Mancini, L., Low fat comes of age, Food Eng., 65(6), 149, 1993.
Morrison, M. Fat replacers: potential markets. Inform 3(12), 1270-1277, 1992.
Shukla, T. P., Low-fat foods and fat replacers, Cereal Foods World, 37(6), 452, 1992.
Staehler, C., Out of the niche into the spotlight, Lebensmitt. Prax., 5, 4, 1992.
Wagner, J., Global consumers want the lite stuff, Food Process., 53(10), 68, 1992.

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Chapter

Physical, Chemical, and


Sensory Aspects of Fat
Replacement
Sylvia A. Jones
CONTENTS
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5

Introduction
Mimicking the Fat Droplet
Rheological Matching
Physical Stability and Fat Reduction
Sensory Implications of Fat Reduction
4.5.1 Intensity of Sensory Attributes
4.5.2 Temporal Effects of Fat Replacement
4.6 Flavor Release and Fat Reduction
4.6.1 Principles of Flavor Release and Methodological Considerations
4.6.2 Flavor Compounds vs. Flavor Perception
4.6.3 Flavor/Food Component Interactions
4.6.4 Flavor/Fat Replacer Interactions
4.6.5 Mass Transfer Inhibition and Flavor Release
References

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The principal objective of all the current product development activities in the area of
fat reduction is to match the overall product characteristics of a full-fat variant. The
degree of complexity of this task is dependent on the type of product and the level of
fat reduction required, but the underlying cause of the difficulties experienced when
reducing fat lies in its multifunctional nature as a food ingredient, and its often profound
effects during the different stages of a products manufacture, as well as on the final

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product characteristics. Moreover, the problems are compounded by the fact that to date
there is no permitted, commercially available single ingredient which can directly replace
fat in all its food applications. Hence, the only viable route is to apply a holistic approach
in fat reduction, whereby a fat-replacing system needs to be devised together with
appropriate processing changes for each of the product matrices. Although there is a
considerable range of commercialized fat replacers on the market, since the vast majority
of these ingredients have hydrophilic characteristics, it is inevitable that in the majority
of applications, fat reduction will be associated with an increase in water content, and
this will lead to changes in physical, chemical, and sensory characteristics.
A reasonable starting assumption, for instance in products which are in the form of
an oil-in-water emulsion (e.g., milk, yogurt, cream, cheese, ice cream, soups, sauces,
mayonnaise, dressings, etc.) could be to physically mimic a fat droplet. On the other
hand, it may be more appropriate to attempt to match the rheological characteristics of
the full-fat product through the use of different fat mimicking ingredients. However,
while doing so, it would be necessary to achieve an acceptable product quality in terms
of physical characteristics, physical stability, and sensory characteristics. Of equal importance in this context is the issue of microbiological stability as discussed in Chapter 1.
Furthermore, since fat reduction is associated with changes in perceived product characteristics, it is essential to understand the physical and chemical implications of flavor
release in the context of fat content manipulations.
This chapter evaluates the scope for a scientific, systematic approach to fat reduction
in the light of data reported in the literature, highlighting some of the more controversial
aspects, with the aim of identifying the existing gaps in our scientific knowledge in the
area of fat reduction.

4.2 MIMICKING THE FAT DROPLET


In water-continuous food systems, the replacement of all or part of the fat can be viewed
simply as the need to replace it with the same physical structure. It follows, therefore,
that the concept of replacing oil droplets is equivalent to finding an ingredient or a system
that can provide spherical particles which hopefully would behave similarly to oil droplets. This ball-bearing principle could, of course, be achieved easily by any of the
synthetic fat substitutes (such as olestra) whereby both chemically and physically the
structures are designed to be similar to fat. However, in the absence of commercial
availability of such substances, a different approach has had to be taken toward identifying
how such structures could be obtained using existing ingredients.
This approach was explored in the development of Simplesse, whereby through heat
coagulation under continuous shear conditions, protein (with its natural tendency to form
a continuous or semi-continuous network) was encouraged to form spherical, insoluble
microparticulates of 0.1 to 3.0 m in diameter (Singer and Dunn, 1990). Coagulated
protein microparticulates can be obtained using different processes or processing conditions and/or through the use of proteins other than the whey protein concentrate used in
Simplesse 100. An overview of current literature on this topic has been published by
Miller (1994). A puzzling and unresolved issue is whether or not, or to what extent, the
microparticulation process is of particular significance. This was especially highlighted
when Dairylight appeared on the market in 1989, since this ingredient, by design, does
not attempt to mimic a fat globule structure, but is based on the fat mimicking properties
of partial protein denaturation (see Chapter 1).
However, if the goal is to mimic fat droplets more closely, it follows that the use of
hydrophobic rather than hydrophilic gelled or semi-gelled structures should be pursued.
In this context, zein protein obtained from corn gluten meal appears to provide interesting

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opportunities due to its hydrophobic nature and inherent insolubility in water. This
concept was first explored by Enzytech, Inc. and then developed further by its branch
Opta Food Ingredients, Inc., in the production of LITA whereby the microparticulated
zein protein is obtained through a special processing technique which includes the coating
of the surface of the insoluble particle with a polysaccharide such as carboxymethylcellulose or gum arabic, in order to prevent aggregation of the particles (Cook et al., 1991;
Iyenger and Gross, 1991; Stark and Gross, 1992). By definition, therefore, the nature of
these microparticles, being very dense, nondeformable spheres, ranging from 0.1 to 8.0
m in diameter, is quite different from those obtained through a heat or acid coagulation
route. Although conceptually, LITA is undisputedly a unique ingredient in terms of the
source of protein used and its strong hydrophobic character, it should be noted that the
same features are responsible for its major commercial drawback i.e., its inherent
flavor problems. On the other hand, LITA is a product based on protein-polysaccharide
interactions and considerable scope exists for exploring this concept in the pursuit of
mimicking fat droplets.
Another example of an ingredient based on protein-polysaccharide complex formation
is Trailblazer range developed by Kraft General Foods (KGF). The principle behind
Trailblazer is the fact that anionic polysaccharides interact strongly with proteins at pH
values below their isoelectric points (Chen and Soucre, 1985; Chen et al., 1992). A typical
Trailblazer product is made from xanthan gum, egg white, and whey protein. On heating,
crosslinking through the formation of disulfide bond takes place resulting in a fibrous
network. These are then subjected to a microfragmentation process which reduces particle
size to approximately 10 m. In physical terms, however, the structure of Trailblazer is
that of fiber and therefore does not achieve the spherical ideal expected to give the
maximum ball-bearing effect. Unfortunately, KGF decided not to commercialize the
Trailblazer range and the interesting issue of the relative importance of structural differences in fat mimetics derived from the same protein (i.e., whey protein concentrate)
remains open to speculation.
Starch could be seen as an obvious ingredient to explore in the context of mimicking
the fat droplet, but there seems to have been little activity in this area so far. Zhao and
Whistler (1994) described an interesting process for forming spherical starch aggregates
using starch granules (preferably from amaranth or wheat) by coating with sodium
alginate or low methoxy pectin and then spraying with calcium chloride to form insoluble
coatings. Although these spheres were developed for flavor-carrying purposes, it can be
seen that the basic principle is similar to that employed in microparticulated proteins
coated with hydrocolloids (as in LITA and Trailblazer). On the other hand, if it is
assumed that the actual physical shape is not important, then a fat mimetic such as
Stellar, which is based on a crystalline fraction of starch, could also be viewed as a
microparticulated material since it is composed of aggregated starch crystallites which,
when subjected to high shear in an aqueous system (minimum 8000 psi), form particles
of 3 to 5 m (Pszczola, 1991).
A different concept of mimicking fat globules has been developed by the French
company A and S Biovecteures (ODonnell, 1994). The synthesis of a low-fat globule
was based on a milk fat concept, whereby an internal lipid core was replaced by a
reduced-calorie starch core but with the external properties of the globule modeled on a
milk-fat globule. The process involves: obtaining a cross-linked modified starch; extruding the starch to obtain particle size with a diameter of approximately 2 m; grafting a
fatty acid layer to the starch particles using a nonpolar solvent or by supercritical fluid
extraction technology; and attaching a phospholipid layer using a homogenization process. This concept for fat replacement was first introduced at the 1993 Food Ingredients
Exhibition (FIE 93).

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It might be expected that the issue of mimicking the fat globule would be especially
important in the absence of the dispersed phase, as in the case of a fat-free version of
an oil-in-water emulsion. In such a case, a two-phase system of an emulsion can be
devised by partitioning of the aqueous phase using the principle of biopolymers competing for water. Thus, depending on the choice of biopolymers and conditions such as
water activity, pH, ionic strength, charge density, and biopolymer concentration, a mixture
of two biopolymers can undergo complex coacervation (e.g., gelatin/gum arabic), or
phase separation driven by thermodynamic incompatibility between biopolymers (e.g.,
gelatin/maltodextrin) (Tolstoguzov, 1986). In each case, it is possible to obtain a twophase system, and, in the latter case, mixed or filled gels with two or more 3D networks
can be formed. Phase separation driven by thermodynamic incompatibility between
biopolymers has been investigated for a wide range of mixtures, and proposed as an
approach to fat reduction in the yellow fat spreads product area (Cain et al., 1989; Kasapis
et al., 1992; Muyldermans and Vanhoegaerden, 1992).
The above examples highlight some of the possible approaches to mimic physically
the fat globule structure through the use of accessible ingredients, and, in most cases,
special processing methods. It can be concluded that, although some means of interrupting the continuous aqueous phase is necessary, the extent to which it is necessary
to mimic perfectly the size and shape of oil droplets remains questionable, as different
approaches utilize a range of particle size beyond the 0.1 to 3.0 m range originally
considered as optimal, and the shapes range from distinct spheres to irregular particles.
Moreover, despite attempts to limit hydrophilic activity, the designer particles could
be expected to have different physical properties to those of fat on account of the
differences in chemical structure. In other words, there are certain limitations in attempting to form the physical structure of a fat globule.
However, the above discussion has focused on the mimicking of the fat globule
structure in isolation. In reality, the complexity of real food systems necessitates optimization of the overall product formulation when replacing either all or a substantial
amount of the fat by a fat mimetic. On the other hand, it may be considered as the need
to obtain a fat mimetic system that would compensate for the broad spectrum of fat
functionalities exhibited in a given product type. Glicksman (1991) suggested that a
three-ingredient system is necessary for a good fat mimetic: (1) a thickening agent for
lubricity and flow control; (2) a soluble bulking agent for control of adsorption/absorption
of the food onto taste perceptors of the tongue; and (3) a microparticulate, generally
insoluble, agent that acts like a ball-bearing to create smoothness.
It can be postulated, however, that in order to mimic the different functions of fat in
a substantially reduced-fat product, we must consider viscosity matching, solids adjustment, and particle size impact and mouthfeel, and we must also carefully balance the
perceived flavor characteristics of the system. In other words, as has been emphasized
previously, there is a need for a holistic approach.

4.3 RHEOLOGICAL MATCHING


If matching the physical structure of a fat globule is elusive, then it is reasonable to take
on board the effect (rather than the cause) of the physical and chemical characteristics
of fat which manifests itself in the performance of the fat in foods. Here, rheological
manipulation is the key.
Thus, in the case of many product categories, reduction of fat in a given matrix can
be seen as a challenge to mimic the rheological impact of fat through the use of a fat
replacing system. However, although this is a viable and relatively easy route for the

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first stage of product/process development, due to the multifunctional nature of fat as an


ingredient, a much broader perspective needs to be adopted to ensure that rheological
matching is adequately corrected to encompass the impact of the reduced-fat level on
the various functions of the fat in a given product (as discussed in Chapter 1). Hence,
in general terms, rheological matching needs to be viewed in the context of its implications for: processability and handling; physical, chemical, and microbiological stability;
and sensory characteristics (some of these issues will be discussed in more detail below).
One aspect of the performance of fat that cannot be matched physically is that related
to crystallinity and polymorphism. That does not mean, however, that it is not possible
to use the rheological manipulation approach in foods dependent on fat crystallization
for their characteristics. It is only in the case of products where fat forms the continuous
phase, and its structure is solely based on the crystallization of fat, that the problems of
rheological matching are compounded. But even here it does not mean that fat reduction
cannot be achieved, merely that a different strategic approach needs to be adopted, taking
into account the physical limit beyond which further fat reduction cannot be achieved.
The issue of rheological matching can best be illustrated with reference to two products,
namely table spread (margarine or butter) and chocolate, since each requires a different
approach.
Margarine (or butter) is a water-in-oil emulsion system containing 80% fat in which
its particular end characteristics are highly dependent on fat crystallization. Despite that,
it is possible to reduce the fat content by some 80% of the original level present in the
margarine while still retaining the fat continuous nature of the product that is so important
from the point of view of the products stability. What makes it a relatively easy task is
the fact that it is an emulsion system, the overall rheology of which can therefore be
manipulated by structuring the aqueous phase (i.e., the water droplets), manipulating the
fat-water interface, manipulating the fat phase composition, and changing processing
parameters. The fact that there are four variables means that considerable flexibility exists
for matching rheological characteristics with the required sensory characteristics of the
end product. It is not surprising, therefore, that the low-fat spreads market has developed
to such a remarkable extent.
Chocolate, on the other hand, is a much more difficult product because it is not an
emulsion, but a fat-continuous suspension, the structure of which depends on the polymorphic behavior of the cocoa butter. This means that a fat replacement strategy involving
hydrophilic fat replacers is not feasible, since the addition of even a small amount of
water results in a significant increase in viscosity such that it would be impossible to
process. But, even in this case, there are some avenues left to be explored. For instance,
as illustrated by Daget and Vallis (1994), by modifying the fat composition and replacing
some fat with a bulk filler (demineralized whey powder), fat content can be reduced
from 35 to 25%. However, in the particular case of chocolate, if a more meaningful fat
reduction is to be achieved, it is even more necessary to use the holistic approach than
for any other product category, and there is the problem regarding compositional standards, and hence the labeling, claims, and marketing of such products (Jones, 1993).
The use of low-calorie fats (e.g., Caprenin or Salatrim), or fat substitutes (e.g., olestra
or esterified propoxylated glycerol) would, of course, make the task easier.
However, the matter of rheological matching cannot be viewed in isolation but needs
to be related to perceived sensory characteristics. While doing so, two issues come to
the fore: first, how viscosity is measured (this issue was first explored by Shama and
Sherman, 1973); and second, whether there are other rheological parameters or methodological matters that are of importance. On the other hand, the descriptors used to assess
the contribution made by fat (or an ingredient or ingredient system that aims to replace

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it) have to be taken into account, as well as the implications of these descriptors to
rheological measurements. The following brief examples from the literature should help
the reader to understand the significance of these issues.
The majority of published reports investigate the issue of fat replacement in oil-inwater emulsion systems since, on the one hand, it represents a large range of existing
product categories, and, on the other hand, it is the easiest system to characterize and
define from a scientific point of view. An oil-in-water emulsion exhibits non-Newtonian,
shear thinning behavior. In a recent study, Mela et al. (1994) showed that an increase in
oil content (in an oil-in-water emulsion containing 1.0% w/w of sucrose stearate as an
emulsifier and fat content ranging from zero to 48%) gives rise to a logarithmic increase
in viscosity (as measured at a shear rate of 48 sec1), and that this viscosity increase was
a predominant factor affecting perceived fat content as assessed by panelists. However,
statistical analyses of the data showed that fat content made independent contributions
beyond viscosity alone. Indeed, earlier work on perceived fat content and creaminess in
thickened milks (Mela, 1988) led to the same conclusion.
Other authors recognized the importance of two rheological parameters in relation to
fat perception i.e., viscosity and flow behavior index (power law index). Studying
model soups with a range of thickeners, Wood (1974) established that, for this product,
maximum perception of creaminess was at a viscosity of between 50 and 80 mPa.s, and
a flow behavior index (n) of about 0.50. For desserts (creams with xanthan), Daget et al.
(1987) found that maximum creaminess was at a viscosity of between 880 and 7500
mPa.s and a corresponding flow behavior index of 0.15 and 0.04 for 3.5 and 30% fat
content, respectively. More recently, Daget and Joerg (1991) reported on a substantial
study of model cream soups which examined the effects of several hydrocolloid thickeners on creaminess, thickness, and liking consistency in relation to rheological characteristics. The relationship between the flow behavior index and apparent viscosity was
found to be different for each thickener. The maxima of creaminess corresponded to
a viscosity of between 90 and 325 mPa.s and a flow behavior index of 0.12 to 0.42.
Interestingly, rheological optima for liking consistency were found always to be lower
than those for creaminess, while perceived thickness was found to be linearly related to
the logarithm of viscosity for all thickeners. Thus, the results demonstrated the importance of the two rheological parameters in perceived creaminess and acceptability. However, the authors also established that other unknown aspects affected acceptability ratings
in this study. Such aspects could be validated through a broader rheological approach.
The importance of the size of oil droplets in relation to fat content and perceived fat
content has also received some attention. The results reported by Mela et al. (1994)
showed no apparent pattern in oil droplet size as affected by fat content in emulsions
containing 0 to 48% fat. The decrease in oil droplet size resulting from different homogenization pressures used (100 and 300 bar) caused the viscosity of the emulsions to
increase, but no difference was found in perceived fat content as a result of this viscosity
increase.
Richardson et al. (1993) studied the effects of homogenization and fat content on oral
perception in 3.5 and 4.8% fat milks with and without the addition of carboxymethylcellulose. The results showed no effect of fat content or homogenization on viscosity (as
measured at 50 s1) for neither the unthickened milks nor for the milks thickened to the
viscosity of a double cream. The ratings of fat content and creaminess were very
similar; although higher scores were obtained for both of those attributes for nonhomogenized milks, these differences were not statistically significant as indicated by error
bars. In the case of thickened milks, the responses obtained for perceived fat content and
creaminess were again similar for all four milk samples and only the homogenized milk

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containing 4.8% fat received higher scores, but again, these were not statistically significant. Interestingly, despite the fact that the authors do not give any data on oil droplet
size and distribution, they conclude that a high density of evenly sized particles (produced
as a result of homogenization), together with adequately high viscosity, results in a
realistic sense of creaminess. Although it is difficult to see the validity of this statement
in the context of the results presented, and further work is obviously required, it would
be expected that droplet size and distribution would have an effect on perceived fat
content and creaminess, but it should be possible to, at least to some extent, depict such
an effect in rheological performance.
In this context, the results reported by Partel et al. (1994) should be mentioned, since
they were able to relate mathematically rheological and particle size parameters. However, it should be pointed out that in this experimental work, extreme conditions were
prevailing (in terms of both composition and methodology), and further work would be
required to ascertain the validity of these findings in a low-fat context, as well as in
relation to perceived flavor characteristics, since neither of these issues were included
in the study.
Baines and Morris (1988), confirming the results of earlier work on perceived thickness of solutions of polysaccharide thickeners in relation to viscosity measurement,
postulated that the use of small-deformation oscillary measurement of viscosity at 50
rad1 is necessary in order to account for the particular rheological behavior of xanthan,
which is the result of its conformationally ordered structure (as opposed to random
coiled disordered polysaccharide structures). A good correlation was found between
viscosity and perceived thickness, while no differences were found in perceived thickness,
stickiness, or sliminess. Interestingly, despite the extreme shear thinning of xanthan, no
correlation was found between perceived sliminess and shear thinning. Moreover, no
detectable suppression of perceived flavor or taste was found to exist when xanthan
solutions of up to 1.0% (w/v) were studied.
However, the issue of sensory attributes used to describe the contributions of fat (or
fat mimetic) in textural terms are far from being resolved, despite the fact that there has
been a substantial amount of research activity in this area (Szczesniak et al., 1963; Jowitt,
1974; Szczesniak, 1979). The elusive term of creaminess, for instance, was reported
to be unrelated to terms such as thickness, smoothness, and slipperiness (Cussler
et al., 1979). While Kokini et al. (1977) defined each of the latter three desriptors in
terms of friction and/or viscosity, Cussler et al. (1979) suggest that creaminess cannot
solely be related to the three above mentioned attributes, and hence it cannot be defined
in rheological terms.
On the other hand, Drewnowski (1987), in a study on liquid dairy foods (from milk
to heavy cream) suggests that the fat content may be better monitored and perceived
through the use of more abstract terms related to caloric density (e.g., oily, greasy). It
is noteworthy that the response received for the term creamy was very similar to that
received for the terms fattening and high calorie.
While there appears to be some confusion in the reported data with regard to the
sensorily measured responses to fat content, on the basis of a closer examination of the
data it can be postulated that the current state of flux has its origins in two factors: first,
the sensory methodology used (e.g., consumer vs. trained panelist, brief given on the
products, the level of understanding of the terms assessed, presence or absence of
reference points, etc.); and second, the type of attribute used. In the latter case, two
categories of attributes can be distinguished. The first comprises terms that are unaffected
by hedonic response (e.g., thickness, smoothness, slipperiness, fattening, high calorie),
and hence an approximately linear relationship would be expected between the intensity

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of these attributes and fat content, and these terms could be defined in rheological terms.
On the other hand, the attribute creaminess, which is considered by most authors as
the best descriptor for the assessment of the contribution made by fat to perceived sensory
characteristics of a product, is much more complex, since it involves a certain level of
hedonic response. For that reason, the response for this attribute would be expected to
be nonlinear. This can vary from a curve response with a plateau, as first obtained by
Wood (1974), to an inverted U-shape response against increasing fat content, since a
point will be reached where a further increase in fat content is deemed inappropriate for
the particular product type. Obviously, it is not feasible to attempt to define such an
attribute in rheological terms alone. Moreover, it can be postulated that in any given
product, apart from thickness and smoothness characteristics, perceived creaminess will
also be affected by the intensity of flavor attributes present in the system.
Overall, it can be concluded that while considerable scope remains in rheological
matching of the contribution made by fat with that of a fat replacing system, the issue
needs to be viewed in the context of the complexity of a particular product matrix and
its quality parameters. While rheological characteristics undoubtedly play an important
role in sensory perception of foods, the extent to which this route is sufficiently explored
is debatable. It could be postulated that more attention should be given to physically
mimicking the conditions in the mouth prior to proceeding with rheological characterization, which should, perhaps, be designed in relation to the products matrix. On the
other hand, the limitations of rheological characterization alone should be recognized,
especially where flavor intensity and flavor release affect the perceived rheological
characteristics.

4.4 PHYSICAL STABILITY AND FAT REDUCTION


Fat reduction can have a profound effect on the physical stability of a product. One of
the important roles of fat replacing ingredients, therefore, is their ability to maintain
physical stability while at the same time providing acceptable quality in sensory terms.
The importance of this issue was demonstrated when some products launched in the
early 1990s suffered from apparent physical instability and had to be withdrawn from
the market (e.g., some low-fat spreads and hard cheeses). Little published data exist on
physical characteristics and stability in relation to fat reduction in foods, and virtually
none at all that attempts to relate fat content and physical characteristics and stability to
sensory characteristics. In practice, the issue of physical stability is compounded when
moving from water-continuous liquid products to oil-continuous semi-solid products.
For present purposes, the subject of changes in physical characteristics in relation to fat
replacement will be illustrated with water-in-oil emulsions i.e., spreads.
Various test and characterization procedures for assessing low-fat spreads were investigated by Bavington et al. (1992) using ten commercially available spreads ranging in
fat content from 20 to 40%, and containing different aqueous and fat phases. All the
techniques employed were able to distinguish between the spreads, with the results from
conductivity measurements and stability tests correlating well with their observed microstructure. Other techniques such as differential scanning calorimetry, and solid fat content, spreadability, and texture measurements measured by penetrometry, were primarily
related to the hardness of the spreads, although the spread microstructure also influenced
the results obtained from these tests. Most of the physical tests performed were found
to be related to the results obtained from sensory analysis of the spreads, since the textural
characteristics tended to dominate sensory discrimination (see Section 4.5.1). Spreads

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with no aqueous phase stabilizers were found to have the smallest aqueous phase droplet
size, while hardness and spreadability of the spreads were primarily, though not exclusively, related to the solid fat content. Other spread characteristics, such as stickiness,
cloying character, the rate of breakdown in the mouth, etc., were dependent upon the
type of aqueous phases stabilizers and the openness of the spread microstructure (Bavington et al., 1992). Figure 4.1 gives an example of some of the differences in selected
physical characteristics for three of the ten commercial low-fat spreads investigated in
relation to the composition of the aqueous phase as indicated on the labels. It is apparent,
therefore, that low-fat spreads produced commercially differ considerably in terms of
their physical characteristics. Overall, the differences in physical characteristics can be
attributed in general terms to four main factors: fat content; composition of the aqueous
phase; composition of the fat phase; and processing methods/conditions used.

Figure 4.1 Differences in selected physical characteristics of some of the commercial 40%
fat spreads: Sample 2, containing sodium caseinate and sodium alginate; Sample 5, containing
modified starch and milk proteins; Sample 6, containing gelatin and milk proteins. (Compiled
from Bavington et al., 1992.)

In low-fat spreads containing 30% fat or less, the primary concern is to maintain a waterin-oil emulsion structure. In standard processing methods, this can easily be achieved
using an appropriate emulsification system, which will allow the formation of the emulsion

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and the maintenance of the water-in-oil emulsion structure during processing (Clegg
et al., 1993). However, while in physical terms an excellent emulsion can be achieved,
with small water droplets (0.5 to 2.0 m) homogeneously distributed throughout the
continuous fat phase, the emulsifiers necessary for obtaining such a stable system give
rise to undesirable organoleptic characteristics which manifest themselves predominantly
in textural attributes (e.g., the slow rate of emulsion breakdown in the mouth), and these,
in turn, affect flavor release characteristics of the spreads. Thus, certain changes in
product formulation are necessary if an acceptable quality is to be achieved.
It is now an established commercial practice to use hydrocolloid stabilizers, either
polysaccharide-based (e.g., starch, maltodextrin, sodium alginate) or protein-based (e.g.,
gelatin or sodium caseinate), in order to structure the aqueous phase of the low-fat spreads
(Bavington et al., 1991). Such ingredients thicken and gel the aqueous phase droplets,
giving rise to rheological changes that affect the different stages of manufacture, as well
as the physical stability of the final product, which will be dependent on the type and
concentration of the hydrocolloid(s) used.
Clegg et al. (1993), in a study of the role of aqueous phase stabilizers in low-fat
spreads containing 30% fat, demonstrated an apparent destabilizing effect of hydrocolloids on the physical characteristics of the final product. This was manifested in an
increase in droplet size, changes in droplet size distribution, and a decrease in thermal
and shear stability compared with spreads containing no aqueous phase stabilizers. A
confocal laser scanning microscopy technique was used to study changes in microstructure in order to ensure minimum disruption of the spread systems, and also to be able
to view the structure in three dimensions. While slight destabilization was observed for
spreads containing gelatin and those containing gelatin and maltodextrin, a marked
increase in droplet size was found in spreads containing gelatin and sodium alginate. In
the case of spreads containing gelatin and modified starch, a significant destabilization
was found, with evidence that some of the starch was disrupting the crystalline fat phase
structure. Extensive destabilization was found in spreads containing gelatin and sodium
caseinate as a result of the surface active properties of the sodium caseinate, and its
tendency to promote a water-continuous emulsion, which was therefore counteracting
the action of the emulsifiers present. However, while at a lower concentration of sodium
caseinate the microstructure of the spread was more or less bi-continuous in nature, at
higher concentrations of sodium caseinate the increased viscosity of the aqueous phase
tended to counteract to a certain degree the surface active properties of the protein, thus
limiting the extent to which the aqueous droplets coalesced during and after processing.
As a result, some restabilization was apparent, and the presence of aqueous lakes and
large droplets was evident. Figure 4.2 shows confocal images of selected low-fat spreads
from these studies (Clegg et al., 1993).
On the other hand, destabilization of the water-in-oil low-fat emulsion systems, as
affected by the presence of hydrocolloids, has an important positive effect on sensory
characteristics in terms of the rate of emulsion breakdown in the mouth, melt-down
properties and flavor release. In other words, a certain degree of instability needs to be
introduced into a necessarily tight and stable low-fat oil-continuous emulsion system
(which is needed to enable processing) in order to mimic the sensorily perceived characteristics of the full-fat spread. In addition, the source of the fat blend, the melting
profile of the fat, and the ratio of liquid to crystalline fat affect the structure of the
emulsion and organoleptic characteristics. A more extensive discussion of the sensory
implications of fat reduction is given in Section 4.5.

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c
Figure 4.2 Effect of aqueous phase stabilizers on microstructure of 30% fat spreads obtained
using confocal laser scanning microscopy technique: (a) no aqueous phase stabilizers; (b) 2%
gelatin/15% maltodextrin; and (c) 2% gelating/8% sodium caseinate. (From Clegg, S. M., Moore,
A. K., and Jones, S. A., Leatherhead Food Res. Assoc. Res. Rep. No. 715, 1993. With
permission.)

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4.5 SENSORY IMPLICATIONS OF FAT REDUCTION


Changing the fat content of a product can have a significant impact on sensory characteristics, and, as indicated earlier, all the main attributes (i.e., appearance, flavor, mouthfeel, and texture) may be affected. How much of an impact this will have depends on
the product type and structure, the extent of fat reduction, and the extent (broadly
speaking) of measures taken to compensate for the effects of fat reduction in product
reformulation or process modification.
In the early days of fat replacement, the major emphasis was placed on counteracting
the loss of rich and creamy textures as a result of fat removal. The issue of flavor was
seen as secondary. However, if the quality of a full-fat product is to be matched after
reducing fat content, it should be obvious that both aspects need to be considered on a
more or less equal basis, especially as they are interrelated. Indeed, it can be argued that
since flavor is normally regarded as the most important factor in consumer choice, it is
that which should be given the higher priority. The problem is that the functionality of
texture determining ingredients and their interactions are much better understood than
flavor changes in food systems as affected by changes in composition. Nevertheless,
significant progress has been made in recent years.
4.5.1 INTENSITY OF SENSORY ATTRIBUTES
Any changes in formulation are likely to affect the intensity of sensory characteristics,
and in the case of fat removal, this issue is especially important. The impact of fat removal
in a given product can be demonstrated by evaluating sensory changes as a result of
uncompensated fat reduction. Figure 4.3 depicts the changes in sensory response as a
function of fat reduction in model spreads (water-in-oil emulsions) where distilled monglyceride and polyglycerol polyricinoleate were used in each case at 0.4% of the aqueous
phase using no water structuring ingredients. While retaining constant compositional and
processing parameters, with only the fat content as a variable, a clear change in the
dimensions of the star diagrams can be observed when moving from 80 to 20% fat, with
a statistically significant decrease in flavor intensity for attributes such as lactic butter,
sweet, sour, and rancid. Thus, when using a minimal or no compensation approach, it
is possible to identify the limiting attributes associated with fat reduction. Hence, the
attempts to compensate for fat reduction through the use of other ingredients can be seen
as efforts to match the sensory profile of the full-fat product. In reality, however, this is
an oversimplification, since, if the goal is to achieve a significant fat reduction, in most
cases, other issues have to be addressed alongside (e.g., physical stability, as discussed
earlier). Therefore, the formulation and/or processing changes required would normally
result in a more complex flavor profile.
When developing a low-fat version of a product category that has a number of products
already commercialized, it is useful to evaluate the existing products in order to establish
how they differ from the full-fat variant. In addition, an insight can be gained into the
viability of the approaches used in fat replacement if that is put into the context of the
relative performance of these products on the market. The use of consensus profiling
based on the Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) method, combined with analysis
of variance (ANOVA), followed by principal components analysis (PCA) is a useful
technique that enables the acquisition of such information.
Figure 4.4 shows the position of 13 commercial spreads with respect to the first two
principal components (Kilcast at al., 1991). The fat content of the products shown ranged
from 80% (standard margarine) to 25%. The plot can be regarded as a perceptual space
showing the perceived interrelationship between the test samples. Samples that are

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Figure 4.3 Effect of fat content on intensity of flavor attributes in oil-continuous spreads (fat
reduction not compensated by compositional changes). (From Jones, S. A. et al., unpublished.
With permission from the Leatherhead Food Research Association.)

positioned close to one another in the plot were perceived as having similar sensory
characteristics, whereas those distant were perceptually different from one another. The
original sensory attributes are shown as vectors radiating from the origin of the plot and
lengths of the vectors represent their relative importance in the principal component
space. For clarity, only the more important vectors are shown in Figure 4.4, but these
are derived from panelists evaluation of 16 attributes reflecting appearance, flavor,
texture, and mouthfeel characteristics. The data show that the two full-fat margarines,
and one of the 40% fat spreads are clearly separated from the other samples on the basis
of paler yellow color, smoother texture, and more glossy appearance. However, this 40%
spread is differentiated from the others on the basis of high levels of lard flavor and lack
of saltiness. The rest of the low-fat spreads are positioned more to the right of PC1, and
were generally darker yellow in color, with a more grainy appearance. The product
containing the lowest amount of fat of those tested (i.e., 25% fat) is clearly separated
from the others on account of its gelatinous and firm characteristics, whereas the 40%
fat located closest to it is characterized by a firm texture as it is based on butter.

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Figure 4.4 Positioning of a range of commercial fat continuous spreads with respect to each
other and discriminating attributes (PC1 vs. PC2). (From Kilcast, D., Crawford, B. A., and Foster,
Leatherhead Food Res. Assoc. Res. Rep. No. 683, 1991. With permission.)

Although there are some published reports on the effects of different fat replacers in
food systems, virtually none consider a full sensory characterization of the products
studied with the aim of relating that to physical characteristics in order to gain an
understanding of the precise role each ingredient fulfills in fat replacement. As a result,
the development of low-fat foods is to a large extent left to the empirical approach of
trial and error.
However, in the previously mentioned study, Clegg et al. (1993) investigated the
effects of a range of fat mimicking ingredients in relation to both physical and sensory
characteristics. Figures 4.5 and 4.6 illustrate the effect of maltodextrin concentration on
flavor and texture attributes, respectively, in low-fat spreads containing 30% fat. The
results show that the addition of maltodextrin gave rise to a significant perception of
soury, nutty, and margarine notes which coincided with a decrease in vegetable oil flavor.
With respect to texture, the incorporation of the maltodextrin at a higher level (15%)
resulted in the product showing a significantly increased rate of breakdown in the mouth
which corresponded with a decrease in perceived waxiness. This product was also found
to have the least gelatinous characteristics of all low-fat spreads tested in this study
(Clegg et al., 1993).
In Figure 4.7, a principal component plot for flavor is given showing the relative
positioning of all low-fat spreads tested. It can be seen that PC2 clearly separates the
maltodextrin containing spreads on account of their higher level of margarine flavor,
which is a positive attribute. On the other hand, PC1 differentiates between all the samples
on the basis of relative intensity of vegetable oil which is a negative attribute related to
the ability to break down the water-in-oil emulsion structure in the mouth. Hence, flavor
intensity of attributes such as sweet, butter, and salt are inversely related to the vegetable
oil intensity and the spread containing 8% sodium caseinate is clearly separated from
other spreads in the PC1 dimension in a positive direction. The effects of other hydrocolloids on flavor characteristics of low-fat spreads investigated in this study are to a

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Figure 4.5 Effect of maltodextrin on flavor attributes of low-fat spreads. (From Clegg, S. M.,
Moore, A. K., and Jones, S. A., Leatherhead Food Res. Assoc. Res. Rep. No. 715, 1993. With
permission.)

large extent depicted by their positioning in a negative direction of the PC1 dimension,
and they are related to the size and distribution of the aqueous droplets, as indicated in
Section 4.4. It is apparent from the foregoing that structural changes in the emulsion
found as a result of the addition of hydrocolloids were well reflected in sensory characteristics, and that the textural characteristics were determining flavor changes as a result
of the impact of structural changes on flavor release.
4.5.2 TEMPORAL EFFECTS OF FAT REPLACEMENT
Using fat mimetics to compensate for fat removal leads not only to changes in intensity
of the different flavors but also can have significant effects on temporal characteristics
of flavor perception. The time-intensity technique allows the determination of a graphical
relationship between the perceived strength of a sensory attribute and the duration of its
perception (Wyeth and Kilcast, 1991). The various parameters that can be obtained from
a time-intensity curve include onset time of response; maximum perceived intensity;
time to reach maximum intensity and its duration; and rate of decay of response.

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Figure 4.6 Effect of maltodextrin on texture attributes of low-fat spreads. (From Clegg, S. M.,
Moore, A. K., and Jones, S. A., Leatherhead Food Res. Assoc. Res. Rep. No. 715, 1993. With
permission.)

Figure 4.8 shows mean time-intensity curves for sharpness, bitterness, and astringency
as perceived by panelists when evaluating reduced-fat and full-fat versions of commercial
Cheddar cheese (Shamil et al., 1991). The rate of flavor release was greater, and the total
intensity of all attributes tested was higher in the reduced-fat Cheddar cheese as a result
of a longer persistence time of response. This indicates a changed flavor balance which
may have an important effect on consumer acceptability.
In another experiment, the effects of two starch-derived fat mimetics, Paselli SA2 and
N-Oil, were studied in a 30% salad cream formulation in which the maltodextrin/water
system replaced 50% of the fat (Shamil et al., 1991). This was evaluated against a fullfat product (30% fat) acting as a control. Figure 4.9 shows the results obtained for
perceived saltiness and vinegariness. The reduced-fat salad dressings containing 15% fat
were perceived to have a higher intensity of vinegariness, and a longer persistence time
in the mouth compared with the full-fat control, while saltiness showed the opposite

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Figure 4.7 Effects of aqueous phase composition on positioning of low-fat spread samples
with respect to each other and discriminating attributes (PC1 vs. PC2). Sample 1, no aqueous
phase stabilizers; sample 3, 2%-gelatin; sample 5, 2%-gelatin/10%-maltodextrin; sample 6, 2%gelatin/15%-maltodextrin; sample 7, 2%-gelatin/2.5%-modified starch; sample 8, 2%-gelatin/5%-modified starch; sample 9, 2%-gelatin/1%-sodium alginate; sample 10, 2%-gelatin/2%sodium alginate; sample 12, 2%-gelatin/8%-sodium caseinate. (From Clegg, S. M., Moore, A. K.,
and Jones, S. A., Leatherhead Food Res. Assoc. Res. Rep. No. 715, 1993. With permission.)

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Figure 4.8 Mean time-intensity curves for perceived sharpness, bitterness, and astringency
in reduced- and full-fat cheddar cheeses. (From Shamil, S., Wyeth, L. J., and Kilcast, D.,
Leatherhead Food Res. Assoc. Res. Rep. No. 687, 1991. With permission.)

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Figure 4.9 Mean time-intensity curves for perceived saltiness and vinegariness in full- and
reduced-fat salad dressings. (From Shamil, S., Wyeth, L. J., and Kilcast, D., Leatherhead Food
Res. Assoc. Res. Rep. No. 687, 1991. With permission.)

trend. While clearly significant differences between the control and the two reduced-fat
samples were apparent, the Student-Newman Keuls multiple comparison test showed no
statistically significant differences between the use of Paselli SA2 and N-Oil.
The results obtained in the experiments described above can be explained in terms
of the hydrophobic/hydrophilic characteristics of the compounds responsible for the
measured sensory characteristics; the relative concentrations of these compounds in
water/fat phases; and overall, the impact of fat replacement on the flavor release mechanism (the latter point will be discussed in Section 4.6).

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Daget and Vallis (1994), in their study on fat replacement in milk chocolate through
the manipulation of solid fat index and the addition of a bulk filler, also investigated the
temporal effects of such formulation changes. The authors established that although the
fat reduction from 35 to 25% itself had hardly any effect, the solid fat index had a
significant influence on several time-intensity parameters in milk chocolate, with a lower
solid fat index (50%) being associated with a more rapid perception of sweetness, as
well as a higher sweetness intensity compared with a higher solid fat index (70%).
The above examples merely illustrate the importance of monitoring temporal characteristics of flavor perception in the context of fat replacement, but there is an obvious
scope for the time-intensity technique to provide a greater understanding of the relative
changes in flavor balance in relation to flavor release mechanisms.

4.6 FLAVOR RELEASE AND FAT REDUCTION


4.6.1 PRINCIPLES OF FLAVOR RELEASE AND
METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
When a food is placed in the mouth, it is subjected to: a thermal effect as a result of
body temperature impact; a dilution effect as a result of the presence of saliva; and
textural changes in the food matrix as a result of mastication and the presence of protein
and a-amylase in saliva. The perception of flavor is the result of the chemical stimulation
of receptors in both the oral and nasal cavities, and while tastes are perceived on the
tongue (saltiness, sweetness, sourness, bitterness), the trigeminal factors of astringency,
pungency, and cooling are perceived in the soft membranes of the mouth, the nasal cavity,
and the throat, and the volatile components released during mastication diffuse through
to the nasal cavity, toward the olfactory epithelium. It follows, therefore, that though the
nature and amounts of the volatile aroma and nonvolatile taste components present will
directly affect flavor perception, the availability of these compounds to the receptors is
probably even more important.
In physical terms, two major factors determine the rate and extent of flavor release:
first, the partitioning of flavor compounds as affected by the composition of the food;
and second, the resistance to mass transfer (i.e., diffusion and mastication) as affected
by texture (Overbosch et al., 1991; de Roos and Wolswinkel, 1994). The effect of
partitioning in relation to flavor release has been given significant attention over the years
using the headspace analysis technique. However, no attempt has been made to relate
such data to flavor release as measured by sensory techniques. Conversely, few data exist
on the effects of mass transfer on flavor release, and no attempt has been made to relate
such data to headspace analysis.
Another criticism that can be made with regard to most scientific research on flavor
release is that usually very simple model systems have been used, and in some cases,
the levels and/or types of components used were unrealistic or bore little relevance to
foods. In addition, the strong focus on volatiles left the important area of the perception
of taste compounds hardly touched.
On the other hand, research activity directed toward developing instrumental methods
that attempt to mimic flavor release in the mouth or allow particular aspects to be studied
has been quite significant. Table 4.1 lists a number of useful analytical methods in relation
to different stages in the flavor release process (Plug and Haring, 1993). The original
approach of headspace analysis under static conditions gave results that were of limited
value in relation to in-mouth conditions prevailing during consumption. In order to
address this problem, attempts are made to mimic in-mouth conditions (including temperature, shear, air flow, and the presence of saliva) with a view to developing a mouth
analogue. A comprehensive overview of developments in instrumental methods has been

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given by Overbosch et al. (1991). Recent advances in using a direct approach of measuring the release of volatile compounds in exhaled breath using a mass spectrometer as
a detector have been discussed by Reid and Wragg (1995). The authors constructed a
membrane interface to allow direct introduction of volatile compounds into a mass
spectrometer and optimized conditions for in-breath flavor analysis using different mass
spectrometric ionization techniques. Thus, significant progress has been made in the
direct application of mass spectrometry to study flavor release and there is obvious scope
for expanding further the use of this technique to monitor the effects of flavor release
as affected by fat content in food systems.
Table 4.1 Stages in the Flavor-Release Process and
Corresponding Methods of Analysis
Location of process

Process

Analytical method

Product (prior to digestion)


Mouth
Mouth/respiratory tract
Respiratory tract/nasal cavity
Nasal cavity
Mind

Binding of flavor to food ingredients


Liberation of flavors
Flavour absorption by mouth tissue
Transport of flavors to nasal cavity
Interaction with olfactory epithelium
Flavor perception

Headspace analysis
Mouth analogue
None available
In-nose MS-breath analysis
None available
Sensory analysis

From Plug, H. and Haring, P., Trends Food Sci. Technol., 4, 150, 1993. With permission.

The issue of flavor release in the mouth is very complex, and a number of research
groups have tried to address the problem through the development of mathematical
models that could describe the physical and chemical aspects of the release of flavor
volatiles during food consumption (see Overbosch et al., 1991). Undoubtedly, this
approach could have great potential for use in the development of low-fat or fat-free
products, provided that its scope was sufficiently broad to encompass the multiplicity of
issues of importance in fat replacement. Currently, research in this area is being carried
out jointly by the Leatherhead Food Research Association and the Institute of Food
Research, Reading (U.K.) under the U.K. governments LINK scheme, which aims to
address the issue of improving the flavor quality of low-fat foods (both oil-in-water and
water-in-oil food systems).
4.6.2 FLAVOR COMPOUNDS VS. FLAVOR PERCEPTION
Fat not only delivers its own flavor volatiles but also functions as a carrier for other
lipophilic compounds present. These are bound to the fat molecules by weak, reversible
Van der Waals and hydrophobic interactions (Plug and Haring, 1993). It follows, therefore, that in the case of total fat removal, with the flavor cocktail used remaining
unchanged, the changed kinetics of the flavor release mechanisms will cause the perceived flavor of the product to be changed perhaps quite dramatically.
In this context, the effects of pH on flavor compounds need to be borne in mind.
Thus, because of concerns regarding microbiological stability, it is common practice to
make the pH of a food product lower when reducing fat content in order to ensure a
sufficient shelf life. This can have a significant impact on acid-base flavor compounds,
since mostly they exhibit a particular flavor only if in the associated state. Since this
would depend on the pK value of the compound, changes in pH can result in more
molecules in the dissociated state, thus leading to the loss of flavor perceived. According
to Bennett (1992), lowering the pH of a product from 6.5 to 4.2 results in a ten-fold
increase in the associated form of butyric acid which has obvious implications for fat
replacement in dairy products.

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Furthermore, the amount of fat that is removed and the amount of water added to a
food system will affect not only the perceived intensity of both the lipophilic and
hydrophilic flavor compounds present but also the flavor balance. This point is illustrated
in Table 4.2 which compares flavor threshold values of flavor compounds when placed
in a water medium and when placed in an oil medium (Bennett, 1992). Thus, the threshold
value for decanoic acid, for example, will change by 5000% when moving from oil to
water. In short, the need for changes in the composition of the flavor cocktail used when
developing low-fat or fat-free foods is rather apparent.
Table 4.2 Comparison of Flavor Threshold
Values for Fatty Acids in Water and Oil
Threshhold
(ppm)
Fatty acid
2:0
4:0
6:0
8:0
10:0
12:0

(Acetic acid)
(Butyric acid)
(Hexanoic acid)
(Octoanoic acid)
(Decanoic acid)
(Dodecanoic acid)

Water

Oil

54
7
5
6
4

0.6
3
350
200
700

From Bennett, C. J., Cereal Foods World, 37, 429,


1992. With permission.

4.6.3 FLAVOR/FOOD COMPONENT INTERACTIONS


Lipids have a major effect on equilibrium headspace concentrations of flavor volatiles
(Land, 1979), and therefore, if the amount of fat in a product is reduced or removed
from a formulation, it is of interest to know what the interactions between the flavor
compounds and other food components are in order to ascertain the potential implications
of using these components in fat replacement. It should be emphasized that the brief
overview of current knowledge in this field given below is based on studies on simplified
model systems, with the static headspace analysis method being used to evaluate flavor
release, and hence the available data deals only with the partition phenomena. (The issue
of mass transfer is discussed in Section 4.6.5.)
Solms (1986), when reviewing research carried out in this area in the 1970s and
1980s, concluded that proteins had relatively weak lipophilic interactions with flavor
compounds with discreet binding zones, but the binding properties changed with the
degree of protein denaturation, pH, ionic strength, and temperature. Dumont (1987)
investigated flavor-protein interactions under nonequilibrated conditions (as opposed to
equilibrated static systems) for volatile as well as nonvolatile flavor compounds. He
concluded that perceived flavor is lowered through ligand binding to protein, but that
the binding is reversible. Moreover, he postulated that rate of ligand release from protein
was a major contribution to flavor persistence, which indicated the need to study flavorprotein interactions in the time dimension. Overbosch et al. (1991) confirmed those
conclusions and stated that a low level of unspecific hydrophobic reversible binding of
flavor compounds to proteins has a small effect on flavor components in food. However,
the authors indicated that aldehydes and diacetyl show specific irreversible pH-dependent
binding to proteins high in arginine and lysine, which implies that a significant effect
on flavor release would be seen in products containing gelatin. While Bennett (1992) is
in general agreement with Overbosch et al. (1991), he indicated that as a result of
chemical binding between aldehyde- or ketone-based flavor compounds and proteins, a

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product with no flavor impact could result. Plug and Haring (1993) have suggested that
the results of studies on the relationships between the molecular structure of flavor
compounds and their binding to proteins have not always been consistent, probably
because of the conformational differences in the proteins tested.
In the case of starch, Solms (1986) postulated that specific interactions occurred as
a result of compounds entrapped in the helical structures of the gelatanized amylose
fraction of starch, but, in the case of degraded starches, a loss of binding properties
occurs. Overbosch et al. (1991) concluded that no overall insight exists into the mechanism of flavor binding to carbohydrates, and that the effects encountered are mostly
reversible. In contrast, while Bennett (1992) supports the view that flavor compounds
form complexes with amylose, he also indicated that in a system low in fat, it would be
expected that a lipophilic flavor compound would not be able to react with the olfactory
receptors until a breakdown of the helix structure had occurred as a result of the enzymic
activity of the -amylase in the mouth, which would be unlikely to happen before
swallowing.
In the case of polysaccharides, due to their highly polar nature, while interactions
with lipophilic flavor compounds will not occur, there will be interactions with hydrophilic flavor compounds through dipole-dipole and hydrogen bonds (Plug and Haring,
1993). Baines and Morris (1987), in a study of perceptions of flavor and taste in guar
gum solutions, concluded that since, on the one hand, they obtained the same ratings for
flavor and sweetness perception, respectively, and on the other hand, the physiological
mechanisms and receptors involved in the two cases are quite different, direct binding
of flavor or taste molecules to guar gum does not seem likely, especially since the
concentration of guar gum showed no effect (up to approximately 1.7% w/v).
Overall, it can be concluded that our understanding of the interactions between flavor
compounds and food components is still quite limited, and progress in this area will
depend on developments in methodologies used to monitor flavor release.
4.6.4 FLAVOR/FAT REPLACER INTERACTIONS
The interactions between flavor compounds and fat replacers were studied by SchirleKeller et al. (1992) in model systems, each containing a different fat mimetic. The
following fat mimetics were used: Simplesse S-100, Simplesse S-300, N-Oil II, Avicel
RC 591 (microcrystalline cellulose/sodium carboxymethyl cellulose) and Avicel FD
100 (microcrystalline cellulose). All were used at concentrations of 10%, except for
Avicel RC 591, which, due to its high viscosity, was used at 2%. A 10% oil system
was used as a control, and all model systems contained 0.5% of Tween 80, acting as an
emulsifier, and 1% of a flavor cocktail comprising thirteen compounds; all samples were
tempered at 37C for 40 minutes prior to analysis. The relative vapor pressures of each
compound in the aqueous solutions of the fat mimetics and of the controls were calculated
from the headspace concentrations for each compound in relation to a water system
where no interactions were taking place. The results obtained for Simplesse S-300,
Avicel FD 100 and N-Oil II were very similar, showing minimal interactions with flavor
compounds. On the other hand, Simplesse S-100 and Avicel RC 591 showed some
interaction, with the Simplesse S-100 showing especially strong interactions with aldehydes. No effects of increasing sample equilibration temperature were observed up to
70C for Simplesse S-100, thus indicating the very strong nature of the interactions
taking place. The authors noted that the S-100 contained 1.72% of fat, and this may
explain some of the interactions observed for the nonpolar flavor compounds. Contrary
to the supposition of Dumont (1987), no changes in the relative vapor pressure of the
flavor compounds over the nine-day period were observed. Schirle-Keller et al. (1992)
concluded that although considerable change in the level of flavors used are needed when

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moving from a 10% oil-in-water emulsion to a fat-free (or almost fat-free) system
containing fat mimetics, this would be less so when Simplesse S-100 is the fat mimetic
used.
Another study investigated flavor interactions with fat replacers (Simplesse S-100,
Simplesse S-300, Slendid and Stellar), and the effects of flavor/fat interactions in a
system containing 0.5% Tween 80 and fat ranging from 0 to 20% (Schirle-Keller et al.,
1994). This showed that the behavior of flavors was directly related to their oil solubility,
and water soluble compounds (such as acetaldehyde) were largely unaffected by the
presence or absence of oil. For the flavor cocktails used, the protein-based fat replacers
showed more interactions with longer chain aldehydes (which would have higher fat
solubility) than did carbohydrate-based fat replacers. It should be noted that, in this study,
higher levels of Simplesse ingredients were used than in the earlier work, and that the
tempering of the samples was carried out at the higher temperature of 60C. No indication
was given in the paper that the required shearing was employed in the preparation of the
Stellar and Slendid model systems to achieve functionality (as recommended by the
respective ingredient manufacturers). As in the previous paper (Schirle-Keller et al.,
1992), the authors concluded that foods formulated with protein-based fat replacers
should be more characteristic of fat-containing products in terms of flavor profile than
would be the case of those containing other fat replacers; nonetheless, the need for
reformulation would remain.
4.6.5 MASS TRANSFER INHIBITION AND FLAVOR RELEASE
As indicated earlier, while a considerable amount of research has been devoted to partition
phenomena, the issue of resistance to mass transfer as a factor in flavor release has not
received the same level of attention. This is somewhat surprising, bearing in mind that
availability (or accessibility), as a function of time, would be expected to play an
important role in the overall flavor release equation. Considering the latter factor, the
reason that the structure of the food would be expected to have an effect is that it would
influence the breakdown of the matrix during mastication in the mouth. In turn, that
could affect the convective transport of the volatiles to the olfactory epithelium. Although
the importance of this issue is generally acknowledged (Overbosch et al., 1991), a certain
amount of confusion exists which is related, at least partially, to methodological differences.
A detailed discussion is beyond the scope of this chapter, but a few examples can be given.
Numerous earlier studies examined the effects of mass transfer on flavor/taste perception by relating viscosity data to sensory perceptions. Cussler et al. (1979) established
that perceived flavor ratings are proportional to the concentration of the flavor/taste
compound and to the square root of the diffusion coefficient, whereby the latter is related
to viscosity. Further studies by Kokini et al. (1982), using the same penetration model
of mass transfer, showed that increasing tomato solids decreases the rate of transport of
a sweetener (sucrose or fructose) to the surface of the tongue, resulting in a decrease of
sweetness intensity.
The results obtained by de Roos and Wolswinkel (1994) again showed that the higher
viscosity of the liquid phase (1% carboxymethylcellulose solution) not only reduces the
mass transport in the liquid phase, but also that in the gaseous phase. Furthermore, the
authors demonstrated the effect of fat on flavor release in which an oil-in-water emulsion
was formed containing 1% olive oil with carboxymethylcellulose acting as emulsion
stabilizer. As a result, the viscosity of the system increased markedly, and a significantly
higher flavor retention was observed for all flavor compounds investigated in comparison
to that obtained from carboxymethylcellulose solutions without oil. These findings,
therefore, highlight the extensive impact that a small level of oil addition makes on flavor
release characteristics.

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While the studies mentioned above indicate the importance of diffusive mechanisms
on sensory perceptions, Darling et al. (1986) proposed a different concept. On the basis
of their study on flavor release from guar gum and sucrose solutions, as well as the
modeling of those systems, they suggested that, on the one hand, partitioning behavior
(which reflects an equilibrium condition) is unlikely to be obtained during the normal
consumption conditions, and, on the other hand, diffusion processes are too slow to have
any significant effect on in-mouth flavor perception. The authors postulate that it is the
surface regeneration behavior that constitutes a significant physical factor which controls
the availability of flavor for perception. The surface regeneration behavior will be a
function of the rheological properties of the system and for solutions with noninteracting
thickener molecules, the rate of flavor release will decrease with increased concentration
(sucrose 0 to 60%; guar gum 0 to 0.2%). However, for solutions with interacting thickener
molecules (e.g., guar gum at concentrations greater than 0.2%), the surface regeneration
and flavor release increases with increases in the strength of the polymer network.
Within the overall topic of flavor release mechanisms, the issue of comparative release
from oil-in-water and water-in-oil emulsions is worth mentioning. Overbosch et al.
(1991) concluded from their model that the release is independent of emulsion type. In
other words, for the same flavor compound, the same oil and water phase, and the same
volume fraction of oil, flavor release was found to be the same from oil-in-water as from
water-in-oil emulsion. However, the above authors were not able to validate this point
in the experimental work, where significantly greater release was obtained from an oilin-water emulsion. The different emulsifiers used for the two emulsions were considered
to be responsible for the differences encountered, and for slowing down the diffusion of
the flavor compound from water droplets into the gaseous phase. By comparison, Salvador et al. (1994) showed that the release of diacetyl was higher from an oil-in-water
emulsion than from a water-in-oil emulsion (each containing the same oil volume fraction
= 0.5), despite the fact that there were no differences in droplet size distribution, and
that the same emulsifier was used in both emulsion systems in this study (sucrose stearate
at 0.5% w/w). The results obtained led the authors to conclude that this is due to structural
differences affecting mass transfer at the interfaces. It should be added that flavor release
in this study was measured from a static system using headspace gas chromatography,
and no sensory evaluations were carried out.
Contrary to expectations, the results obtained by Barylko-Piekielna et al. (1994) in a
study on perception of intensity of taste stimuli in oil-in-water and water-in-oil emulsions
(again at = 0.5, but with sucrose stearate concentration at 1% w/v) showed no effects
of emulsion type on taste intensity. Moreover, the differences in measured and perceived
viscosity were found not to affect taste intensities studied, i.e., sweetness (sucrose at
concentrations in the range 0.5 to 4.0%), saltiness (sodium chloride at concentrations in
the range 0.25 to 1.0%), and sourness (citric acid at concentrations in the range 0.15 to
1.0%). The authors concluded that, on the one hand, the relatively small differences in
measured viscosity between emulsion types could explain the lack of effect of viscosity
on taste, and, on the other hand, inversion of the water-in-oil emulsion in the mouth (due
to the effects of saliva and sample dilution during the process of mastication) could be
the reason for the lack of differences in taste intensity observed for the two emulsion
systems. Further research is required to confirm this hypothesis, but meanwhile the issue
of the effect of type of emulsion on flavor release remains largely unresolved. However,
while a certain level of phase separation or inversion of the water-in-oil system is a likely
explanation, the extent to which this phenomenon may take place will depend on the
physical properties and concentration of the emulsifier used, so that the answer should
be sought through an examination of the behavior of the emulsifier at the water-oil
interface in the respective types of emulsion.

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A few more general comments on flavor release mechanisms can be made. First, a
comparison of static headspace data to that obtained from sensory studies is likely to
lead to different conclusions since the process of flavor perception in the mouth is very
dynamic. If the flavor is to be extracted into saliva, it would be expected that this would
be more effective from a water-continuous system. The surface regeneration behavior of
a system, pinpointed by Darling et al. (1986), would be expected to have an important
role in flavor perception as volatiles need to be extracted into the air from thin layers
formed in the mouth during the mastication process, and the concentration of the volatile
compounds in these thin layers would determine the rate of release. It is also here that
the emulsifier may have a retarding effect on flavor release. The same applies to taste
perception where availability of the tastants to the receptors is of importance.
From a methodological point of view, it could be argued that the chemical route for
studying flavor release is more precise than sensory methods. However, while the latter
may lack accuracy, and by definition it is a subjective method, it should be borne in
mind that it is difficult to envisage that even future mouth analogues could fully imitate
the dynamic in-mouth reality. In this context, however, training of the panel, understanding of the descriptors used, reproducibility of the results, points of reference, etc., are
of particular significance.
Overall, it seems reasonable to postulate that for any given system the three issues
i.e., partitioning behavior, diffusion behavior, and surface regeneration behavior need
to be carefully reviewed to determine the driving force for in-mouth flavor perception
that is applicable to a particular product type. Moreover, the methodologies used to assess
flavor release need to be carefully analyzed before any extrapolation of the results is
undertaken. A better understanding of product structure, physical and chemical interactions at interfaces, and overall in-mouth changes will help to further our knowledge on
flavor release phenomena in the context of fat reduction in foods.

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Leatherhead Food Res. Assoc. Res. Rep. No. 695, 1992.
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Cussler, E. L., Kokini, J. L., Weinheimer, R. L., and Moskowitz, H. R., Food texture in the mouth, Food
Technol., 33 (10), 89, 1979.
Daget, N. and Joerg, M., Creamy perception II: In model soups, J. Texture Stud., 22, 169, 1991.
Daget, N. M. T. and Vallis, L., Release of flavor from chocolates differing in fat composition and
concentration, in Trends in Flavour Research, Maarse, H. and van der Heij, D. G., Eds., Elsevier
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Daget, N., Joerg, M., and Bourne, M., Creamy perception I: In model dessert creams, J. Texture Stud.,
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Darling, D. F., Williams, D., and Yendle, P., Physico-chemical interactions involved in aroma transport
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de Roos, K. B. and Wolswinkel, K., Non-equilibrium partition model for predicting flavor release in the
mouth, in Trends in Flavour Research, Maarse, H. and van der Heij, D. G., Eds., Elsevier Science
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Dumont, J. P., Flavour-protein interactions: a key to aroma persistence, in Flavour Science and Technology,
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Glicksman, M., Hydrocolloids and the search for the oily grail, Food Technol., 5 (10), 94, 1991.
Iyenger, R. and Gross, A., Fat substitutes, in Biotechnology and Food Ingredients, Goldberg, I. and
Williams, R., Eds., Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1991, 287.
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Jowitt, R., The terminology of food texture, J. Texture Stud., 5, 351, 1974.
Kasapis, S., Morris, E. R., and Norton, I. T., Physical properties of maltodextrin/gelatin systems, in Gums
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Kokini, J. L., Bistany, K., Poole, M., and Stier, E., Use of mass transfer theory to predict viscositysweetness interactions of fructose and sucrose solutions containing tomato solids, J. Texture Stud.,
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Mela, D. J., Sensory assessment of fat content in fluid dairy products, Appetite, 10, 37, 1988.
Mela, D. J., Langley, K. R. and Martin, A., Sensory assessment of fat content: Effect of emulsion and
subject characteristics, Appetite, 22, 67, 1994.
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and Zeigler, G. R., Eds., Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1994, 435.
Muyldermans, G. and Vanhoegaerden, R., Gelatin-maltodextrin interactions and synergies, applications
in 25% low-fat spreads, in Gums and Stabilizers for the Food Industry 6, Phillips, G. O., Williams,
P. A. and Wedlock, D. J., Eds., Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1992, 429.
ODonnell, C. D., Global ingredient trends and advances, Prep. Foods, January, 46, 1994.
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Partel, P., Guerrero, A., Berjano, M., Muoz, J., and Gallegos, C., Flow behaviour and stability of oilin-water emulsions stabilized by a sucrose palmitate, J. Texture Stud., 25(3) 311, 1994.
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Pszczola, D. E., Carbohydrate-based ingredient performs like fat for use in a variety of food applications,
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Richardson, N. J., Booth, D. A., and Stanley, N. L., Effect of homogenization and fat content on oral
perception of low and high viscosity model creams, J. Sensory Stud., 8, 133, 1993.
Salvador, D., Bakker, J., Lanley, K. R., Potjewijd, R., Martin, A., and Elmore S., Flavour release of
diacetyl from water, sunflower oil and emulsions in model systems, Food Qual. Pref., 5, 103, 1994.
Schirle-Keller, J.-P., Chang, H. H., and Reineccius, G. A., Interaction of flavor compounds with Microparticluated proteins, J. Food Sci., 57 (6), 1448, 1992.
Schirle-Keller, J.-P., Reineccius, G. A., and Hatchwell, L. C., Flavour interactions with fat replacers:
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Chapter

Legislative Implications of
Fat Replacement
Jane Smith
CONTENTS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Acceptability of Fat Replacers
5.3 Additives as Fat Replacers
5.4 Other Fat Replacers
5.5 Nutrition Labeling
5.6 Nutrition Claims
References

5.1 INTRODUCTION
With increasing interest in foods that can be used to reduce the total level of fat in the
diet, as recommended by many experts including those who prepared the U.K. governments Health of the Nation White Paper, the use of various ways and means to wholly
or partially replace fat in a range of food products provides one of the major developmental areas for the food industry. The addition of compounds which act directly as fat
replacers, be they acting either as fat mimetics or fat substitutes, have to take into account
existing legislative requirements for the use of such products. In addition, changes are
needed to product labeling in order to provide the necessary information concerning the
composition and properties of the food to consumers so that they may obtain an informative description as to the nature of the product and not be misled in any way as to its
nature, substance, or quality. Manufacturers wishing to use such fat replacers must
therefore be aware not only of legislative developments concerning direct addition of
the compound in which they are interested but also how the food in which the compound
is to be used must be labeled.

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Manufacturers find that the use of nutrition claims often provides a marketing advantage in consumers eyes; developments in nutrition labeling and claims requirements must
therefore be considered. Within Europe, much of the legislation on nutrition labeling
results from developments at European Community (EC) level, with the aim of harmonization in this respect throughout the European Union. The situation on claims is more
variable at present. Provisions in the U.S. are quite different from those in Europe, and
may be different again in other major export markets. In this chapter, the legal aspects of
fat replacement in two principal regions, Europe and the U.S., are described and compared.

5.2 ACCEPTABILITY OF FAT REPLACERS


The most fundamental issue that a manufacturer wishing to use a fat replacer must take
into account is whether or not the particular fat replacer is permitted for food use. The
wide range of potential fat replacers on the market means that legislative controls may
differ, depending on the nature of the component concerned and the food product in
which they are to be used. Account also has to be taken of any existing minimum
compositional requirements for the food in question. Although the current trend in food
legislation is away from so-called vertical or compositional requirements and toward
more informative labeling, there may still be compositional aspects that need to be taken
into account; for example, the recent legislation on the composition and labeling of lowfat spreads at European Community level.
Further criteria that need to be taken into account include the general classification
of fat replacers. Differentiation between those compounds permitted generally as food
ingredients and those classified as food additives is significant here. If the potential fat
replacer is already widely used as a food ingredient, then its use is likely to be generally
acceptable, unless there are any compositional regulations that preclude such use and
provided the compound meets the necessary quality and safety requirements for food
use, such as those laid down under the 1990 Food Safety Act in the U.K. Starches,
including those that have been modified by physical or enzymatic means, are generally
considered as food ingredients and so permitted widely for food use. In contrast, chemically modified starches tend to be classified as additives along with other compounds
of interest, including celluloses, gums, pectin, bulking aids, emulsifiers, and stabilizers.
The future direction of acceptability of these compounds, certainly within the European
Union, is covered by horizontal legislation on use of food additives now in place. When
these compounds are to be used at additive levels in a food the situation is clear-cut; any
maximum limits specified will have to be adhered to for additive purposes. However, if
use is at higher levels than those generally accepted as additive levels, approval may be
required from the regulatory authorities. Where Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) is
the accepted level, this eliminates the problem of exceeding specified limits. The situation
with polydextrose illustrates the different way in which compounds can be regulated, as
illustrated in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1

Current Legislative Status of Polydextrose

Country

Status

Permitted level of use

European Union Directive


United Kingdom
Sweden
U.S.

Additive
Additive
Additive
Additive

Australia
Japan

Additive
Ingredient

Quantum satis (QS)


GMP unless restricted by standard of composition
Maximum limit set by positive list depending on food
GMP in specific foods only including bakery products,
fillings, puddings, candy
Specific limit may be set by food standard
None set

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In certain cases, a manufacturer may wish to use a compound that has not previously
been used as a food component, or which is manufactured by a new or novel process.
In such cases, specific approval for the use of such a compound is usually required; this
can take considerable time. The criteria for the approval of food additives have been
specified by the EC framework additives directive; such criteria may need to be taken
into account.

5.3 ADDITIVES AS FAT REPLACERS


A number of compounds that can be used as fat replacers in foods are classified as
additives and so are controlled by appropriate additives legislation. One of the most
notable developments in food legislation in recent years is progress toward harmonized
additives legislation at European Union level. Certain of the European countries not
currently members of the Union but linked via economic agreement are taking steps to
amend their legislation to bring it into line with Community legislation and this trend is
set to continue. Additives such as gums, other hydrocolloids, bulking aids, emulsifiers,
stabilizers, and celluloses are controlled for food use by Council Directive 95/2/EC on
food additives other than colors or sweeteners. This directive establishes second order
controls for named additives, i.e., not only is a positive list of additives established but
also the foods in which they can be used and maximum permitted levels of use. Once
implemented by the Member States, this aims to ensure that products can be traded
freely throughout the Community in accordance with the Treaty of Rome with respect
to their additives content. This Directive, due to its complexity, was under discussion
for some time before final agreement was reached. It is divided into a number of
sections; those of relevance here relate to additives generally permitted for food use
(except for specified and unprocessed foods) (Appendix I) and other permitted food
additives (Appendix IV).
Appendix I includes compounds such as lecithins, alginates, carrageenan, gums
(including gellan and tara gum), glycerol, pectins, celluloses, various esters, polydextrose,
and specified chemically modified starches. These additives may therefore be used
generally to quantum satis (QS), i.e., no maximum level is specified, but additives must
be used in accordance with good manufacturing practice (GMP) at a level not higher
than that intended to achieve the desired purpose and provided that they do not mislead
the consumer. The use of these compounds as fat replacers would therefore be acceptable,
provided the conditions of quantum satis were met. As all additives having a technological
function in the final food have to be declared on the label by specified category name
where laid down (if appropriate) and/or by specific name, account would have to be
taken as to the function of the additive in the food for labeling purposes. Labeling of
additives in foods is controlled by EC Directive 79/112/EEC; a recent amendment to
this (Commission Directive 93/102/EEC) extends the list of category names to include
bulking agent as well as retaining existing categories such as stabilizer, thickener, emulsifier.
Appendix IV details permitted uses for additives including emulsifiers, karaya gum,
and polyhydric alcohols. For example, sorbitan esters may be used in fat emulsions to
a total maximum of 10 g/kg and karaya gum to the same maximum level in emulsified
sauces. Usage of these additives will therefore be restricted although provision is made
for a review of the Directive 5 years from adoption with a view to modification where
necessary. Manufacturers will meanwhile have to comply with what is already established. One of the problems for those in the food industry responsible for ensuring the
legality of their products is keeping abreast of developments and possible changes to
documents such as this one in order to be fully aware of the impact on their product.

1996 CRC Press LLC

In the U.S. those additives permitted for direct food use are termed direct additives.
The standard of identity for particular food products controls the use of additives in these
products; for so-called nonstandardized foods, the conditions of use for specific additives
states whether the additive in question can be used for foods generally, or whether use
of an additive is restricted to particular foods only. These additives are classified by legal
status and may have permanent food additive status, be prior sanctioned, GRAS (generally recognized as safe), or permitted on an interim basis. For GRAS substances, maximum usage limits may be set or, alternatively, they may be generally recognised as
safe when used in accordance with Good Manufacturing Practice.
To illustrate how these additives are regulated in the U.S., polydextrose (see also
Chapter 11) is permitted to GMP as a bulking agent, formulation aid, humectant, or a
texturizer in specified foods. Guar gum is classified as GRAS, but is only permitted in
foods as authorized and to the maximum limits established. Other gums tend to be
classified in a similar way. Sodium alginate is also GRAS and permitted in specified
foods to the maximum limits established, but is also permitted in foods generally (unless
restricted by a standard of composition) to the maximum specified limit. If usage is
desired at a higher level than that authorized, approval from the FDA is likely to be
required.

5.4 OTHER FAT REPLACERS


Not all fat replacers can be classified as food additives as currently defined by the
Directive 89/107/EEC on food additives (the so-called framework additives directive).
A food additive is defined as a substance not normally consumed as a food in itself and
not normally used as a characteristic ingredient of the food whether or not it has nutritive
value, the intentional addition of which to food for a technological purpose in the
manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packaging, transport, or storage of such
food results, or may be reasonably expected to result, in it or its byproducts becoming
directly or indirectly a component of such foods. Some fat replacers may be based on
food components, for example, proteins (see also Chapter 8); others may be totally new
compounds, for example, some of the synthetic fat substitutes that are currently under
development (see Chapter 13). Regulatory approval for such compounds can be a long,
time-consuming process as well as extremely expensive. Currently in European countries,
the national authorities need to be consulted in order to obtain approval. Such compounds
are generally known as novel ingredients and proposed EC legislation on approval of
such novel ingredients is nearing completion in order to harmonize approval procedures
throughout the Community. It is significant that, when finalized, such legislation will be
in the form of a Regulation as opposed to a Directive, and therefore will be binding on
all the individual Member States from the date of publication; labeling of foods containing these novel ingredients is currently the key issue where agreement has yet to be
reached.
Discussion on this draft has focused on the scope of such a proposal, i.e., exactly
what type of compounds would be covered by it, the procedures to be followed in
evaluating a novel ingredient, and arrangements for labeling such an ingredient in the
final food. It is intended at this stage that novel food additives would not be caught by
the proposal as provision is already made for these under the general additives framework
directive 89/107/EEC. The current draft considers novel food ingredients as those which
have not yet been used for human consumption to a significant degree within the European
Union and which fall under one of the following categories.

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1. Ingredients containing or consisting of genetically modified organisms


2. Ingredients produced from genetically modified organisms, other than those where no
significant change in composition, nutritional value, metabolism, level of undesirable
susbstances, or intended use has resulted when compared to a standard product
3. Food ingredients with a new or intentionally modified primary molecular structure
4. Ingredients consisting of or isolated from microbes, fungi, or algae and single- or
multi-cell proteins derived therefrom
5. Food ingredients to which have been applied a process not currently used in commercial
food production and significant changes in the composition or the structure of the endproduct result, affecting its nutritional value, digestibility, metabolism, or level of
undesirable substances in the food

Under the proposal, in order to be placed on the market, such food ingredients must
be safe for the consumer, when consumed at the intended level of use, must not mislead
the consumer, and must not differ from similar foods or food ingredients that they replace
in the diet in such a way that their normal consumption would be nutritionally disadvantageous for the consumer. Such an aspect is particularly relevent for fat replacers;
not only is it the calorific and textural aspects of fat addition to foods that are being
replaced but also nutritional aspects such as the content of fat-soluble vitamins. Separate
vitaminization may therefore be required; again, this would have to be carried out in
accordance with the legislation of the relevant country. In some cases, the addition of
vitamins renders a food a dietetic product. In the U.K., a Panel on Novel Foods of the
Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy (COMA) has recently produced a report
entitled The Nutritional Assessment of Novel Foods and Processes, which details
general principles and criteria as well as specific nutritional criteria to be used in the
consideration of novel foods and food processes referred to COMA.
Currently in the U.K., it is the Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and Processes
(ACNFP) who review applications for use of novel food ingredients. Specific approval
is given in each case where deemed appropriate, together with any conditions of use.
The Food Advisory Committee (FAC) (a group of experts from the food industry and
related professions who advise the Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food) also
review continuing technological developments within the food industry and advise
accordingly. With novel food additives, existing European Community legislation has to
be taken into account; the U.K. can no longer act unilaterally in terms of acceptability
of specific food additives. With Simplesse, a protein-derived fat mimetic derived from
dairy and egg protein (see Chapter 11), the Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and
Processes considered that Simplesse was unlikely to give rise to any particular safety
concerns and so could be used in foods. So far it has been incorporated mainly into dairy
products; its use is being kept under review, with any possible future regulatory action
depending on how widely it is introduced into food products in this country. A further
committee, the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy (COMA) is also keeping
the uptake of Simplesse by the food industry under review. Two of the issues that the
Food Advisory Committee is considering are the possible overlap between novel foods
and additives and the role of fat replacers generally.
In the U.S., approval has to be given by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
for the use in food with any ingredient that would be classified as a novel ingredient.
Currently there is no specific legislation on novel foods or ingredients in the manner that
is being prepared in Europe. However, the importance of regulatory approval procedures
in the U.S. cannot be underestimated as these often have significant bearing on approvals
elsewhere in the world, as the situation with Simplesse illustrates. Simplesse is classified

1996 CRC Press LLC

as GRAS and may be used in frozen-type dessert products (except to replace the milk
fat required by standards of composition) to good manufacturing practice. Specific
labeling requirements for the ingredient are detailed, including the requirement to declare
the source of the protein and a list of the ingredients of the microparticulated protein
product. It was only following U.S. approval for Simplesse that the European industry
began to take a serious interest in the product (see also Chapter 11).
The current situation is somewhat different when low-calorie fats and synthetic fat
substitutes are considered (see also Chapter 13). Due to their nature, separate approvals
for each compound are required before use in foods would be permitted. Currently,
Caprenin is pending approval from the FDA for direct food use. Caprenin and other
recent developments in the EC-proposed regulation on novel foods and novel food
ingredients were scheduled for discussion at recent meetings of the ACNFP in the U.K.
The other synthetic fat substitute that is most widely known at this stage is olestra and
this is considered generally to be at the stage nearest approval. From a U.K. point of
view, assessment has been ongoing since 1987, when the FAC considered a case of need
for olestra and subsequently consulted the Committee on Toxicity (COT) on its safety
in use. The nutritional implications of olestras use in the diet have also been considered
by COMA; its advice was passed onto the FAC who will be evaluating further data. It
is possible that it may be looked at under additives legislation, which would then involve
consultation and communication with Brussels.

5.5 NUTRITION LABELING


Many food products on the market contain details of nutritional characteristics of the
food in question; it is likely that foods containing fat replacers will carry such information
to emphasize their properties. Nutrition labeling requirements in European Union countries have been harmonized by means of EC Directive 90/496/EEC on nutrition labeling.
All of the Member States have now implemented the appropriate legislation into their
national laws, as the Directive came into force on 1 October 1993; the U.K. introduced
its implementing regulations, the 1994 Food Labeling (Amendment) Regulations, in
March 1994. Full implementation of the Directive took place on March 1, 1995.
The Directive concerns nutrition labeling of foods to be delivered as such to the
ultimate consumer and to those foods destined for mass catering establishments.
Exempted are foods which are not prepacked and which are sold to the ultimate consumer
at a catering establishment. Although the increase in food being consumed from catering
outlets would ideally mean nutrition labeling being given in this case, the problems of
declaring such information have yet to be overcome.
Essentially, nutrition labeling on foods will remain voluntary unless a nutrition claim
is made for that food. As many foods containing fat replacers are likely to make such
claims concerning their low- or reduced-fat content, provisions relating to nutrition
labeling will be applicable to them. If nutrition labeling is given, it must be in the specified
format, namely either energy, protein, carbohydrate, and fat (so-called Group I or Big
Four format) or energy, protein, carbohydrate, sugars, fat, saturates, sodium, and fiber
(so-called Group II format). A number of optional extras including polyunsaturates,
monounsaturates, and cholesterol are listed and may be given. Where a nutrition claim
is made for saturates, then Group II labeling must be given; a claim for any of the
additional extras triggers declaration of these in terms of nutrition labeling. Declaration
is per 100 g or ml of the product, as appropriate, and may be given in addition per serving
or per portion quantified on the label where desired. Energy values to be declared are
calculated using specified conversion factors and the manner in which the information
is to be set out on the label is fully defined.

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In contrast, the U.S. Nutrition Labeling and Education Act amended the Federal Food,
Drug and Cosmetic Act to require the mandatory nutrition labeling of most foods from
May 8, 1994. Nutrition information must be declared on the information panel and must
include information on levels of calories, calories from fat, total fat, saturated fat,
cholesterol, sodium, total carbohydrate, dietary fiber, sugars, protein, vitamins, and
minerals. Information about other components such as polyunsaturates, potassium, soluble and insoluble fiber can be given voluntarily unless a claim is made. Detailed
provisions concerning presentation of information are specified in order to make the
information readily apparent to consumers. Requirements for U.S. nutrition labeling are
therefore significantly different from those required by the EC Directive and need to be
considered separately from European requirements. Table 5.2 illustrates the differences
in format (note that the examples used are not of the same product).
Table 5.2

Examples of Nutrition Labeling in U.K. and U.S.

United Kingdom:

per 100g

Energy

Per serving with specified


complementary food

1495 kJ
350 kcal
9.9 g
73.9 g
9.3 g
1.9 g
0.4
8.4 g
0.6 g

Protein
Carbohydrate
of which sugars
Fat
of which saturates
Fiber
Sodium

930 kJ
220 kcal
8.7 g
39.3 g
10.1 g
2.9 g
1.5 g
3.8 g
0.3 g

United States:
Serving size 3.5 oz
Servings per container about 2.5
Amount per serving:
Calories 310
Calories from fat 80
Total fat
Saturated fat
Cholesterol
Sodium
Total carbohydrate
Dietary fiber
Sugars
Protein
Vitamin A
Calcium
Vitamin C
Iron

9g
5g
40 mg
310 mg
41 g
3g
1g
16 g

% daily value
14%
25%
13%
13%
14%
12%

10%
25%
0
10%

5.6 NUTRITION CLAIMS


Certain Member States in the European Union already have, or would like to have,
national provisions, be they regulations or guidelines, controlling the use of nutrition
claims on food labels, for example low fat, reduced fat, or fat free. The use of such
claims is of particular relevance to those food products containing fat replacers. Development

1996 CRC Press LLC

of harmonized provisions for the use of such claims has been underway for some time,
despite difficulties in agreeing in formats and detail between the various Member States.
It is seen as important and in the interests of consumers that claims relating to foods
which by their nature have special effects, characteristics, or properties linked to their
nutritional value or composition be worded so that they are not misleading or liable to
mislead. Under the latest draft document in circulation, a claim is defined as any reference, message, or interpretation, whatever the means or form of transmission, stating,
implying, or suggesting that a food has particular characteristics, properties, or effects
linked to nature, composition, nutritional value, method of production and processing,
or any other quality. It is possible at this stage that trademarks may also be included,
although this has caused some controversy.
Earlier drafts included specific provisions for claims. For example, a claim for low,
weak, or poor would only be authorized for foods with a reduced fat content of at
least 50% from a standard product, except where specific criteria have been established.
For energy, a requirement for the product to have less than 40 kcal/100 g product is
given; this is in line with existing U.K. legislation under the 1984 Food Labeling
Regulations. For fat, less than 3 g/100 g product was specified. Additional criteria for
saturates and cholesterol were also established.
A reduction of at least 25% from a standard product would be required to use the
term reduced, together with any other specific conditions. For fat, more than 3 g/100 g
product is required and for energy more than 40 kcal/100 g product, in order to differentiate between reduced and low products. Detailed conditions were also given for
saturates and cholesterol.
The term without would be considered acceptable under the draft where the amount
of the element is too small to be of nutritional or physiological significance or to be
reliably quantified by a standard method of analysis, again taking into account any
specific requirements. For fat, such a requirement is that the content must be less than
0.15 g/100 g product; for cholesterol, the stringent requirements specified were less than
5 mg/100 g product, less than 1.5 g saturates/100 g product, and less than 10% of energy
generated by saturates.
Provision was also made under the earlier drafts for use of such a claim as contains
x% less; such a claim could well be relevent to a manufacturer of products containing
fat replacements. Use of the term light in food labeling was also covered; this is
particularly attractive for products that have been produced with a lower energy or fat
content in relation to standard products. Reference was made to the use of this term in
conjunction with specifications already discussed; for example to be described as light
in respect of energy content, a product must comply with provisions stated for reduced
or low energy and to be described as light in respect of other components, appropriate
provisions relating to energy and the particular nutrient in question must be met.
Final agreement on this document had yet to be reached at the time of writing; a
consultation process with interested parties will be carried out before a final draft is
published. It is looking increasingly likely that the more specific criteria will not remain
in future drafts and that the document will be general in nature, although the relevant
detail is of interest from a comparative point of view.
The U.S. FDA has also produced regulations on the use of specific nutrient content
claims on food labels covering both expressed claims (direct statements about the level
or range of nutrients in a food) and implied claims (those suggesting nutrients are
present/absent in a certain amount or those suggesting that, because of their nutrient
content, foods may be useful in being healthy and which are made in conjunction with
an explicit claim or statement, e.g., healthy, contains 3 g of fat). Free and low
claims before the name of the food can only be used for foods that have been specially

1996 CRC Press LLC

processed, altered, reformulated, or formulated to lower or not include a nutrient in the


food. Of particular interest for manufacturers of products containing fat replacers are
reduced and low calorie and fat claims. Reference can be made to low calorie where the
food has a reference amount (which varies depending on the food type) greater than 30 g
or 2 tablespoons and can only provide a maximum of 40 calories per reference amount,
or where the reference amount is 30 g or 2 tablespoons or less and must not provide
more that 40 calories per reference amount and per 50 g. Relative claims for reduced
calorie can be given where at least 25% fewer calories are present. Parallel requirements
are established for low- and reduced-fat claims as above. A fat-free claim can be given
where the food contains less than 0.5 g fat per reference amount and per labeled serving,
and where the food contains no added ingredient that is fat unless indicated below the
ingredients list with an asterisk and to the effect of adds a trivial amount of fat. It can
be seen that these regulations are complex in nature and differ significantly from those
proposed in Europe.
A further development in the U.S. which has impacted significantly on the use of fat
replacers has been the amendment to food standards to prescribe a definition and standard
of identity for foods named by using a nutrient content claim as defined (e.g., fat free,
low calorie, or light) in conjunction with a standardized traditional name (e.g., reducedfat sour cream). The modified product must not be nutritionally inferior to the standardized food and performance characteristics must be similar to the standardised product;
any significant difference that limits the use of the food must be given on the label, e.g.,
not recommended for cooking. At least one of the principal functions of the standardised product must be performed substantially as well by the modified product. Labeling
declarations also require the presence of ingredients not found in the standardized foods
to be stated.
The relevant legislation that those wishing to use fat replacers must take into account
concerns not just acceptability of addition of the compounds but also labeling aspects
in order that the consumer is not misled. Currently some of the appropriate legislation
is still in a state of flux; final adoption of Community legislation on additives other than
colors and sweeteners has helped, and that on novel foods and nutrition claims will
clarify the situation for the food manufacturer. Developments in the U.S. will be closely
watched by the food industry in Europe, particularly in respect to new compound
approvals, further technological developments, and further amendments in labeling legislation. It is essential that the legislation over the next few years is able to keep pace
with the increase in the use of the different types of fat replacers with potential use in
the food industry.

REFERENCES
Commission Directive 93/102/EEC of 16 November 1993 amending Directive 79/112/EEC on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to the labeling presentation and advertising of
foodstuffs for sale to the ultimate consumer. Off. J. Euro. Commun., 36(L291), 14, 1993.
Council Directive of 18 December 1978 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating
to the labeling, presentation and advertising of foodstuffs for sale to the ultimate consumer. Off. J.
Euro. Commun., 22(L33), 1, 1979.
Council Directive of 21 December 1988 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States concerning
food additives authorised for use in foodstuffs intended for human consumption. Off. J. Euro.
Commun., 32(L40), 27, 1989.
Council Directive of 24/9/90 on Nutrition Labeling for Foods. Off. J. Euro. Commun., 33(L276), 40, 1990.
Council Regulation (EC) No 2991/94 of 5 December 1994 laying down standards for spreadable fats
Off. J. Euro. Commun., 37(L316), 2, 1994.

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Department of Health Report on Health and Social Subjects 44 The Nutritional Assessment of Novel
Foods and Processes, HMSO, London, 1993.
Document 6874/94 on Amended Proposal for a European Parliament and Council Regulation (EC) on
novel foods and novel food ingredients, Brussels, May, 1994.
Document SPA/62/REV3. Orig. FR., Consumer Policy Service Unit 4 Foodstuffs Commission of the
European Communities, Brussels, July, 1993.
European Parliament and Council Directive 95/2/EC of 20 February 1995 on food additives other than
colours and sweeteners. Off. J. Euro. Commun., 38(L61), 1, 1995.
Federal Register, 58(3), 2431, 1993.
Food Labeling (Amendment) Regulations 1994, SI 1994 No. 804. HMSO, London.
Food Legislation Topics No. 2 A Guide to U.S. Nutritional Labeling and Claims, Lisa J. Skelton. The
British Food Manufacturing Industries Research Association Leatherhead, 1993.
Food Safety Act 1990 HMSO, London.
Health of the Nation White Paper HMSO, London, 1992.
U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 184.1498.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Part

II

Fat Replacers and


Their Properties

1996 CRC Press LLC

Chapter

6A

Starch-Derived Fat
Mimetics:
Maltodextrins
Sibel Roller
CONTENTS
6A.1
6A.2
6A.3
6A.4
6A.5
6A.6

Introduction and Historical Perspective


Production Processes and Patents
Chemical Composition
Physical and Functional Properties
Interactions with Other Food Ingredients
Applications
6A.6.1 Low-Fat Spreads
6A.6.2 Other Food Applications
6A.7 Nutritional, Toxicological, and Legislative Aspects
6A.8 Future Prospects
References

6A.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE


Starch is one of the most abundant carbohydrates distributed worldwide in green plants,
where it is accumulated as a reserve material in the form of microscopic granules. Starch
has played an important nutritional role in mans diet since the beginnings of agriculture
and, more recently, has become a major industrial raw material used widely in food,
paper, board, textile, and pharmaceutical applications. It has been estimated that by the
year 2000 more than 900 million metric tonnes of starch will be produced worldwide
from cereals alone (Zobel, 1992). With a raw material price that is in the region of tens
of U.S. cents per kg, it is not surprising that ingredient manufacturerers have sought to
upgrade the properties of starch in order to add to its value and to extend its applications.

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Starches from corn, potato, wheat, rice, tapioca (also known as cassava or yucca),
sago palm, barley, sorghum, and other grains and roots serve as raw materials for the
making of hydrolysate products around the world. Most of these hydrolysate products
are in the form of sugar syrups, used in the food industry as sweetening agents. It has
been estimated that about 70% of the world production of corn starch is converted into
glucose-containing sweeteners (Schenk and Hebeda, 1992). However, in this chapter,
only those starches that have been degraded to a very limited extent for the specific
purpose of preparing ingredients useful in fat replacement are discussed.
The term maltodextrin was first used very broadly in the early 1950s to describe
oligosaccharides consisting of -1,4-linked glucose units and including mixtures of
maltose, maltotriose, maltotetraose, maltopentaose, and higher oligosaccharides (Alexander, 1992). By 1957, a narrower definition was published by the American Corn
Industries Research Foundation in which maltodextrin was defined as the product
obtained by the incomplete hydrolysis of cornstarch and containing 13 to 27% reducing
sugars, calculated as anhydrous dextrose and expressed on a total solids basis (Hoover,
1957). In 1983, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued regulations defining
maltodextrins as nonsweet, nutritive saccharide polymers consisting of D-glucose units
linked primarily by a-1,4 bonds with a dextrose equivalent (DE) of less than 20. The
regulations further stipulated that maltodextrins were prepared by partial hydrolysis of
cornstarch using acids and/or enzymes, thereby apparently excluding similar materials
from other starch sources such as potato or tapioca. Currently, the term maltodextrin is
used widely in the general literature to describe enzymically-prepared, partially-hydrolyzed starches with a DE below 20 from any botanical source. In this chapter, discussion
is focused on a specific group of maltodextrins, i.e., the low-DE maltodextrins, as the
DE range of 1 to 10 has been found particularly useful in fat replacement.
Starch hydrolysis product is a term generally used very broadly to describe all
oligosaccharide and monosaccharide mixtures obtained by acid or enzymic degradation
of starch. By this definition, maltodextrins and high-fructose corn syrups are both starch
hydrolysis products. However, in the 1970s a series of papers and patents from the former
East Germany (discussed in more detail below) describing starch hydrolysis products
(SHPs) with DEs of 5 to 8 with unusual functional properties useful in fat replacement
were published (Richter et al., 1976a and b). Since then, the term SHP has also been
used in a narrower sense to describe hydrolysates degraded to a very limited extent or
to a DE below 10. To avoid confusion, the term starch hydrolysis product is used in this
chapter only in its broadest sense.
The first maltodextrin to be commercialized was an acid hydrolyzed dent corn starch
with a DE of 15 produced in 1959 by the American Maize Products Company (Amaizo).
Other companies, including CPC International and the Grain Processing Corporation
(GPC), were also prominent in the early development of maltodextrins. The potential
use of -amylase in the preparation of maltodextrins was investigated in the 1960s by
researchers at CPC International (Alexander, 1992). The early products were marketed
primarily as carriers and bulking agents for use in dry food mixes. It was not until the
mid-1970s that it was first suggested by a group of scientists working at the former East
German Academy of Sciences that low-DE maltodextrins prepared from potato starch
could be used as fat replacers in foods (Richter et al., 1976a and b). The German scientists
have since patented their process (discussed in more detail below) and a factory (VEB
Strkefabrik Kyritz) manufacturing low-DE maltodextrins for low-fat dressings and
ice cream was in operation in East Germany from 1980 until mid-1990 (Schierbaum,
1991). Meanwhile, in the last 10 years, low-DE maltodextrins developed specifically for
fat replacement have been launched by most of the major starch-producing companies,
including, for example, the Paselli range (see Chapter 6B) from potato starch (Avebe)

1996 CRC Press LLC

and Instant N-Oil from tapioca starch (National Starch & Chemical Corporation). Some
examples of commercially available low-DE maltodextrins developed for fat replacement
and a selection of their properties are given in Table 6A.1.
Fat replacers in which maltodextrins form the bulk of the material but which contain
smaller amounts of other carbohydrates have also been introduced to the market recently.
For example, Oatrim was developed at the Northern Regional Research Center in the
U.S. by George E. Inglett and is produced from oat bran or oat flour using -amylase.
This material differs from other maltodextrins in that it contains up to 5.5% soluble glucan. Oatrim is now licensed by Con-Agra Speciality Grain Products and is marketed
by A.E. Staley as TrimChoice (Duxbury, 1993; Inglett, 1990 and 1991; Inglett and
Grisamore, 1991). For a complete list of starch-derived fat replacers and their manufacturers/developers, refer to the Appendix.

6A.2 PRODUCTION PROCESSES AND PATENTS


Older methods of generating maltodextrins have relied heavily on heat and acid treatment
of starch. While effective, these methods sometimes produced undesirable by-products
and off-flavors under harsh reaction conditions. Enzymes catalyze reactions under mild
conditions of temperature and pH and have the added advantage of specificity of reaction
with fewer by-products (Amylase Research Society of Japan, 1988). The current low
cost of starch-degrading enzymes means that enzyme recovery from the reaction mix is
unnecessary and their breakdown products (amino acids and peptides) are generally
equivalent to other proteinaceous material found in starch and therefore require no special
refining steps (Alexander, 1992).
The industrial manufacture of maltodextrins is today based on variations of two
principal processes. In the first, single-stage process, gelatinization (solubilization) of
the starch (usually at a concentration of around 30%) is combined with acid or enzyme
treatment at high temperatures (e.g., >105C for conversion of dent cornstarch using
acid, and 82 to 105C for conversion of waxy cornstarch using thermostable bacterial
enzymes). Maltodextrins such as Lo-Dex from Amaizo and Star Dri from A.E. Staley
are produced using single-stage processing. In the second, dual-stage process, the starch
is first gelatinized at 105C in the presence of either acid or enzyme to a DE of <3,
followed by jet-cooking at 110 to 180C to ensure the complete gelatinization of the
starch. Subsequently, the starch slurry is cooled to 82 to 105C and treated with a fresh
batch of bacterial -amylase until the desired degree of hydrolysis is reached. The
Maltrin range of products manufactured by GPC and the Paselli range from Avebe (see
Chapter 6B) are made using the dual-stage process. In both the single-stage and dualstage processes, the hydrolysis reaction is terminated by either pH adjustment or heat
deactivation, followed by refining and spray-drying (Alexander, 1992).
Numerous patents covering the processing of maltodextrins were published in the
1970s and 1980s by many of the major starch-processing companies. Careful reading of
even a small selection of these reveals remarkable similarities between them: they are
essentially further refinements and improvements of the same process, described in
general terms in the paragraph above. For example, Lenchin and colleagues of the
National Starch & Chemical Corporation (1985) published a patent covering the hydrolysis of tapioca, corn, and potato starches, using an -amylase of unspecified source, to
a DE of less than 5. Tapioca starch was identified as the preferred starch source. Temperature control during heating of the starch dispersion was reported in the patent to be
unnecessary. It is possible that the industrial process used by National Starch & Chemical
to make their product N-Oil is based on this patented invention. Another example is
given by the patent assigned to GPC in which potato, sorghum, tapioca, wheat, rice, and

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Table 6A.1 Examples of Starch-Derived Fat Replacers (DE Below 10) and Some of Their Properties
Parent starch

Product name

Manufacturer

Corn/Maize

Amalean I and II
(instant)
Lycadex 200
Maltrin M040, M050,
M100, M150, M180,
M520
OptaGrade
Stellar
Lean Bind, N-Lite L
Lo-Dex
N-Lite B
N-Lite D, N-Lite LP
Sta-Slim 171
C*Pur 01906
Lycadex 100
Paselli SA2
(see also Chapter 6B)
Sta-Slim 142 and 143
N-Oil, Instant N-Oil
Slenderlean
Sta-Slim 150-151

American Maize Products Co.

Waxy Maize

Potato

Tapioca

Roquette Frres
Grain Processing Corp.

Opta Food Ingredients


A.E. Staley Manufacturing Co.
National Starch & Chemical Co.
American Maize Products Co.
National Starch & Chemical Co.
National Starch & Chemical Co.
A.E. Staley Manufacturing Co.
Cerestar (Gruppo Feruzzi)
Roquette Frres
Avebe
A.E. Staley Manufacturing Co.
National Starch & Chemical Co.
National Starch & Chemical Co.
A.E. Staley Manufacturing Co.

Method of production

MW (kDa)

Label designation

600

Food starch modified

Enzymic
Dual-stage enzymic and/or acid

20

Maltodextrin
Maltodextrin

Acid and shear

<20

Single-stage acid/enzyme

Enzymic
Enzymic
Dual-stage enzymic

150 and 180;


50180 and 6
12,000
120; 290; 177
1,000

Cornstarch
Food starch modified
Food starch modified
Maltodextrin
Food-grade maltodextrin
Modified food starch
Food starch modified
Maltodextrin
Maltodextrin
Food starch modified
Tapioca dextrin/maltodextrin
Food starch modified
Food starch modified

Compiled from Braudo et al., 1979; Haenel and Schierbaum, 1980; Harris and Day, 1993; Lucca and Tepper, 1994; Roller and Dea, 1995; Setzer and Racette, 1992;
Yackel and Cox, 1991; manufacturers literature.

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sago are used as botanical sources of the starch, with corn identified as the preferred
source (Morehouse and Sander, 1987). However, it is notable that the GPC patent is said
to have been withdrawn recently (Harkema, 1994).
In 1976, Richter and his colleagues in the former East Germany patented a process
that was different from the common industrial processes in that it was based on enzymic
treatment of starch that had not been fully gelatinized. This approach was reported to
give low-DE maltodextrins with unique properties particularly suited to fat replacement
(Richter et al., 1976a and b). According to Richters patent, root and bulb starches,
particularly potato starch, were dispersed at concentrations between 10 and 30% with
bacterial -amylase and heated to a temperature that was 1 to 4C below the temperature
at which the swelling of the starch granules commenced (i.e., the gelatinization temperature, which is in the region of 58 to 65C for potato starch). The mixture was held at
a temperature of 55 to 60C for 5 to 30 minutes or until the DE reached a value between
5 and 8. The enzyme was inactivated by raising the temperature of the mix to 90 to
100C, followed by spray-drying.
Although nearly all industrial processes for the preparation of maltodextrins destined
for fat replacement rely on the use of the enzyme -amylase from various (mainly
microbial) sources, more recently other enzymes have also been suggested as alternative
biocatalysts for achieving desirable changes in the structure and function of starch. For
example, pullulanases and isoamylases both cleave the -1,6-linkages at the branch points
of amylopectin, converting it into a mixture of amylose molecules with -1,4 linkages
only. Both enzymes have become readily available in large quantities at a low cost only
relatively recently. Waxy maize starch debranched using isoamylase has been shown to
form pastes with a greasy feel similar to that of fats (Swinton et al., 1990). A series
of patents has also been published recently by researchers from the National Starch &
Chemical Company (Chiu, 1990; Chiu and Henley, 1994; Chiu and Zallie, 1989; Zallie
and Chiu, 1990) describing the use of debranching enzymes to prepare ingredients
suitable for fat replacement as well as other food applications (see Section 6A.6. on
specific applications). At the time of writing, however, it was not known whether
debranching enzymes were actually being used in commercial processes.

6A.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION


The gross chemical composition of maltodextrins is related to the botanical source from
which they are derived and can, in general, be divided into two broad groups: root starches
and cereal starches. The composition of root starches makes them particularly attractive
as raw materials for the preparation of maltodextrins for many food applications, including fat replacement. For example, potato and tapioca starches have a low lipid content
(0.05 to 0.1 mg/g) compared to cereal starches (0.6 to 0.8 and 0.8 to 0.9 mg/g for corn
and wheat starches, respectively). Lipids can be responsible for the presence of offflavors, high turbidity, higher pasting temperatures, and lower viscosity of starch. Similarly, potato and tapioca starches contain less protein (0.06 to 0.1 mg/g) than cereal
starches (0.35 and 0.4 mg/g for corn and wheat starches, respectively). Proteins may lead
to mealy flavors and a tendency to foam. Finally, potato and tapioca starches contain
amylose molecules with longer chains (DP 3,000) than those found in corn and wheat
starches (DP 800) and these are thought to retrograde less readily thereby reducing the
tendency to cause turbidity and an undesirable texture (BeMiller, 1993; Swinkels, 1985;
Whistler et al., 1984). However, whether a starch comes from a tuber or cereal source
is not necessarily predictive of all aspects of compositon. For example, some starches,
such as potato (tuber) and wheat (cereal) contain more bound phosphate ester groups
(0.08 and 0.06% phosphorus, respectively) than other starches from various sources and

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these cause a lower pasting temperature, higher viscosity, and improved clarity (BeMiller,
1993; Swinkels, 1985; Whistler et al., 1984). All of these gross compositional characteristics may influence the processing tolerance and ultimately the texture and flavor of
foods containing starch-derived fat replacers.
All starches are polymers of a-linked anhydroglucopyranose units. Native starches
are composed of amylose, a linear polymer of primarily alpha-1,4 linkages, and amylopectin, also a linear polymer of alpha-1,4 linked units but with about 5% of the bonds
in the form of alpha-1,6 branch points. In general, native starches contain amylose and
amylopectin in an approximate ratio of 25:75 although speciality starches such as waxy
maize starch (99% amylopectin) and amylomaize (50 to 70% amylose) are available
(BeMiller, 1993; Zobel, 1992). Unlike highly hydrolyzed products such as high-fructose
corn syrup, which have very similar chemical, physical, and organoleptic properties
regardless of botanical source, maltodextrins have subtly different properties that are
related to their botanical source as well as to the processing method used for their
manufacture. Both amylose and amylopectin play imporant roles in determining the
functional properties of starch and consequently of the maltodextrins derived from them.
The most commonly reported chemical property of maltodextrins is the dextrose
equivalent (DE). This is essentially an empirical and somewhat crude measurement of
the amount of reducing sugar present, expressed on a dry weight basis, and is a reflection
of the extent of starch hydrolysis. In general, as the DE increases, so does the presence
of free glucose and oligosaccharides with degrees of polymerization (DP) below 8. Thus,
the average molecular weight of the glucose polymers in the maltodextrin decreases as
the DE increases (Alexander, 1992). Maltodextrins are frequently complex mixtures of
molecular species ranging from glucose to long polymeric (linear and branched) chains
so that samples with the same DE prepared by different manufacturers can have different
physical and functional properties.
Manufacturers of fat replacers derived from starch frequently make claims of superior
fat-mimetic performance in their product literature. Yet, the hard experimental evidence
(relating superior functionality in real food systems to a unique chemical structure, for
example) is often lacking. Consequently, the food product developer could be forgiven
for thinking that all commercial maltodextrins currently on the market have more-or-less
the same chemical composition and consequently have very similar fat-mimetic properties that are unlikely to be improved by further research and development. However,
emerging experimental evidence (discussed in more detail in Section 6A.4) suggests that
subtle functional differences between low-DE maltodextrins from different manufacturers
do exist. These functional differences could be explained and further exploited in the
search for improved fat replacers by subtle differences in fine chemical structure. Thus,
the size, shape and degree of branching of the molecules present in maltodextrins may
have more importance in determining the fat-mimetic properties of maltodextrins than
has been recognized so far.
Reports of molecular weight determinations of maltodextrins have been somewhat
contradictory, probably due to methodological differences as well as to analytical difficulties caused by the tendency of short chains of amylose to retrograde and precipitate
out of solution. Amylose and amylopectin in native starches have been reported to have
molecular weights of approximately 160 to 2,600 kDa and 50,000 to 400,000 kDa,
respectively (BeMiller, 1993). By comparison, Richter and Schierbaums group reported
an average molecular weight for low-DE potato maltodextrins prepared using their
patented process of around 395 kDa with three principal fractions occurring at 578, 80,
and 16 kDa (Braudo et al., 1979). However, only a year later, the same group reported
that the molecular weight of low-DE potato maltodextrins was, on average, about 1,000
kDa for about 75% of the product, down to 180 to 360 kDa (molecular weight of glucose

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and maltose) for about 2.5% of the product, with the remaining 22.5% of the product
having an unspecified molecular weight (Haenel and Schierbaum, 1980). Using a similar
method for preparing low-DE maltodextrins, Anger and colleagues (1981) have reported
a broad molecular weight profile (150 to 500 kDa) for a low-DE corn maltodextrin with
the larger molecular weight fraction comprising only 25% of the product. By contrast,
Bulpin et al. (1984) reported the presence of a high molecular weight fraction (>10 kDa)
and a low molecular weight fraction (<10 kDa) in roughly equal proportions in samples
of low-DE potato maltodextrins obtained from East Germany. The high molecular weight
fraction formed thermoreversible gels and consisted of branched molecules derived from
amylopectin. The authors concluded that maltodextrin gels were composed of a network
of high molecular weight branched molecules stabilized by interactions with short linear
chains and that this fine structure was obtained by the preferential action of -amylase
on the amorphous region of the starch granule, leading to extensive hydrolysis of amylose
but only a partial hydrolysis of amylopectin. It is possible that this preferential action
of the enzyme was brought about by the specific processing method for preparing
maltodextrins developed by Richter and Schierbaum which, unlike most commercial
processes, did not involve complete gelatinization of the starch.
The reported molecular weights of some commercial maltodextrins available today
are shown in Table 6A.1. The significance of molecular weights (or, more precisely, of
molecular weight profiles as indicators of fine structure) of maltodextrins has not been
fully appreciated to date. For example, Harris and Day (1993) have reported average
molecular weights determined by gel permeation chromatography of 180 kDa, 177 kDa,
and <20 kDa for commercial fat replacers derived from potato maltodextrin (not named),
tapioca maltodextrin (not named), and cornstarch (Stellar from A.E. Staley), respectively. Although the average molecular weight reported for Stellar was nearly an order
of magnitude lower than that found for the potato- and tapioca-derived fat replacers, the
authors stated that this difference was not of major importance in determining the fatreplacement properties of Stellar but rather, attributed the functional properties entirely
to the microparticulate structure of the creme (these are discussed in more detail in
Section 6A.4).
More recently, qualitative high precision size exclusion chromatography (HPSEC)
of potato maltodextrins prepared without complete gelatinization of the starch prior to
enzymic treatment showed a much greater presence of high molecular weight oligomers
than in a commercial potato maltodextrin with a similar DE (Roller and Swinton, 1990;
Roller et al., 1990). The authors suggested that the difference in the molecular weight
profile (i.e., the difference in oligomeric fine structure) of the maltodextrins may have
accounted for the difference in performance as fat replacers in low-fat salad dressings
(described in more detail in Section 6A.6).
The concept of exercising control over the choice of substrate, enzyme, and processing
conditions in order to produce a low-DE maltodextrin with a specific structure and
superior fat-mimetic properties was further exploited in a recent patent application by
Roller and Dea (1995). In this invention, wheat- and potato- derived low-DE maltodextrins were prepared using porcine pancreatic -amylase at temperatures below those
required to achieve gelatinization of the starch. The new maltodextrins were only partly
soluble and the molecular weight profiles of their water-soluble fractions were substantially different from those of the fully-soluble potato maltodextrin Paselli SA2 or of the
low-DE potato maltodextrin produced by the Richter method (1976a and b). Both the
potato and the wheat maltodextrins prepared by Roller and Dea (1995) showed a distinct
peak at a molecular weight of around 12 to 20 kDa with oligomers of molecular weight
over 20 kDa present in much greater quantities than the oligomers below 12 kDa. By
contrast, the potato maltodextrin Paselli SA2 consisted of two main molecular weight

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fractions: the larger fraction was very broadly distributed from around 50 to 180 kDa
and the smaller fraction constituted a much sharper peak at around 6 kDa. The low-DE
potato maltodextrin prepared using Richters method was different again, and showed a
very broad distribution with no sharp peaks in the molecular weight range from about
150 to 12 kDa; in addition, there was also a much higher proportion of lower molecular
weight material (<5 kDa) than in the other maltodextrins studied (Roller and Dea, 1995).
Again, the differences in fine structure were attributed by the authors to improved
performance of the new maltodextrins in low-fat salad dressings (discussed in more detail
in Section 6A.4 and 6A.6).
It is clearly evident from the studies discussed above that the determination of average
molecular weights for maltodextrins may be meaningless in the context of fat replacement. Rather, a molecular weight profile (giving size and amount of each molecular
species whenever possible) may provide more useful data that could, in the future, be
correlated with functional (fat-mimetic) properties.

6A.4 PHYSICAL AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES


The chemical properties of starches hydrolyzed to a range of DEs from 0 to 100 are
reflected in their physical properties: as the DE increases, so does browning reaction,
freezing point depression, hygroscopicity, sweetness, solubility, and osmolality, while
viscosity, cohesiveness, film-forming ability, and the ability to prevent large crystal
formation all decrease. The broad range of physical properties available have made it
possible to use starch hydrolysates in numerous food applications well before the advent
of fat replacement. However, within the narrow DE limits of 0 to 20, the differences in
the above-mentioned physical properties of maltodextrins are comparatively small. In
this respect, maltodextrins are relatively inert materials and as such have been used as
nonsweet flavor carriers, bulking agents, and spray-drying aids without risk of undesirable
side reactions (Alexander, 1992).
The more subtle differences in the fine chemical structure between maltodextrins is
reflected in small but important differences in physical properties. The molecular associations involved in gelation and other physical phenomena associated with maltodextrins
have been studied extensively on a fundamental level using techniques such as differential
scanning calorimetry, mechanical spectroscopy, small-angle and wide-angle X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, electron spin resonance, and NMR spectroscopy (Kasapis et al., 1993a; Levine and Slade, 1986; Reuther et al., 1983 and 1984;
Schierbaum et al., 1990). For example, Kasapis and colleagues compared the gelation
behavior of the low-DE potato maltodextrins Paselli SA2 (DE 2) and Paselli SA6 (DE
6) over a range of temperatures and concentrations, using both visual and mechanical
spectroscopic techniques to determine the time required for the formation of self-supporting networks (gels). The results showed that at equivalent temperatures and concentrations, SA2 gelled between 20 and 60 times faster than SA6. Furthermore, whereas
the concentration-dependent gelling properties of SA2 could be predicted from the
cascade theory for normal polymer networks, the gelling pattern of SA6 suggested a
different mechanism, such as the agglomeration of short, aggregated helices (Kasapis
et al., 1993a). However, extensive efforts to relate these data (usually obtained in model
systems) directly to sensory (textural and flavor) performance of the maltodextrins as fat
replacers in complex food systems have generally not been made (with a few notable
exceptions, discussed in more detail below).
A wide range of commercial maltodextrins, some of which have been developed with
specific low-fat food applications in mind (e.g., for baked products), are available (see
Appendix). However, much of the literature on the functional properties of starch-derived

1996 CRC Press LLC

fat replacers (whether in model systems or in foods) is produced by the manufacturers


themselves and the data are very rarely in a form that allows direct comparison between
different brands. The difficulty of making a rational choice of a fat-replacing maltodextrin
on the basis of reported physical properties is illustrated in the following paragraphs.
Native starch granules vary in size from 0.5 to 175 m in diameter and occur in
shapes ranging from spheres, ellipsoids, polygons, platelets, and irregular tubules (Zobel,
1992). The granules are partially crystalline which accounts for their insolubility in water.
It has been suggested that spheroidal native starches with granule diameters similar to
those of lipid micelles (0.1 to 3 m) might have potential for use as fat replacers without
further processing (Glicksman, 1991; Lucca and Tepper, 1994; Setzer and Racette, 1992).
Although native starches from some cereals and grass seeds have granule shapes and
diameters that fit this criterion, the lack of availability of the raw materials in volumes
sufficient to satisfy the fat-replacer market makes their use economically unattractive.
Nevertheless, the concept of mimicking the particle size of fat has been used recently
in the development of a commercial process by A.E. Staley based on a combination of
acid hydrolysis and shear. In this process, insoluble cornstarch in water is treated to give
a firm, deformable creme known as Stellar (Harris and Day, 1993). The fat-like
properties of Stellar have been ascribed to the particle gel structure of the creme,
shown by transmission electron microscopy to consist of loosely aggregated submicron
size particles. The particle gel character was maintained with multiple heating/cooling
cycles within the temperature range 0 to 60C although heating the creme to temperatures
greater than 108C solubilized the starch and reduced the functional properties of the
fat replacer. However, as discussed in Chapters 1 and 4, it is debatable whether particle
size alone can justifiably be used as the sole criterion of suitability for fat replacement.
Most of the commercial maltodextrins available for fat replacement have lost the
granular structure of the native material and are fully soluble in water. However, the lowDE potato maltodextrins prepared by Richters group have been reported to be only
partly soluble (Schierbaum et al., 1977) due to the presence of particles varying in size
from 30 to 110 m, an aspect which would have rendered them gritty to the palate. It
has been suggested by Schierbaum that the low-DE potato maltodextrins could be made
to dissolve in cold water by high-shear homogenization or by heating to 75 to 80C
(Schierbaum et al., 1977). By contrast, the potato and wheat maltodextrins reported by
Roller and Dea (1995) have been characterized by the presence of partially gelatinized starch
granules exhibiting birefringence under crossed-polarized light, as well as having other
characteristic parameters such as a unique molecular weight profile (see Section 6A.3).
It has been proposed by many researchers in the field that the key physical characteristic associated with maltodextrins useful in fat replacement is their ability to form
soft, spreadable, thermoreversible gels with melt-in-the-mouth properties that give a fatlike mouthfeel to food products (Richter et al., 1976a and b). This property was originally
thought to be unique to maltodextrins from root starches. Richter and his colleagues have
stipulated that potato starch was the preferred source of maltodextrins for thermoreversible gels while cereal starches constituted less suitable raw materials. Yet, in 1981 a
patent from the East German Academy of Sciences, published by a group of researchers
different from that of Richter and Schierbaum, reported a process for the preparation of
a starch-derived fat replacer from maize starch (Anger et al., 1981). The temperature
regime included two stages: first, the native starch slurry was heated slowly to 50 to
60C and held at this temperature (well below the gelatinization temperature for maize)
for 3 to 30 min; second, the temperature was increased in steps of 1 to 5C to 62 to
70C and held from 10 to 120 min. All the other processing steps were similar to Richters
patents on potato starch (1976a and b). The products obtained had a DE of 4 to 8 and
reportedly formed thermoreversible gels (Anger et al., 1981; Schierbaum, 1991).

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In a patent assigned to National Starch & Chemical Co., maltodextrins with DE<5
derived from tapioca starch were also reported to form thermoreversible gels with gel
strengths of 65 to 930 g at 25 to 35% solids measured using a Stevens Texture Analyser
(Lenchin et al., 1985). Yet, in the same patent, there is a statement in the summary of
the invention claiming that the modified starches covered by the patent (from tapioca,
corn, and potato) do not form gels but can nevertheless be used as fat replacers in products
such as ice cream and spreads. Furthermore, the tapioca-derived, enzymically prepared,
Instant N-Oil from National Starch & Chemical has been on the market as a fat replacer
for a number of years, as has the corn-derived Maltrin MO40 sold by GPC. Finally,
the work of Roller and Dea (1995) suggests that gel strengths of more than 25 g/mm at
a concentration of 20% and measured using a Stevens Texture Analyzer (hemispheric
probe diameter 13 mm) may be undesirable for fat replacement purposes. Therefore, it
is not entirely clear from the literature whether the ability to form thermoreversible gels
is an absolute requirement for successful fat replacement using maltodextrins.
In the last 10 years, a veritable armory of experimental techniques for rheological
analysis has become available and these have been used to characterize the physical
properties of foods and food ingredients, including fats and fat replacers (Chapter 9;
Clark, 1987; Prentice, 1992). As an example, the heterogeneous, submicron, particle
network of A.E. Staleys Stellar (acid- and shear-modified cornstarch) has been sho wn
to have thixotropic rheological properties similar to those of hydrogenated vegetable
shortening when tested in a model system using a Bohlin Model VOR rheometer (Harris
and Day, 1993). The G values for shortening and the Stellar creme (25% solids)
dropped off dramatically with increasing strain at relatively lo w strain values, displaying
short textures, whereas polymer gels prepared from either a 20% traditional starch
thickener (brand not specified) and a 1.25% xanthan gum solution showed no drop in
G values at low strain values consistent with a long texture (Harris and Day, 1993).
The work of Kasapis et al. (1993a) on low-DE potato maltodextrins described above
provides another example of recent advances made using rheological techniques. Rheological comparisons in real food systems, e.g., low-fat spreads, in which a multitude of
ingredients can be expected to play a role, have also been carried out and some of these
are described in more detail in Section 6A.6.
As might be expected, maltodextrins share some of the undesirable physical properties
associated with native starches. For example, the tendency of amylopectin to retrograde
very slowly is manifested in low-fat food products containing starch-derived fat replacers
by giving rise to such phenomena as set-back in low-fat spoonable salad dressings stored
for long periods of time (Biliaderis, 1992; Biliaderis and Zawistowski, 1990). Similarly,
low-DE maltodextrins can suffer from variable freeze-thaw stability and unreliable heatand acid-stability. Finally, many low-DE maltodextrins, unless specifically treated, can
impart an undesirable, starchy, off-flavor to delicate foods if used at high concentrations.

6A.5 INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER FOOD INGREDIENTS


Currently, there is no single fat replacer that contributes all of the functional and sensory
qualities of fat to all reduced-fat food products. In other words, there is no magic bullet
in fat replacement nor is it likely that one will be found in the future. This applies to
low-DE maltodextrins as much as to any other fat replacer. The problem is further
compounded by the fact that most studies of fat replacer functionality are carried out on
a single ingredient at a time in an effort to develop systems for predictive formulation.
Unfortunately, as pointed out by Lillford and Norton (1994), such tests on separate
ingredients cannot usually be combined linearly to predict product performance. Nevertheless, recent attempts have been made to elucidate some of the possible ingredient

1996 CRC Press LLC

interactions that can be expected in model systems and in complex foods in an effort to
optimize ingredient performance. Protein/maltodextrin interactions are but one such
example of important interactions occurring in foods in which fat has been replaced by
low-DE maltodextrins.
Kasapis and colleagues have studied the effect of thermodynamic incompatibility in
mixed solutions of gelatin and low-DE potato maltodextrins, two ingredients commonly
used in the manufacture of low-fat spreads, in order to attain an in-depth understanding
of the role that these ingredients play in the process of phase inversion and solvent
partition between polymeric phases (Kasapis et al., 1993a, b, c, and d). Using visual
observation and optical techniques and a temperature (45C) at which the individual
polymers were stable as disordered coils over long periods of time, it was shown that
conformational ordering (and consequent precipitation) of maltodextrins derived from
potato starch can be accelerated by the presence of gelatin in the same solution phase.
The amount of maltodextrin precipitated was proportional to the square of its initial
concentration and to the first power of gelatin concentration, indicating that gelatin was
driving the self-association and aggregation of maltodextrins when both polymers were
present in a single liquid phase. Furthermore, proton NMR showed that the precipitated
maltodextrin was higher in molecular weight and in the degree of branching than the
material remaining in solution (Kasapis et al., 1993b). In a subsequent paper, the behavior
of the same polymers at lower temperatures (5C) was examined using differential
scanning calorimetry, mechanical spectroscopy, and light microscopy (Kasapis et al.,
1993c). The results indicated that there was no direct coupling between gelatin and
maltodextrin in mixed gels and that phase inversion from a gelatin-continuous network
with maltodextrin inclusions to a maltodextrin-continuous network with gelatin as the
dispersed phase occurred over a very narrow range of composition. Finally, Kasapis and
colleagues also compared the experimental storage moduli (G ) for mixed gel systems
with those of the constituent polymers in isolation using the Takayanagi et al. (1963)
blending laws and obtained quantitative data on the distribution of solvent between the
two phases for more than 30 gelatin/maltodextrin combinations (Kasapis et al., 1993d).
The fundamental background information obtained in these studies allowed Gupta and
Kasapis (1995) to pinpoint the brittle and elastic character of maltodextrins and proteins,
respectively, and to develop a low-fat spread formulation in which a relatively soft, milk
protein-continuous matrix provided the solid-like structure whereas the stronger maltodextrin filler introduced micro-heterogeneities to encourage plastic failure (described in
more detail in Section 6A.6).
Many of the more recently introduced commercial fat replacers are based on the
combined properties of two or more macromolecule components, one of which is frequently a low-DE maltodextrin. For example, Rice Trin 3 Complete (Zumbro, Inc.)
contains an enzymically hydrolyzed rice maltodextrin and 10% rice protein present in 1
to 5 m particles, thereby combining the benefits of a gelling starch with those of a
microparticulated protein (Setzer and Racette, 1992). Another example is Slimgel, a
blend of gelatin and galactomannan, described in more detail in Chapter 12; indeed,
Slimgel is an example of a proprietary blend in which the concept of thermodynamic
incompatibility has been exploited in a way that is similar to the work of Kasapis on
maltodextrin/caseinate systems in low-fat spreads (see Section 6A.6). However, as our understanding of the action and interaction of hydrocolloids in foods improves with time, recourse
to proprietary blends designed specifically for fat replacement may not be necessary.
As with native starches, low-DE maltodextrins can interact with a variety of other
food ingredients such as flavors, emulsifiers, sweeteners, etc. (Godshall and Solms, 1992).
Interactions between maltodextrins and lipid-based materials are discussed in more detail
in Chapter 6B.

1996 CRC Press LLC

6A.6 APPLICATIONS
6A.6.1 LOW-FAT SPREADS
In the first wave of reduced-fat product development in the West, the so-called halvarines were developed in which the fat content of butter and margarine was reduced by
half from the traditional 80% to about 40%, to allow for the now widely available and
popular low-fat spreads. In most of these low-fat spreads, gelatin was, and still is, used
in the aqueous phase. As consumer pressure for light products grew, manufacturers
continued to strive to reduce the fat content of spreads even further, giving the so-called
quarterines (20% fat) and even fat-free (actually 3% fat) versions of the product. However,
at levels of 3 to 5% fat, the spreads were water-continuous and proteins like gelatin
tended to produce an undesirable, gel-like structure. Alternative proteins (e.g., caseinates)
were introduced and major reformulations of ingredients and concepts were necessary
to achieve satisfactory products. Indeed, it can be said that to date, very few no-fat spreads
of acceptable quality have reached and stayed on the market. In this respect, the very
recent work of Kasapis and his colleagues at Cranfield University in the U.K. has been
instrumental in demonstrating how dramatic quality improvements could be made by
exploiting the interaction of maltodextrins with proteins (see Section 6A.5) within spreadable products and this work is discussed in more detail below.
One of the first requirements for a successful low-fat spread or soft cheese product
is that it should have the spreadable properties of the full-fat product. Kasapis used
compression analysis, a known rheological technique (Prentice, 1992), to characterize
and compare existing full-fat and low-fat spreads on the market by creating a series of
comparative force-deformation profiles for each product. In this type of analysis, a
constant stress is applied to a sample and the generated strain is recorded until a certain
predetermined deformation is reached (usually between 70 and 90% of the original
height).
As illustrated in Figure 6A.1b, spreadable butter (Anchor) was shown to display a
characteristic stress-strain profile: a smooth shoulder was followed by a shallow dip
which was in turn followed by a gradual but steady rise in the curve. The curve obtained
was quantified by the force at the point of failure (maximum stress, m) and at the
maximum depth of the dip (plastic stress, p). A p to m ratio between 0.95 and 1.00
was typical of the spreadable butter Anchor (Chronakis and Kasapis, 1995 and 1996;
Gupta and Kasapis, 1995; Kasapis et al., 1996). Similar ratios (0.95 to 1.00) were
obtained for the full-fat soft cheese Philadelphia (a water continuous emulsion), ordinary
butter, and Flora margarine (Gupta and Kasapis, 1995) although the absolute stress values
differed, as illustrated in Figure 6A.1b for Anchor spreadable butter (left hand y-axis
scale from 0 to 30 kPa) and Flora margarine (right hand y-axis scale from 0 to 10kPa).
By contrast, four commercial low-fat spreads failed to demonstrate the same stress-strain
profiles. St. Ivels Gold (a halvarine spread) and Gold Lowest (25% fat, containing at
least 6% protein and 4% starch in the aqueous phase) showed a sharp breaking pattern
and had sp to sm ratios of about 0.82, revealing a gel-like character (Figure 6A.1a). In
water-continuous spreads such as Unilevers Promise containing a gelatin-maltodextrin
aqueous phase and believed to have been produced according to the patented method of
Cain et al. (1989), fracture occurred (Figure 6A.1a). In the curves obtained for Gold,
Gold Lowest, and Promise, no near-horizontal region of plastic flow was observed;
instead, there was an inflection point where the stress went through a minimum value,
followed by a sharp increase in the curve. In Safeways Very Low Fat Spread, the elastic
mechanics of a gelatin network were avoided by replacing gelatin with the microparticulated protein Simplesse (for more detail on this fat replacer, see Chapter 8). However,
the outcome was a sticky product reminiscent of a thick Greek yogurt with no apparent

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Figure 6A.1 Force-deformation profiles for: (a) St. Ivels Gold Low Fat Spread (40% fat), St. Ivels Gold Lowest Fat Spread (25% fat, 6% protein, 4% starch),
Unilevers Promise (3% fat and containing gelatin and starch, believed to be manufactured according to the method of Cain et al., 1989) and Safeways Very
Low Fat Spread (3% fat and containing the microparticulated protein Simplesse). (b) Anchor spreadable butter (80% fat), Flora margarine (80% fat) and the
water-continuous experimental spreads prepared according to the method of Gupta and Kasapis (1995) and containing 4.8% fat, 2.3% caseinate, 11.5%
Cerestars maltodextrin C*Pur 01906 and 5% inulin (Product A) and 4.5% fat, 4.7% caseinate and 15.9% Cerestars potato maltodextrin C*Pur 01906 (Product
B). Cylindrical disks of 26 mm length and diameter were compressed at 0.8 mm/s at 5C. Note that the arrow below each product name indicates the location
(left or right) of the appropriate y-axis. (Compiled from Chronakis, I. S. and Kasapis, S. 1995 and 1996; Gupta, B. B. and Kasapis, S., 1995; Kasapis, S.
et al., 1996, with permission from S. Kasapis.)

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yield points on the curve during a compression cycle (Figure 6A.1a, note the difference
in scales of the y-axis). Tescos Very Low Fat Spread (5% fat) and Sainsburys Sunflower
Lowest (5% fat) gave similar results (Gupta and Kasapis, 1995).
Having demonstrated instrumentally and quantitatively what consumers already
knew that none of the existing, very-low-fat spreads on the market resembled their
full-fat counterparts Kasapis and his colleagues went on to develop mixed biopolymer
systems (including maltodextrins) for very low-fat spreads based on the concept of phase
inversion due to thermodynamic incompatibility (see Section 6A.5 and Chapters 7C, 9,
and 12). New, phase-separated, low-fat spread formulations were developed in which a
relatively soft, milk protein-continuous matrix provided the solid-like structure whereas
the stronger maltodextrin filler introduced micro-heterogeneities to encourage plastic
failure. Phase separation could be further manipulated by adjusting the concentration of
the hydrocolloids and of salt. Figure 6A.1b shows the stress-strain curves for such spreads
made with 4.8% fat, 2.3% caseinate, 11.5% maltodextrin (Cerestars C*Pur 01906) and
5% inulin (product A) and 4.5% fat, 4.7% caseinate, and 15.9% maltodextrin (C*Pur
01906, product B). In both cases, the rheology of Flora margarine was successfully
matched with low-fat, water-continuous products. Furthermore, the shapes of the experimental stress/strain curves and the p/m ratios matched those of Anchor spreadable
butter, although, of course, the absolute stress values differed. The absolute stress required
to deform the low-fat products was smaller than that required for butter indicating good
spreading characteristics at refrigerator temperatures. Therefore, the authors postulated
that the maintenance of the p/m ratio (measured at 5C) between the values of 0.95 and
1.00 was the most important rheological characteristic when attempting to match lowfat spreadable products with full-fat ones (Chronakis and Kasapis, 1995; Gupta and
Kasapis, 1995).
As has been pointed out in Chapters 1 and 4, fat plays a multitude of roles in foods
and texture determination is but one of them. Low-fat products which have been successfully matched with full-fat versions in terms of texture may fail to meet quality
expectations in terms of flavor release. Therefore, in the above work by Kasapis and
colleagues, sensory profiling of the newly developed low-fat spreads was undertaken to
check melting temperatures determined instrumentally and to assess overall sensory
acceptability. Of the maltodextrins studied (C*Pur 01906, Paselli SA2, N-Lite D, NOil, Maltrin M040, Lycadex 100, Optagrade and TrimChoice), Cerestars C*Pur 01906
and Opta Food Ingredients Optagrade were considered preferable because at least 50%
of the gel structure present at 5C was lost at oral temperatures (around 37C) and this
characteristic was associated with better flavor release. Other maltodextrins tended to
retain their gel structure in the mouth and were considered less suitable (Gupta and
Kasapis, 1995). Dynamic mechanical measurements on the concentration dependence of
the storage modulus (G ) and the melting profiles of the above maltodextrin gels in
combination with sensory analysis of water-continuous spreads showed the potato maltodextrin Cerestar C*01906 to be the most efficient structuring agent with the best
organoleptic performance. This appeared to be linked to a low minimum gelling concentration (about 12%) compared to that of the other maltodextrins which gelled at
concentrations of over 18%. Therefore, it was possible to produce spreads using lower
concentrations of C*Pur 01906 than the other maltodextrins thereby avoiding the unpleasant starchy oral perception associated with high levels of maltodextrins in foods. The
spreads also contained minor amounts of nongelling hydrocolloids, such as xanthan gum,
locust bean gum, modified starch, or soluble vegetable fiber such as inulin. It was
recommended that no nonaggregate forming gelling agents such as gelatin should be
present in the spreads to avoid a gel-like structure (Gupta and Kasapis, 1995).

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6A.6.2 OTHER FOOD APPLICATIONS


One of the most common applications for maltodextrins as fat mimetics is in pourable
and spoonable low-fat salad dressings. In reformulating these types of products, special
attention needs to be paid to developing new flavor systems, combating increased translucency and avoiding excessive setback during storage due to starch retrogradation.
Another common application for maltodextrins as fat replacers is in soups, sauces, and
gravies. In addition to mimicking the creamy mouthfeel of fat in these products, the
maltodextrin of choice needs to be resistant to heat and to freeze-thaw cycling (if destined
for a frozen food product). In dry mix applications, ability to hydrate quickly and retain its
properties with minimal stirring and after heating is important (Yackel and Cox, 1992).
Specific formulations for a low-fat salad dressing and a butter sauce are given in Chapter 6B.
Low-fat frozen desserts such as sorbets and ice milk have been available for years
but they have always lacked the creamy character of full-fat ice cream. Reduced-fat
versions of ice cream have often suffered from a lack of richness, body, character, flavor,
and mouthfeel. Although development of ice crystals upon heat shock and increased
hardness in the presence of fat mimetics can be a problem (Yackel and Cox, 1992),
incorporation of maltodextrins into frozen desserts to impart a creamy mouthfeel has
met with some success. Maltodextrins have also been recommended for use as fat
replacers in meat products such as frankfurters and hamburgers, certain baked products,
cheese spreads, microwaveable cheese sauces, sour cream, dairy-style creamed fillings,
toppings, and puddings (Anon., 1990; Egbert et al., 1991; Yackel and Cox, 1992). Specific
formulations for a low-fat frozen dessert and a cheesecake are given in Chapter 6B.
Food applications recommended in the early patents by Richter et al. (1976a and b)
were low-fat mayonnaise (17% fat), chocolate mass (4% fat), spreads (32% fat), a spice
mix, and an instant dessert powder. Corn-derived maltodextrins with DEs from 4 to 8
were recommended for low-fat mayonnaise, sausages, confectionery creams, and ice
cream (Anger et al., 1981). Potato maltodextrins prepared by the Richter method were
used in the late 1980s in commercial reduced-fat ice cream and in low-fat salad dressings
containing 26% fat and 16% low-DE maltodextrin. The dressings had a cuttable rather
than a spoonable consistency and suffered from a starchy aftertaste. Although popular
in East Germany (Schierbaum, 1991), it is unlikely that the dressings would have been
well-received by the pan-European or American consumer.
In a recent study using a low-DE potato maltodextrin prepared without full gelatinization of the starch and a commercial potato maltodextrin with the same approximate
DE, informal sensory assessment demonstrated that the experimental maltodextrin
afforded thicker and less sharp spoonable dressings (15% oil) than the commercial
product used at the same concentration; the improved performance was ascribed by the
authors to the more optimal fine structure of the new maltodextrin (Roller et al., 1990).
In the same study, fat reductions from 32 to 12.2% in British breakfast sausages containing 2.5% potato maltodextrin were also reported; in sensory tests, the low-fat sausages
were preferred in terms of flavor and texture to commercially available low-fat sausages
while cooking performance showed reduced weight losses. More recently, it has been
shown that dressings containing no added oil but prepared with a wheat maltodextrin
matched the rheological and sensory profile of dressings containing 32% oil more closely
than similarly prepared dressings containing a potato maltodextrin obtained from Schierbaums group in Germany or the commercial tapioca-derived Instant N-Oil obtained
from National Starch & Chemical Co. (Roller and Dea, 1995). Again, the authors have
suggested that the difference in the molecular weight profile (oligomeric fine structure)
of the maltodextrins together with the presence of partially gelatinized starch granules
accounted for the difference in performance as fat replacers.

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More recently, a study comparing the sensory and physical performance of Avebes
potato maltodextrin Paselli SA2 and National Starch & Chemical Co. tapioca maltodextrin N-Oil in a reduced-calorie frozen dessert was reported (Specter and Setzer, 1994).
The effect of an artificial sweetener/bulking agent combination (Nutrasweets polydextrose-aspartame) was also examined in this study. The basic formulation consisted of
cream (37% fat), nonfat dry milk, sucrose, and water to give final concentrations of 12%
milk fat, 10% nonfat milk, and 16% sucrose (total solids content was 38%). A total of
21 formula variations were prepared including those in which the fat content was 100,
66, 33 and 0% of the 12% milk fat in the control recipe. The removed fat was replaced
by one part Paselli SA2 or N-Oil and three parts water. On sensory assessment following
0 and 140 d of storage, none of the high-fat or low-fat products were judged to be
different in terms of gumminess or coldness. No significant differences in terms of any
other sensory parameters were observed between the full-fat frozen dessert and the
desserts prepared with Paselli SA2 and a fat level of 66 and 33% of the control. Desserts
prepared with Paselli SA2 at a level of 0% fat and all the low-fat desserts prepared with
N-Oil (66, 33 and 0% of the control milk fat) differed from the control in at least one
or more sensory parameters other than gumminess or coldness. Desserts prepared with
N-Oil were perceived as more chalky than those prepared with Paselli SA2. The results
also suggested that the polydextrose/aspartame mix may have compensated not only for
the functional properties of sucrose but also for those of the milk fat (for a detailed
description of polydextrose, see Chapter 11). Physical measurements such as viscosity,
melting rate, and resistance to deformation did not correlate highly with sensory properties.
In another study, 182 consumers were asked to compare the organoleptic properties of
strawberry-flavored yogurt containing either no supplements or supplemented with milk fat
or one of five fat replacers (Pfizers Litesse [see Chapter 11], National Starch & Chemical
Co. tapioca maltodextrin N-Oil, Avebes potato maltodextrin Paselli SA2, and Roquette
Frress maltodextrins Lycadex 100 and 200) using a 9-point hedonic scale (Barrantes
et al., 1993). The yogurts were prepared using reconstituted skim milk powder (14% total
solids) and 1% sugar. The experimental yogurt batches were fortified with 1.5% anhydrous
milk fat or one of the above-mentioned fat replacers. The starter culture was added at
16g/100 l and the processed strawberry fruit was added at a level of 15%. Overall sensory
scores showed that all the yogurts were liked by the majority of consumers. The authors
concluded that all the fat replacers tested were suitable for the manufacture of acceptable
reduced-fat yogurt. However, given that the control yogurts containing no added fat and
those containing added fat (1.5%) were judged equally acceptable and the difference between
the fat content of the yogurts was so small, it is debatable whether any conclusions can be
drawn from this study about the comparative merits of the five fat replacers.
When incorporated in low-fat ice cream at a level of 1%, debranched waxy maize
starch has been shown to impart a creamy texture and improved flavor (Swinton et al.,
1990). In addition, debranched waxy maize starch showed some promise as a potential
fat replacer in both pork pie filling and crust (Swinton et al., 1990). Other workers in
the field have also noted that enzymically debranched maize starches had a fat-like texture
useful in fat replacement (Chiu, 1990), as well as having other physical properties of
interest, such as low hot viscosity, high gel strengths, and emulsification ability. The
latter properties would render the debranched starches suitable for food applications such
as jelly gum confectionery, caseinate replacement in imitation cheese, stable cloud
formation in beverages, and general thickening and bonding (Chiu and Zallie, 1989;
Zallie and Chiu, 1990). More recently, it has also been suggested that debranched starches
could be used as opacifiers in low-fat foods (Chiu and Henley, 1994). It is not known
whether some of the commercial maltodextrins available on the market today have been
produced using debranching enzymes.

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6A.7 NUTRITIONAL, TOXICOLOGICAL, AND LEGISLATIVE ASPECTS


Maltodextrins are metabolized similarly to native starch; consequently, they have no
toxicological implications and may be used by diabetics. On a weight for weight basis,
maltodextrins provide 4 kcal/g. However, in fat replacement applications, maltodextrins
are typically used as gels or pastes with a water:maltodextrin ratio of around 3:1, thereby
reducing the calorie content further to around 1 kcal/g. Using rats as experimental
subjects, Harris (1994) concluded that the inclusion of low-fat foods containing a commercial potato maltodextrin (Avebes Paselli SA2) as fat replacer was an effective way
of reducing overall fat intake although total energy intake was not affected. For a more
detailed discussion of this study, see Chapter 2.
The U.S. FDA has recognized the use of maltodextrins in foods under the Code of
Federal Regulations Title 21 (21 CFR 184.4444). Most commercial fat replacers derived
from starch carry label designations of either modified starch or maltodextrin
(Table 6A.1). For example, A.E. Staley Manufacturing Co.s Stellar (from corn), StaSlim 142 and 143 (from potato), Sta-Slim 150 and 151 (from tapioca), and StaSlim 171 (from waxy maize) are labeled as food starch modified. On the other
hand, Avebes Paselli SA2 (from potato) can be labeled as maltodextrin, as discussed
in Chapter 6B.

6A.8 FUTURE PROSPECTS


In recent years, there has been a general trend in the food industry to replace chemical
methods of processing with those relying increasingly on enzymic treatment. This trend
has been fueled by increasing consumer demand for more natural methods of processing that have a less damaging impact on the environment and has been underpinned by
the increased availability of highly specific enzymes at a very low cost. For the ingredient
manufacturer, perhaps the most attractive aspect of enzymic preparation of maltodextrins
is the potential to tailor the structure of starch for specific applications. Although acid
conversion of starch leads to remarkably reproducible saccharide compositions for any
given degree of hydrolysis, it is precisely this reproducibility and the random action of
acid that limits the usefulness of the method. With the range of specific enzymes,
substrates, and processing control measures now available, it should be possible to select
an optimized processing mix to obtain a specific molecular structure with targeted
physical properties for use in specific fat replacement applications. Starches from genetically engineered plants with properties different from their native counterparts may also
provide promising new industrial materials, including fat mimetics. Thus, although
starch-derived fat replacers may not be suitable for every food application, their relatively
low cost, wide availability, conventional storage and handling procedures, together with
the potential for further refinement of structure and function, will ensure their continued
use in the food industry.
Finally, given a thorough knowledge and understanding of the action and interaction
of food ingredients, it is possible that the food technologist of the future will use a
systems approach based on a combination of two or more fat replacers and/or other food
ingredients, coupled with formulation and processing changes, to develop high quality
low-fat products that consumers will accept. This approach, although by no means an
easy option, is also advocated in Chapter 1 and is gradually being accepted by the food
industry. However, since our knowledge and understanding of ingredient interactions in
foods is as yet incomplete, the full benefits of this approach may only be realized once
additional scientific data become available.

1996 CRC Press LLC

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Setzer, C.S. and Racette, W.L., Macromolecule replacers in food products, Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr.
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Specter, S.E. and Setzer, C.S., Sensory and physical properties of a reduced-calorie frozen dessert system
made with milk fat and sucrose substitutes, J. Dairy Sci., 77 (3), 708, 1994.
Swinkels, J.J.M., Sources of starch, its chemistry and physics, in Starch Conversion Technology, van
Beynum, G.M.A. and Roels, J.A., Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1985, 15.
Swinton, S.J., Skinner, J.M., Roller, S., Hart, R.J., and Dea, I.C.M., The enzymic improvement of starch
functionality, in, Proc. Conf. Food Ingredients Eur., Expoconsult Publishers, Maarssen, Netherlands,
1990, 53.
Takayanagi, M., Harima, H., and Iwatay, Y., Visco-elastic behaviour of polymer blends and its comparison
with model experiments, Mem. Fac. Eng. Kyusha Univ., 23, 1, 1963.
Whistler, R.L., BeMiller, J.N., and Paschall, E.F., Eds., Starch Chem. Technol., Academic Press, Orlando,
FL, 2nd ed., 1984.
Yackel, W.C. and Cox, C.L., Application of starch-based fat replacers, Food Technol., 46(6), 146, 1992.
Zallie, J.P. and Chiu, C.-W., Imitation cheeses containing enzymatically debranched starches in lieu of
caseinates, U.S. Patent 4,937,091, 1990.
Zobel, H.F., Starch: Sources, production and properties, in Starch Hydrolysis Products, Schenk, F.W. and
Hebeda, R.E., Eds., VCH Publishers, New York, 1992, 23.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Chapter

6B

Starch-Derived Fat
Mimetics from Potato
Jaap Harkema
CONTENTS
6B.1
6B.2
6B.3
6B.4
6B.5
6B.6

Introduction and Historical Perspective


Production Process and Patent Status
Chemical Composition
Physical and Functional Properties
Interactions with Other Food Ingredients
Applications
6B.6.1 Powdered and Liquid Foods
6B.6.2 Frozen Desserts
6B.6.3 Spoonable Products
6B.6.4 Spreadable Products
6B.6.5 Baked Goods
6B.7 Nutritional And Toxicological Aspects
6B.8 Legislative And Labeling Status
References

6B.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE


Maltodextrins are hydrolyzed starch products obtained by the enzymatic conversion of
starch. The degree of hydrolysis, expressed in dextrose equivalents (DE) determines to
a large extent the characteristics of the product. In this part of the chapter, low-DE (DE
< 5) maltodextrins prepared from potato starch and used as fat mimetics are described.
Low-DE maltodextrins based on potato starch, as all maltodextrins, are cold soluble and
have low viscosity in solution, but at high concentrations (> 20% w/w) they are unstable
and form gels. These gels have a plastic, spreadable, shortening-like texture, which makes
them suitable for use as fat mimetics. These gel forming properties have been claimed

1996 CRC Press LLC

to be unique for maltodextrins based on potato starch (Richter et al., 1976). For a more
detailed discussion of the literature on the physical properties of a wide range of maltodextrins used in fat replacement, refer to Chapter 6A.
The chemical composition of potato starch with its low lipid and protein content
makes it particularly attractive as a raw material for the preparation of bland maltodextrins
for many food applications, including fat replacement. In addition, potato starch contains
amylose molecules with longer chains (DP 3,000) than those found in corn and wheat
starches (DP 800) and these are thought to retrograde less readily, thereby reducing the
tendency to cause turbidity and an undesirable texture (Swinkels, 1985).
Maltodextrins have been available to the food technologist as filling and bulking
agents for many decades. The products are easily digestible, easy to blend with other
dry ingredients, easy to dissolve, and have low viscosity in solution. When consumer
concern with regard to the effect of too much fat in the diet on health started growing
in the mid-1980s, maltodextrins, and more particularly low-DE maltodextrins, were
rediscovered because of their excellent ability to mimic the functional properties of
fat and oil. Furthermore, one part of a low-DE maltodextrin and three parts of water can
often replace four parts of fat or oil. This can reduce the calories originally provided by
fat to as little as 11%. However, it must be noted that in very few cases can all of the
fat or oil in a formulation be substituted by low-DE maltodextrins without changing the
texture and flavor characteristics of the food substantially. In many such cases, combinations with other functional ingredients (e.g., thickeners, emulsifiers) are required.
One of the first low-DE maltodextrins to be launched on the market in the mid-1980s
specifically for fat replacement has been Avebes Paselli SA2 derived from potato starch,
followed in 1994 by Paselli Excel, a premium quality, flavor-free fat replacer developed
specifically for delicately flavored foods. Meanwhile, other companies, such as Cerestar
(Gruppo Feruzzi) and Roquette Frres are also marketing low-DE potato maltodextrins
known as C*Pur 01906 and Lycadex 100, respectively, for fat replacement applications.

6B.2 PRODUCTION PROCESS AND PATENT STATUS


The production process for low-DE potato maltodextrins is relatively simple: a concentrated starch slurry is solubilized by jetcooking, the starch solution is enzymatically
converted until the desired degree of hydrolysis (DE) is achieved, the enzyme is inactivated by either heat or a reduction in pH, and the product is spray-dried. A generalized
scheme for maltodextrin production has been described in more detail in Chapter 6A.
Although there are several process patents in the field associated with specific types of
hydrolyzed starches with specific functionalities, the process of enzymic conversion of
starch has been known for many years as part of glucose syrup production. Commercially
available potato maltodextrins such as Paselli SA2 and Paselli Excel from Avebe have
been produced using this generalized production method except that Paselli Excel has
been subjected to additional purifying steps to remove all traces of off-flavors.

6B.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION


Since starch is a polymer of branched and linear chains of glucose molecules, most
maltodextrins are composed of similar building blocks. In addition to consisting largely
of higher saccharides (997 mg/g), a potato maltodextrin with a DE of 2 to 3 usually also
contains very small amounts of degradation products including glucose (<1 mg/g), maltose (1 to 2 mg/g) and maltotriose (2 mg/g). A typical example of a commercially
available potato maltodextrin with this composition is Avebes Paselli SA2, available,
like all other commercial maltodextrins, as an off-white powder. Paselli Excel has the

1996 CRC Press LLC

same chemical composition and properties as Paselli SA2, but is entirely flavor-free. The
composition of Cerestars potato-derived C*Pur 01906 is similar with a DE of 3 and a
carbohydrate composition of 1% glucose, 2% of maltose and maltotriose each, and 95%
higher saccharides. Specifications for another potato product, Lycadex 100 from
Roquette Frres, state that this enzymically hydrolyzed maltodextrin has a maximum DE
of 5 and a carbohydrate composition of 0.5% glucose, 0.5% maltose, and 99% higher
polysaccharides.

6B.4 PHYSICAL AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES


Low-DE maltodextrins derived from potato starch are free-flowing white powders with
a bland flavor and generally have a bulk density of around 300 to 450 kg per m3. They
are easily blended with the other dry ingredients. Maltodextrins are easy to dissolve in
cold water, are clear in solution and provide, even at very high concentration, low
viscosity. The viscosity depends however, on the degree of hydrolysis (DE). Low-DE
maltodextrins have higher viscosity than their higher-DE counterparts as shown in
Figure 6B.1.

Figure 6B.1 Effect of DE on the viscosity of three maltodextrin solutions at 40% dissolved
solids with increasing temperature. Data were obtained using a Brookfield Viscometer. (From
Avebe Company Brochure, Veendam, The Netherlands, 1993. With permission.)

As correct preparation of a maltodextrin gel is of some importance in achieving


optimal functional performance, the detailed method is described here. For a 25% potato
maltodextrin gel, 375 g of cold tap water is placed into a 600 ml glass beaker. The beaker
is placed under a mixer with a propeller-type stirrer (e.g., Janke and Kunkel). The mixer
is started on medium to high speed (approximately 1500 rpm) and 125 g of maltodextrin
is added slowly by sprinkling it into the vortex, until a smooth, lump-free, opaque solution
of low viscosity is obtained. The opacity is caused by small air bubbles. If available, the

1996 CRC Press LLC

solution can be deaerated by placing it into an ultrasonic waterbath to give a clear solution
with a layer of foam on top. Ultrasonication is a good way of ensuring that the maltodextrin has been fully dissolved. However, deaeration is not necessary for good gel
formation as the air bubbles do not affect gel strength. After covering and refrigerating
overnight, a white, smooth, and spreadable gel ready for further processing is obtained.
Maltodextrin gels derived from potato starch have plastic, fat-like characteristics. The
texture is short, spreadable, and nonelastic in nature and the gels are thermoreversible,
which means that they melt upon heating and reset to a comparable gel strength when
cooled down again. The gels are also shear-thinning and reform when shearing is stopped.
Maltodextrin gels are pH-stable, retaining the same gel strength in the pH range 3 to 7.
Gel strengths increase with higher concentrations, as shown in Figure 6B.2. The hydration
temperature is also of interest; when the product is dissolved in hot water, the gel is
stronger, as shown in Figure 6B.3. However, if higher water temperatures are used, more
vigourous homogenization might be required as lumps may appear more quickly in hot
than in cold water.

Figure 6B.2 Effect of maltodextrin concentration on the gel strength (g/mm) of a low-DE potato
maltodextrin gel. Data were obtained using a Stevens Texture Analyzer. (From Avebe Company
Brochure, Veendam, The Netherlands, 1993. With permission.)

Low-DE maltodextrins can be used directly as powders or in the form of pre-prepared


gels, depending on the processing conditions and the desired characteristics of the final
product. In either case, low-DE maltodextrins enhance creaminess, provide body, and
give a fatty mouthcoating to the food product in which they are used. Examples of
applications where low-DE maltodextrins exhibit these functionalities particularly well
are cream soups and sauces, frozen desserts, and bakery fillings. Maltodextrins also often
contribute to a fat-like (short, spreadable, or spoonable) texture, when the concentration in
the available water in the formulation is sufficiently high for gel formation to take place.
This property is particularly useful in products such as cheesecake or low-fat spreads.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Figure 6B.3 Effect of hydration temperature on gel strength (g/mm) of a low-DE potato maltodextrin. Data were obtained using a Stevens Texture Analyzer. (From Avebe Company Brochure, Veendam, The Netherlands, 1993. With permission.)

6B.5 INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER FOOD INGREDIENTS


Interactions between native starches and lipids in food products are also manifested in
products containing potato maltodextrins and lipids. Trials using a model system with
combinations of Avebes potato-derived Paselli SA2 and different emulsifiers have shown
that the presence of certain emulsifiers increased the rate of gel formation (Table 6B.1),
gave better control of the final gel strength, and modified the final gel textures. The
model results were confirmed in a study of chocolate layer cakes in which the shortening
was replaced by a combination of a low-DE potato maltodextrin and emulsifiers (Sobczynska and Setzer, 1991). The best results were obtained using sucrose-ester- or
monoglyceride gels in combination with low-DE potato maltodextrin added in the dry
form. The exact mechanism of the interaction is unknown, but it is believed that helical
inclusion complexing occurs between linear fractions of Paselli SA2 and the fatty acid
chains of the emulsifiers.
Another ingredient interaction of importance in food products is the effect of maltodextrins on the viscosity of native starch. As shown in the Brabender viscograph in
Figure 6B.4, the peak viscosity of a native potato starch solution decreases somewhat in
the presence of free glucose; however, in the presence of maltodextrins, the effect is
much more pronounced. Furthermore, the lower the DE of the maltodextrin, the larger
the effect (Figure 6B.4). It is believed that the sugars in the maltodextrin compete with
the starch for the available water thereby inhibiting the swelling of the native starch
granules. In this way, the native starch starts behaving like a chemically crossbonded
starch; the swelling is delayed and the viscosity peak disappears. This means that the
addition of maltodextrin could be used in some applications to stabilize the viscosity of
native potato starch.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Table 6B.1 Effect of Emulsifiers on the Rate of Gelation of a Low-DE


Potato Maltodextrin, Paselli SA2, Using Stevens Texture Analyzer Readings
Ingredients

Gel strength at 1 h
(g/mm)

Gel strength at 24 h
(g/mm)

No addition
+ SSL 3%
+ SE 3%
+ GMS 3%

Liquid
147
108
20

79
221
207
89

Note: SSL = Sodium Stearoyl Lactylate (Admul SSL-2004, Quest); SE = Sucrose Ester
(S-1670, Mitsubishi-Kasei); GMS = Glycerol mono-stearate (Myverol 18-06, Kodak
Eastman).

Figure 6B.4 Effect of free glucose (dextrose) and two maltodextrins (DE 20 and DE 2-3) on
Brabender viscosity of native potato starch. (From Avebe Company Brochure, Veendam, The
Netherlands, 1993. With permission.)

1996 CRC Press LLC

6B.6 APPLICATIONS
In the following section, the use of low-DE maltodextrins in a range of specific food
product sectors is discussed and illustrated using formulations containing some of the
commercially available maltodextrins, including Paselli SA2 (Avebe), Paselli Excel (for
delicately flavored foods) and C*Pur 01906 (Cerestar). The Paselli range of fat replacers
is recommended for use in soups, sauces, dressings, dips, dairy applications, and bakery
products (cakes, frostings). Cerestars C*Pur 01906 is recommended for use in salad
dressings (hot and cold produced), low-fat spreads, ice cream, and meat products (De
Coninck, 1993). Roquette Frres Lycadex 100 is also available and is recommended
for use in applications where solid fat (e.g., shortening, butter, margarine) has to be
replaced or where the fat replacer has to contribute to a creamy, plastic, or spreadable
texture, as in salad dressings, cooked meats, low-fat spreads, cheeses, and ice cream
(Roquettes Frres, 1991).
6B.6.1 POWDERED AND LIQUID FOODS
The most obvious application by direct addition of spray-dried low-DE maltodextrins is
in powdered products such as instant soups. Once the dried food product has been
dissolved, the presence of low-DE maltodextrins enhances creaminess, adds body and
texture, and gives a fatty mouthfeel to the food product. In liquid foods such as soups,
sauces, desserts, pourable dressings, creamers, and beverages, it is recommended that
low-DE maltodextrins are added to the dry ingredients in the formulation before the
addition of water. In these systems, low-DE maltodextrins add to a full-bodied texture
and mouthcoating, since their viscosity is relatively high compared with higher-DE
maltodextrins. Because of the relatively low concentrations of maltodextrins used (1 to
5%) and the fact that the continuous water phase is large, gels are not formed. An example
of this use of low-DE maltodextrins is shown in the formulation and preparation procedure for low-fat butter sauce in Table 6B.2. The preparation procedure for this food
product involves blending together all the dry ingredients, placing the dry ingredients
into water in a sauce pan, bringing the mixture to the boil while stirring constantly,
reducing to a simmer and cooking for 5 to 7 min while stirring.

Table 6B.2 Use of a Low-DE Potato Maltodextrin, Paselli Excel,


in a Low-Fat Butter Sauce
Ingredients
Water
Modified potato starch1
Paselli EXCEL
Cultured butter powder2
Non-fat dry milk
Salt
Marjoram
Chives
Basil
Pepper
Total
1
2

%
88.55
3.20
2.50
2.40
2.00
1.00
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.05
100.00

Farinex VA20, AVEBE.


J-02C, Commercial Creamery Co.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Nutritional information
Product

Calories/
100 g

Calories
from fat

Total fat
(g)

Control
Low-fat

59
46

40.5
15.3

4.5
1.7

6B.6.2 FROZEN DESSERTS


As for powdered and liquid foods, dry addition of low-DE maltodextrins to the formulation for frozen desserts is recommended. Although concentrations used may be comparable to those suitable for liquid foods, the functionality of low-DE maltodextrins may
be higher in frozen foods. Since all water-soluble components are dissolved in the
nonfrozen water phase, a concentration effect may occur which, in turn, enhances the
functionality thereby improving the creaminess, fat-like texture, and firmness of bite. An
example of the application of low-DE maltodextrins in a low-fat soft serve frozen dessert
is given in Table 6B.3. The frozen dessert is prepared by blending all the dry ingredients
together, blending the wet ingredients separately, and then adding the dry ingredients to
the wet mix, pasteurizing at 74C, homogenizing at 200 psi, adding flavor and running
the mix through a soft-serve machine.

Table 6B.3 Use of a Low-DE Potato Maltodextrin, Paselli Excel,


in a Low-Fat Soft Serve Frozen Dessert
Ingredients
Whole milk (3.25% fat)
Sugar
Corn sirup 42 DE
Skim milk
Non-fat dry milk
Whey powder
Paselli EXCEL
Stabilizer1
Flavor
Total
1

%
67.70
11.00
7.64
6.01
3.02
2.63
1.50
0.50
qs
100.00

Nutritional information
Product

Calories/
100 g

Calories
from fat

Total fat
(g)

Control
Low-fat

202
136

96.75
20.88

10.75
2.32

Kontrol, Germantown Mfg. Co.

6B.6.3 SPOONABLE PRODUCTS


Spoonable products such as emulsified sauces and mayonnaise are oil-in-water emulsions. Therefore, as in frozen dessert applications, there is a concentration effect; the fat
replacer, being entirely in the water phase of the product, is more functional than it would
seem from the final concentration. This is beneficial in terms of mouthfeel and creaminess, but could have drawbacks regarding texture. The gel forming properties may cause
an undesirable, gellified, cuttable consistency. However, the occurrence of this negative
effect depends on the concentration of the maltodextrin used, the total fat content of the
product, the other ingredients in the formulation, and the processing conditions selected.
In most cases, these parameters can be adjusted and many customers use low-DE
maltodextrins in spoonable dressings without any problems. An example of the application of a low-DE potato maltodextrin in a low-fat salad dressing is given in Table 6B.4.
The manufacturing process involves preparing a cold slurry of sucrose, pepper, salt,
C*Flo 06205, C*Pur 01906, C*Pur 01934, and preservatives in the water and vinegar,
heating the slurry to 85C and maintaining this temperature for 5 min, cooling to 20 to
25C, feeding the starch paste and egg yolk (powder previously hydrated in water and
deducted from the total amount of water added) into a FRYMA colloid mill, homogenizing the mix for 30 s, adding the mustard and oil wherein the hydrocolloids have been
dispersed, emulsifying for a further 15 s, and filling into glass jars for storage at room
temperature.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Table 6B.4 Use of a Low-DE Potato Maltodextrin


C*Pur 01906 in a Hot-Prepared Reduced-Fat Salad
Dressing Containing 25% Oil
Ingredient
Sunflower oil
Egg yolk (powder)
Xanthan gum
Guar gum
Starch paste (Kuli)1
Mustard
Essential mustard oil
Water

Content (%)
25
1.82
0.03
0.12
68
2
0.0025
3.0275

Starch paste composition:


Modified starch C*Flo 06205, Cerestar
Spray dried maltodextrin C*Pur 01906, Cerestar
Spray dried glucose syrup C*Pur 01934, Cerestar
Salt
Sucrose (or dextrose, Cerestar CL 02001)
Pepper flavor
Vinegar 13
Lactic acid (80% sol.)
Sodium lactate
Potassium sorbate
Water
From De Coninck, 1993, Cerestar Company Brochure,
With permission.

4.5
1
10
1.5
2.5
0.06
5.06
0.53
1.32
0.067
40.463
Belgium.

6B.6.4 SPREADABLE PRODUCTS


Spreadable products include such foods as table spreads, meat pts, frostings, and cheesecake. When the fat content of such products is lowered, the continuous oil phase becomes
smaller and the water phase larger. Therefore, thickening of this water phase is necessary
to stabilize the system. For this group of products, the gel-forming properties of lowDE maltodextrins are required and are very beneficial. Since the gel has a short, spreadable texture, low-DE maltodextrins are widely used as fat replacers in this group of
products. They can be added as a preformed gel to give additional texture during
processing, but they can also be added dry; the concentration used in conjunction with
the available formulation water and the other stabilizers guarantees the formation of a
gel in the final product. The use of pre-prepared maltodextrin gels in reduced-fat cheesecake is illustrated in Table 6B.5. The manufacturing procedure involves the preparation
of a 25% solution of Paselli SA2 followed by storage overnight in a refrigerator, mixing
the cream cheese, Paselli SA2 gel, and sugar on medium speed for 2 min, incorporating
sour cream until blended, pouring into a spongiform pan, baking at 350F for 60 min in
a Bain-Marie, cooling in the oven, and refrigerating.
6B.6.5 BAKED GOODS
The use of preformed maltodextrin gels is recommended for baked food products. When
the fat content of a batter or dough is lowered, viscosity decreases. This hampers the
entrapment of air which is normally an important function of shortening. Maltodextrin
gels increase dough viscosity and improve aeration.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Table 6B.5 Use of a Low-DE Potato Maltodextrin, Paselli SA2, in a Low-Fat


Cheesecake
Ingredients

Low-fat cream cheese (Neufchatel)


Paselli SA2 Gel (25%)
Sugar
No-fat sour cream
Whole eggs
Pure vanilla extract
Total

28.53
28.32
18.02
15.33
9.50
0.30
100.00

Nutritional information
Product

Calories/
100g

Calories
from fat

Total fat
(g)

Control
Low-fat

302
208

172.6
83.7

19.18
9.3

6B.7 NUTRITIONAL AND TOXICOLOGICAL ASPECTS


Low-DE maltodextrins, including Avebes Paselli SA2, are fully digestible and provide,
like all digestible carbohydrates, 4 kcal/g. The pre-prepared gels, consisting of one part
maltodextrin and three parts water, have only 1 kcal/g which is only 1/9 of the caloric
value of fats and oils. Since low-DE maltodextrins are made from slightly degraded
starch and do not constitute novel chemical entitites, no specific toxicological studies
have been necessary. Nutritional studies showing the effect of using maltodextrins as fat
replacers on fat and calorie intake are scarce. However, a recent study using rats has
shown that the use of Paselli SA2 as a fat replacer in reduced-fat foods was effective in
achieving an overall reduction in fat intake in the diet (Harris, 1994). Further discussion
of the results of the Harris study can be found in Chapter 2. The use of complex
carbohydrates, such as potato maltodextrins, to replace fats and oils in the diet has been
strongly recommended by many national and international medical organizations.

6B.8 LEGISLATIVE AND LABELING STATUS


Maltodextrins are all-natural food ingredients that have not been chemically modified.
In Europe, they are allowed for use in foods as food ingredients and are not classified
as food additives; therefore, they have no E-number in European countries. In the U.S.,
maltodextrins are approved direct food substances (FDA CFR 21, 1983). In 1995, the
FDA affirmed the GRAS status of maltodextrin derived from potato starch as a direct
human food ingredient. Maltodextrins such as Avebes Paselli SA2 can be labeled as
either starch or maltodextrin, depending on local food legislation. These regulations
are in contrast to those pertaining to certain chemically modified food starches which
are also marketed as fat replacers, e.g., A.E. Staleys Sta-Slim range, which need to
be labeled as modified starch when used in a reduced fat food product.
There are no limits to the concentrations of maltodextrins allowed in foods. For some
food categories in some countries, so-called vertical regulations exist. This means that
certain limitations in certain kinds of food products may apply. For example, the use of
low-DE maltodextrins in reduced-fat ice cream formulations is allowed, but the resulting
food product cannot be called ice cream and must be renamed as, for example, frozen
dessert.

1996 CRC Press LLC

REFERENCES
Avebe, Paselli SA2, The Proven Fat Replacer, Company Brochure, Veendam, The Netherlands, 1993.
De Coninck, V., Fat Reduced Foods with C*Pur 01906, Company Brochure, Cerestar, Belgium.
Food and Drug Administration, Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Office of the Federal Register,
National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C., Paragraph 184.1444, 1983.
Harris, R.B.S., Factors influencing energy intake of rats fed either a high-fat or a fat mimetic diet, Int.
J. Obesity, 18, 632, 1994.
Richter, M., Schierbaum, F., Augustat, S., and Knoch, K-D., Assignee Academy of Sciences of the German
Democratic Republic, Method of producing starch hydrolysis products for use as food additives,
U.S. Patent 3 962 465, 1976.
Roquettes Frres, Lycadex, The Natural Choice for Light Products, Company Brochure, Lestrem, France,
1991.
Sobczynska, D. and Setzer, C.S., Replacement of shortening by maltodextrin/emulsifier combinations in
chocolate layer cakes, Cereal Foods World, 36(12), 1017, 1991.
Swinkels, J.J.M., Sources of starch, its chemistry and physics, in Starch Conversion Technology, van
Beynum, G.M.A. and Roels, J.A., Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1985, 15.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Chapter

7A

Fiber-Based Fat
Mimetics:
Microcrystalline
Cellulose
William M. Humphreys
CONTENTS
7A.1
7A.2
7A.3
7A.4
7A.5
7A.6

Introduction and Historical Perspective


Production Process and Patent Status
Chemical Composition
Physical and Functional Properties
Interactions with Other Food Ingredients
Applications in Foods
7A.6.1 Applications of Powdered Grades of Microcystalline
Cellulose
7A.6.2 Applications of Colloidal Grades of Microcystalline
Cellulose
7A.6.3 Salad Dressings
7A.6.4 Processed Cheese
7A.6.5 Frozen Desserts
7A.7 Nutritional and Toxicological Aspects
7A.8 Legislative and Labeling Status
References

1996 CRC Press LLC

7A.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE


In June 1961, a Life Magazine article entitled Food That Isnt Food, announced that
Dr. Battista from the American Viscose Corporation had invented a miraculous gel from
microcrystalline cellulose, trade named Avicel. The article further confided that Myra
Waldo, a well established author of cookbooks, had been retained to design new recipes
worthy of microcrystalline cellulose containing products for the supermarket. Nearly
1,000 food firms across the country have sent for samples, Life reported, and within
their heavily guarded test kitchens are striving to gain lead time on their competitors
By late summer the first non-food product may be on the shelves. (Wyden and Morrow,
1965).
Over the course of 34 years the Avicel microcrystalline cellulose product line has
been expanded and improved. The powdered grades were the first to be developed in
1957. Avicel PH 101, originally developed for use in low-calorie food products, found
wider acceptance within the pharmaceutical industry as a tableting aid and for use in
direct compression. Since then, numerous powdered grades of microcrystalline cellulose
have been developed for use in foods and are primarily used as zero calorie bulking
agents and freeflow agents (FMC Corp., 1993a). Two families of powdered microcrystalline cellulose products, the FD (e.g., Avicel FD100) and LM (e.g., Indulge LM310)
grades, were also specifically developed for use in low-fat applications. The first colloidal
grade of microcrystalline cellulose was developed in 1964 but had a rather limited
functionality, and it was not until a year later that a more functional grade was developed
which today is widely used in the dairy and frozen dessert industry (Reilly, 1994).
A family of colloidal microcrystalline cellulose products was launched in 1978 based
on co-processing microcrystalline cellulose with sodium carboxymethyl cellulose. These
products are dispersed (activated) with homogenization or high shear mixing and are
now used in the food industry as stabilizers and fat replacers in a myriad of food products.
A very recent addition to the colloidal microcrystalline cellulose product range are the
Avicel AC grades, based on co-processing with alginates (FMC Corp., 1994a). The AC
grades have been developed for applications where the functional properties of colloidal
microcrystalline cellulose are required but processing or other factors inhibit its use and
in applications where the functionality of the alginate component is desired. The AC
products are easily dispersed with low shear and are ideal for use in dry blends. Other
colloidal products include MicroQuick and MaltoQuick based on co-processing with
whey and maltodextrin, respectively. These products are readily dispersed and are primarily used in applications such as dry powder mixes where shear and/or moisture levels
are limited (FMC Corp., 1993a).
In the late 1980s, consumer demand for lower and lower fat levels in foods with no
compromise in eating qualities led to the development of the Novagel range of fat
mimetics. In many ways complimentary to the colloidal products, these microcrystalline
cellulose/guar gum aggregrates hydrate to form soft, spherical particles which are physically very similar to fat globules, but have no caloric value. These fat mimetics are
suitable for use in any aqueous based food product where a fat like consistency, mouthfeel, and appearance is desired (FMC Corp., 1994b).

7A.2 PRODUCTION PROCESS AND PATENT STATUS


The raw material for the production of microcrystalline cellulose is a selected refined
a cellulose. The microfibrils which make up the cellulose are composed of paracrystalline and crystalline regions (FMC Corp., 1993a). The paracrystalline area is an amorphous

1996 CRC Press LLC

mass of cellulose chains and the crystalline region comprises tight bundles of microcrystals in a rigid linear arrangement. The first step in the process is acid depolymerization
which removes the amorphous chains and leaves crystalline bundles of cellulose. The
production process at this point can take one of two routes, resulting in powdered or
colloidal microcrystalline cellulose as shown in Figure 7A.1 (FMC Corp., 1993a). Utilizing a proprietary agglomeration and drying step, it is possible to produce aggregates
of very porous particles of powdered microcrystalline cellulose (FMC Corp., 1993a).

Figure 7A.1 Steps in the production of microcrystalline cellulose products. (From FMC Corporation, Philadelphia, PA, 1994b. With permission.)

The colloidal products are manufactured by applying intense shear forces to break
open the cellulose network to form colloidal microcrystalline cellulose. To prevent the
colloidal material from reaggregating during drying, a soluble hydrocolloid is introduced.
This acts as a barrier coating for particles and facilitates water uptake and dispersion.
The characteristics of the soluble hydrocolloid has an effect on the properties of the
dispersed product, which together with different drying techniques, give the range of
commercial products shown in Table 7A.1.
The manufacturing process for Novagel microcrystalline cellulose aggregrates follows the same initial steps. The cellulose microcrystals are co-processed with guar gum
which exhibits a strong affinity for the microcrystalline cellulose. This produces a guar
coating of the pliable microcrystalline cellulose spheres (McGinley and Tuason, 1993)
which imparts the slipperiness that is similar to the sensory properties of fat in food
products (Table 7A.2). The material is then dried in a manner to ensure a regular particle
size when dispersed in water.
There are currently over 150 U.S., German, Japanese, European, Dutch, Belgian, and
French patents pertaining to the development and use of microcrystalline cellulose. Patent
categories cover general product technology, bakery and dessert products, beverages,
sauces and salad dressings, confections and jelly products, instant powder applications,
formed and extruded foods, microwave applications, low-calorie/low-fat, and miscellaneous applications.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Table 7A.1 Key Physical and Chemical Properties of Colloidal Grades of Avicel Microcrystalline Cellulose
Avicel
RC501

Properties
MCC Content (%)
Process

91
Bulk-dried

Avicel RC
581
89
Bulk-dried

Equipment required to Homogenizer Homogenizer


activate
Use levels in foods (%) 0.53
0.30.8
Initial viscosity (cP*)
72168
72168
at 2.1%
at 1.2%
Set-up viscosity (cP**) 1025
1125
at 2.1%
at 2.1%
Primary uses
Whipped
Frozen
toppings,
desserts
heat-stable
emulsions

Avicel
RC 591F
88
Spray-dried

Avicel
CL611

Avicel
RCN30

0.31
39175 at 1.2%

75
85
Co-processed
Co-processed with
with xanthan
calcium alginate
and maltodextrin
High speed mixer High speed mixer High shear or low shear
with sequestrants
0.22.5
0.51.5
0.42.5
50151 at 2.6%
620 at 3%
n/a

1250 at 1.2%

1850 at 2.6%

General stabilizer,
thixotropic gels

Pourable systems Stabilizer, frozen


desserts

High speed mixer

85
Spray-dried

n/a

Note: MCC = Microcrystalline cellulose.


* = Initial viscosity was measured at 120 s, using a Brookfield RVT Viscometer No. 1 Spindle at 20 rpm.
** = Set-up viscosity was measured at 24 h as above but using a No. 3 Spindle at 20 rpm.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Avicel
AC815

MicroQuick
WC595

MaltoQuick
MC230

22
Co-processed
with whey

22
Co-processed
with
maltodextrin
Low shear

Low shear

24
24
10100 at 6% 50150 at 5%

n/a

1200 at 6%

Stabilizer, dry blended


or low shear foods

Dry blended
foods

Dry blended
foods

Table 7A.2 Key Physical and Chemical Properties of Novagel Grades of


Microcrystalline Cellulose
Properties

Novagel RCN 10

Novagel RCN 15

Microcrystalline cellulose content (%)


Shear required to activate
Physical form
Use levels in foods (%)
Key applications

90
Low
Pliable spheres
0.33
Frozen desserts, cheese,
and beverages

85
Medium
Spongy spheres
0.35
Salad dressings, icings, frostings,
cheese, and beverages

Modified from FMC Corp., 1994b. With permission of the FMC Corporation, Philadelphia, PA.

7A.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION


Microcrystalline cellulose is a purified, naturally occurring fraction of cellulose, the most
abundant natural polymer on earth. It is composed of anhydroglucose units linked
together through a (14) glycosidic bond (FMC Corp., 1993a). It is a hydrophilic, water
insoluble, linear, high molecular weight polymer consisting of ordered, crystalline areas.
In commercial colloidal grades and aggregrate grades, microcrystalline cellulose comprises 75 to 95% by weight of the composition. The remaining 5 to 20% is a soluble
hydrocolloid, the type and level varying between different products, as shown in
Table 7A.1. Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, the soluble component in RC/CL colloidal
grades, is an anionic water-soluble polymer derived from cellulose. The AC colloidal
grades of microcrystalline cellulose are co-processed with calcium alginate, a structural
polymer composed of mannuronic and guluronic acids, extracted from the cell walls of
brown seaweeds (Imeson, 1994). RCN aggregrate grades are co-processed with guar
gum, a galactomannan extracted from plant seeds and composed of a mannose backbone
with galactose side-chains. In these co-processed products, the soluble hydrocolloids are
associated with the microcrystalline cellulose by hydrogen bonds to give an integrated
structure. Different products contain different levels and specific types of each hydrocolloid depending on the targeted application and desired properties.

7A.4 PHYSICAL AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES


Commercial forms of microcrystalline cellulose are sold as free flowing white powders.
Powdered grades of microcrystalline cellulose are insoluble and chemically inert; they
are crystalline in nature and, as shown in Figure 7A.2, very porous (FMC Corp., 1993a).
Unlike the powder grades, the colloidal grades of microcrystalline cellulose exhibit
specialized rheological characteristics which impart unique functional properties. When
dispersed in water using sufficient shear, the microcrystalline cellulose particles form a
microscopic three dimensional (3-D) network of crystals, as shown in Figure 7A.3. The
coprocessed soluble hydrocolloids facilitate the formation of this network by acting as
water swelling capillaries between the crystals, forcing them to open during hydration.
This network is then stabilized by hydrogen bonding between the polar groups on the
surface of the cellulose. The soluble hydrocolloids also function to consolidate the
network through hydrogen bonding to the microcrystalline cellulose (FMC Corp., 1989a).
This network imparts a unique rheology and structures water in a completely different
manner from soluble gums and thickeners. The forces holding the network together are
shear-sensitive and break down readily. When the shear is removed, the 3-D network
quickly reforms giving microcrystalline cellulose dispersions marked thixotropic properties. The microcrystalline cellulose network also demonstrates a yield stress and, very

1996 CRC Press LLC

Figure 7A.2 Scanning electron micrograph of a particle of powdered microcrystalline cellulose.


(From FMC Corporation, Philadelphia, PA, 1993a. With permission.)

Figure 7A.3 Scanning electron micrograph of a 3-D network of colloidal microcrystalline


cellulose. (From FMC Corporation, Philadelphia, PA, 1993a. With permission.)

importantly, has a short texture. This thixotropic network of insoluble crystals is physically and functionally similar to the insoluble network of dispersed oil droplets in an
oil-in-water emulsion and is the key to the unique functionality of colloidal microcrystalline cellulose in fat replacement.
The properties of Novagel RCN are very different. Once dispersed in water, the
particles of Novagel RCN exist in a substantially spherical form. Micrographs taken
using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) show that Novagel RCN 10 forms firm,
pliable, spherical particles while Novagel RCN 15 forms more open, deformable,
spherical aggregates as shown in Figure 7A.4 (FMC Corp., 1994b). Consequently, Novagel RCN 10 has less surface area and lower water absorption properties (absorbing

1996 CRC Press LLC

approximately 2.5 times its own weight) than Novagel RCN 15 which absorbs up to
10 times its own weight of water. Within food systems, these particles contribute a fatlike consistency, a creamy mouthfeel, body, and opacity. Novagel RCN is stable under
a broad range of processing conditions: retort, UHT, freezing, and low pH including
microbial fermentations, microwave, etc.

Figure 7A.4 Scanning electron micrograph of a particle of Novagel RCN 15. (From FMC
Corporation, Philadelphia, PA, 1994b. With permission.)

7A.5 INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER FOOD INGREDIENTS


Due to the inert nature of microcrystalline cellulose, there are no known notable interactions between it and other food ingredients. The soluble hydrocolloids in Novagel
and colloidal Avicel, however, interact as typical for these substances but to a lesser
degree due to their close association with the surface of the microcrystalline cellulose
crystals, limiting the surface area and active sites available for interaction.

7A.6 APPLICATIONS IN FOODS


It is possible to mimic some or all of the mouthfeel, opacity, consistency, and body
contributed by fat in a vast array of food products using one or a combination of
microcrystalline cellulose based ingredients. The food products where Avicel and Novagel microcrystalline celluloses are most frequently used as fat replacers include salad
dressings, bakery products, dairy products, ice cream and frozen desserts, cheese, spreads,
and processed meats. The quantity of microcrystalline cellulose required depends on the
amount and type of fat being replaced and the nature of the food product. Usage levels
can range from 0.1 to 10.0% but standard use levels are from 0.4 to 3.0%. In most food
systems, microcrystalline cellulose is used as part of an overall fat-mimetic system, which
often includes soluble hydrocolloids, starch, fat flavors, and antimicrobial agents.

1996 CRC Press LLC

7A.6.1 APPLICATIONS OF POWDERED GRADES OF


MICROCRYSTALLINE CELLULOSE
Powdered grades of microcrystalline cellulose are commonly used in foods as a high
quality inert fiber source and a noncaloric bulking agent. Additionally, the porous and
free-flowing nature of these products make them ideal as carriers of liquid materials such
as essential oils. They are also widely used as anticaking agents in grated cheese. Two
families of powdered microcrystalline cellulose products, the FD and LM grades, were
specifically developed for use in low fat applications. FD products (e.g., Avicel FD100)
can be used in reduced-fat aqueous based foods as a noncaloric source of insoluble solids,
imparting much of the body and opacity usually contributed by fat. The FD range has a
clean flavor release with no significant flavor contribution or flavor masking properties.
The LM grades of powdered microcrystalline cellulose (e.g., Indulge LM310) were
specifically developed to meet the challenge of producing reduced-fat/calorie products
that are also low in moisture, such as confectionery products and biscuit fillings. Due to
water activity limitations in such food products, structured water cannot be used as a
direct replacement for fat as is the practice with emulsion systems. Low moisture
applications require high levels of non or low calorie bulking agents to achieve a sufficient
calorie/fat reduction. In the manufacture of Indulge LM, a new technology has been
pioneered to reduce the porosity and surface area of the particle so that absorption
properties are reduced. LM grades can be used at levels of up to 15% and, often in
conjunction with sugar syrups, function as a high quality replacement for fat and/or sugar
in most foods where moisture levels are restricted.
7A.6.2 APPLICATIONS OF COLLOIDAL GRADES OF
MICROCRYSTALLINE CELLULOSE
The key to obtaining optimal functionality from colloidal grades of microcrystalline
cellulose is in the correct activation of the product in foods by the creation of a three
dimensional gel network. The appearance (under a microscope) of a correctly and fully
dispersed network is shown in Figure 7A.5. This dispersion is formed by the action of
shear forces. The nature of the shear forces required to create an effective functional
dispersion depends on the grade of Avicel used, as shown in Table 7A.1. Products are
available for any unit operation from high pressure homogenization to simple dry blends.
A number of key factors may interfere with the proper dispersion of colloidal microcrystalline cellulose. First, adequate shear must be used, i.e., the shear regime of the
process must match the requirements of the grade of microcrystalline cellulose selected.
Second, the order of addition should be correct and ideally colloidal microcrystalline
cellulose should be added to the water before other ingredients are added. Third, hard
water/electrolytes can inhibit the dispersion of colloidal microcrystalline cellulose, so
dispersion in water containing low levels of salt is recommended. Fourth, when acidifying
a dispersion of microcrystalline cellulose to a pH below 4.5, a protective colloid is
necessary to prevent flocculation. Most soluble gums have a protective effect but the
most effective is xanthan gum at a level of approximately 10% by weight of Avicel.
In dry form, Novagel RCN exists as agglomerates of microcrystalline cellulose/guar
and to achieve functionality these aggregrates must be separated from one another and
dispersed evenly in the aqueous phase, as shown in Figure 7A.6. As with the Avicel
range, this is achieved by the action of shear forces (FMC Corp., 1994b). The quantity
and nature of the shear forces necessary to achieve effective dispersion are dependant
upon the aqueous phase viscosity and composition, the concentration and type of Novagel RCN, and the method of addition. Notably, it is usually independant of the aqueous
phase temperature and pH.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Figure 7A.5 Photograph of a fully dispersed colloidal Avicel dispersion under polarized light
and 100X magnification. (From FMC Corporation, Philadelphia, PA, 1994b. With permission.)

Figure 7A.6 Photograph of a Novagel dispersion under polarized light and 100X magnification. (From FMC Corporation, Philadelphia, PA, 1993a. With permission.)

As a general guideline for processing, medium levels of Novagel, added either dry
or as part of a dry blend with other food ingredients, are readily dispersed in water by
applying such shear forces as those obtained using a propellor mixer at approximately
1600 rpm for 5 min. Even under minimum shear conditions, such as spoon-stirring in
dry powder mix applications, much of the functionality of Novagel is exhibited. The
amount of shear force necessary increases as the viscosity and/or solids level of the
aqueous phase increases and as Novagel concentration increases. As microcrystalline
cellulose based products do not significantly bind water, they will not prevent the
solubilization or dispersion of ingredients added subsequent to their activation. In the
same manner, they have little effect on the water activity (aw) of the food.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Figure 7A.7 Viscosity of basic soybean oil emulsions with and without Avicel as a function of shear rate. (From FMC Corporation, Philadelphia, PA, 1994b.
With permission.)

1996 CRC Press LLC

The addition of low percentages of colloidal microcrystalline cellulose to reduced-oil


emulsions can confer properties that mimic those of high oil emulsions as shown in
Figure 7A.7 (FMC Corp., 1993a). For example, the stability and rheological characteristics of a 65% soybean oil emulsion can be simulated with a 20% soybean oil emulsion
when the dispersion includes 1.5% Avicel CL 611. In addition to mimicking the flow
properties of an emulsion, colloidal microcrystalline cellulose imparts much of the
opacity and fat like mouthfeel of full-fat products. Unlike water soluble polymers,
microcrystalline cellulose does not chemically bind water and temperature changes have
little or no effect on the functionality and apparent viscosity of microcrystalline cellulose
networks. These networks remain stable under high temperatures including those used
during baking, retorting, UHT processing, and microwave heating with minimal loss in
viscosity. Microcrystalline cellulose stabilizes foams and emulsions in food products by
both structuring the water phase, maintaining the air cells and oil droplets in suspension,
and by orientating somewhat at the oil and water and air and water interface, acting as
a physical barrier to coalescence (FMC Corp., 1989). Microcrystalline cellulose networks
are also very effective in suspending particulates.
As mentioned previously, Novagel functions in a very different manner to colloidal
microcrystalline cellulose. Once properly hydrated, Novagel forms soft, somewhat
spherical particles which are physically similar to fat globules (Tuason, 1994). Manufactured in two key forms, Novagel RCN 10 and Novagel RCN 15 (Table 7A.2) are
tailored to mimic the organoleptic properties of different physical forms of the fat type
being replaced in the food (FMC Corp., 1994b). Novagel RCN 10 is most suitable for
use in such applications as frozen desserts, processed cheese and low fat meats, while
Novagel RCN 15 is most suitable for more fluid applications such as salad dressings,
dairy beverages, etc. (FMC Corp., 1993b).
7A.6.3 SALAD DRESSINGS
The replacement of fat in salad dressings is one of the most common applications of
microcrystalline cellulose technology, as shown in Table 7A.3 (FMC Corp., 1993c).
Formulated to match the organoleptic profile of an 80% fat mayonnaise, microcrystalline
cellulose contributes a variety of properties. Avicel functions as an effective emulsion
stabilizer with thixotropic flow properties while both Avicel and Novagel function to
impart a full fat texture, appearance, mouthfeel, and body in low fat dressings.
Typically, a rotor/stator is used to manufacture this type of product. Good quality
water (particularly with low levels of positively charged particles) is placed in the milling
chamber under a vacuum of 200 to 400 mbar and with scraped surface. The Avicel CL
611 is introduced and milled at 3500 rpm for 3 to 4 min. A blend of Novagel RCN
15, xanthan gum, and sugar is added next and incorporated by milling further for 4 min.
In order to increase plant throughput, these initial dispersion steps are often carried out
in a premix tank using a high shear mixer. Adequate shear is essential: mixing for 5 to
10 min at a minimum of 1800 rpm is usually sufficient but the dispersion should be
microscopically checked to ensure that the appropriate structure of the system has been
obtained, as shown in Figure 7A.5. Starch is then added, either as a starch paste or in
dry form if a pregelatinized starch is used. The egg yolk, salt, preservatives, mustard,
and spices can then be added, followed by the oil while continuously milling. The vinegar
and other acids are added last and the dressing may be pasteurized and hot or cold filled.
An example of the rheological properties obtained from a no-fat salad dressing containing
4.5% Novagel RCN 15, compared with a full-fat control dressing is shown in
Figure 7A.8.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Table 7A.3 Use of Avicel and


Novagel in a Low-Fat Spoonable
Dressing Containing 5% Fat
Ingredients

1.8
1.4
4.3
0.3
3.6
5.8
4.0
4.5
0.5
1.8
qs
to 100
100

Avicel CL 611
Novagel RCN 15
Vegetable oil
Xanthan gum
Modified waxy maize starch
Sugar
Egg yolk
12% Vinegar
Lemon juice
Salt
Flavors and preservatives
Water
TOTAL

Modified from FMC Corp., 1993c. With permission of the FMC Corporation, Brussels,
Belgium.

Figure 7A.8 Rheology of a full-fat salad dressing compared with no-oil dressings with and
without Novagel RCN 15 added. (From FMC Corporation, Philadelphia, PA, 1993a. With
permission.)

7A.6.4 PROCESSED CHEESE


Microcrystalline cellulose technology is also commonly used in the manufacture of
reduced-fat processed cheeses, both slice and block forms, as shown in Table 7A.4. (FMC
Corp., 1994d). Containing less than 1% fat compared with over 30% fat in many
processed cheeses, Novagel replaces most of the functions of the fat globules. In
addition to contributing a full-fat mouthfeel, body, and opacity, Novagel functions to
break the elastic protein structure which tends to form in the absence of fat. By breaking

1996 CRC Press LLC

Table 7A.4 Use of Novagel RCN in a LowFat Processed Cheese Containing <1% Fat
Ingredients
Novagel RCN 10
Skim milk cheese
Sweet whey powder
Trisodium citrate
Disodium phosphate dihydrate
Salt
Enzyme modified cheddar cheese
Carrageenan*
Potassium sorbate
Color
Buttermilk, 0.5% fat
TOTAL
*

%
1.02.0
52.0
6.0
1.2
0.7
0.85
0.5
0.55
0.15
qs
to 100
100

Gelcarin GP 911 and Seakem GP 418, FMC Food


Ingredients Division.

Modified from FMC Corp., 1994d. With permission of


the FMC Corporation, Brussels, Belgium.

and lubricating the protein structure, Novagel improves both the melting and eating
properties of low-fat cheeses (Bullens et al., 1994).
Manufacturing typically involves dispersion in a premix tank followed by processing
in a jacketed, processed cheese cooker. The dry ingredients are first dry blended and
added to the buttermilk in the premix tank. The ingredients are incorporated by mixing
using a planetary (or higher shear) mixer at approximately 1800 rpm for 4 to 8 minutes
until smooth. In the jacketed cheese cooker, the cheese is shredded and the premix added
while heating. The mixture is then heated to approximately 75C under agitation and
vacuum, and the product is packaged hot.
7A.6.5 FROZEN DESSERTS
Colloidal microcrystalline cellulose prevents the growth of ice crystals in frozen foods
during freeze-thaw cycles (FMC Corp., 1994c). The dispersed colloidal structure and
large surface area allows for reabsorption of water and redispersion of components during
the thaw cycle. Colloidal microcrystalline cellulose helps to prevent moisture migration
and inhibits the irreversible aggregation of protein and other solids by maintaining a
homogeneous state of the system. Dispersions of microcrystalline cellulose also contribute several other benefits such as opacity and a source of noncaloric fiber. Therefore,
colloidal microcrystalline cellulose is used in standard, full-fat ice cream as well as in
low-fat frozen desserts. An example of the application of Avicel in a low-fat frozen
formulation is shown in Table 7A.5.

7A.7 NUTRITIONAL AND TOXICOLOGICAL ASPECTS


Powdered and colloidal grades of microcrystalline cellulose are nondigestible, zerocalorie food components that have no known toxicological risks. Microcrystalline cellulose has been evaluated by both the EC Scientific Committee for Food (SCF) and the
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee for Food Additives (JECFA). Both committees have
allocated the maximum Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) of not specified (FMC Corp.,
1993a).

1996 CRC Press LLC

Table 7A.5 Use of Avicel in a Low-Fat Frozen


Dessert Containing 3% Fat
Ingredients

Anhydrous butter fat or vegetable fat (30-32C)


Skim milk powder
Sugar
42DE glucose syrup
Mono and diglyceride emulsifier
Stabilizer blend:
Avicel RC 581
Carrageenan*
Guar gum
Water
TOTAL

3.0
12.2
12.0
4.0
0.20.5
0.250.5
0.050.2
0.10.2
qs
100

* Danagel IC 15, FMC Food Ingredients Division.


Modified from FMC Corp., 1994c. With permission of the
FMC Corporation, Philadelphia, PA.

7A.8 LEGISLATIVE AND LABELING STATUS


In the U.S., microcrystalline cellulose has GRAS status and has been used safely in foods
for over 30 years. In the European Union, in accordance with the EP/Council Directive
95/2/EC on Food Additives Other Than Colors and Sweeteners, microcrystalline cellulose
(E460i) is listed in Appendix I and Appendix II (for use in cream) at quantum satis (QS).
Sodium CMC, calcium alginate, and guar gum are also listed in Appendix I of this directive
and are approved for use under numbers E466, E404, and E412, respectively.

REFERENCES
Bullens, C., Krawczyk, G., and Geithmann, L., Reduced fat cheese products using carrageenan and
microcrystalline cellulose, Food Technol., 48(1) 79, 1994.
FMC A/S, Food Ingredients Division, Brussels, Belgium, Product Information Bulletins: 3010 Novagel
RCN 10 and 3015 Novagel RCN 15, 1993b.
FMC A/S, Food Ingredients Division, Brussels, Belgium, Application Note Microcrystalline CelluloseDM4-1: Low Fat Mayonnaise Dressings, 1993c.
FMC A/S, Food Ingredients Division, Brussels, Belgium, Application Note MCC-CH2-1: <1% Fat
Processed Cheese, 1994d.
FMC Corporation, Food Ingredients Division, Philadelphia, PA, Avicel in Low/Non Fat Systems, Bulletin
C-96, 1989.
FMC Corporation, Food Ingredients Division, Philadelphia, PA, Customer Service Bulletin: Avicel
Cellulose Gel General Technology, 1993a.
FMC Corporation, Food Ingredients Division, Philadelphia, PA, Customer Service Bulletin: Specifications
and Product Information Avicel AC 815 Cellulose Gel, 1994a.
FMC Corporation, Food Ingredients Division, Philadelphia, PA, Customer Service Bulletin: Novagel
Cellulose Gel Fat Replacer, 1994b.
FMC Corporation, Food Ingredients Division, Philadelphia, PA, Application Bulletin: Avicel Microcrystalline Cellulose in Frozen Desserts, 1994c.
Imeson, A. P., Applications of Alginates, in Gums and Stabilisers for the Food Industry, Vol. 5, G.O.
Phillips, D.J. Wedlock, and P.J. Williams, Eds., IRL Press, Oxford, U.K., 1989, 553.
Mc Ginley, J. and Tuason, D.C., Fat-like Bulking Agent for Aqueous Foods Comprising Microcrystalline
Cellulose and a Galactomannan Gum, U.S. Patent 5,192,569, 1993.
Reilly, P. J. (1994), Personal communication.
Tuason, D. (1994) Personal communication.
Wyden, P. and Morrow, W., The Overweight Society, New York, 1965.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Chapter

7B

Fiber-Based Fat
Mimetics:
Methylcellulose Gums
Pablo de Mariscal and David A. Bell
CONTENTS
7B.1
7B.2
7B.3
7B.4
7B.5
7B.6

Introduction and Historical Perspective


Production Process and Patent Status
Chemical Composition
Physical and Functional Properties
Interactions with Other Food Ingredients
Applications in Foods
7B.6.1 Fried Foods
7B.6.2 Liquid Foods
7B.6.3 Baked Products
7B.6.4 Frozen Dairy Products
7B.6.5 Low-Fat Whipped Toppings
7B.7 Nutritional and Toxicological Aspects
7B.8 Legislative and Labeling Status
References

7B.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE


Methylcellulose (MC) was one of the earliest substitutes for plant gums in food applications. It was first produced in Germany in the 1920s and then in the U.S. in the 1930s
by The Dow Chemical Company under the Methocel registered trademark. Hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose (HPMC) became commercially significant in the late 1940s.
Used in a variety of food applications for more than 40 years, these polymers have
demonstrated their ability to closely emulate important functional and textural characteristics

1996 CRC Press LLC

of fats; they imitate the mouthfeel imparted by fats via film formation and rheological
properties and they permit precise control of formulation viscosity so formulators can
simulate fat-like texture in reduced-fat foods. Like fats, MC and HPMC help entrain air
in foodstuffs to improve structure, stabilize air or carbon dioxide bubbles to reduce
volume loss, and enhance moisture retention in a variety of products including sauces
and dressings, restructured, frozen, and baked goods.
In addition to The Dow Chemical Company, other manufacturers of these products
for food use include Courtaulds Chemicals (Celacol), Hercules Ltd. (Benecel), Hoechst
AG (Tylose) and Shin-Etsu Chemical Co. (Metolose).

7B.2 PRODUCTION PROCESS AND PATENT STATUS


Cellulose, the raw material for the manufacture of MC and HPMC, is insoluble in most
solvents due to its high level of intramolecular hydrogen bonding and degree of crystallinity. To make it soluble, its crystallinity and intramolecular hydrogen bonding need to
be reduced. In the case of MC and HPMC products, this is accomplished by producing
alkali cellulose by the addition of sodium hydroxide. This step swells the cellulose to
facilitate substitution, particularly in regions of high crystallinity. Alkali cellulose is then
allowed to react with methyl chloride to form MC. If the production of HPMC is desired,
propylene oxide is added to the mixture.
The relative amounts of methoxyl and hydroxypropoxyl substitution are controlled
by the weight ratio and concentration of sodium hydroxide and the weight ratios of
methyl chloride and propylene oxide per unit weight of cellulose. Any change in the
amount of methyl chloride and in the reaction profile will affect the properties of the
final product. The by-products formed in this process are removed by slurrying the crude
product in water heated to above 90C and then filtering. As MC and HPMC are insoluble
in hot water, the unique thermal gelation properties of MC and HPMC are thus used to
simplify the purification process. The resulting product, a moist porous cake, is dried
using hot air, followed by grinding and packing.
One of the advantages of MC and HPMC is that they can be produced within narrow
specification limits. This is achieved by strict control over the manufacturing process,
allowing for consistent production from batch to batch. This permits the manufacturer
to formulate his products with a maximum of confidence, avoiding unpredictable behaviors of other less consistent gums in foodstuffs with an extreme pH (e.g., the acidic salad
dressings) or that have to undergo stringent heat treatments (e.g., UHT and HTST
processes).

7B.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION


MC and HPMC are derived from cellulose, the most abundant polymer in nature. As a
result of this immense supply, these gums are not subject to wide fluctuations in availability and product quality. The chemical structures of MC and HPMC are shown in
Figure 7B.1. MC is described in the 78/663/EEC European Directive as cellulose
obtained directly from fibrous plant material and partially etherified with methyl groups
(European Council, 1978). HPMC is defined by the same Directive as cellulose obtained
directly from fibrous plant material and partially etherified with methyl groups and
containing a small degree of hydroxypropyl substitution.
MC and HPMC are described in terms of their degree of substitution (DS) and molar
substitution (MS). The DS can be defined as the amount of substituent groups on the
anhydroglucose units of cellulose (three maximum) and the MS as the average number

1996 CRC Press LLC

Figure 7B.1 Typical chemical structures of (a) methylcellulose and (b) hydroxypropylmethylcellulose. (Reprinted with permission of The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI.)

of molecules of substituent which have been substituted per anhydroglucose unit. The
latter is used in the case of hydroxypropoxyl substitution because it is possible to form
poly (hydroxypropoxyl) chains due to the additional hydroxyl group of the hydroxypropoxyl substituent. Although the control of the distribution of substituents of the individual
anhydroglucose units is not believed to be of a great importance in commercial products
used in food applications, the effects of changing the absolute level of substitution of
methoxyl and hydropropoxyl substituents has a profound effect on the physicochemical
properties of MC and HPMC (Grover, 1981). Therefore, water retention properties,
sensitivity to electrolytes and other solutes, dissolution temperatures, gelation characteristics, and solubility in nonaqueous systems are all affected by variations in methoxyl
and hydroxypropoxyl substitutions within the range permitted for food applications. For
example, decreasing the methoxyl groups below a DS of 1.4 gives products whose
solubility in water decreases. Concentrations of 2 to 8% sodium hydroxide are required
for solubility as the level of substitution decreases. On the other hand, increasing the
hydroxypropoxyl substitution above an MS of 2.0 improves the solubility in polar organic
solvents.
The range of methoxyl substitution permitted in MC under the above mentioned
European Directive is 25.0 to 33.0%. This corresponds to a DS range of 1.49 to 2.00.
For HPMC, the range is 3.0 to 12.0% of hydroxypropoxyl groups with 19.0 to 30.0%
of methoxyl substitution (European Council, 1978). These ranges correspond to an MS
range of 0.073 to 0.336 for hydroxypropoxyl groups and a DS range of 1.11 to 2.03 for
methoxyl groups. Commercially available MC products, as produced by the various
suppliers, have an average methoxyl degree of substitution ranging from 1.5 to 2.0.
Hence, one half to two thirds of the available hydroxyl positions are substituted with
methoxyl groups. In commercial HPMC products, the DS for methoxyl groups ranges
from 0.9 to 1.9 and the MS for hydroxypropoxyl groups ranges from 0.073 to 0.336
(Table 7B.1).

1996 CRC Press LLC

Table 7B.1 Typical Degree of Substitution and Weight Percent Substitution for the
Methocel Range of Methylcellulose Gums
Gum Type

Methoxyl degree
of substitution

Methoxyl
(%)

Hydroxy-propoxyl
molar substitution

Hydroxy-propoxyl
(%)

1.8
1.9
1.8
1.4

30
29
28
22

0.23
0.13
0.21

8.5
5.0
8.1

Methocel A MC
Methocel E HPMC
Methocel F HPMC
Methocel K HPMC

Note: Determined using method ASTM D 2363-72 (The Dow Chemical Co., 1993).
Reprinted with permission of The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI.

7B.4 PHYSICAL AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES


MC and HPMC may be dissolved in cold water to yield smooth, clear solutions with
viscosities ranging from 3 to 100,000 mPa.s, as measured by ASTM D1347-72 and
D2363-72 methods (The Dow Chemical Company, 1993) and illustrated in Table 7B.2.
Solutions of MC and HPMC normally show pseudoplastic, nonthixotropic behaviors at
temperatures below the gel point. Such behavior is a function of the molecular weight
and the molecular weight distribution of the polymer. However, dilute solutions of lowviscosity products closely approach Newtonian flow.
Table 7B.2 Range of Viscosities of 2% Aqueous Solutions
of Methocel Gums (Methylcellulose MC and
Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose HPMC) at 20C
Methocel Type
MC A15LV premium
MC A4M premium
HPMC E15 food grade
HPMC F50LV premium
HPMC F4M premium
HPMC K100LV premium
HPMC K4M premium
HPMC K100M premium

Nominal viscosity
(Centipoise or millipascal seconds)
15
4,000
15
50
4,000
100
4,000
100,000

Note: Viscosity was determined by ASTM method D2363 (The Dow


Chemical Company, 1993).
Reprinted with permission of The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI.

Unlike other food gums, MC and HPMC products are available in a variety of
molecular weights. This provides flexibility to the formulator in simulating the textures
of fats and oils. At the low molecular weight end, these gums impart a mouthfeel that
is similar to lower viscosity fats and oils while, at the upper end, MC and HPMC provide
a texture and functionality resembling the more highly viscous plastic shortenings.
Apparent viscosities as a function of gum concentration for selected MC and HPMC
solutions are shown in Figure 7B.2.
Another unique property of MC and HPMC products is that their solutions gel when
heated to temperatures that are specific for each type. This is the opposite behavior to
other gelling gums such as gelatin or alginates which melt at raised temperatures. This

1996 CRC Press LLC

Figure 7B.2 Effect of concentration on viscosity for (a) low viscosity methylcellulose gums and (b) high viscosity methylcellulose gums in
aqueous solutions at 20C. (Reprinted with permission of The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI.)

1996 CRC Press LLC

phenomenon has been explained by postulating that the water of hydration of the polymer
chains in solution is gradually lost as the temperature of the solution increases (Henderson, 1987). When enough water of hydration is driven from the chains, these interact
with one another and the solution gels (Figure 7B.3). This gelation process is reversible
on cooling and can be affected by the presence of certain additives, e.g., salt, sugar,
sorbitol, etc. (Henderson, 1988). The gels show thixotropic behavior until reversion upon
cooling, whereupon pseudoplastic flow behavior occurs once again. The gel texture
produced on heating aqueous solutions of these molecules varies with the type used.
Normally, MC products yield firm gels, whereas gels obtained with HPMC products are
softer. As methoxyl substitution is reduced and/or hydroxypropoxyl substitution
increased, the gel texture softens. In low-fat products, this unique property contributes
to simulate the texture otherwise provided by fats (De Mariscal, 1993).

Figure 7B.3 Effect of temperature on an aqueous solution of methylcellulose: thermal gelation


of a 2% aqueous solution of METHOCEL A 100 methylcellulose. Heating rate: 0.25C/min.
(Reprinted with permission of The Dow Chemical Company, MIdland, MI.)

Maximizing the functional and textural properties contributed by the fat that remains
in a reduced-fat food is critical in simulating a full-fat product. To achieve this end,
proper emulsification of the remaining fat droplets is essential. It is therefore beneficial
to use stabilizers which not only modify the bulk aqueous phase of the food system but
which also lower interfacial tension between the dissimilar phases of the food. MC and
HPMC gums are surface active polymers due to their substitution and, as a result, they
reduce the interfacial tension between the polar and nonpolar phases of emulsions (Sarkar,
1984). The hydrophilic hydroxyl groups along the cellulose backbone, along with the
hydroxyls contributed by the hydroxypropoxyl substituents, provide affinity for water,
while the lipophilic methoxyl groups substituted along the cellulose molecules impart

1996 CRC Press LLC

affinity to nonpolar phases such as oil and air. MC and HPMC gums thus add stability
to food emulsions by occupying sites at the interfaces between the oil or air droplets and
the continuous aqueous phase. This interfacial activity means that high viscosity is not
always necessary to increase emulsion stability, and the formulators flexibility to control
the texture of the food is therefore increased by using MC or HPMC. A gum which is
not surface active typically thickens a food product to stabilize the emulsion, but this
may have detrimental effects on the texture of the product in some situations. The surface
activities of MC, HPMC and other hydrocolloids are shown in Table 7B.3. For most MC
and HPMC products, the surface tension of a solution decreases linearly as the sample
is heated from 0C until an apparent minimum surface tension is reached between 35
and 50C (The Dow Chemical Company, 1990). This apparent minimum is specific for
a given product, molecular weight, and concentration.
Table 7B.3 Surface Activities of 1% Gum Solutions
Gum type
Water
Xanthan gum
Carboxymethylcellulose
Hydroxyethylcellulose
Sodium Alginate
Propylene Glycol Alginate
Methylcellulose
Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose

Surface tension
(Dynes/cm)
72
75
71
69
62
58
5359
4555

Reprinted with permission of The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI.

The reduced surface tension imparted by MC and HPMC makes these gums excellent
film-formers. In fat reduction, film formation is important in creating a barrier to oil
absorption in fried foods (Meyers and Conklin, 1988) and in creating a filmy mouthfeel
that is similar to that of oil for low molecular weight gums and to that of shortenings
for higher molecular weight gums (Bell, 1993).
MC and HPMC are nonionic polymers. As a result, their solutions have a remarkable
stability to changes in pH. In this respect, they differ from both anionic and cationic
hydrocolloids which normally show dramatic changes in solubility and solution viscosity
near their isoelectric point. Solutions of MC and HPMC are generally stable in the pH
range of 3 to 11. Below pH 3, acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of the (1,4) bond becomes
significant. Above pH 11, the polymeric chain is cleaved due to oxidative degradation
(Greminger and Krumer, 1980). MC and HPMC gums are also very resistant to high
temperatures. For example, MC and HPMC films can be molded or extruded at 120 to
190C when blended with a suitable plasticizer such as sorbitol or glycerin.

7B.5 INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER FOOD INGREDIENTS


MC and HPMC products are nonionic and are not precipitated as insoluble salts by
multivalent metal ions. However, they can be salted out of solution when the concentration of electrolytes or other dissolved materials exceeds certain limits, as shown in
Table 7B.4. This is caused by competition of the electrolytes for water and results in
reduced hydration of these gums (The Dow Chemical Co., 1988). Water-insoluble materials,

1996 CRC Press LLC

such as certain pigments or flavoring oils, do not adversely affect the gums. On the other
hand, as MC and HPMC gums are not soluble in concentrated salt or sugar solutions,
these media can be used as nonsolvent dispersing media. Subsequent dilution reduces
the salt or sugar concentration to a level that allows the gum to dissolve and become
fully functional.
Table 7B.4 Grams of Additive Tolerated by 100 ml
of 2% Solutions of Methocel Gums at 20C
Methocel Premium gum types
Additive
(g/100 ml)

A15

A4M

NaCl
MgCl2
Na2CO3
Na3PO4
Sucrose

11
11
4
2.9
100

7
8
3
2.6
65

F50
17
35
5
3.9
120

F4M

K100

K4M

11
25
4
3.5
80

19
40
4
4.7
160

12
39
4
4.3
115

Reprinted with permission of The Dow Chemical Company, Midland MI.

Of particular practical interest is the synergistic effect encountered when low molecular weight MC is blended with modified starch. One of the problems found when starch
alone is used to thicken a food product is that the viscosity of the latter drops as
temperature increases. The result is often a liquid product with less than optimum appeal.
By adding MC to modified starch, the viscosity increase that can be achieved when heat
is applied is substantially greater than expected, the reason being that the thermal gelation
property of MC counteracts the negative effect increased temperature has on the viscosity
of a starch solution. The result is that solutions of MC/modified starch blends thicken
as temperature increases (The Dow Chemical Company, 1988). This allows for reductions
in the levels of starch to be made in some formulations.
Tests done in model systems containing 0.5 to 1.0% MC and 2 to 5% modified corn
starch show this interaction. A plot of the apparent viscosity as a function of heating for
one modified starch and a low molecular weight methylcellulose is shown in Figure 7B.4.
This interaction provides viscosity control over a wide range of temperatures. It introduces the capability of efficiently thickening a reduced-fat food as it is heated, which
can be advantageous in sauces to impart cling to a substrate such as vegetables. The
watery separation that occurs in some reduced-fat sauces when they are heated can be
prevented using this interaction. In addition, a more uniform viscosity can be maintained
over a broad temperature range in reduced-fat food products where neither an increase
or decrease in viscosity is wanted as the product is heated. This is highly desirable not
only in reduced-fat foods but in their fully-fatted counterparts as well. Applying the
MC/starch interaction to reduced-fat food systems is a function of selecting appropriate
concentrations for the MC and modified starch. As a result of the lower starch level, the
caloric content of the food product may be reduced and there is less possibility of
developing a starchy texture and taste. At the same time, the viscosity is better controlled
and freeze/thaw stability is enhanced. As an additional benefit, there are fewer starchrelated processing problems such as burning starch on the walls of heat exchangers.
MC and HPMC are also compatible with a substantial number of other water-soluble
polymers. These include gum arabic, gum tragacanth, alginates, carrageenan, guar gum,
xanthan gum, and many others.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Figure 7B.4 Effect of temperature on viscosity of solutions containing a modified corn starch
and a low viscosity methylcellulose. (Reprinted with permission of The Dow Chemical Company,
Midland, MI.)

7B.6 APPLICATIONS IN FOODS


7B.6.1 FRIED FOODS
The main benefit from using MC and HPMC in fried food products is the reduction in
fat uptake achievable during the frying step (Meyers and Conklin, 1988; Bell and Steinke,
1991; Bell and Steinke, 1992; Pinthus, Weinberg, and Saguy, 1992; Bell, 1993; Pinthus,
Weinberg, and Saguy, 1993). This contributes to a lower caloric value and improved
cooking economy from reduced oil losses. At the same time, as more moisture is retained
within the food matrix, the product is more juicy and the yield is improved.
Frying batters can be improved using MC or HPMC. In addition to reducing the fat
uptake, batters formulated with MC or HPMC are crunchier over a longer period of time
and, thanks to the thermal gelation property, their adhesion to the substrate is enhanced.
Batter pickup can also be optimized without increasing viscosity. These batters can be
formulated with a higher level of water, so that yield is increased (The Dow Chemical
Company, 1991). In fried sweet goods such as doughnuts, the moisture retaining properties of MC and HPMC impart a moist mouthfeel despite significant reductions in oil
due to the film-forming properties of the gums. In cake and yeast-leavened doughnuts,
oil reductions of 26 to 28% have been achieved without damaging appearance or mouthfeel (Bell and Steinke, 1991; Bell and Steinke, 1992).
In reconstituted products, MC and HPMC function as binders and extrusion aids.
They also help to keep the intended shape of extruded products and enhance the release
properties in other forming processes. Such commercial matrix products as extruded
shrimp, onion rings, and French fries benefit from the binding properties of MC and
HPMC gums. Also, the freeze/thaw stability of frozen foods is improved due to the
water-holding properties of these hydrocolloids. At the time of consumption, a better
bite is achieved as a result of the gel structure created upon cooking.
Another means of reducing fat in fried foods is to remove the frying step completely
and utilize coatings to improve the flavor and appearance of the baked or broiled food.
For meats, seafood, and poultry products, glazes may be applied which provide these
properties, and the use of MC and HPMC in these glazes enhances their appearance and

1996 CRC Press LLC

textural characteristics. Although other hydrocolloids can also provide thickening in cold
glaze formulations, they do not contribute as readily to hot viscosity and hot cling as
MC and HPMC. These gums have been shown to improve adhesion, gloss, texture, and
viscosity in glazes as a function of film-forming, thermal gelation, and molecular weight
properties (Conklin, 1993).
7B.6.2 LIQUID FOODS
MC and HPMC are effective stabilizers in sauces and salad dressings. Moreover, they
provide controlled pourability and mouthfeel characteristics through rheology adjustment. In reduced-calorie products, they are successfully used to obtain the texture of
fully-fatted sauces. The interaction of low molecular weight MC with modified corn
starches, as described previously, is an important property in controlling viscosity in
sauces. Different combinations of MC or HPMC and other gums have been developed
to prepare low-calorie sauces and dressings. Furthermore, zero-oil salad dressings have
been successfully formulated using MC/xanthan gum blends (Table 7B.5). The processing method used consisted of heating the vinegar and water mixture to 50C, dry-blending
the food gums and sifting into the warm vinegar solution under gentle agitation, allowing
the gums to hydrate, adding sugar and salt, and adding the previously dry-blended spices
to the liquid.
Table 7B.5 Use of a Methylcellulose
(MC) Gum in a Mayonnnaise Substitute
Formulation Containing 0% Oil
Ingredients
Water
Vinegar
Sugar
Salt
Minced onion
Propylene glycol alginate
MC Methocel A4M Premium
Garlic powder
Xanthan gum
Dried salad herbs
Ground black pepper
Cayenne pepper

%
45.60
45.60
4.90
2.00
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.05
0.05

Reprinted with permission of The Dow Chemical


Company, Midland, MI.

7B.6.3 BAKED PRODUCTS


Reduced-fat baked goods have benefited from the use of MC and HPMC in many ways.
Just as fats contribute to increased volume and improved crumb structure, MC and HPMC
compensate for fat removal by enhancing air entrainment, promoting uniform and fine
cell size in the crumb structure (The Dow Chemical Company, 1993), and providing
oven spring as these gums gel during baking (Bell, 1990). The thermal gelation property
also provides a barrier to moisture loss during baking and cooling, which imparts a moist,
shortening-like texture to the final product and can improve its shelf life as well.
MC products improve structure and moist texture in reduced-fat cakes. In a study of
gum effects in reduced-fat microwavable cakes, gum levels and moisture contents in the
cake batters were varied using a central composite experimental design (Bell and Steinke,
1991). MC and HPMC increased cake height in yellow cake by about 7% and in chocolate
1996 CRC Press LLC

cake by 12%, despite the stresses of microwave baking and reductions in fat of 65% for
the yellow and 70% for the chocolate cake. Figure 7B.5 shows the surface response plot
for gum concentration and batter moisture vs. cake height in microwave chocolate cake.
The yellow and chocolate cakes containing low molecular weight HPMCs produced a
favorable moist mouthfeel compared with the control, which was too dry in sensory
panel evaluations. The chocolate cake formula that resulted from this study is shown in
Table 7B.6. The cake was prepared using a Hobart-type mixer with a wire whip attachment for blending of the dry ingredients, adding shortening to the dry ingredients to
obtain a fine crumb structure, adding water and vanilla and blending for 4 min, weighing
400 g of the cake mix into a previously prepared microwaveable pan, and baking for
5 min on a high setting.

Figure 7B.5 Chocolate cake height as a function of HPMC concentration and moisture.
(Reprinted with permission of The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI.)

The surface activity of MC and HPMC also improves the whippability of reducedegg cake batters. The stabilization of the foam is further reinforced by the thermal gelation
of these molecules during the baking stage. In addition, MC and HPMC aid in the
production of low-gluten bread. There, they contribute to obtaining the body and texture
normally associated with standard, full-gluten bread. Further benefits include increased
tolerance to overmixing, longer holding times, and improved product yield.
7B.6.4 FROZEN DAIRY PRODUCTS
In reduced-fat frozen desserts, it is critical that the sensory properties of the dairy fat be
effectively emulated. Different combinations of hydrocolloids are often used for this
purpose. A number of characteristics of HPMC make it particularly well-suited to frozen
dessert and novelty applications. Its film-forming property, in combination with the
thickening capability, simulates the coating property of fat in the mouth. Additionally,
aqueous solutions of HPMC have lubricity, which further mimic the feel of fat.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Table 7B.6 Use of a Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) Gum


in a Reduced-Fat Microwave Chocolate Cake Formulation
Ingredient
Water
Sugar
Cake flour
Dutched cocoa
Vegetable shortening
Nonfat dry milk
Dry whole egg
Vanilla
Baking powder
Lecithin
Monoglycerides
Salt
HPMC Methocel F50LV Premium
Baking soda
Nutritional information

(%)
44.0
20.8
18.5
3.8
3.8
2.4
2.4
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.2
112 kcal/one-eighth of an 8-in. round cake.

Reprinted with permission of The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI.

The interfacial activity of HPMC is important in stabilizing fat droplets and air cells
in reduced-fat frozen desserts. As an extender for the fat that remains, HPMC improves
the emulsification stability of the fat globules in the continuous aqueous phase. Similarly,
the surfactant properties entrain and stabilize air cells in the emulsion, contributing to
the overrun of the dessert (the increase in product volume for a given weight resulting
from air incorporation).
Another applicable property of MC and HPMC is their cold water solubility. Both
products are more readily soluble in cold water than in warm. As a result, at or near
freezing temperature the hydrophilic tendency is very strong. The mobility of water that
thaws during freeze/thaw cycling is consequently inhibited by MC and HPMC and ice
crystal growth is reduced during refreezing after each thawing cycle. This reduces the
formation of a sheath of ice around frozen novelties and improves the mouthfeel of these
and other frozen desserts. This property is all the more important when the fat has been
reduced in these products, since there is often more water present to compensate for the
removed fat. An example of a fat-free frozen dessert formulation is given in Table 7B.7.
The dessert was prepared by using part of the water in the formulation to make a 25%
water solution of N-Oil, heating the N-Oil mixture to gelatinize, adding the N-Oil mixture
and the previously blended dry ingredients to the remaining water, pasteurizing for 10 min
at 75C, homogenizing for 3 min, cooling to 5C, ageing for at least 4 h and making the
dessert using an ice cream machine adjusted to the overrun required.
7B.6.5 LOW-FAT WHIPPED TOPPINGS
Similarly to frozen desserts, non-dairy whipped toppings are emulsions which include
lipids and air as the discontinuous phases in a continuous aqueous matrix. As a group,
whipped toppings are sensitive emulsions due to their low densities, and even small
changes to a formulation can have significant effects on stability and appearance. Accordingly, the interfacial acitivity of MC and particularly HPMC are critical in providing air
entrainment and stability to these food foams. The film-forming characteristic is particularly critical in reduced-oil toppings. Not only must the gum stabilize the remaining
oil-and-air-in-water emulsion, but it is responsible for producing a fat-like textural character in the mouth as well.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Table 7B.7 Use of a Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose


(HPMC) Gum in a Fat-Free Frozen Dessert
Formulation (Ice Cream Substitute)
Ingredients
Skimmed milk powder
Sugar
Glucose monohydrate
N-Oil (National Starch & Chemical)
Guar gum, carob gum, gelatin, carrageenan
HMPMC ethocel E15 Food Grade
Emulsifier
Flavor
Water

(%)
14.00
10.00
3.00
2.00
0.27
0.25
0.18
Q.S.
69.00

Reprinted with permission of The Dow Chemical Company,


Midland, MI.

Since whipped toppings are low density and often low viscosity emulsions, the use
of a low molecular weight stabilizer is appropriate. As a result, the property that can
have the most beneficial effect on mouthfeel in the absence of high viscosity is filmformation, and HPMC is an excellent film-former. HPMC grades with a viscosity in the
range of about 3 to about 100 mPa.s provide the best combination of emulsion stability,
texture in the mouth, and visual appearance.

7B.7 NUTRITIONAL AND TOXICOLOGICAL ASPECTS


MC and HPMC products are regarded as being soluble dietary fiber (Andon, 1987; Ink
and Hurt, 1987). This means that they pass virtually unchanged into the colon where
they are fermented to a variable extent (Passmore and Eastwood, 1986). Most methylcellulose gums pass out in the feces unaltered as they are highly resistant to enzymic
degradation (Braun et al., 1974; Gorzinski et al., 1986).
Commercial MC and HPMC products have been used by the food, pharmaceutical,
and cosmetic industries for many years (Greminger and Krumer, 1980). Exposure to
normal amounts presents no significant health hazard from either contact or inhalation.
Therefore, they are considered to be physiologically inert. Dietary feeding studies in
men, dogs, and rats have confirmed the inert nature of these polymers (Hodge et al. 1950;
McCollister et al., 1973; Eastwood et al., 1990).

7B.8 LEGISLATIVE AND LABELING STATUS


MC and HPMC are listed in the Food Chemicals Codex and the International Codex
Alimentarius and included in the U.S. Pharmacopeia (USP XXII), European Pharmacopeia, British Pharmacopeia, and Japanese Pharmacopeia. In the U.S., MC is considered
to be Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) under FDA regulation 21 CFR 182.1480.
HPMC is approved for direct food use in nonstandardized foods as an emulsifier, film
former, protective colloid, stabilizer, suspending agent, or thickener, in accordance with
good manufacturing practice under FDA regulation 21 CFR 172.874. Food grade products are certified as kosher and pareve for year-round and Passover use by the Union of
Orthodox Congregations of America.
MC and HPMC are approved as food additives in Europe where their use is regulated
by a set of Directives. Among the most important ones are Council Directives 78/663/EEC

1996 CRC Press LLC

(purity criteria), 79/112/EEC (labeling), 89/107/EEC (framework directive on food additives), and their respective amendments. In December 1994, a proposal for a Council
Directive on Food Additives Other Than Colors and Sweeteners was adopted and published on March 18, 1995 as Council Directive 95/2/EC. This new Directive establishes
several criteria (Appendixes) relevant to MC and HPMC. The latter are listed in Appendix
I meaning that these gums are allowed for use in all foodstuffs following the quantum
satis principle (maximum levels limited only by good manufacturing practice), except
for applications in certain foods specified in Appendix II, i.e., cocoa and chocolate
products; fruit juices and nectars; jams, jellies, marmalade, and chestnut pure; and
dehydrated and partially dehydrated milk. The Member States of the European Union
have 18 months from the date of adoption (December 1994) to introduce this Directive
into their national legislation at which point the Directive becomes fully enforceable.
Until that happens, food manufacturers need to evaluate their particular case on a countryspecific basis.
MC can be labeled either as methylcellulose or E-461. HPMC can be labeled either
as hydroxypropyl methylcellulose or E-464.

REFERENCES
Andon, S. A., Applications of soluble dietary fiber, Food Technol., 41(1), 74, 1987.
Bell, D. A., Methylcellulose as a structure enhancer in bread baking, Cereal Foods World, 35(10), 1001,
1990.
Bell, D. A., Formulating with methylcellulose food gums in fat-reduced foods. Paper presented in the
Reduced-Calorie Food Product Development Short Course. AACC/IFT. Chicago, Illinois. March
3rd-5th, 1993.
Bell, D. A. and Steinke, L. W., Effects on fat reduction and moisture retention in doughnuts by the
addition of methylcellulose and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose. Poster Session, AACC Annual
Meeting, Seattle, Washington, 1991.
Bell, D. A. and Steinke, L. W., Evaluating structure and texture effects of methylcellulose gums in
microwave-baked cakes, Cereal Foods World, 36(11), 941, 1991.
Bell, D. A. and Steinke, L. W., Reduced fat uptake and increased moisture retention in yeast-leavened
doughnuts with methylcellulose and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose. Poster Session, AACC Annual
Meeting, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1992.
Braun, W. H., Ramsey J. C., and Gehring, P. J., The lack of significant absorption of methylcellulose
3300 cP from the gastro-intestinal tract following single and multipe oral doses to the rat. Food
and Cosmet. Toxicol., 12, 373, 1974.
Brenner, G. M., Sugarless Beverage. U.S. Patent 2,691,591, 1951.
Conklin, J. R., Performance of food hydrocolloids in seafood glaze toppings. Poster Session, IFT National
Meeting, Chicago, Illinois, 1993.
De Mariscal, P., Methylcellulose food gums in reduced-calorie foods. Paper presented in the Course on
Low-Calorie Food Product Development. AACC/IFT/CFDRA. Stratford-on-Avon. June 15th-17th,
1993.
Eastwood, M. A., Brydon, W. G., and Anderson, D. M. W., The effects of dietary methylcellulose in man.
Food Add. Contamin., 7(1), 9, 1990.
European Council, European Council Directive 78/663/EEC, 1978.
Gorzinski, S. J., Takahashi, I. T. and Hurst, G. H., The fate of ultra-low viscosity C-hydroxypropylmethylcellulose in rats following gavage administration. Drug and Chem. Toxicol. 9(2), 83, 1986.
Greminger, G. K., Jr. and Krumer, K. L., Alkyl and hydroxyalkylalkylcellulose. In Handbook of Watersoluble Gums and Resins, R. L. Davidson, Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1980.
Grover, J. A., Methylcellulose (MC) and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) gums. In Food Hydrocolloids, 2nd ed., Vol. 3, M. Glicksman, Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1981, 121.
Henderson, A., Cellulose ethers- the role of thermal gelation, in Gums and Stabilizers for the Food
Industry, Vol. 4, G. O. Phillips, D. J. Wedlock, and P. A. Williams, Eds., IRL Press, Oxford, 1987,
265.

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Henderson, A., Properties of MC and HPMC cellulose derivative gums. Food Technol. Int. Eur. 219, 1988.
Hodge, H. C., Maynard, E. A., Wilt, W. G., Jr., Blanchet, H. J., Jr., and Hyatt, R. E., Chronic oral toxicity
of a high gel point methylcellulose (Methocel HG) in rats and dogs. J. Phar. Exp. Ther., 99(1), 112,
1950.
Ink, S. L. and Hurt, H. D., Nutritional implications of gums. Food Technol., 41(1), 77, 1987.
Meyers, M. A. and Conklin, J. R., Method of Inhibiting Oil Absorption in Coated Fried Foods Using
Hydrxypropylmethylcellulose, U.S. Patent 4,900,573, 1988.
McCollister, S. B., Kociba, R. J., and McCollister, D. D., Dietary feeding studies of methylcellulose and
hydroxypropylmethylcellulose in rats and dogs. Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 11, 943, 1973.
Passmore, R. and Eastwood, M. A., Davidson and Passmore Human Nutrition and Dietetics, 8th. ed.,
Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 1986.
Pinthus, E. J., Weinberg P., and Saguy, I. S., Gel strength in restructured potato products affects oil uptake
during deep-fat frying. J. Food Sci., 57 (6), 1359, 1992.
Pinthus, E. J., Weinberg P., and Saguy, I. S., Criterion for oil uptake during deep-fat frying. J. Food Sci.,
58 (1), 204, 1993.
Sarkar, N., Structural interpretation of the interfactial properties of aqueous solutions of methylcellulose
and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose. Polymer, 25, 481, 1984.
The Dow Chemical Company, Starch Synergy with METHOCEL Premium Food Gums, Technical
brochure, Midland, MI, 1988.
The Dow Chemical Company, METHOCEL Cellulose Ethers. Technical handbook, Midland, MI, 1988.
The Dow Chemical Company, A Food Technologists Guide to METHOCEL Premium Food Gums,
Midland, MI, 1990.
The Dow Chemical Company, METHOCEL Premium Food Gums in Fried Foods, Technical brochure,
Midland, MI, 1991.
The Dow Chemical Company, METHOCEL Food Gums. Product selection guide, Midland, MI, 1993.
The Dow Chemical Company, Formulating Reduced-Fat Foods with METHOCEL Food Gums. Technical
brochure, Midland, MI, 1993.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Chapter

7C

Fiber-Based Fat
Mimetics: Pectin
Beinta Unni Nielsen
CONTENTS
7C.1
7C.2
7C.3
7C.4
7C.5

Introduction and Historical Perspective


Production Process and Patent Status
Chemical Composition
Physical and Functional Properties
Applications in Foods
7C.5.1 Spreads
7C.5.2 Mayonnaise
7C.5.3 Emulsified Meat Products
7C.6 Nutritional and Toxicological Aspects
7C.7 Legislative and Labeling Status
References

7C.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE


Pectin is a purified carbohydrate product obtained by aqueous extraction under mildly
acidic conditions of appropriate edible plant material usually citrus fruits and apples.
Traditionally, pectin is used as a gelling agent for jams and jellies. World production of
commercial pectin is estimated at 20 to 25,000 metric tons per year (Vincent, 1986 cf.
Pilnik and Voragen, 1992), and the major parts of all pectin production is consumed by
the fruit processing industry. Other traditional applications are confectionery products,
dairy products, fruit preparations, bakery fillings, and glazings. New applications within
the food area are constantly developing, and fat replacement is one of the latest newcomers (Glicksman, 1991).
In recent years, there have been a number of detailed reviews regarding pectin
manufacture, structure, functionality, and applications (Nelson et al., 1977; Christensen,

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1986; Rolin and de Vries, 1990; May, 1990; Pilnik and Voragen, 1992; Rolin,1993).
However, none of the earlier reviews has considered the use of pectin as a fat replacer,
and this chapter is therefore mainly confined to the subject of fat replacement.
SLENDID, a registered trademark of Hercules Incorporated, was introduced in 1991.
The SLENDID concept covers a range of specialty pectins tailor-made for fat replacement (Pszczola, 1991). The production of SLENDID takes place on the premises of
Copenhagen Pectin A/S, a Division of Hercules Incorporated, in Denmark.

7C.2 PRODUCTION PROCESS AND PATENT STATUS


Pectin is a natural constituent of almost all terrestrial plants. Together with cellulose,
pectin is responsible for the structural properties of fruits and vegetables. The pectic
substances are liberated from the raw material by extraction. Citrus peel and apple
pomace, by-products of juice manufacture, are presently the only significant sources of
commercial pectins. The peel or pomace may be blanched after juice extraction in order
to inactivate the endogenously located pectin esterase, followed by drying.
The production process of SLENDID complies with traditional pectin manufacture,
with the main steps being extraction from the plant material, purification of the liquid
extract and isolation of the pectin. The product obtained with this process is a high ester
(often called high methoxyl or HM) pectin. Alternatively, a controlled deesterification is
applied either before the precipitation stage or between the precipitation and the draining
stages leading to a low ester (often called low methoxyl or LM) pectin. Deesterification
may be achieved with either acid or base. If ammonia is used for the deesterification,
some of the methyl ester groups are substituted by amide groups, thus resulting in an
amidated pectin. In order to achieve a consistent end product, pectin is standardized by
blending different production batches together and adjusting the strength with sucrose
or dextrose. The pectin yield from dried citrus peel is typically 20 to 30% whereas the
yield from apple pomace is 10 to 15%.
In 1994, Hercules Incorporated was granted a patent covering a fat simulating composition consisting of heat-stable carbohydrate gel particles, a food product normally
containing fat/oil that has been improved by substituting all or a portion of the fat/oil
by gel particles, and the process by which the gel particles are formed (Hoefler et al.,
1994).

7C.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION


SLENDID is registered trademark for a range of proprietary specialty pectins derived
from citrus peel and tailor-made for fat replacement. Presently the SLENDID concept
covers three products, SLENDID 100, SLENDID 110, and SLENDID 200. A further
line of SLENDID products is expected to be introduced in the future. Commercial
pectins are divided into LM-pectins and HM-pectins according to the degree of esterification (DE). DE is defined as the percentage of galacturonic acid units that are methyl
esterified. Pectins with a DE below 50% are designated as LM-pectins, whereas pectins
with DE above 50% are designated as HM-pectins. DE-values for commercial LMpectins typically range from 20 to 40%, and for HM-pectins from 55 to 75%. As
mentioned earlier, some of the methyl ester groups may be substituted by ammonia, and
in this case an amidated pectin occurs. The degree of amidation (DA) is defined as the
percentage of amidated galacturonic acid units to the total galacturonic acid units. Typical
DA-values range from 15 to 22%. Most commercial amidated pectins are of the LMpectin type, i.e., the so-called LMA-pectins. SLENDID 100 and 110 are low ester
pectins, while SLENDID 200 is a high ester pectin.

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Pectin consists mainly of the partial methyl esters of polygalacturonic acid and their
sodium, potassium, calcium, and ammonium salts. D-galacturonic acid units are diaxially
linked by a-(1,4) -glucosidic bonds. The chain length varies from 200 to 1,000 galacturonic units, and a typical molecular weight (MW) as measured by relative viscosity
methods, is 50 to 150,000 Daltons. Figure 7C.1 shows a HM-pectin (DE 60%) and a
LMA- pectin (DE 40% and DA 20%). It has been shown that dried preparations of the
pectin molecule form helices with three subunits per turn (Palmer and Hartzog, 1945).
As to the molecular configuration in solution, it is believed that the HM-pectin helices
pack in a parallel arrangement retaining the helical structure with 3 subunits per turn
whereas the LM-pectin helices pack as corrugated sheets of antiparallel helices with 2
subunits per turn (Walkinshaw and Arnott, 1981).

Figure 7C.1 The chemical structure of high methoxyl and low methoxyl pectin.

LM-pectins require a controlled amount of calcium ions to form gels. Gelation may
take place across a wide pH range (from 2.8 to 7.0). It has been suggested that calcium
pectate gel formation is dependent on the stabilization of separate chain segments by OCa-O bridges (Walkinshaw and Arnott, 1981). Two pectin chains, free of ester groups,
may arrange as corrugated sheets with an equivalent amount of calcium ions in between.
Further, it has been suggested that a prerequisite for proper gel formation is the presence
of approximately 15 consecutive nonesterified galacturonic acid residues in either molecule (Morris, 1990).
A popular model for calcium-pectate gel formation is the so called egg-box model.
This model was originally proposed for describing the gelation of calcium alginate
(Morris et al., 1978). According to the egg box model, the helices form with only two
subunits per turn. This model therefore contradicts the assumption of three subunits per
turn. However, the model may still be valid if it is assumed that the conformation of
pectin during the dissolution process changes from three to two subunits per turn.
Nevertheless, it is unlikely that pectins are extensively cross-linked as indicated by the
egg-box mechanism. This was confirmed by recent investigations (Renard et al., 1993;
Axelos et al., 1991).
Amidated LM-pectins require less calcium for gelling than nonamidated LM-pectins.
Amidated types usually gel in a fruit system without an exogenous source of calcium,
i.e., with the calcium originating from fruit and water. By contrast, nonamidated types
require addition of calcium for proper gelling.

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HM-pectins require acidic conditions (pH 2.0 to 3.5) and the presence of soluble
solids measured as sucrose by refractometry of at least 55% for gelation. It has been
suggested that the gelation mechanism relies on intermolecular hydrogen bonds and
hydrophobic interactions between methyl ester groups (Walkinshaw and Arnott, 1981).
Parallel polygalacturonan chains are packed in a hexagonal lattice with columns of methyl
groups arranged in the interstices.
It has been verified that the galacturonan backbone is occasionally interrupted by the
insertion of a-(1,2)-linked L-rhamnose residues. The rhamnose insertions provide kinks
in the molecular chain which restrict the formation of potential junction zones. Powell
and co-workers (1982) have suggested an even distribution of rhamnose insertions with
a length of polygalacturonate sequences between rhamnose insertions of approximately
20 to 30 residues. By contrast, de Vries and co-workers (1982) have suggested a model
which consists of a long homogalacturonan chain intercepted by a few relatively short
hairy regions containing all rhamnose insertions and neutral sugar side chains, i.e.,
galactose, glucose, arabinose, xylose. The amount of neutral sugars is approximately 5
to 10% of the amount of galacturonic acid.

7C.4 PHYSICAL AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES


All SLENDID types are available as dry powders with virtually unlimited shelf-life.
SLENDID 100 and 110 are LM-pectins whereas SLENDID 200 is an HM-pectin. The
basic functionality of types 100 and 110 is as gelling agents, and it is therefore necessary
that LM gelling conditions are used, i.e., calcium ions are required for gelling. With
SLENDID 200, however, the functionality relies on a swelling process, i.e., as a water
binder. SLENDID 100 and 110 are sodium-salts in contrast to SLENDID 200 which
is a calcium-salt. Since type 200 functions as a water binder and not as a gelling agent,
the HM-conditions for gelling need not be fulfilled.
The SLENDID concept offers a range of properties including: label-friendliness
since it is a pectin; stability to heat, pH, shear, and salt; neutral taste (making it easy to
flavor); fat-like dissipation; virtually no calories; and relatively low usage levels, i.e., 0.2
to 1.5%. The main difference between types 100 and 110 is in their viscosity, the 110
type being a higher viscosity version. Therefore, SLENDID 110 is typically used at a
lower level compared to SLENDID 100. For historical reasons, it should be mentioned
that the original SLENDID is similar to SLENDID 100. For applications where severe
heat treatment is necessary such as with soups and sauces, the use of SLENDID100
and 110 is recommended since the heat stability of these types is superior to that of
SLENDID 200.
SLENDID 100 and 110 are very calcium reactive LM-pectins. In order to mimic
fat, types 100 and 110 are dissolved in deionized or soft water and gelled with calcium
ions. Different soluble calcium donors may be applied such as calcium chloride, calcium
citrate, or skimmed milk powder, the selection depending on the pH of the finished food
product. Optimum performance is achieved with the addition of 30 mg calcium ions per
gram SLENDID 100/110. A broken gel is formed which is subsequently homogenized
in a colloid mill or a homogenizer, resulting in a so-called wet preparation with a smooth
creamy consistency and a fat-like homogeneous appearance.
For most applications, a median particle size of 25 to 50 m is recommended in order
to mimic the physical and sensory characteristics of emulsified fat, and a standard dairy
homogenization, i.e., 150/50 bar is generally adequate. Figure 7C.2 shows the reduction
in particle size with a 3.72% SLENDID 100 wet preparation vs. degree of shearing,
i.e., homogenization pressure. The particle size was measured by means of laser diffraction using a Malvern Mastersizer E, reading the volume distribution.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Figure 7C.2 Particle size of SLENDID 100 wet preparation at 3.72% vs. pressure after a
single stage homogenization.

For most applications, SLENDID 100 and 110 can simply be added as a dry powder
for gelling and shearing in situ. Premixing of the SLENDID powder with other dry
ingredients in the food recipe such as sugar or starch improves dispersibility. However,
with some food applications such as meat and fish products, a separate sheared water
gel containing more than 95% water is prepared. When separately making up the wet
preparation, usage levels in the range 1.5 to 4.0% are recommended, and the final usage
level in finished food products is in the range of 0.4 to 1.5%.
The viscosity h [Pa s] vs. shear rate g [s 1] of a SLENDID 100 wet preparation at
3.72% before and after homogenization is shown in Figure 7C.3 as a log-log plot. Data
were generated using a Bohlin VOR Rheometer. Both preparations were pseudoplastic,
i.e., exhibiting reduced viscosity with increasing shear rates. With low shear rates, i.e.,
5 to 10 s1, the nonhomogenized sample had a viscosity 4 to 5 times higher (20 to 50
Pa s) than the homogenized sample (5 to 10 Pa s). However, with higher shear rates, the
difference was reduced, the viscosity of the nonhomogenized sample being only twice
that of the homogenized counterpart. SLENDID 110 showed similar trends but the
viscosity was approximately 50% higher.
SLENDID 200, a calcium salt of a HM-pectin, is an instant type of product that
may be added directly to water. The pectin does not dissolve, but rather swells instantly
into big soft particles, with an average particle size greater than 250 m. Due to the very
soft nature of the swollen particles, the original particle size is significantly reduced
during food processing. The viscosity of a range of SLENDID 200 concentrations is
depicted in Figure 7C.4. The figure illustrates that at very low concentrations, SLENDID
200 exhibits near-Newtonian behavior whereas at high concentrations, pseudoplastic behavior becomes predominant. The recommended usage level of SLENDID 200 is 0.3 to 0.8%.

7C.5 APPLICATIONS IN FOODS


SLENDID may be used in a wide range of food applications such as spreads, mayonnaises and salad dressings, processed meats, ice cream, processed cheeses, soups and
sauces, desserts, and bakery products, in which fat may be partly or fully replaced. This
section deals with the application of SLENDID in the first three product categories only.
1996 CRC Press LLC

Figure 7C.3 Viscosity vs. shear rate of SLENDID 100 wet preparation at 3.72% before and
after a two-stage homogenization (150/50 bar).

Figure 7C.4 Viscosity vs. shear rate for a range of SLENDID 200 concentrations.

7C.5.1 SPREADS
Traditional oil-continuous products for spreading contain 80% fat. When lowering the
fat content, it becomes increasingly difficult to maintain the original water-in-oil emulsion. Therefore, aqueous phase stabilizers are often added to the water phase in order to
maintain a continuous oil phase (Wilbey, 1988). The most commonly used stabilizers in
low fat spreads are milk proteins, gelatin, modified starches, carrageenans, and alginates
(Moran, 1991). Other hydrocolloids that may be used include pectin, xanthan, and locust
bean gum. In addition to the thickening and stabilizing effect, the addition of milk solids
may have a just-noticeable destabilizing effect on the water-in-oil emulsion leading to
easier phase inversion in the oral cavity.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Using SLENDID 100 it is possible to prepare oil-continuous spreads containing 20%


fat (Nielsen, 1992). In the original recipe with SLENDID 100, it was a prerequisite that
the water phase was homogenized. However, with the introduction of SLENDID 200,
the homogenization step is omitted. Type 200 swells instantly in tap water and is ready
for use. As shown in Table 7C.1, the oil phase consists of a liquid vegetable oil fraction
and a hydrogenated vegetable oil fraction in the ratio 2:1 and a blend of two emulsifiers.
For high-fat spreads, it is usually sufficient to use distilled monoglycerides. However,
with low-fat versions, a more stable emulsion is achieved by the addition of polyglycerol
polyricinoleate (PGPR). Aroma, color, vitamins, and preservatives are added optionally.
The spread is prepared according to standard processing methods using a Perfector or
Kombinator-type unit.
Table 7C.1 Use of SLENDID 200 in a Low-Fat
Spread Containing 20% Fat
Order of
addition
A
B

Ingredients
Oil phase
Hydrogenated palm oil
Soy oil
Distilled monoglycerides (emulsifier)
Polyglycerol polyricinoleate (emulsifier)
Water phase
Tap water
SLENDID 200
Salt
Total

Content
%
6.4
12.8
0.7
0.1
78.2
0.8
1.0
100.0

From Nielsen, B.U. and Hansen, K.M., Annu. Trans. Nordic Rheol.
Soc., Vol. 2, Copenhagen, 1994, 44. With permission.

Different rheological models have been used for characterizing spreads, e.g., the
Casson Model and the Herschel-Bulkley Model. It has been suggested that conventional
high-fat spreads follow the Casson equation whereas low-fat versions exhibit HerschelBulkley flow behavior (Stern and Cmolik, 1976). Good correlation has been reported
between empirical rheological data and sensory analysis (deMan et al., 1979). It has been
suggested that the yield stress has a range where an optimum spreadability is achieved.
Too high a value results in a hard, difficult-to-spread product, whereas too low a value
results in a soft and destabilized product (Rohm and Raaber, 1991; Diris, 1992).
By applying oscillatory measurements, it is possible to determine the critical shear
stress which may be thought of as being similar to the static yield stress. Stress sweeps
for two spreads prepared according to Table 7C.1 with PGPR and without PGPR added
are shown in Figure 7C.5. From the stress sweep, the critical shear stress, scrit, is determined as the shear stress s where G = 0.9G lin applies, G lin being the linear value of
the storage modulus, G before the onset of deformation. A controlled stress (CS)
rheometer of the type Haake RheoStress RS100 was used for the rheological characterization. For a more detailed discussion of the general principles of rheological analysis,
the reader is referred to Chapter 9. G lin was almost identical for the two spreads, i.e.,
40 to 50 Pa, indicating that the firmness of the spreads was comparable. However, scrit
of a PGPR-containing spread was significantly higher (128 Pa) than for its corresponding
counterpart containing only distilled monoglycerides (52 Pa). Sensory analysis confirmed
that a PGPR-containing spread was more acceptable from a spreading point of view,

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Figure 7C.5 G vs. stress for a 20% fat spread stabilized with SLENDID 200 with (0.1%)
and without polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR) added. (From Nielsen, B.U. and Hansen, K.M.,
Annu. Trans. Nordic Rheol. Soc., Vol. 2, Copenhagen, 1994, 44. With permission.)

while the spread with no PGPR was unacceptably slippery and understabilized. Additional
information on the use of different emulsifiers in low-fat spreads can be found in
Chapter 10.
Nondestructive rheological measurements have been used to characterize the meltability of low-fat spreads. By applying a temperature ramp, the melting process of the
spreads during consumption was simulated. Figure 7C.6 shows the storage modulus G
and the phase angle d as a function of temperature. It was observed that G declined
drastically at 35 to 40C indicating that a phase inversion had taken place at the temperature of the oral cavity. A perceived melting temperature may be defined as the
temperature where the storage modulus G and the loss modulus G exhibit identical
values, i.e., with the phase angle, d, being 45. Using this definition, a melting temperature of 39C for a SLENDID 200 containing spread was obtained. A similar phase
inversion temperature was found with a commercial 80% fat containing spread (Nielsen
and Hansen, 1994).
Borwankar and co-workers (1992) used a similar approach for characterizing a range
of low-fat spreads and concluded that the perceived meltability of such products correlated with the sensation of flow, i.e., the rheology, and not simply with the melting of
fat. However, the phase angle was not monitored and the melting temperature was defined
arbitrarily as corresponding to a certain value of the complex viscoelastic modulus G*.
The water droplet size in a traditional 80% fat spread is typically below 10 m.
Normally, with lower fat versions, the droplet size increases and the product is therefore
more prone to bacterial contamination. However, microscopic evaluation of a 20% fat
spread stabilized with SLENDID 200 confirmed that the water droplet size was reduced
significantly during spread processing, i.e., from a particle size above 250 m to a particle
size of approximately 25 m.
7C.5.2 MAYONNAISE
Mayonnaise is an oil-in-water emulsion. Traditionally, the oil content is 80%, and the
main ingredients in descending order are: vegetable oil, water, acetic acid, and egg yolk.
The egg yolk provides emulsifying properties and gives the pale yellow color (Holcomb

1996 CRC Press LLC

Figure 7C.6 G and d vs. temperature for a 20% fat spread with SLENDID 200. Phase
inversion temperature was 39C. (From Nielsen, B.U. and Hansen, K.M., Annu. Trans. Nordic
Rheol. Soc., Vol. 2, Copenhagen, 1994, 44. With permission.)

et al., 1990). For preservation purposes, sodium benzoate or potassium sorbate may be
added. Salt and mustard are added optionally. Whereas low-calorie mayonnaise (typically
with 30 to 40% oil) always contains external stabilizers, the full fat (80%) version may
also contain stabilizers in order to increase shelf life stability (Arnell, 1990). Typical
stabilizers are modified starch, alginates, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), locust bean
gum, guar gum, and xanthan. The latter three categories are discussed in more detail in
Chapter 9.
Using SLENDID 100, it is possible to reduce the oil content of a mayonnaise from
80% to 3%. A mayonnaise recipe containing 20% oil is given in Table 7C.2. When
reducing the oil content to 3%, it is recommended that additional external stabilizers,
e.g., xanthan and guar gum, are used. The mayonnaise is prepared according to conventional mayonnaise processing methods. Briefly, the dry ingredients are added to part of
the oil. The water phase is placed in a colloid mill of the Fryma, Koruma, or DixieCharlotte type and the dry mix is added during mixing. The remaining oil is then added
and when the product becomes homogeneous, the egg yolk and acid are added.
The rheological properties of mayonnaise may be described as Bingham plastic or
pseudoplastic with a yield stress (Figoni and Shoemaker, 1983). The Casson equation
which is typically used for characterization of melted chocolate has been found suitable
for estimation of the yield stress of mayonnaise (Lahtinen, 1986; Paredes et al., 1988).
In the literature, yield stress values in the range 40 to 50 Pa have been reported (Lahtinen,
1986). Figure 7C.7 depicts a log-log plot of shear stress vs. shear rate for two SLENDID
100-containing mayonnaises (20 and 3% oil). It is evident that the two mayonnaises
exhibited similar, pseudoplastic flow behavior. Applying the Casson equation to the data
gives yield stress values of 44 Pa and 59 Pa for the mayonnaises containing 20 and 3%
oil, respectively. Commercial mayonnaises with 80 and 40% oil gave similar yield stress
values, i.e., 61 Pa and 72 Pa, respectively.
The oil droplet size in an 80% fat mayonnaise is typically 2 to 5 m. If a mayonnaise
is not properly stabilized, the oil droplets coalesce, and the viscosity is reduced (Sherman,
1983). Accordingly, the stability of a mayonnaise emulsion may be reflected by the mean
diameter of the oil droplet in the dispersed phase. A study conducted with increasing

1996 CRC Press LLC

Table 7C.2 Use of SLENDID 100 in a Low-Fat


Mayonnaise Containing 20% Oil
Order of
addition
A

B
C
D

Ingredients
SLENDID 100
Sugar
Modified starch
Sodium caseinate
Oil
Water, color, flavor, preservative
Egg yolks
Calcium chloride
Salt
Vinegar
Mustard
Total

Content
%
1.20
4.00
3.00
2.00
20.00
57.20
4.00
0.10
1.00
7.00
0.50
100.00

Figure 7C.7 Shear stress vs. shear rate for mayonnaises stabilized with SLENDID 100 and
containing 20% or 3% oil.

addition of SLENDID 200 to a 20% oil mayonnaise has shown that the average median
particle size of the oil droplets was inversely related to the SLENDID 200 concentration,
as shown in Figure 7C.8. A control with no SLENDID added had an average oil droplet
size of approximately 40 m whereas the addition of 0.5% SLENDID resulted in
reduction in the oil droplet size down to approximately 15 m.
7C.5.3 EMULSIFIED MEAT PRODUCTS
Typical emulsified meat products are sausages and pts or meat spreads. Conventional
emulsified meat products contain relatively high amounts of fat, i.e., 25 to 35%. Two
options exist for reducing the fat content in an emulsified meat product: either introduction of an increased amount of lean meat in the recipe or substitution of the fat with

1996 CRC Press LLC

Figure 7C.8 Oil particle size vs. SLENDID 200 use levels for a mayonnaise containing 20% oil.

water. Whereas the first option gives a very firm product, the latter option ensures that the
original succulence is maintained. The choice, however, depends on national preferences.
Using SLENDID 110, it is possible to reduce the fat content in a frankfurter from
25 to 35% to 3 to 5%, as shown in Table 7C.3. When using SLENDID 110 for emulsified
meat products, it is necessary to prepare a separate water gel by homogenization or
similar process. Since the pH in a frankfurter is approximately 5.5 to 6.0, calcium citrate
is the preferred calcium donor salt. Furthermore, carrageenan is added in order to give
optimal texture and good sliceability. A wet preparation of 2.0%, resulting in a final
SLENDID 110 usage level of approximately 0.9%, was found to give optimal texture
characteristics. The matrix is processed according to normal procedures whereby meat
and texturized soy protein are added to a bowl chopper followed by phosphate, nitrite
salts, and half of the wet preparation. This is followed by carrageenan, soy isolate, and
the remaining wet preparation, and finally the starch and ascorbate. The product is cut
until the desired consistency is achieved and is then filled, dried, smoked, and cooked.
Table 7C.3 Use of SLENDID 110 in a Low-Fat
Frankfurter Formulation
Ingredients
Shank meat
Water/ice
Sodium tripolyphosphate
Nitrite salt (sodium chloride with 0.6% sodium nitrite)
Texturized soy protein
Carrageenan (GENUGEL type MB-73)
SLENDID 110 (2% wet preparation)
Soy protein
Sodium ascorbate
Potato starch
Total

1996 CRC Press LLC

Content
%
40.00
6.00
0.50
1.80
1.50
0.50
46.65
1.00
0.05
2.00
100.00

7C.6 NUTRITIONAL AND TOXICOLOGICAL ASPECTS


Pectin is characterized as a water-soluble dietary fiber (Roehrig, 1988). A characteristic
feature of dietary fiber is that it is resistant to hydrolysis by human digestive enzymes.
However, some fibers are partially degraded by intestinal bacteria in the colon. Thus,
soluble fibers are almost completely metabolized to short-chain fatty acids, methane,
carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and water.
Cummings and co-workers (1979) have suggested that pectin is completely metabolized in the human gut, whereas Mller and Kirchgessner (1985) reported an apparent
digestibility value of 79% and a metabolizability of 71%. Net energy values were
measured as 9 kJ/g digestible pectin corresponding to 7 kJ/g pectin. The net energy value
of pectin is thus only 64% of the energy value of starch digested in the small intestine.
In most countries, food legislative authorities recognize pectin as a valuable and
harmless food additive. If regulated, permitted use levels are generally in accordance
with good manufacturing practice. Pectin was evaluated and cleared toxicologically
by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) in 1981 (WHO,
1981). It was verified that there are no toxicological differences between pectins and
amidated pectins and a group ADI (Acceptable Daily Intake) not specified was established for pectins and amidated pectins.

7C.7 LEGISLATIVE AND LABELING STATUS


The identity and purity of SLENDID conforms to the internationally accepted specifications for the identity and purity of pectins (FAO, 1992; Food Chemicals Codex (FCC),
1981; EEC, 1978). At the time of writing, the FCC does not include calcium salts of
pectin; however, this regulation is expected to be amended shortly to include the calcium
salt. In the U.S., pectin is affirmed GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) as defined in
Code of Federal Regulations 184.1588 (U.S. FDA, 1986). The European Union has
adopted pectin as a food additive under the designation E440.

REFERENCES
Arnell, M., Majonns och dressing. Livsmedelsteknik 32(10), 36, 1990.
Axelos, M.A.V., Garnier, C., and Thibault, J.-F., An example of ionic complexation in biopolymers: The
pectin-calcium system. AIP Conf. Proc. 226, 569, 1991.
Borwankar, R.P., Frye, L.A., Blaurock, A.E., and Sasevich, F.J., Rheological characterization of melting
of margarines and tablespreads. J. Food Eng. 16, 55, 1992.
Christensen, S.H., Pectins, in Food Hydrocolloids, Vol. III, Glicksman, M., Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton,
FL, 1986, 205.
Cummings, J.H., Southgate, D.A.T., Branch, W.J., Wiggins, H.S.: Houston, H., Jenkins, D.J.A., Jivraj,
T., and Hill, M.J., The digestion of pectin in the human gut and its effect on calcium absorption
and large bowel function. Br. J. Nutr. 41, 477, 1979.
deMan, J.M., Dobbs, J.E., and Sherman, P., Spreadability of butter and margarine, in Food Texture and
Rheology, Sherman, P., Ed., Academic Press, London, 1979, 43.
de Vries, J.A., Rombouts, F.M., Voragen, A.G.J., and Pilnik, W., Enzymic degradation of apple pectins.
Carbohydr. Polym. 2, 25, 1982.
Diris, J., Rhologie et corps gras. Application ltude de margarines et de ptes tartiner. Rev. Fr. Corps
Gras, 39(9/10), 253, 1992.
EEC, Council Directive 78/663. Off. J. EEC 14 08 78 (plus Updates) 1978.
FAO, Food and Nutrition Paper, 52, Addendum 1, Rome, 1992, 87.
Figoni, P.I. and Shoemaker, C.F., Characterization of time dependent flow properties of mayonnaise under
steady shear. J. Texture Stud., 14(5), 431, 1983.

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Food Chemicals Codex, FCC III Monographs, 3rd ed., National Academy Press, Washington D.C.
(including supplements), 1981, 215.
Glicksman, M., Hydrocolloids and the search for the Oily Grail. Food Technol. 45(10), 94, 1991.
Hoefler, A.C., Sleap, J.A., and Trudso, J.E., Assignee Hercules Inc., U.S., Fat Substitute. U.S. Patent
5,324,531, 1994.
Holcomb, D.N., Ford, L.D., and Martin. R.W., Jr., Dressings and sauces, in Food Emulsions, 2nd ed.,
Larsson, K. and Friberg, S.E., Eds., Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 1990, 327.
Lahtinen, S., Physical effects of salt mixtures in mayonnaise. J. Food Qual., 9(1), 1, 1986.
May, C.D., Industrial pectins: Sources, production and applications. Carbohydr. Polym. 12, 79, 1990.
Moran, D., Developments in yellow fat spreads. Chem. Ind., 11, 379, 1991.
Morris, E.R., Industrial hydrocolloids, in The Structure, Dynamics and Equilibrium Properties of Colloidal Systems, Bloor, D.M. and Wyn-Jones, E., Eds., Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands,
1990, 449.
Morris, E.R., Rees, D.A., Thom, D., and Boyd, J., Chiroptical and stoichiometric evidence of a specific,
primary dimerisation process in alginate gelation. Carbohydr. Res. 66, 145, 1978.
Mller, H.L. and Kirchgessner, M., Energetische Verwertung von Pektin bei Sauen. Z. Tierphysiol.
Tierernhrung Futtermittelkunde, 54, 14, 1985.
Nelson, D.B., Smit, C.J.B., and Wiles, R., Commercially important pectic substances, in Food Colloids,
Graham, H.D., Ed., Avi, Westport, CT, 1977, 418.
Nielsen, B.U., Low Fat Spreads SLENDIDTM gives splendid results. FIE Conference Proceedings,
Dsseldorf, Nov. 2527, 1992, 202.
Nielsen, B.U. and Hansen, K.M., Rheological characterization of low fat spreads. Annu. Trans. Nordic
Rheol. Soc., Vol. 2, Copenhagen, June 13, 1994, 44.
Palmer, K.J. and Hartzog, M.B., An X-ray diffraction investigation of sodium pectate. J. Am. Chem. Soc.
67, 2122, 1945.
Paredes, M.D., Rao, M.A., and Bourne, M.C., Rheological characterization of salad dressings. 1. Steady
shear, thixotropy and effect of temperature. J. Texture Stud. 19(2), 247, 1988.
Pilnik, W. and Voragen, A.G.J., Gelling agents (pectins) from plants for the food industry. Adv. Plant
Cell Biochem. Biotechnol. 1, 219, 1992.
Powell, D.A., Morris, E.R., Gidley, M.J., and Rees, D.A., Conformations and interactions of pectins. II.
Influence of residue sequence on chain association in calcium pectate gels. J. Mol. Biol. 155, 517,
1982.
Pszczola, D.E., Pectins functionality finds use in fat-replacer market. Food Technol. 45(12), 116, 1991.
Renard, C.M.G.C., Thibault, J.-F., Liners, F., and Van Cutsem, P., Immunological probing of pectins
isolated in situ. Acta Bot. Neerl. 42(2), 199, 1993.
Roehrig, K.L., The physiological effects of dietary fiber A Review. Food Hydrocoll. 2 (1), 1, 1988.
Rohm, H. and Raaber, S., Hedonic spreadability optima of selected edible fats, J. Sensory Stud. 6, 81,
1991.
Rolin, C., Pectin, in Industrial Gums, 3rd ed., Whistler, R.L. and BeMiller, J.N., Eds., Academic Press,
1993, 257.
Rolin, C. and de Vries, J.A., Pectin, in Food Gels, Harrris, P., Ed., Elsevier Applied Science, London
and New York, 1990, 401.
Sherman, P., Rheological properties of emulsions, in Encyclopedia of Emulsion Technology, Becher, P.,
Ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1983, 405.
Stern, P. and Cmolik, J., Study of rheological properties of margarine. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 53, 644, 1976.
U.S. FDA Federal Register, paragraph 184.1588, 437, 1986.
Vincent, A., Food texture additives. Proc. Inst. Food Sci. Technol. 3, 107, 1986.
Walkinshaw, M.D and Arnott, S., Conformations and interactions of pectins. I. Models for junction zones
in pectinic acid and calcium pectate gels. J. Mol. Biol. 153, 1075, 1981.
WHO, Evaluation of certain Food Additives. Tech. Rep. Ser., 669, Geneva 1981.
Wilbey, R.A., Technical problems in the development of low-calorie dairy products, in Low-Calorie
Products (Birch, G.G. and Lindley, M.G., Eds.), Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, Ltd., Cambridge 1988, 31.

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Chapter

Microparticulated Proteins
as Fat Mimetics
Norman S. Singer
CONTENTS
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4

Introduction and Historical Perspective


Production Process and Patent Status
Chemical Composition
Physical and Functional Properties
8.4.1 Stability of Microparticulated Protein Particles (MP3)
8.4.2 Sensory Properties of MP3
8.4.3 The Rheology of Creaminess
8.4.4 Microparticulate Concentration
8.4.5 Microstructure of MP3
8.5 Interactions with Other Food Ingredients
8.6 Applications in Foods
8.7 Nutritional and Toxicological Aspects
8.8 Legislative and Labeling Status
References

8.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE


Microparticulated protein is a natural ingredient which owes its efficacy in replacing fat
in foods to the novel physical form in which it has been caused to gel. This gel is in the
form of microparticles, each about one thousandth of a millimeter in diameter. Each
microparticle is composed of many millions of intact protein molecules (Tang et al.,
1989; Dudley et al., 1989). The use of protein microparticles has made it possible to
retain traditional sensory qualities while substantially reducing the fat content of foods
(Singer and Moser, 1993).

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What we are all addressing in this text is the need to resolve one of the powerful
approach-avoidance conflicts which now confronts the western world: enjoyment or
health. Mankind seems to be unique in its treatment of ingestion as a personal pleasure
which when shared, becomes a basis for social communion. We are the only animal that
fusses over the preparation of its food. With the exception of such curiosities as the
delicate precision with which a lobster eats a crab, animals simply ingest their food. For
mankind, it is perhaps the second greatest source of pleasure, and so it has over the
millenia become an art form. At a time when so many other pleasures have so suddenly
become forbidden, we cannot expect the consuming public to easily surrender this one.
The now-familiar message from health care associations urging us to eat a more
healthful, low-fat diet seems to be understood by consumers. Yet, they (we) do not seem
ready to abandon traditional enjoyments. One need only look at the large numbers of
low-fat products on the shelves of supermarkets to appreciate just how strong the consuming publics hope is that they can eat more healthfully without having to resort to a
more primitive diet.
However, this hope works against a powerful counter-current expectation that food
which is good for you probably tastes bad (Drewnowski, 1990a; Rose, 1991). It must
be observed that much of the low-fat food offered to consumers on those shelves can
only reinforce this negative expectation. Further, the recent experiments which have
shown that people can learn to accept a more spartan diet (Mattes, 1993) did not measure
the effect of this regimen upon the panelists estimation of their quality of life. We must
not ignore the fact that globally, food nourishes the soul as well as the body.
The task which confronts the food industry then is nothing less than learning how to
produce, in a low-fat language, the kind of sensory poetry upon which food companies
were founded. This language includes the alphabet of new ingredients which have been
made available to address the very real health concerns of consumers.
The capacity of protein microparticles to confer sensory impressions of fatty emulsions upon fat-free foods was a serendipitous discovery (Singer et al., 1988), which
proved to be the bellwether for the recent food industry campaign against high-fat
contents. Simplesse, the product which arose from that discovery, is made by the
NutraSweet Company. It was the first fat replacer to be affirmed by the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration as GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) (FDA, 1990).

8.2 PRODUCTION PROCESS AND PATENT STATUS


Proteins have been caused to gel in this novel physical form by what amounts to a simple
rearrangement of traditional food processing operations. As solutions of thermally coagulable proteins are heated, the constituent molecules denature (unfold), and then proceed
to aggregate. The process of molecular aggregation begins with dimers, and with continued heating can proceed to the point where all of the molecules in the protein pool
are incorporated. However, we found that this natural tendency to aggregate can be halted
in the micrometer-range by the imposition of shearing forces of adequate intensity during
the heating. The resulting process can best be described as the simultaneous (rather than
sequential) performance of the unit-processes of homogenization and pasteurization
(Singer, 1992).
Patents are in place which cover the microparticulate state and the microparticulate
product (Singer et al., 1988), the products arising from the use of the microparticulated
proteins (Singer et al., 1989, 1991, 1992a, 1992b, and 1992c), as well as the process of
microparticulation (Singer, Speckman, and Weber, 1989).

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8.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION


The most popular form of microparticulated protein starts with whey protein concentrate.
As a consequence of dedicated development efforts, this product is now made from whey
protein concentrate (WPC) without adjuvants (Fang and Snook, 1991). Thus, since it is
compositionally the same as WPC, differing only in its physical form, this ingredient
falls under the regulatory standard of identity for WPC and can be so labeled. Either 35
or 50% protein WPCs can be used as the starting material.

8.4 PHYSICAL AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES


Microparticulated protein (MPP) functions as a surrogate dispersed phase, replacing the
fat droplets which conventionally provide dispersed phase functions. The nature of these
dispersed phase functions will be familiar to those who have worked with such conventional dispersed phase systems as creams, mayonnaise, chocolate, frankfurters, pasta,
etc. However, they have not yet been generalized, and thus are not conveniently described
or referenced.
8.4.1 STABILITY OF MICROPARTICULATED PROTEIN PARTICLES (MP3)
In order for the dispersed phase functions to confer their beneficial effects on food
systems, the microparticulated protein particles (MP3) which provide them must be stable
to all of the stresses which can be anticipated in the processing, handling, storage, and
use of the finished product. At the same time, it seems to this author that a key requirement
for such an ingredient to be considered natural is that it be digested and used by the
body in a manner essentially identical to the unstructured material from which it was
made. Evidence that MP3 can satisfy these requirements can be found in the literature.
The stability of MP3 toward pH, within the range of pH 3 to 7, has been reported (Clark,
1994). As shown in Figure 8.1, MP3 derived from whey protein have zero zeta-potential
at about pH 4.6, that is, the net surface charge of the particles is zero at that pH. Yet
there is no tendency for the particles to aggregate even at zero net charge. The voluminosity or the interaction of the particles with water actually reaches a minimum at the
pH of zero charge repulsion (Figure 8.1). The decreased voluminosity results from the
decreased charge repulsion within the particles which allows the hydrophobic interactions
to draw the MP3 subunits together and thus cause each particle to contract slightly.
Stability toward heat in the range 10 to 95C has also been reported (Clark et al., 1992).
That the identity of the protein is not changed by the process of microparticulation
was reported by Singer and co-workers (1990) while the conservation of protein quality
was reported by Dudley and co-workers (1989), and by Erdman (1990). Therefore, it
can be concluded that controlling the size of the particle into which proteins aggregate
is a physical, rather than a chemical change.
8.4.2 SENSORY PROPERTIES OF MP3
The numerous functions of fat in food have been extensively reviewed in recent years.
Papers by Lucca and Tepper (1994), and Best (1992) are examples of this body of
literature. As these reviews make amply clear, fat provides a variety of functions in
traditional foods. Of these, we are most interested in creaminess. While this is an
outstanding characteristic of many very pleasing foods, it is not yet well understood. In
early investigations of the nature of creaminess in soups, creaminess was identified as
a property which has defied rheological description (Wood, 1974). What was clear
even then was that smoothness is an essential component of creaminess. In this paper,

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Figure 8.1 Stability of whey protein microparticles to changes in pH. (From Clark, D. R., Bringe,
N., Bishay, I., and Desai, N., IDF Seminar, Protein and Fat Globule Modification, Munich, August
1992, The NutraSweet Co., Deerfield, IL. With permission.)

we therefore examine what is known about both smoothness and creaminess, before we
examine how these effects can be achieved by the use of MP3.
It has been reported that people sense smoothness by rubbing food between the tongue
and the palate (Cussler et al., 1979). Wood (1974) had cogently observed that powderiness gave a strong anti-creaminess impression. In this observation, he agrees with
Prentices effort to define terms for the creamy impression (Prentice, 1973). Both of
these investigators point to a combination of the impressions of viscosity and sliminess
as being important in conveying the sense of creaminess.
In later work, Cussler and colleagues (1979) and later, Kokini (1987) proposed that
creaminess is a function of both smoothness and thickness. This would seem to place
them in substantial disagreement with the earlier work. However, they define smoothness
as inversely proportional to the friction force between the tongue and the roof of the
mouth (Cussler et al., 1979). The author of this chapter finds that this definition conveys
more the sense of lubricity (or sliminess) and thus supports the earlier proposals of Wood
(1974) and Prentice (1973). This apparent difference in definitive focus may have arisen
from the fact that Kokinis sensory panelists were reported to have been given the term
smoothness and asked to scale the intensities of the various solutions with which they
were presented (Kokini, 1987).
We have followed the lead of Stevens who demonstrated that smoothness is approximately the inverse of roughness (Stevens and Harris, 1962). These researchers (working
with blind manual assessments of bonded abrasives) found that perceived roughness
increased as a power function of particle size, and that the perception of smoothness was
approximately the inverse of roughness. While this earlier work provided valuable direction, the author of this chapter found two surprising discontinuities in the oral sensing
of particulates (Singer et al., 1988). The first of these relates to smoothness and the
second to the sense of substantialness. These two concepts are discussed in more detail
below.
We found that particles larger than about 3 m in aqueous dispersion are sensed as
powdery, chalky, gritty, etc. (with increasing particle size). In this range, the relationship
between particle size and roughness seems to follow the pattern described by Stevens.
On the other hand, particles smaller than about 2 m are simply not sensed as particles.
Instead, the tongue senses the overall characteristics of the fluid MP3 dispersion as smooth

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and rich, which is more typically associated with oil-in-water (o/w) emulsions such as
full-fat mayonnaise. In the realm of food microparticulates, therefore, we have defined
smoothness as the absence of particulate roughness (Singer et al., 1988). For evidence
of this upper discontinuity (sensory threshold), we can compare the scanning electron
micrographs shown in Figures 8.2 a and b. Both specimens consist of acid-cooked whey
protein. The upper specimen represents a product which has been sold for over 30 years
as a nutritional supplement and which has been described as having a gritty mouthfeel.
The lower specimen is Simplesse which is characteristically smooth. The small size
and round shape of Simplesse make possible the creaminess which is so characteristic
of this class of ingredient (Singer, 1992).

Figure 8.2 Scanning electron micrographs (SEM) of acid-cooked whey protein demonstrating
the upper threshold of the unique interval. The upper SEM shows a product which has been
sold for over 30 years as a nutritional substitute, and which has been described as gritty. The
lower SEM is of Simplesse which is characteristically smooth. The only differences between
the two are size and shape. (From Singer, N. S., ADPI/CDR Proc. of the Dairy Products Technical
Conference, Chicago, April 2526, 85, 1990. With permission.)

We found that while suspended particles larger than about 0.5 m convey to the taster
an impression which we have called substantialness, dispersions of particles which are
smaller than about 0.1 m impart none of this sense of substance. This proposed term
may be synonymous with the terms body and richness. We believe that consumers
refer to the absence of substantialness as wateriness (Singer, 1992). Experiential
evidence of this lower threshold can be found in the sensory responses to skim milk.
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Figure 8.3 Transmission electron micrograph (TEM) of skim milk showing the uniformity of
native casein micelles whose size is below the optimal for conveying a sense of substantialness.
(From M. Kalab, Ottawa, Canada. With permission.)

The micelles of casein are predominantly smaller than 0.2 m, as shown in Figure 8.3.
This size is below that which is required for optimal creaminess giving rise to the watery
taste of skim milk, as compared with the rich taste of regular milk (Singer, 1992). Further
experiential evidence is unfortunately readily available in the marketplace in those lowfat foods in which the dispersed phase functions have been overlooked.
Microparticles lying in the narrow range between the two sensory thresholds described
above convey the impression of substantialness without conveying the feeling of particulateness. This combination of sensory properties, termed the unique interval, makes
it possible for the net perception to be interpreted as creaminess (Singer, 1992). These
relationships are graphically represented in Figure 8.4.
In exploring the MP3 phenomenon, we tasted and microscopically examined dispersions of many foods and other materials, as discussed in more detail later in this chapter.
In the course of these explorations, we observed that even when ultrafine particles fell
within the unique interval but were needle-shaped, rod-shaped, or were characterized by
angular surface topology, they would not flow smoothly in the crucial tongue/palate test,
but tended to pack into log jams, whereupon they were sensed as much larger masses.
Even though transient, this impression was unpleasant, and distinctly foreign to creamy
foods, and so the illusion of creaminess could not be established. We therefore generalized
from these experiences that, to be effective in fat substitution, MP3 could not depart from
the spheroidal (Civille, 1990; Singer, 1992).
8.4.3 THE RHEOLOGY OF CREAMINESS
Some pioneering efforts in the rheological characterization of creaminess have been
reported recently (Bishay and Clark, 1994; Clark et al., 1992). In this work, illustrated
in Figure 8.5, it has been demonstrated that dispersions of MP3 paralleled the rheological
character of a classical emulsion (whipping cream) very closely. All of the products
tested had been prepared according to manufacturers instructions and were presented
for testing at their recommended usage levels. Where the manufacturer had recommended
a range of concentrations, the median value was used. The shapes of the flow curves in
Figure 8.5 are more revealing of rheological character than the magnitudes of the curves.

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Figure 8.4 Graphical representation of the unique interval, the fortuitous span between the
two oral sensory discontinuities which define the relationship between microparticulate size and
sensory impression. (From Singer, N. S. and Dunn, J. M., J. Am. Coll. Nutr., 9, 388, 1990a.
With permission.)

The shape of the flow curve for whipping cream, used as a standard for creamy rheology,
showed that it flowed smoothly even at the lowest shear rates and that it thinned with
increasing shear rate. The Simplesse sample behaved in a similar way. By contrast, a
variety of gum and starch products which are being promoted as fat replacers (including
the colloidal microcrystalline cellulose Avicel CL611 [see Chapter 7A]; the potato
maltodextrin Paselli SA2 [see Chapter 6B]; and the oat maltodextrin/ -glucan Oatrim
3) deviated from this behavior. The shapes of the flow curves of all the fat replacers
other than Simplesse suggested that they may be very useful in controlling water, but
that they could not simulate creaminess (Figure 8.5).
8.4.4 MICROPARTICULATE CONCENTRATION
It should be obvious to anyone skilled in the art (and who has read this far) that one or
two MP3/cc are not enough to generate a creamy impression any better than would be
a few globules of fat/cc. While the actual concentration required in any application needs
to be determined on a case-by-case basis, the number of microparticles required to create
the effect is typically in the order of 107 to 109/cc. The very large numbers of microparticles contained in Simplesse allow relatively small amounts of protein to replace
relatively larger amounts of fat (Singer, 1992).
To summarize the effects of the dispersed phase, we have seen that the size, shape,
uniformity, and concentration, as well as the nonaggregated nature of these particles are
characteristics which, working together, enable these particles to replace fat as the
dispersed phase of o/w emulsion products (Singer and Dunn, 1990b). While other

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Figure 8.5 Rheological comparison of the shapes of the flow curves of whipping cream,
Simplesse, and four commercial fat replacers or fat-sparing ingredients. (From Clark, D. R.,
Bringe, N., Bishay, I., and Desai, N., IDF Seminar, Protein and Fat Globule Modification, Munich,
August 1992, The Nutrasweet Co., Deerfield, IL. With permission).

properties of MP3 have also been identified which contribute to their effectiveness in
replacing fat in foods, they cannot be disclosed at this time.
8.4.5 MICROSTRUCTURE OF MP3
The microstructure of MP3 has been intensively examined by means of light microscopy,
electron microscopy (both scanning and transmission EM), immunogold staining (Singer
and Dunn, 1990a) and more recently by means of atomic force microscopy, as exemplified
in Figure 8.6 (Bringe and Clark, 1993). Of all the microscopic techniques, the latter
entails the least risk of artifactual distortion. The findings of all of these techniques agree
that the MP3 in Simplesse are spheroidal aggregations of protein molecules which are
uniform in size and which are themselves not further aggregated.
While the techniques of scanning and transmission electron microscopy have been
used to examine the ultrastructure of food products for more than three decades, the first
formal examination of the microparticulate state in a range of foods was reported in
1990 by Kalab. Kalabs investigation revealed that a considerable variety of fine particles
can be found in conventional foods (Kalab, 1990). The fine structure of meat, for example,
is composed of microfibrils of myosin. Mammalian milks contain an abundance of casein
in micellar form (Figure 8.3). In leguminous seeds, the storage protein is commonly
found in the form of protein bodies. The form of these fine particles may change when
the foods which contain them are processed prior to consumption. For example, when
meat is processed to form a hot dog (frankfurter), the fibrils aggregate into a globular
form, embedded in a reticulum characteristic of gels. The textural variety of dairy foods
can be seen to arise at least in part from the extent and nature of aggregation of the
casein micelles. In yogurt, the micelles of casein can be seen to be connected in a tenuous
network which correlates well with the tender gel which characterizes this product
(Figure 8.7), while in cream cheese, which is much firmer, the casein micelle network
is more substantial. In addition, the micelles in cream cheese can be seen to be concentrated

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Figure 8.6 Atomic force micrographs of MP3 (Simplesse) showing their spheroidal form.
(From The Nutrasweet Co., Deerfield, IL. With permission.)

in the membranes around the abundant fat globules. In ripened cheeses like cheddar, the
casein micelles have completely lost their identity, their constituent protein molecules
having aggregated into a plastic continuum (Figure 8.8). From this we can see that
aggregations of fine particles underlie many familiar food textures. In contrast to these
fine particulate structures, MP3 are uniformly spheroidal, of a strikingly narrow size range
(about 1 m in diameter) and entirely unconnected, as shown in Figure 8.9 (Dunn, 1989).
We can conclude from Kalabs report (1990) that while microparticulated proteins
occur naturally in foods, they are not found in the necessary size, shape, and abundance
to function as fat mimetics. Another study of the structure and function of protein
microparticulates further supported the earlier empirical finding that the size and shape
of the particles were essential in providing fat-like mouthfeel (Civille, 1990).

8.5 INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER FOOD INGREDIENTS


Ten years of experience with applications of MP3 have revealed that this ingredient is
extraordinarily compatible with a wide variety of food ingredients. The most important
interaction appears to be the synergy observed between MP3 and the other ingredients
which are required to complete the illusion. Once an effective concentration of a suitable
MP3 has been incorporated into a low-fat food, other ingredients are usually required to
complement or complete the illusion of high-fat content in order to achieve the highest
consumer satisfaction. These ingredients are familiar to formulators who are accustomed
to the use of the full palette of food materials normally used to adjust viscosity, set,
handling properties, mouthfeel, and flavor (Singer, 1992).

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Figure 8.7 Scanning electron micrograph of yogurt showing the extensive reticular matrix
which connects essentailly all of the casein micelles and which is responsible for the characteristic texture of the unstirred product. (From M. Kalab, Ottawa, Canada. With permission.)

Figure 8.8 Transmission electron micrograph of a low-fat cheddar cheese prepared with Simplesse and aged for 6 weeks showing the amorphous continuum into which the casein micelles
have formed by the cheesemaking process. The intact and separate identity of MP3 which serve
as a surrogate dispersed phase replacing butterfat globules is also shown. (From The Nutrasweet
Co. Deerfield, IL. With permission.)

One of the most daunting challenges in fat replacement is replication of the flavors
of the traditional high-fat products. We have become accustomed to not only the specific
flavors of certain fats in our foods, but to the shape of the flavors arising from fatty
foods. Take away the fat, and the flavor changes. The new flavor profile, being different,
is frequently disappointing. Although the flavor industry has responded well to this
problem, the flavor of many low-fat foods remains disappointing (Drewnowski, 1990b).
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Figure 8.9 Light micrograph showing MP3 (Simplesse) at a concentration of 1.5% in water
(before deposition) and demonstrating size, shape, uniformity, and the individual or unconnected
nature of the microparticles. (From Singer, N. S. and Dunn, J. M., J. Am. Coll. Nutr., 9, 388,
1990a. With permission.)

A tool which should not be overlooked in the quest for a realistic flavor profile in
low-fat foods is the way in which the chemistry of a fat substitute itself causes it to
interact with flavoring materials. Two studies out of a series conducted by Gary Reineccius at the University of Minnesota (Schirle-Keller et al., 1992; Schirle-Keller et al.,
1994 [see also Chapter 4, Section 4.6.4 for additional details on this work]) and described
by Clark (1994) in the context of further work (Reineccius, 1994) can serve as a Rosetta
stone. The data presented in Figure 8.10 is a compilation of the above studies as presented
by Clark (1994) and shows interactions between pairs of model systems: a model flavor
system and a model fat/fat replacer system. The model flavor system consisted of a 0.5%
solution of members of a homologous series of aldehyde aroma compounds in propylene
glycol. The model fat/fat replacer system consisted of water in which lipid (corn oil) or
a fat replacer and emulsifier (Tween 60 at 0.5%) were thoroughly distributed. A control
was prepared in which water replaced the fat or the fat replacer. The fat replacers studied
included Simplesse 100 at 5%, Simplesse 300 at 10% (to achieve the same protein
levels as with Simplesse 100), Slendid at 2% (level of addition constrained by very
high viscosity), Stellar at 5%, Oatrim at 5% and Paselli SA2 at 5%. The model flavor
system was presented to the model fat/fat replacer system at a level of 2% and mixed
by hand. Aliquots of this mixture were then transferred to headspace vials and stored at
4C for subsequent testing. It can be seen from Figure 8.10 that as the aldehyde chain

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Figure 8.10 Interaction of a series of flavors (aliphatic aldehydes) with a group of commercial
fat replacers. A corn oil emulsion was used as reference. (From data compiled by Clark (1994),
The Nutrasweet Co., Deerfield, IL. With permission.)

length increased, the two MP3 ingredients (Simplesse 100 and Simplesse 300) behaved
more like the corn oil emulsion than the carbohydrate-based fat replacers. From this, we
would expect the flavor arising from the use of Simplesse to be more fat-like than that
obtained from the use of the carbohydrate-based fat replacers examined, assuming that
no other remedial steps are taken.

8.6 APPLICATIONS IN FOODS


The first commercial use of MP3 in the U.S. was in the fat-free ice cream Simple
Pleasures. A comparison of the structure of this product with a full-fat ice cream is shown
in Figure 8.11. This product demonstrated that it is feasible to produce foods which are
both fat-free and great tasting if the dispersed phase functions of fat globules are effectively replaced. Many other MP3-based products have been brought to the market,
including low-fat cheese spreads (Kaukauna), low-fat cheesecakes (Elis), fat-free frozen
novelties (Eskimo Pie), low-fat natural cheeses, including Cheddar (Cabot), Colby, muenster, and Monterey Jack (Kroeger and White Clover), and ricotta and mozzarella (Falbo).
The development of the low-fat mozzarella made possible the production of low-fat pizza
(Home Run Inn). Internationally, MP3 has been used to produce a fat-free butter spread
in Ireland and a line of fat-free frozen desserts in Finland (Singer, 1992). Recently, it
has been reported that MP3 has been effectively applied in the production of low-fat
baked goods (Corliss, 1992).

8.7 NUTRITIONAL AND TOXICOLOGICAL ASPECTS


Rigorous scientific examination has demonstrated that the highly nutritive quality of the
proteins is unchanged during Simplesse production. The protein particles have been

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Figure 8.11 Transmission electron micrographs of full-fat ice cream (left) and a fat-free ice
cream made with Simplesse (MP3, right), demonstrating how MP3 can be used as a surrogate
dispersed phase to replace the fat globules (F). (From Singer, N. S. and Dunn, J. M., J. Am.
Coll. Nutr., 9, 388, 1990a. With permission.)

subjected to extensive analyses by independent research investigators in an evaluation


more typical of the pharmaceutical industry than the food industry. The organization of
the protein molecules in the particles was examined by transmission electron microscopy
and immunogold staining as described earlier (Singer and Dunn, 1990b). The identity
of the constituent proteins was examined by gel electrophoresis (Tang et al., 1989), amino
acid assays (Dudley et al., 1989), protein efficiency ratios (Dudley et al., 1989), and in
vitro allergenicity tests (Sampson, 1990). All of these examinations confirmed that the
amino acid sequence and three-dimensional structure of the proteins were unchanged by
the microparticulation process. The only difference was in the physical way in which
the protein molecules aggregated (Singer and Moser, 1993).
Replacement of unwanted fat in the diet with protein is an excellent nutritional
exchange. When fats are metabolized, the energy derived from 1 g is approximately 9
kcal. Proteins and carbohydrates are digested by different reactions and contain less
energy; 1 g of either protein or carbohydrate is approximately equivalent to 4 kcal (Stryer,
1988). Hence, the exchange of protein or carbohydrate for fat is an excellent way to
reduce both caloric intake, and the percentage of calories derived from fat. In those
products where MP3 replaces animal fat, a significant reduction in saturated fat and
cholesterol content is also achieved.
It should be remembered that people who are allergic to milk proteins can be expected
to be allergic to MP3 made from those proteins. Studies of the antibody responses of
patients allergic to cows milk proteins indicate that allergic individuals had no greater
antibody response to proteins in the Simplesse samples than to the proteins from cows
milk (Sampson, 1990).

8.8 LEGISLATIVE AND LABELING STATUS


In 1990, the FDA affirmed MP3 (Simplesse) prepared from egg white and/or skim milk
to be GRAS for use in frozen desserts (FDA, 1990). A second form of Simplesse
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prepared from whey protein concentrate with no adjuvants was approved by the FDA in
August 1991 for use in a wide range of food applications. Labeling for the latter, more
popular version of Simplesse is easily accomplished since it conforms to the U.S.
Standard of Identity for whey protein concentrate and can be so labeled. The legislative
and labeling position of Simplesse is similar in Europe and the reader is referred to
Chapter 5 for a more detailed discussion of some of the specific European issues involved
in its approval for use in foods.

REFERENCES
Best, D. A., Fat substitutes: Finding method in the madness, Prep. Foods, 162, 21, 1992.
Bishray, I.E. and Clark, D.R., The rheological characterization of microparticulated fat substitutes, Paper
No. 55 of the Division of Agricultural and Food Chemistry of the 207th National Meeting of the
American Chemical Society, San Diego, March 1317, 1994.
Bringe, N. A., Dry microparticulated protein product, International Patent Appl. WO 93/07761, 1993.
Bringe, N. A. and Clark, D. R., Simplesse formation and properties, Science for the Food Industry of
the 21st Century, Yalpani, M., Ed., ATL Press, Mount Prospect, IL, 1993, chap. 5.
Civille, G. V., The sensory properties of products made with microparticulated protein, J. Am. Coll. Nutr.,
9, 427, 1990.
Clark, D. R.Fat replacers and fat substitutes, IFT; Ingredient Technology Short Course, Chicago, May,
1994.
Clark, D. R., Conversion of whey protein to microparticulated fat substitute, Food Science and Nutrition
Colloquium, Cornell University, New York, May, 1993.
Clark, D. R., Bringe, N., Bishay, I., and Desai, N., Rheological characterization of microparticulated fat
substitutes and their contribution to creaminess, IDF Seminar, Protein and Fat Globule Modification,
Munich, August 1992.
Corliss, G. A., Protein-based fat substitutes in bakery foods, AIB Tech. Bull., 14, 10, 1992.
Cussler, E. L., Kokini, J., Weinheimer, R., and Moskowitz, H., Food texture in the mouth, Food Technol.,
33, 89, 1979.
Drewnowski, A., The new fat replacements, a strategy for reducing fat consumption., Post Grad. Med.,
87, 111, 1990a.
Drewnowski, A., Dietary fats: perceptions and preferences, J. Am. Coll. Nutr., 9, 431, 1990b.
Dudley, R., et al., Microparticulation of protein in Simplesse does not alter protein efficiency ratio,
FASEB, March, 1989.
Dunn, J. M., Electron microscopic characterization of microparticulated protein (Simplesse), FASEB,
March, 1989.
Erdman, J. W., The quality of microparticulated protein, J. Am. Coll. Nutr., 9, 398, 1990.
Fang, C. S. and Snook, R., Proteinaceous fat substitute, International Patent Application, WO 91/17665,
November, 1991.
FDA, Microparticulated protein product 21 CFR 184.1498, 1990, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C.
Kalab, M., Microparticulate protein in foods., J. Am. Coll. Nutr., 9, 374, 1990.
Kokini, J. L., The physical basis of liquid food texture, J. Food Eng., 6, 51, 1987.
Kokini, J. L., Kadane, J. B., and Cussler, E. L., Liquid texture perceived in the mouth, J. Texture Stud.,
8, 195, 1977.
Kretchmer, N., Summary: microparticulated protein, J. Am. Coll. Nutr., 9, 371, 1990.
Lucca, P. A. and Tepper, B. J., Fat replacers and the functionality of fat in foods, Trends Food Sci. Technol.,
5, 12, 1994.
Mattes, R., Fat preference and adherence to a reduced-fat diet, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 57, 373, 1993.
Morse, R. E., Singer, N. S., Fat replacers, Kirk-Othmer Encycloped. Chem. Technol., 10, 239, 1994.
Prentice, J. H., Terminology of the texture of cream, J. Texture Stud., 4 154, 1973.
Reineccius, G.A., Personal communication, 1994.
Rose, F., If it feels good, it must be bad, Fortune, p. 91, Oct., 1991.
Sampson, H. A. and Cooke, S. K., Potential allergenicity-antigenicity of microparticulated egg and cows
milk proteins, J. Am. Coll. Nutr., 9, 410, 1990.

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Schirle-Keller, J.P., Chang, H.H., and Reineccius, G.A., Interaction of flavor compounds with microparticulated proteins, J. Food Sci., 57, 1448, 1992.
Schirle-Keller, J.P., Reineccius, G.A., and Hatchwell, L.C., Flavor interactions with fat replacers: Effect
of oil level, J. Food Sci. 59, 813, 1994.
Sherman, P., Hydrocolloid solutions and gels. Sensory evaluations and their dependance on rheology,
Prog. Food Nutr. Sci., 6, 269, 1982.
Singer, N. S., Simplesse: All natural fat substitute and the dairy industry, ADPI/CDR Proc. of the Dairy
Products Technical Conference, Chicago, April 2526, 1990, 85.
Singer, N. S., Simplesse, Advanced Food Ingredients Symposium, Rutgers University, New Brunswick,
March, 1992.
Singer, N.S. and Dunn, J.M., Protein microparticulation: The principle and the process, presented at a
conference on Nutritional and Functional Properties of Microparticulated Protein, Berkeley,
November 27, 1989.
Singer, N. S. and Dunn, J. M., Protein microparticulation: The principle and the process, J. Am. Coll.
Nutr., 9, 388, 1990a.
Singer, N. S. and Dunn, J. M., Microparticulated protein: A structural analog of the water-in-oil emulsion,
Presented as Paper #46, IFT, Anaheim, June, 1990b.
Singer, N. S., Dunn, J. M., Tang, P., and Chang, H. H., Conservation of protein identity after microparticulation, Presented as Paper #685, IFT, Anaheim, June, 1990.
Singer, N. S. and Desai, N., Structure and function of microparticulated proteins in low fat products,
Presented as Paper #62, IFT, New Orleans, June 1992.
Singer, N. S. and Moser, R. H., Microparticulated proteins as fat substitutes, Low Calorie Foods Handbook: Altschul, A. M., Ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1993, chap. 9.
Singer, N. S.,Yamamato, S., and Latella, J., Protein product base, U.S. Patent 4,734,287, 1988.
Singer, N. S., Wilcox, R., Podolski, J. S., Chang, H. H., Pookote, S., Dunn, J. M., and Hatchwell, L.,
Cream substitute ingredient and food products, U.S. Patent 4,985,270, 1991.
Singer, N. S., Wilcox, R., and Podolski, J. S., Frozen dessert, U.S. Patent 4,855,156, 1989.
Singer, N. S., Yamamato, S., and Latella, J., Viscous salad dressing, U.S. Patent 5,139,811, 1992a.
Singer, N. S., Latella, J., and Yamamoto, S., Reduced fat yogurt, U.S. Patent 5,096,731, 1992b.
Singer, N. S., Latella, J., and Yamamoto, S., Reduced fat sour cream, U.S. Patent 5,096,730, 1992c.
Singer, N. S., Speckman, J., and Weber, B., Fluid processor apparatus, U.S. Patent 4,828,396, 1989.
Stevens, S. S., and Harris, J. R., The scaling of subjective roughness and smoothness, J. Exp. Psychol.,
64, 489, 1962.
Stryer, L., Generation and storage of metabolic energy, Biochemistry, 3rd ed., W.H. Freeman & Co., New
York, 1988, 313.
Tang, P. S., Chang, H. H., Dunn, J. M., and Singer, N. S., A gel electrophoretic study of microparticulated
protein (Simplesse), FASEB, March, 1989.
Wood, F. W., An approach to understanding creaminess, Die Starke, 26, 127, 1974.

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Chapter

The Use of Hydrocolloid


Gums as Fat Mimetics
Stuart M. Clegg
CONTENTS
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Hydrocolloid Functionality in Foods
9.2.1 Thickening Properties
9.2.2 Gelling Properties
9.3 Galactomannans
9.3.1 Chemical Structure
9.3.2 Physical and Functional Properties
9.3.2.1 Locust Bean Gum
9.3.2.2 Guar Gum
9.3.3 Applications in Low-Fat Foods
9.4 Xanthan Gum
9.4.1 Chemical Structure
9.4.2 Physical and Functional Properties
9.4.3 Applications in Low-Fat Foods
References

9.1 INTRODUCTION
The term hydrocolloid can be used to describe many constituent components of plants
and animals, and basically covers the whole range of polymeric materials occurring
naturally. Of these, proteins and polysaccharides are traditionally the type of molecules
considered as food hydrocolloids, and these long-chain biopolymer molecules have
played a significant role in foodstuffs since ancient times on account of their texturizing
and water-structuring properties.

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Historically, the utilization of food hydrocolloids such as gelatin, plant exudates, and
starches dates back hundreds, if not thousands, of years and, indeed, for many of the
exudates, the basic processes for their production and collection are similar to those used
centuries ago. However, only with the development of the processed food industry over
the last century has the commercialization of food hydrocolloids as food ingredients in
their own right been witnessed. Other sources of polysaccharide gums have also been
developed in particular, land and marine plants in which the polysaccharide represents
the reserve carbohydrate for the system and, in more recent years, biosynthetic gums
produced via fermentation by microorganisms.
The use of hydrocolloid gums in processed foods has traditionally been primarily as
thickeners and gelling agents as a result of their ability to alter significantly the rheological properties of the solvent in which they are dissolved, even when used at very
low concentrations. These viscosity-modifying effects occur as a result of the highmolecular-weight polymeric nature of hydrocolloids and the interactions that can occur
between polymer chains when hydrocolloids are dissolved or dispersed.
Considering the significant effects that food hydrocolloids can bring to the texture of
a food product, it is not surprising that they have a role to play in fat-reduced products
in which just the simple removal of fat, almost without exception, results in products
with perceived inferior textural qualities, compared with their higher-fat counterparts.
Indeed, all of the tailor-made fat mimetics discussed elsewhere in this book can be
categorized as food hydrocolloids, and it is the processing to which the hydrocolloid has
been subjected or its combination with other food ingredients that gives rise to the specific
fat-replacing properties of each of the fat mimetics.
In this chapter, the role of hydrocolloids, other than those specifically designed as fat
mimetics, is discussed. The large number of food hydrocolloid systems available to the
food technologist means that it would be impossible to discuss all the hydrocolloids in
a chapter of this size. Consequently, the chapter is written so as to give a basic understanding of the functional properties of food hydrocolloids in food products, following
which three hydrocolloids, locust bean gum, guar gum, and xanthan gum, are discussed
in detail with reference to their functionality in fat replacement.

9.2 HYDROCOLLOID FUNCTIONALITY IN FOODS


9.2.1 THICKENING PROPERTIES
All food hydrocolloids are polymers, and it is the high molecular weight of these
ingredients, combined with the restrictions in flexibility between the monomer units
within the polymer chains, that gives rise to their viscosifying properties.
Generally, hydrocolloid thickeners exist in solution as disordered random coils continually changing their shape under the influence of Brownian motion (Rees et al., 1982;
Morris, 1990a). Two extreme situations can be envisaged for a solution of a hydrocolloid,
depending on the concentration (c). At low concentrations (Figure 9.1a), the polymer
coils do not overlap and are free to move independently; this situation can be described
as dilute solution conditions (Morris, 1984). The concentrated solution conditions are
represented schematically in Figure 9.1c, and here the individual polymer coils interpenetrate one another to form an entangled polymer network. At some intermediate polymer
concentration, the polymer coils just touch (Figure 9.1b) and this critical concentration
at the onset of coil overlap is known as c*.
The onset of coil overlap for any hydrocolloid solution is characterized by a marked
change in the slope of a plot of viscosity against concentration for the hydrocolloid, and
only at concentrations above c* does significant viscosity development occur (Morris,

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Figure 9.1 Schematic diagram of polymer coils in solution illustrating (a) dilute solution conditions where the polymer coils are free to move independently (c<c*), (b) the onset of coil
overlap (c = c*) and (c) concentrated solution conditions in which there is an entangled polymer
network (c>c*).

1991). At polymer concentrations below c*, the zero-shear viscosity (0) increases more
or less linearly with increasing concentration (a double logarithmic plot of 0 vs. c would
typically have a slope of approximately 1.3 over this range). However, above c* the slope
of the plot is typically around 3.3 and, hence, a slight increase in polymer concentration
has a dramatic effect on viscosity above c*.
The critical concentration at the onset of coil overlap is inversely related to the size
of the individual coils (i.e., their hydrodynamic volume), which can be characterized
experimentally by the intrinsic viscosity, [], of the polymer. The molecular weight, the
flexibility of polymer chains, and the amount of bound water associated with polymers
determine, to a large extent, the hydrodynamic volume of polymer coils and hence their
viscosifying properties.
Although the type of hydrocolloid (i.e., chemical structure, molecular weight, flexibility, etc.) controls the viscosity of a given solution of the hydrocolloid by determining
the hydrodynamic dimensions of the polymer coil, the dependency of viscosity on the
extent of space occupancy by the polymer, which can be characterized by c[] (i.e., c
is proportional to the number of coils and [] to the hydrodynamic volume), has been
shown to have a general form for many different hydrocolloids (Morris et al., 1981).
This is illustrated in Figure 9.2, where the logarithm of the zero-shear specific viscosity
(sp) is plotted against the logarithm of c[] for a number of different hydrocolloids. A
sharp increase in the concentration dependency of viscosity is seen at c* (where the
viscosity is about ten times that of water and c[] 4).

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For model systems containing one hydrocolloid only, any hydrocolloid could thus be
used to give the same final solution viscosity, providing the concentration of the hydrocolloid is correct. However, real food systems are not model hydrocolloid solutions but
a complex matrix of different compounds with different physical structures, ionic
strengths, pH values, etc. Consequently, when choosing the correct thickening agent for
any particular food application, the food technologist must take this into account; factors
such as interactions between hydrocolloids (be they synergistic or antagonistic), required
concentration to give the desired viscosity and cost also have a role to play in determining
the final choice of the hydrocolloid system(s) to be used.
The general viscosity/concentration plot illustrated in Figure 9.2 applies to the zeroshear viscosities of hydrocolloid solutions, which is an index of the initial resistance to
flow of the system. For solutions of small molecules, such as sucrose, viscosity, h, is
independent of the shear rate ( ) at which it is measured and solutions such as this are
described as possessing ideal (or Newtonian) behavior. Hydrocolloids, on the other hand,
deviate vastly from Newtonian behavior in terms of their shear rate dependency of
viscosity, and usually show a marked reduction in viscosity as the shear-rate of measurement is increased. The extent of this shear-rate dependency of viscosity (shearthinning behavior) is a function of the concentration of the polymer in solution. At
concentrations below the coil overlap concentration, c*, polymer chains are essentially
free to move independently through the solvent and the viscosity shows only a slight
dependency on the shear rate of measurement (typically less than 30% over several
decades of ). For these dilute hydrocolloid solutions, the shear-thinning behavior arises
as a result of individual polymer coils being stretched out under the influence of flow
and consequently offering less resistance to movement (i.e., lower viscosity) (Morris,
1990a; Dickenson, 1992). As the concentration of a hydrocolloid solution increases above
c*, the shear-rate dependency of the viscosity increases significantly, and typically a drop
of several orders of magnitude is observed in viscosity over the shear-rate range of
practical importance. When an entangled polymer network is present (i.e., above c*),
application of flow requires that molecules wriggle through the entangled network of
neighboring chains. At low shear rates, this can occur without a significant reduction in
the number of entangled cross-links in the system (i.e., the time scale of disentanglement of the polymer chains caused by application of flow is similar to that of reentanglement between different chains) and viscosity is independent of shear rate at low shear
rates. However, at high shear rates, the rate of disentanglement is greater than that of
reentanglement and, hence, the cross-link density of the system decreases and consequently the viscosity falls. As with the concentration dependency of zero-shear viscosity,
the shear-rate dependency of viscosity for many different random coil hydrocolloids can
also be described in general form (Morris, 1991) by the simple empirical relationship
= 0 /[1 + ( / 1/2) 0.76]

(9.1)

where 0 = zero shear viscosity


1/2 = shear rate required to reduce to 0 /2
The concentrations at which most food hydrocolloids are utilized are above c* and
therefore, the shear-rate dependencies of their viscosities are of significant importance in
determining their functionality in any given food application. The shear rates to which a
food hyrocolloid may be subjected during the lifetime of a food product are dependent
on the exact product and process but typically range from zero during in-pack storage to
extremely high values in some food processes such as valve homogenization. Between these

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Figure 9.2 Generalized concentration dependence of zero-shear specific viscosity for conformationally disordered random coil polysaccharides (different symbols represent different
polysaccharides). (Reprinted from Morris, E.R., Cutler, A.N., Ross-Murphy, S.N., Rees, D.A.
and Rice, J., Carbohydr. Polym., 1, Concentration and shear rate dependence of viscosity in
random coil polysaccharide solutions, 5, 1981. With kind permission from Elsevier, Science
Ltd., The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington OX5 1GB, U.K.)

two extremes, the product may be subjected to a host of other shear rates (e.g., during
spreading, on mastication, due to shaking during distribution, etc.) and the role of the food
technologist is to identify suitable hydrocolloids for incorporation into a specific formulation
that gives correct functionality at all stages during the lifetime of the product.

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9.2.2 GELLING PROPERTIES


In contrast to the thickening properties that all hydrocolloids possess to some extent,
gelling properties are not universal among hydrocolloids, with true gel structures only
being formed by a limited number of hydrocolloids. Essentially, a gel network is a
permanently cross-linked polymer solution, with the polymer chains linked together to
give a three-dimensional network structure in which solvent is entrapped.
The cross-links in hydrocolloid gels are usually composed of ordered junction zones,
in which chain segments from different polymer chains are packed in an ordered array
of noncovalently bonded chain segments, with the remaining disordered sections of the
polymer chains linking the ordered junction zones together (Figure 9.3). The nature of
the junction zones varies from system to system, but they are usually composed of
polymer chain segments with conformationally ordered structures the same as those
present in the solid-state form of the hydrocolloid (Rees et al., 1982). Formation of such
ordered structures under hydrated conditions involves considerable loss of conformational entropy, which must be compensated for by favorable enthalpic interactions
between participating residues in the polymer chains (Morris, 1990a). Normally, end
residues in the ordered sequences cannot fully participate in the noncovalent bonding
interactions, due to a lack of appropriate residues with which to interact further along
the disordered segments of the chain, and, consequently, the loss in entropy of these end
residues is not fully compensated by a gain in enthalpy. The net effect of these end
effects is that the junction zones need to be above a minimum critical length for stability,
and their formation and dissociation occur as sharp, cooperative processes, brought about
by changes in external variables such as temperature, pH, solvent quality, ionic strength,
and/or the presence of specific ions, which can tip the ordered/disordered equilibrium in
either one direction or the other (Morris, 1990a).

Figure 9.3 Schematic diagram of the polymer network structure of a hydrocolloid gel with
noncovalently bonded ordered junction zones linking the polymer chains into a three-dimensional
network.

Typical examples of the types of conformationally ordered junction zones that exist
in hydrocolloid gels include helical structures such as the coaxial double helices found
in carrageenan and agar gels, the double helical ordered structure of starch, and the

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collagen triple helical structure found in gelatin gels (Morris, 1986; Ledward, 1986).
Other types of ordered structures are also found in hydrocolloid gels. In the calciuminduced gels of alginate and pectin (see Chapter 7C), the junction zones are formed by
chain segments locked in a regular zig-zag shape with calcium ions sandwiched in the
spaces between them to balance the negative charges on the polymer (Morris, 1986). For
modified celluloses with a low degree of substitution and galactomannans, the chains
can pack together with ordered ribbon-like structures similar to the fibrillar structure of
insoluble native cellulose, but show some solubility on account of the substituent group
on the main chain periodically disrupting the ordered structure (Morris, 1990a).
In order for a gel structure to be formed, the ordered junction zones must terminate at
some point so that the remaining unordered segments of the polymer chains are free to
participate in other junction zones with other polymer chains and hence build up the threedimensional network structure. Termination of junction zones usually results from a change
in primary structure along the polymer chain. Examples of changes in primary structure that
terminate junction zones include a change from one type of residue to another type in
polysaccharides with block-like character, irregularly spaced side chains, or the presence of
residues that are geometrically incompatible with the ordered packing arrangement.
Although true gelling characteristics are only shown by certain hydrocolloids, it
should be noted that the distinction between a gel and a concentrated hydrocolloid
solution is not always as clear-cut as it might seem and, from the viewpoint of the food
technologist who wishes to utilize the properties of food hydrocolloids to give the correct
rheological properties to the final food product, somewhat irrelevant.
In general, hydrocolloid solutions and gels exhibit viscoelastic behavior (i.e., they
possess both liquid-like and solid-like properties) and the type of behavior that such
systems exhibit depends on the time scale of the process to which they are subjected.
Resolution of the solid-like and liquid-like character of a material can be conveniently
carried out using the technique of mechanical spectroscopy, in which a small oscillatory
deformation is applied to the sample under test (Ross-Murphy, 1984; 1988). The stress
generated by the sample in resisting the applied deformation can be resolved into
components that are in phase and out of phase with the applied deformation. For a
perfect solid, stress increases with the increasing extent of deformation (strain) and
the in-phase stress generated is thus related to the solid-like character of a sample. This
in-phase stress divided by the applied strain gives the modulus, G (known as the storage
or elastic modulus). For a perfect liquid, resistance (stress) increases with increasing
rate of deformation (which for an oscillatory system is maximum at the midpoint of the
oscillation and zero at the extremes) and therefore, the out-of-phase stress divided by
the applied strain gives the modulus, G (known as the loss or viscous modulus), which
is a measure of the liquid-like response of the sample. The two parameters G and G
are dependent on the frequency of the applied oscillation and in the technique of mechanical spectroscopy are measured over a range of frequencies. The ratio of the unresolved
complex modulus G* = (G 2 + G 2)1/2 to the frequency of oscillation ( ) gives a third
useful parameter, the complex dynamic viscosity, *, for characterization of viscoelastic materials.
Typical hydrocolloid gels show mechanical spectra with the form illustrated in
Figure 9.4a. The value of G is substantially higher than that of G , indicating the
predominantly solid-like response of the sample, while both G and G , and hence G*
show little, if any, frequency dependence. The dynamic viscosity ( * = G*/ ) is
inversely proportional to at all frequencies (as G* is essentially frequency-independent)
and hence the slope of the plot of log * against log approaches the theoretical
limiting value of 1.

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Figure 9.4 Typical mechanical spectra of hydrocolloid gels and solutions showing the frequency ( ) dependence of G , G and * for (a) a strong gel, (b) a concentrated entangled
random coil polymer solution and (c) a dilute hydrocolloid solution below the onset of polymer
entanglement. (From Morris, E. R., in The Structure, Dynamics and Equilibrium Properties of
Colloidal Systems, Bloor, D. M. and Wyn-Jones, E., Eds., Kluwer Academic Publishers, The
Netherlands, 1990, 449. Reprinted with permission of Kluwer Academic Publishers.)

In order to form a hydrocolloid gel network, a minimum concentration (co) of the


hydrocolloid is required (Morris, 1984; Dickenson, 1992). This minimum concentration
varies according to the hydrocolloid in question and reflects the number of chains
participating in junction zones, the size of the junction zones, the molecular weight of
the polymer, etc. The concentration dependency of G for different gelling systems
usually has the same form, with a high concentration dependency of G at concentrations
just above co, which then decreases to a power-law relationship at higher concentrations.
A typical mechanical spectrum of a concentrated solution of an entangled random
coil hydrocolloid is illustrated in Figure 9.4b and is clearly quite different from that of
the gelling system. At low frequencies, where there is sufficient time for entanglements
to come apart in the period of an oscillation, G is higher than G, indicating the
predominantly viscous response of the sample, while h* remains constant. At higher
frequencies, however, G crosses G , indicating a more solid-like (or gel-like) response,
while * decreases steeply with increasing frequency. This behavior at high frequencies
is interpreted as arising due to insufficient time within the period of an oscillation for
complete disentanglement of polymer chains and so the system essentially responds as
a cross-linked gel (Morris, 1984).

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For completeness, the mechanical spectrum of a dilute random coil hydrocolloid


solution below c* is shown in Figure 9.4c. It can be seen that h* shows little frequency
dependency (i.e., similar in response to that of a Newtonian [perfect] liquid) and G is
greater than G at all frequencies, indicating predominantly liquid-like behavior. The
increase in G relative to G at high frequencies has been described as resulting from
storage of energy by contortion of individual molecules into less energetically favored
conformations (Morris, 1990a).

9.3 GALACTOMANNANS
Plant seeds are a useful source of polysaccharides with gum-like properties, and of this
type of polysaccharide, the family known as the galactomannans are the most widely
used industrially. The three main galactomannan gums are guar gum, locust bean gum,
and tara gum, but only the former two are extensively utilized, with tara gum not
commercially exploited at present, and not approved for food applications (Glicksman,
1986).
The use of locust bean gum dates back thousands of years, to when it was used in
the process of mummification in ancient Egypt. Since that time, locust beans have been
used as a food source, with exploitation of the functional hydrocolloid properties of
locust bean gum by the processed food industry occurring over the last century. Locust
bean gum is the common name applied to the gum found in the seeds of the carob tree
(Ceratonia siliqua) and is, therefore, also sometimes referred to as carob gum. The carob
tree grows extensively throughout the Mediterranean region and the dark brown locust
bean pod (which contains several seeds from which locust bean gum is separated) is
harvested annually (Seaman, 1980a).
In contrast to locust bean gum, guar gum was introduced more recently to the Western
world, as a result of a search aimed at finding replacements for other gums that became
unavailable during the course of the second World War. However, commercialization of
guar gum was very rapid after the war and its use as an industrial hydrocolloid now
significantly outweighs that of locust bean gum (Glicksman, 1986). Guar gum is found
in the seeds of two annual leguminous plants (Cyamposis tetragonolobus and psoraloides), which were traditionally harvested by hand in India and Pakistan. In the last 40
years, however, guar gum has established itself as a commercially viable crop suitable
for modern mechanical farm technology (Seaman, 1980b).
The production of locust bean gum and guar gum consists of a series of crushing,
sifting, and grinding steps designed to separate the seeds from the pod and then the gum
from the seeds. The gum is contained in the endosperm of the seed, with the endosperm
making up 42 to 46% of the seed weight in locust bean gum (Seaman, 1980a) and 35
to 42% of the seed weight in guar gum (Seaman, 1980b).
9.3.1 CHEMICAL STRUCTURE
Galactomannans are polysaccharides whose monomeric building blocks are composed
of galactose and mannose. Both guar gum and locust bean gum have a chemical structure
composed of a linear chain of 1,4 linked -D-mannose with single-membered a-D-galactose
units occurring as side branches, linked 1,6 with the main mannan chain (Figure 9.5).
The two gums differ in their ratio of mannose to galactose (M:G ratio) and in the positions
of the galactose side branches on the main polymer chain. Guar gum, which typically
has an M:G ratio of around 1.5 to 2 (Glicksman, 1986), is considered to possess an
almost alternating copolymer structure, with a galactose side-chain residue occurring
approximately every other mannose residue, the galactose residues thus being evenly
spaced along the length of the mannan chain. Locust bean gum, on the other hand, has

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a less highly substituted structure, with an M:G ratio of approximately 3.5. For locust
bean gum, it is now generally considered that there are regions of galactose-substituted
and unsubstituted mannan blocks along the polymer chain, but the number of residues
in these blocks varies between samples (Morris, 1990b). The molecular weights of the
two gums have been reported as being 310,000 (Herald, 1986a) for locust bean gum and
220,000 (Herald, 1986b) for guar gum. However, as with all gums, the molecular weights
are polydisperse and are influenced by external factors such as climatic conditions during
crop growth, botanical source, etc.

Figure 9.5 Primary repeating structure of galactomannans, showing the 1,4 linked Dmannose main chain with 1,6 linked
D galactose side branches. In locust bean gum, approximately 1 in 4 of the mannose units are substituted with galactose, while in guar gum,
approximately 1 in 2 of the mannose units are substituted with galactose.

9.3.2 PHYSICAL AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES


9.3.2.1 Locust Bean Gum
In the solid state, galactomannans adopt an ordered two-fold conformation as a consequence of the almost fully extended 1,4-diequatorial-linked mannose residues (Winter
et al., 1987). The chains pack together into flat sheet-like structures, with a spacing of
approximately 0.9 nm between chains and about 3 nm between sheets in locust bean and
guar gums. This intersheet spacing of 3 nm is significantly greater than for the parent mannan
(0.72 nm) which has no galactose side branches on the polymer chain forcing the sheets
apart (Morris,1990b). The type of packing and interactions in the solid form of galactomannans are of importance when considering their solution properties, as discussed below.
Locust bean gum has only limited solubility in cold water but on heating to 80C for
10 min it hydrates fully, resulting in a highly viscous, pseudoplastic (shear-thinning)
solution. The lack of solubility at room temperature compared with guar gum occurs as
a result of the higher M:G ratio in locust bean gum, and particularly the distribution of
the galactose side branches on the main polymer chain (Morris, 1990b). Segments of
the polymer chains that are deficient in galactose side-branches interact strongly with
one another, and, consequently, energy (i.e., heating at 800C) is required if these secondary bonds are to be broken, allowing full solubility of the locust bean gum.
Once in solution, locust bean gum solutions can be cooled down and the locust bean
gum will remain in solution, providing the typical functional properties associated with

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polysaccharide thickeners. However, there is evidence in locust bean gums with low
galactose content (e.g., M:G = 4.5) for gradual renaturation of interchain association
with time, resulting in a tenuous, gel-like structure in concentrated solutions stored at
ambient temperature for several days (Morris, 1990b). The renaturation process is accelerated at low temperatures and particularly by freeze/thaw cycles (Dea et al., 1977). At
concentrations below those at which the gel-like structure is formed, freezing and thawing
results in selective precipitation of the least substituted polymer chains and can therefore
be used as a locust bean gum fractionation method.
The main functional properties of locust bean gum when in solution arise as a result
of its water-thickening capacity, and indeed locust bean gum is one of the most efficient
hydrocolloid thickeners. When in solution, the polymer chains in locust bean gum exist
in typical disordered random coil conformation, and the general shape of a viscosity/concentration plot is similar to that expected for such systems. However, for locust bean
gum, a plot of zero-shear specific viscosity (sp) against the coil-overlap parameter c
[] does not superimpose on the general curve (Figure 9.2) expected for typical random
coil polymer solutions. The transition from dilute solution behavior to concentrated
solution behavior (c* transition) for locust bean gum occurs at a lower degree of space
occupancy that for other random coil polymers (i.e., c* occurs at c [] 2.5 for locust
bean gum, but generally for random coil polymers occurs at c[] 4). Furthermore, for
locust bean gum, the viscosity at concentrations above c* is approximately proportional
to c4, whereas for typical random coil polymers the viscosity is approximately proportional to c3.3. Below c*, however, the concentration dependency of viscosity is the same
for locust bean gum as for other random coil polymers. The increased dependency of
viscosity on concentration above c* for locust bean gum is interpreted as occurring as
a result of normal polymer entanglements being augumented by chain-chain associations
(similar to those in the solid state) at concentrations where polymer chains overlap (i.e.,
at concentrations above c*) (Morris, 1990b). From the point of view of the food technologist, the higher concentration dependency of viscosity of locust bean gum compared
with other random coil thickeners is an advantage in that lower concentrations of locust
bean gum can be used to give the same viscosity.
In terms of response to shear, solutions of locust bean gum have zero yield values
(i.e., they flow as soon as the slightest shear force is applied). Solutions are thus predominantly liquid-like in terms of their rheological characteristics although, at high
concentration (2 to 3%), the high viscosities of locust bean gum solutions give them an
almost gel-like appearance (Seaman, 1980a). Locust bean gum solutions behave as typical
random coil hydrocolloids under the influence of shear, being pseudoplastic, with an
initial shear-rate-independent plateau in shear rate vs. viscosity curves, followed by a
rapid decrease in viscosity with further increase in shear rate. Unlike the concentration
dependency of viscosity, the shear-rate dependency of viscosity of locust bean gum
solutions is typical of random coil hydrocolloids and the viscosity against shear rate
curve can be fitted using the generalized equation given earlier.
Various external factors can cause locust bean gum solutions to be irreversibly
degraded, with an associated loss of viscosity, as indeed is the case for most hydrocolloids. Prolonged heating at elevated temperatures and high rates of shear (with the extent
of structure breakdown depending on the degree of shear and the time over which it is
applied) are two obvious factors that can cause degradation and therefore must be
considered by the food technologist when utilizing locust bean gum in any particular
product application. The reduction in viscosity as a result of both heating and application
of shear is a consequence of cleavage of the polymer chains and hence a lower average
molecular weight.

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Locust bean gum, being a neutral polysaccharide, gives solutions whose viscosities
are not significantly affected by salts commonly used in the food industry. The polymer
is also stable over a fairly large pH range, from pH 3.5 to 11.0 (Herald, 1986a). Above
and below these pH values, hydrolysis of the polymer takes place, resulting in a reduction
in molecular weight and hence viscosity of solutions.
The interaction of locust bean gum with other polysaccharides such as carrageenan
and particularly xanthan gum is exploited by the food industry. When locust bean gum
and xanthan gum are heated together, a solution with a viscosity higher than would be
obtained from either of the individual gums is obtained. Furthermore, providing the gum
concentrations are high enough, the solution gels on cooling to give thermoreversible
gels. The molecular origin of these synergistic viscosity and gelling effects are discussed
later in the section on xanthan gum.
9.3.2.2 Guar Gum
The solid state of guar gum is basically the same as that of locust bean gum. In contrast
to locust bean gum, guar gum dissolves at temperatures in the region of 25 to 40C with
stirring, and this solubility at lower temperatures occurs as a result of the lower M:G
ratio in guar gum (Morris, 1990b). The lower M:G ratio in guar gum and the more even
distribution of galactose residues along the mannan backbone mean that there are fewer
galactose-deficient segments in the polymer chain, hence fewer intermolecular interactions between them and consequently, less heat required for solubilization of the polymer.
The viscosity behavior of guar gum solutions is similar to that of locust bean gum
solutions. Typical random-coil-like behavior is observed below the onset of coil overlap
but the transition from dilute solution behavior to concentrated solution behavior (c*)
occurs at a lower degree of space occupancy (c[] 2.5), while the concentration
dependency of viscosity above c* is greater than expected for typical random coil
polymers. Unlike locust bean gum which has a significantly higher M:G ratio, there is
little evidence for any renaturation of intermolecular structure on aging guar gum solutions. Guar gum solutions have zero yield values and their behavior under shear is
typically random-coil-like, being pseudoplastic and showing the same general shear-rate
dependency of viscosity as locust bean gum and other random coil hydrocolloids.
As with locust bean gum, the main functional properties of guar gum arise as a result
of its highly efficient thickening properties and water-binding capacity. In most applications, guar gum is utilized at concentrations below 1%, and at concentrations above this,
solutions of guar gum, although still possessing zero yield value, have an almost gellike appearance due to their high viscosity and viscoelastic properties (Seaman, 1980b).
Figure 9.6 shows the mechanical spectra of guar gum solutions at different concentrations. At low frequencies of oscillation and low concentrations, the response of the guar
gum solution is predominantly liquid-like (i.e., G G ) but, with increasing frequency
of oscillation and concentration, the mechanical spectrum indicates a more solid-like
response (i.e., G > G ). This crossover from predominantly liquid-like behavior to
predominantly solid-like behavior is typical of concentrated solutions of random coil
hydrocolloids, and as discussed earlier, has its origins in the inability of an entangled
network of polymer chains to disentangle within the time scale of an oscillation.
The effects of salts and pH on the viscosities of guar gum solutions are primarily the
same as for locust bean gum solutions, with typical salts used in the food industry having
little effect. The viscosities of guar gum solutions are reasonably stable between pH 3.5
and pH 9.0 (Herald, 1986b). The pH, however, does affect the rate of hydration of guar
gum, with the maximum hydration rate occurring at a pH of about 8. As with locust
bean gum, the effect of high shear rates and prolonged exposure to high temperatures
can cause irreversible degradation of guar gum with the associated reduction in solution

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Figure 9.6 Frequency dependence of G (filled symbols) and G (open symbols) for guar gum
solutions at different concentrations (1%, 2% and 3%). (Reprinted from, Robinson, G., Morris,
E.R. and Ross- Murphy, S.B., Carbohydr. Res., 107, Viscosity-molecular weight relationships,
intrinsic chain flexibility and dynamic solution properties of guar galactomannan, 17, 1982. With
permission from Elsevier Science BV, Amsterdam Publishing Division, Sara Burgerhartstraat
25, 1055 KV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.)

viscosity as a consequence of polymer chain cleavage. Guar gum also shows synergistic
effects with other food hydrocolloids such as carrageenan and xanthan but, unlike locust
bean gum, guar gum does not interact with xanthan gum to give thermoreversible gels,
but gives only a synergistic viscosity increase (Morris, 1990b).
9.3.3 APPLICATIONS IN LOW-FAT FOODS
The galactomannans, although not direct replacers for fats, are frequently used as tools
in formulating reduced- and low-fat food products, where their main function is to imbibe
water and control viscosity (Anon., 1991; Setser and Racette, 1992; Haumann, 1986).
Their basic functional role in low-fat foods is, therefore, to a large extent the same as
in traditional higher-fat products, but since low-fat products frequently contain significantly larger amounts of water than their higher-fat counterparts, the water stabilizing
properties of hydrocolloids become increasingly important as the fat level is reduced.
It has been suggested (Glicksman, 1991) that a three-ingredient system is necessary
for a good fat mimetic: (1) a thickening agent for lubricity and flow control; (2) a soluble
bulking agent for control of adsorption/absoption of the food onto the taste receptors of
the tongue; and (3) a microparticulate to give the smoothness of the fat. Of these, the

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galactomannans fall into the first category and they are often used in low-fat formulations
in conjunction with other ingredients possessing fat-replacing properties. Indeed, many
second-generation fat mimetics are blends composed of a number of ingredients, each
bringing its own functionality to the system, and these frequently contain either locust
bean gum or guar gum as one of the functional ingredients (see for example Novagel,
a colloidal microcrystalline cellulose product containing 10 to 15% guar gum, described
in Chapter 7A). Traditionally, the galactomannans have found application in food products such as frozen desserts, cultured dairy products, bakery products, and sauces and
dressings, all of which now have low-fat versions in which the galactomannans have a
functional role to play.
The functional role of locust bean gum as a stabilizer in low-fat ice cream is the same
as in a standard-fat ice cream. Once dissolved in the ice cream mix, locust bean gum
produces a uniform viscosity which is relatively independent of temperature, while at
the same time binding large amounts of water. During processing, the presence of locust
bean gum promotes a fine ice-crystal structure in the ice cream, giving a short, smooth
texture. The low temperature dependency of viscosity of locust bean gum gives the ice
cream good heat-shock stability, with the locust bean gum maintaining the small icecrystal structure during periods of temperature fluctuation during storage (Herald, 1986a;
Setser and Racette, 1992).
Similarly, guar gum can be used as a stabilizer in low-fat ice creams, but unlike locust
bean gum, it gives an ice cream with increased body and chewiness. These differences
in final product texture obtained by using different stabilizers give the food technologist
a method of creating different ice cream textures simply by varying the relative amounts
of locust bean gum and guar gum in the formulation. In low-fat ice cream, the presence
of a tailor-made fat mimetic in the formulation helps to give perceived fat-like properties
(e.g., creamy mouthfeel) to the ice cream, but without the galactomanannan stabilizer
controlling ice and sugar crystal growth and stabilizing and binding the excess water,
the product would be of a far inferior quality.
Another product type in which galactomannans have been traditionally utilized for
their stabilizing properties are soft cheese type products and, here again, the reduced-fat
versions make use of the good water-binding capacities of the galactomannans to prevent
syneresis or weeping. In this type of product, locust bean gum in particular gives a unique
desirable texture believed to be a result of complex formation of the locust bean gum
with milk casein polymers (Herald, 1986a). Other ingredients, including other gums and
fat mimetics, can be added to improve the textures of reduced-fat cheeses, making them
more like the full-fat versions, but galactomannans, particularly locust bean gum, are the
major stabilizers used in this type of product.
Galactomannans also play a significant role in bakery products. This is because the
galactomannans can pick up and hold water even through the baking process, thereby
giving the low-fat product the softness and moistness associated with higher fat products
(Anon., 1991). The incorporation of guar gum and locust bean gum into bakery products
also provides an even crumb expansion as the product bakes, while the effect of guar
gum on the viscosity of the aqueous phase helps to enhance the foam stability of cake
batters (Glicksman, 1991). Consequently, low-fat bakery products stabilized by hydrocolloids possess larger volumes and finer, more uniform cell structure, similar to those
of the traditional higher fat products.

9.4 XANTHAN GUM


In contrast to the galactomannans, xanthan is one of a new breed of hydrocolloids, which
are collectively categorized as fermentation or biosynthetic gums. Microorganisms produce

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three distinct types of polysaccharides: extracellular polysaccharides, structural polysaccharides, and intracellular storage polysaccharides. The extracellular polysaccharides
(which can be found as discrete capsules surrounding the microbial cell or secreted as
an amorphous slime into the surrounding medium) have been identified as possessing
unique and functional hydrocolloid properties (Glicksman, 1982). The extracellular
polysaccharides secreted are often complex in terms of their primary structure compared
with more traditional gums such as galactomannans, and this frequently results in their
possessing novel solution and gelling properties. Indeed, it is the novel rheological
behavior of xanthan solutions that has made the commercialization of xanthan gum such
a success.
Xanthan is an extracellular polysaccharide from the microorganism Xanthomonas
campestris, an organism originally isolated from the rutabaga plant, a member of the
cabbage family. It was first isolated during an intensive screening program at the USDA
Northern Regional Research Laboatory in Peoria in the late 1950s (Morris, 1990b). By
1964, commercial production of xanthan gum had begun. Authorization for the use of
xanthan gum in food was granted by the Food and Drug Administration in 1969 following
extensive animal feeding trials and, since this date, the functional properties of xanthan
gum have been widely utilized in a whole range of different food product types (Pettitt,
1982).
Current commercial production of xanthan gum is by large-scale aerobic fermentation.
During fermentation it is necesary to maintain the pH within the range 6.0 to 7.5; if the
pH is allowed to fall below a critical point of about 5.0, gum production either decreases
sharply or ceases (Pettitt, 1982). Once fermentation is complete, the broth is pasteurized,
followed by precipitation with isopropyl alcohol, drying, and milling to the desired
particle size distributions.
9.4.1 CHEMICAL STRUCTURE
Xanthan is composed of pentasaccharide repeating units as shown in Figure 9.7. The
main polymer chain is composed of 1,4 linked -D-glucose units (as in cellulose), but
alternate residues on the backbone are substituted with a charged trisaccharide group
linked 1,3 with the main chain, thus giving the pentasaccharide repeat unit. The trisaccharide side branches are composed of two mannose units and a glucuronic acid unit,
with the glucuronic acid unit being sandwiched between the two mannose units. The
terminal -D-mannose unit in the side chain is glycosidically linked to the 4-position of
-D-glucuronic acid, which in turn is glycosidically linked to the 2-position of a-Dmannose. The structure is further complicated by the presence of acetate substituents on
the 6-position of the nonterminal D-mannose unit and by the presence of pyruvate
substituents joined by a ketal linkage to the 4-and 6-positions of the terminal D-mannose
unit in the trisaccharide branch. In normal commercial xanthans, the degree of substitution is usually around 30 to 40% for pyruvate and 60 to 70% for acetate. However, there
can be substantial variations in the extent of substitution within and between chains and,
furthermore, there is also evidence that the number of side branches may be less (by up
to 5%) than that expected from the idealized pentasaccharide repeating unit (Morris,
1990b).
In terms of its conformation in solution, xanthan is different from most other polysaccharide thickeners in that it usually exists as a rigid rod-like conformationally ordered
structure rather than as a random coil (Morris, 1991); this is the reason for the unique
solution and gelling properties of xanthan, which will be discussed later. The ordered
structure of xanthan in the solid state has been determined by X-ray fiber defraction
studies, which show a five-fold helix with a pitch of 4.7 nm (Moorhouse et al., 1977;
Okuyama et al., 1980). Two possible conformational structures have been proposed for

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Figure 9.7 Primary repeating structure of xanthan.

the ordered structure of xanthan: a single helix stabilized by the side branches packing
along the backbone (Moorhouse et al., 1977), and a coaxial double helix in which both
strands have a conformation close to that proposed in the single-helix model (Okuyama
et al., 1980). There is supportive evidence for both models, with kinetic (Norton et al.,
1984) and molecular-weight studies (Milas and Rinaudo, 1979) supporting the single
stranded model, while light-scattering studies indicate that the mass per unit length is
twice that expected for a single xanthan chain and hence support the double-stranded
model (Liu et al., 1987). As yet, therefore, the exact conformation in solution remains
unresolved.
9.4.2 PHYSICAL AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES
In contrast to most polysaccharide thickeners, xanthan gum in solution does not exist in
a typical random-coil conformation but has a rigid helical ordered structure giving rise
to the unique solution properties of xanthan. Solutions of xanthan are extremely pseudoplastic and show quite different shear-thinning behavior from the generalized shear-rate
dependency of viscosity of typical random coil polysaccharides mentioned earlier. A
double-logarithmic plot of viscosity vs. shear rate for xanthan at most salt concentrations
of practical importance is linear, with no indication of a shear-rate-independent plateau
at low shear rates, and with a slope substantially higher than the 0.76 predicted for
random-coil-like behavior at high shear rates (Morris, 1990b).
This high degree of pseudoplasticity results in xanthan solutions possessing extremely
high viscosities (or effectively yield values) when not under the influence of shear.
Consequently, xanthan solutions at rest can be considered as weak gels, as illustrated in
Figure 9.8. The mechanical spectrum in Figure 9.8 has similar characteristics to those
of a true gel (i.e., G > G at all frequencies, while both G and G show little
variation with frequency and * decreases steeply with increasing frequency). These gellike properties of xanthan solutions persist down to concentrations as low as 0.1% and
this contributes to the effectivenes of xanthan gum as a stabilizing agent.

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Figure 9.8 Mechanical spectrum of a 2% xanthan solution showing the typical characteristics
expected of a true gel. (From Morris, E.R. in Food Gels, Harris, P., Ed., Elsevier Applied Science,
London, 1990, 291. With permission from Chapman and Hall Ltd., Scientific, Technical and
Medical Publishers, Andover, Hampshire, England.)

Xanthan, therefore, like all polysaccharide solutions and gels, shows viscoelastic
behavior. However, the uniqueness of xanthan results from the marked difference between
its viscoelastic behavior under static conditions, when gel-like properties are present,
and under conditions of shear, when freely flowing solutions are obtained. This combination of gel-like properties at rest and liquid-like properties under applied stress is of
considerable practical value to the food technologist (Pettitt, 1982).
The origins of the unusual solution properties of xanthan lie in its molecular structure,
which determines the conformational behavior of xanthan. It is generally believed that
the weak gel-like properties of xanthan solutions occur as a result of weak side-by-side
association of ordered chain sequences from different molecules to give a tenuous threedimensional intermolecular network (Morris, 1991). For normal polysaccharide gels,
bonding in the junction zones needs to be relatively strong to counter the considerable
loss of conformational entropy as the fluctuating random coil chain is incorporated into
the conformationally ordered junction zone. Consequently, the gels formed are quite
strong. In xanthan, however, weak side-by-side enthalpically favored associations can

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occur between different molecules without substantial loss of conformational entropy,


as the xanthan chains are already conformationally ordered. Consequently, the gel structure is only weakly bonded and can be easily disrupted by application of shear.
The high viscosities at low shear rates of dilute xanthan solutions and the extremely
pseudoplastic nature of xanthan are also a consequence of the rigid ordered structure.
The more rigid structure of the conformationally ordered xanthan molecules over typical
random coil polysaccharide molecules results in xanthan molecules having a greater
hydrodynamic volume than would be the case for a random coil polysaccharide of the
same molecular weight (that is to say, the length to breadth ratio of a rigid polymer
molecule is considerably greater than that of a random coil polymer molecule). It
therefore follows that the c* transition (onset of molecular overlap) for xanthan solutions
occurs at low concentrations due to the large hydrodynamic volume of the molecules.
This gives rise to high viscosities at low shear rates. At higher shear rates, however, the
larger shear forces cause the elongated xanthan molecules to orientate in the applied
shear field causing a relatively greater reduction in number of polymer entanglements
than would be the case for a random coil molecule, and hence, the observed greater
pseudoplasticity of xanthan.
Although in most food applictions xanthan exists in a coformationally ordered helical
form as a result of the electrolytes present in food, at high temperatures and low ionic
strength the conformational order is melted out and xanthan then has typical fluctuating
random coil-like behavior and a much lower viscosity. However, this disordered state of
xanthan is not really relevant to the food technologist, except perhaps in high-temperature
processing, where the reduction in viscosity on melting out the ordered structure can
facilitate heat transfer, thereby shortening processing time (Pettitt, 1982).
Xanthan has solution properties that are remarkably stable to the effects of both
temperature and ionic strength, as might be expected for a rigid molecule. Indeed, a low
concentration of electrolyte helps to stabilize the ordered form of xanthan by reducing
electrostatic repulsion betwen carboxylate anions on the trisaccharide side branches,
while at xanthan concentrations above 0.25%, a noticeable increase in viscosity and
enhancement of weak gel properties with increasing salt concentration have been
observed and attributed to a reduction in intermolecular repulsion, thereby promoting
network formation through helix-helix association (Morris, 1990b). This is in contrast
to typical random coil polyelectolytes, where the effect of increasing the ionic strength
is to cause a reduction in intramolecular charge repulsion and hence cause the coil
dimensions to collapse to some extent, with an associated reduction in viscosity (Smidsrd and Haug, 1971).
The rigid helical structure of xanthan gum is also believed to play a role in stabilizing
the xanthan molecule against the effects of acid and alkali degradation (viscosities of
xanthan solutions are relatively unaffected by pH over the range pH 1 to 13), and from
enzymic attack. This is thought to be related to the shielding of the glycosidic linkages
in the polymer backbone by the trisaccharide branches which complex with the main
chain in the ordered conformation (Pettitt, 1982).
As mentioned previously, synergistic interactions occur between xanthan gum and
both locust bean gum and guar gum. With locust bean gum, a thermoreversible gel is
formed (providing the gum concentrations are high enough) with a melting temperature
in the range 50 to 55C (Pettitt, 1982). Maximum gel strength occurs at approximately
equal ratios of the two gums and the gels themselves are relatively viscoelastic in nature,
being similar to alginate-based gels and gelatin gels, rather than the more brittle agar
and carrageenan gels. The locust bean gum/xanthan gels are true gels in a rheological
sense, showing typical gel-like response and possessing definite yield values at significant

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strains. At concentrations below those required for gel formation (i.e., below approximately 0.5%), only a synergistic viscosity effect is observed between locust bean gum
and xanthan gum, but this effect is still useful to the food technologist, allowing savings
to be made in ingredient costs and modifications to be made to the rheology of food
systems. The synergism between guar gum and xanthan gum is less strong, being limited
to a synergistic viscosity increase with no gel formation (Morris, 1990b). Nevertheless,
as for the locust bean gum/xanthan system below the gelling concentration, the synergistic
viscosity effect of guar gum and xanthan gum is utilized in numerous food products.
The synergistic effects between xanthan and galactomannans arise as a result of a
specific interaction between the helical ordered structure of polysaccharides and the
unsubstituted regions of galactomannan chains (Figure 9.9a), thereby forming junction
zones which are linked together by disordered, more highly substituted segments of the
galactomannan backbone (Dea et al., 1972; Morris, 1986; Morris, 1990b). The extent of
interaction between xanthan molecules and galactomannan is dependent on the size and
number of unsubstituted regions along the galactomannan molecule and the model
therefore qualitatively predicts the observed lower degree of synergism in the more highly
substituted guar/xanthan system than in the locust bean gum/xanthan system. However,
although the model of specific interaction between xanthan and galactomannan molecules
is now generally accepted, the exact conformation, the size of junction zones etc. in these
mixed systems are still under investigation. An alternative model that would allow for
the substituted regions of the galactomannan chain to be incorporated into the junction
zones was proposed by McCleary (1979) and is schematically illustrated in Figure 9.9b.
In this model, the galactose side branches on every other residue along the mannan
backbone are all pointing away from the helical ordered structure.
9.4.3 APPLICATIONS IN LOW-FAT FOODS
As with galactomannans, the role of xanthan gum in fat replacement is not as a direct
fat mimetic but as a tool for controlling viscosity and texture and binding excess water.
Indeed, xanthan can be used as a stabilizer in similar low-fat product types to those
already mentioned under the section on galactomannans (e.g., frozen desserts, cultured
dairy products, and bakery products). Frequently, a combination of xanthan gum and
galactomannan is found to give better functionality in such products (as a result of the
synergistic interactions) or at least the same functionality but at reduced cost. Commercially, many gum suppliers now supply gum blends for use in specific reduced-fat product
types and these frequently include both xanthan and a galactomannan.
One of the most successful food applications of xanthan as a stabilizer is in dressings,
sauces and mayonnaises, where its weak gel properties (i.e., gel-like properties at rest
and solution-like properties under the application of flow) are exploited to stabilize oil
droplets and particulate material in the oil-in-water emulsions (Morris, 1991). Furthermore, such product types are ideal candidates for reduced-fat versions as the traditional
products tend to be high in fat content, while consumers have demonstrated a willingness
to use reduced-fat versions on a regular basis (Marsili, 1993). Indeed, reduced- and lowfat dressings and mayonnaises are undoubtedly among the most popular fat-reduced
product types and can therefore be considered one of the major successes in the quest
for low-fat, consumer-acceptable products. Hence, it is not surprising that xanthan, with
its traditional stabilizing role in dressings and sauces, has been widely and successfully
utilized in reduced- and low-fat versions of these products.
The removal of oil and addition of water in a low-fat dressing requires that the oil
phase be better stabilized if separation of the dressing is to be avoided on prolonged
storage, while the viscosity needs to be suitably adjusted to give a similar consistency

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Figure 9.9 Schematic representations of the specific interaction in junction zones between
galactomannans and helix-forming polysaccharides such as xanthan: (a) model proposed by
Dea et al. (1972); (b) model proposed by McCleary (1979). (From Morris, V. J. in Functional
Properties of Food Macromolecules, Mitchell, J. R. and Ledward, D. A., Eds., Elsevier Applied
Science, London, 1986, 121. With permission from Chapman and Hall Ltd., Scientific, Technical
and Medical Publishers, Andover, Hampshire, England.)

to that of the higher-fat counterpart. Incorporation of xanthan into the formulation can
help on both accounts, giving relatively viscous solutions at low concentrations and
stabilizing the disperse oil phase against coalescence through its gel-like properties at
rest. In this manner, typical usage levels of xanthan, for example 0.1 to 0.4% (or lower
when in combination with galactomannan), can help to make a small amount of fat go
a long way.
The highly pseudoplastic nature of xanthan gum also contributes to its effectiveness
in low-fat dressings. In pourable dressings, the weak gel-like structure at rest is sufficient
to give clear dressings an attractive visual appearance by suspending particulate matter
throughout the shelf-life of the product but, on application of small shear forces (such
as those experienced on pouring) the structure readily breaks down, allowing the dressing
to flow from the bottle. On contact with the food, the tenuous gel structure rapidly sets
up again so that the dressing clings to the food rather than draining off (Morris, 1991).
Another advantage of xanthan gum in low-fat dressings is the nongummy mouthfeel and,
associated with this, the good flavor release characteristics. These properties again arise
as a consequence of the high degree of pseudoplasticity of xanthan, with the shear rates
experienced in the mouth causing a significant reduction in the viscosity of the dressing,
thereby giving maximum flavor impact.
When developing a low-fat dressing, the food technologist is not only concerned with
the physical and organoleptic properties of the dressing immediately following production, but also with any changes that may occur during the shelf-life of the product. In
this regard, xanthan again has advantages over many other gums owing to the rigid helical
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ordered structure of the molecules which makes xanthan less susceptible to chain cleavage through acid hydrolysis, a factor that is particularly important in low pH dressings.
In summary, xanthan is an extremely versatile hydrocolloid in terms of its functional
role in a range of food product applications, possessing unique properties on account of
its ordered molecular structure in solution that can be utilized in the formulation of
reduced-fat products.

REFERENCES
Anonymous, Quest for fat substitutes taking many routes, Inform, 2(2)115,1991.
Dea, I. C. M., McKinnon, A. A., and Rees, D. A., Tertiary and quaternary structure in aqueous polysaccharide systems which model cell wall cohesion: reversible changes in conformation and association
of agarose, carrageenan and galactomannans, J. Mol. Biol., 68, 153, 1972.
Dea, I. C. M., Morris E. R., Rees. D. A., Welsh, E. J., Barnes, H. A., and Price. J., Associations of like
and unlike polysaccharides: mechanism and specificity in galactomannans, interacting bacterial
polysaccharides and related systems, Carbohydr. Res., 57, 249, 1977.
Dickenson, E., An Introduction to Food Colloids, Cornell University Press, New York, 1992, chap. 3.
Glicksman, M., Fermentation (biosynthetic) gums, in Food Hydrocolloids, Vol. I, Glicksman, M., Ed.,
CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL, 1982, 123.
Glicksman, M., Plant seed gums, in Food Hydrocolloids, Vol. III, Glicksman M., Ed., CRC Press, Boca
Raton, FL, 1986, 155.
Glicksman, M., Hydrocolloids and the search for the oily grail, Food Technol., 5(10), 94, 1991.
Haumann, B. F., Getting the fat out, JAOCS, 63(3), 278, 1986.
Herald, C. T., Locust/carob bean gum in Food Hydrocolloids, Vol. III, Glicksman, M., Ed., CRC Press,
Boca Raton, FL, 1986a, 161.
Herald, C. T., Guar gum, in Food Hydrocolloiids, Vol. III, Glicksman, M., Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton,
FL, 1986b, 171.
Ledward, D. A., Gelation of gelatin, in Functional Properties of Food Macromolecules, Mitchell, J. R.
and Ledward, D. A., Eds., Elsevier Applied Science, London, 1986, 171.
Liu, W., Sato. T., Norisuye, T., and Fujita, H., Thermally induced conformational change of xanthan in
0.01 M sodium chloride, Carbohydr. Res., 160, 267, 1987.
Marsili, R., Strategies for creating low-fat sauces and dressings, Food Prod. Design, 3(8), 49, 1993.
McCleary, B. V., Enzymic hydrolysis, fine structure, and gelling interaction of legume-seed D-galacto-Dmannans, Carbohydr. Res., 71, 205, 1979.
Milas, M. and Rinaudo, M., Conformational investigation of the bacterial polysaccharide xanthan, Carbohydr. Res., 76, 189, 1979.
Moorhouse, R., Walkinshaw, M. D., and Arnott, S., Xanthan gum molecular conformation and interactions, in Extracellular Microbial Polysaccharides, ACS Symposium Series, 45, 90, 1977.
Morris, E. R., Cutler, A. N., Ross-Murphy, S. N., Rees, D. A., and Rice, J., Concentration and shear rate
dependence of viscosity in random coil polysaccharide solutions, Carbohydr. Polym., 1, 5, 1981.
Morris, E. R., Rheology of hydrocolloids, in Gums and Stabilisers for the Food Industry, Vol. 2, Philips,
G. O., Wedlock. D. J., and Williams, P. A., Eds., Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1984, 57.
Morris, E. R., Industrial hydrocolloids, in The Structure, Dynamics and Equilibrium Properties of Colloidal Systems, Bloor, D. M. and Wyn-Jones, E., Eds., Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990a, 449.
Morris, E. R., Mixed polymer gels, in Food Gels, Harris, P., Ed., Elsevier Applied Science, London,
1990b, 291.
Morris, E. R., Pourable Gels, IFI NR., 1, 32, 1991.
Morris, V.J., Gelation of polysaccharides, in Functional Properties of Food Macromolecules, Mitchell,
J. R. and Ledward, D. A., Eds., Elsevier Applied Science, London, 1986, 121.
Norton, I. T., Goodall, D. M., Frangou, S. A., Morris, E. R., and Rees, D. A., Mechanism and dynamics
of conformational ordering in xanthan polysaccharide, J. Mol. Biol., 175, 371, 1984.
Okuyama, K., Aronott, S., Moorhouse, R., Walkinshaw, M. D., Atkins, E. D. T., and Wolf-Ullish, Ch.,
Fibre diffraction studies of bacterial polysaccharides, in Fibre Diffraction Methods, ACS Symposium Series, 141, 411, 1980.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Pettitt, D.J., Xanthan gum, in Food Hydrocolloids, Vol. I, Glicksman, M., Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton,
FL, 1982, 127.
Rees, D.A., Morris, E. R., Thom, D., and Madden, J.K., Shapes and interaction of carbohydrate chains,
in The Polysaccharides, Vol. 1, Aspinall, G.O., Ed., Academic Press, New York, 1982, 195.
Robinson, G., Morris, E.R., and Ross-Murphy, S.B., Viscosity-molecular weight relationships, intrinsic
chain flexibility and dynamic solution properties of guar galactomannan, Carbohydr. Res., 107, 17,
1982.
Ross-Murphy, S.B., Rheological methods, in Biophysical Methods in Food Research, Chan, H.W. S., Ed.,
Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, 1984, 138.
Ross-Murphy, S.B., Small deformation measurements, in Food Structure Its Creation and Evaluation,
Blanshard, J. M. V. and Mitchell, J. R., Eds., Butterworths, London, 1988, chap. 21.
Seaman, J. K., Guar gum, in Handbook of Water-Soluble Gums and Resins, Davidson, R. L., Ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1980a, chap. 14.
Setser, C. S. and Racette, W. L., Macromolecule replacers in food product, Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr.,
32(3), 275, 1992.
Smidsrd, O. and Haug, A., Estimation of the relative stiffness of the molecular chain in polyelectrolytes
from measurement of viscosity at different ionic strengths, Biopolymers, 10, 1214, 1971.
Winter, W.T., Song, B. K., and Bouckris, H., Structural studies of galactomannans and their complexes,
Food Hydrocoll., 1, 581, 1987.

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Chapter

10

The Role of Emulsifiers in


Low-Fat Food Products
Eric Flack
CONTENTS
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Yellow Fat Spreads
10.3 Biscuits (Cookies)
10.4 Cake
10.5 Ice Cream
10.6 Conclusion
References

10.1 INTRODUCTION
The use of polar lipids as emulsifiers in processed foods is not a particularly new idea.
For instance, their use in the production of margarine has been known for more than 50
years although, no doubt, in the early days the choice was limited and the precise use
arrived at was a process of trial and error. However, in recent times, not only have we
learned very much more about their functionality, but also, by technical innovation, have
improved the quality and variety available to us. For instance, through molecular distillation, interesterification, or ethoxylation, a whole range of products has emerged with
many uses in food processing. Table 10.1 elaborates the range of products permitted for
use in food in the European Community, U.S., and Japan at the time of writing. Within
the particular headings, an even more varied range can be produced, depending upon the
fatty acids used in the production (Flack and Krog, 1990). Some typical fatty acid
compositions for monodiglycerides related to the oil feed stock used to prepare them are
shown in Table 10.2.
Emulsifiers are partial esters of fatty acids with chain lengths from C12 to C22, and
polyvalent alcohols like glycerol, sorbitol/sorbitan, and sucrose or organic acids like

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Table 10.1

Food Emulsifiers Permitted in EC, Japan, and U.S.

Emulsifier types

EC No.

Lecithins

E 322

184.1400**

Polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate (polysorbate 20)


Polyoxyethylene sorbitan mono oleate (polysorbate 80)
Polyoxyethylene sorbitan mono palmitate (polysorbate 40)
Polyoxyethylene sorbitan mono stearate (polysorbate 60)
Polyoxyethylene sorbitan tristearate (polysorbate 65)
Ammonium phosphatides (YN)
Sodium potassium and calcium salts of fatty acids
Magnesium salts of fatty acids
Mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids (including distilled
monoglycerides)

E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E

432
433
434
435
436
442
470(a)
470(b)
471

172.515
172.840
178.3400***
172.836
172.838

172.863

184.1501**

Acetic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids


(Acetem)
Lactic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids
(Lactem)
Citric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids
(Citrem)
Diacetyl tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of
fatty acids (Datem)

E 472(a)

172.828

E 472(b)

1372.852

E 472(c)

E 472(e)

184.1101**

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Japan

U.S. FDA 21 CFR*

Typical uses in food


O/W emulsions, bakery products, cereals, confectionery,
spreads, wetting and dispersion for vending products.
O/W emulsions, ice cream, salad dressings, dairy products,
wetting and dispersion for vending products, bakery
products

Viscosity reduction in chocolate. Artificial lecithin


Wetting and dispersion, O/W Emulsions, co-emulsifiers
Crumb-softening, cake and cream aeration, foam stabilizing,
amylose complexing, confectionery, ice cream, margarine,
and spreads
Alpha-tending, lubricant and release agent, increases foam
stability and stiffness, coating agent
Alpha-tending, dairy products, shortenings, desserts and
toppings
O/W and W/O emulsions, increases emulsion stability
O/W emulsions, dough-strengthening, extrusion aid, fatsparing

Succinic acid esters of monoglycerides of fatty acids


(SMG)
Ethoxylated mono-glycerides
Sucrose esters of fatty acids

172.830

Bread emulsions crumb-softening

E 473

172.834
172.859

Bread emulsions dough-strengthening


O/W emulsions, bakery products, dessert products, cake
aeration

Sucroglycerides
Polyglycerol esters of fatty acids
Polyglycerol polyricinoleate
Propane-1,2-diol esters of fatty acids
Thermally oxidized soya bean oil interacted with monoand diglycerides of fatty acids
Sodium stearoyl lactylate (SSL)
Calcium stearoly lactylate (CSL)
Stearyl tartrate
Sorbitan monostearate
Sorbitan tristearate
Sorbitan monolaurate
Sorbitan mono-oleate
Sorbitan monopalmitate

E
E
E
E
E

474
475
476
477
479(b)

+
+
+
+

172.854

172.856

E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E

481
482
483
491
492
493
494
495

+
+
+
+
+

172.846
172.844

172.842

178.3400***
178.3400***
178.3400***

* Central Federal Register. Title 21.


** GRAS Generally recognized as safe.
*** Production aids not permitted as direct additives.

1996 CRC Press LLC

O/W emulsions, cake aeration, dessert products


W/O emulsions, viscosity reduction
Alpha-tending, desserts and toppings, shortenings
W/O emulsions for frying, release agent
Crumb softening, dough-strengthening O/W emulsions
Dough-strengthening
Confectionery, desserts, yeast coating, o/w emusion
Crystal-modifying, bloom-inhibiting
Processing aids

Table 10.2

Typical Fatty Acid Compositions of Mono- and Diglycerides


Fat source

Fatty acid

Lard or tallow

Myristic (C14:0)
Palmitic (C16:0)
Palmitoleic (C16:1)
Stearic (C18:0)
Oleic (C18:1)
Linoleic (C18:2)
C20 and higher
Iodine value
(approx)

13%
2732%
35%
1520%
3643%
57%
4055

Hydrogenated Hydrogenated Groundnut Sunflower


lard or tallow soya bean oil
oil
oil
15%
2834%

1015%

1012%

610

5866%

8590%

35%
4055%
3035%
510%
80

46%
1828%
6070%

12

12

105

From Flack E. A. and Krog, N., Lipid Technol., 2(1), 11, 1990. With permission.

lactic acid. Partial esters may also be esterified with organic acids such as acetic, citric,
diacetyl tartaric, or succinic to form the wide range listed in Table 10.1. The world
production of food emulsifiers has been estimated at between 185,000 and 250,000 tonnes
(Als and Krog, 1990).
Production of monodiglycerides from fat and glycerol is carried out by alkaline
catalysis at high temperatures (circa 200C). The proportions of fat and glycerol can be
varied to obtain monoester contents of 30 to 60%, the latter being the limit for production
from simple esterification. In many cases, the most important component of monodiglyceride is the monoglyceride, higher levels of which can be obtained by various means.
The process preferred universally for large-scale production is high vacuum distillation
which results in monoglyceride contents of 90% and higher. Monoglycerides and monodiglycerides are also the building blocks for production of other types of emulsifiers
by reaction with organic acids or acid anhydrides to create acetic, citric, lactic, succinic,
and diacetyl tartaric acid esters.
The use first envisaged for emulsifiers was, as their name implies, to stabilize emulsions, whether they be water-in-oil (w/o) emulsions as in margarine or oil-in-water (o/w)
emulsions as in the case of ice cream. Besides lowering the surface tension between
components of multiphase systems, emulsifiers perform a wider range of functionalities,
depending upon the type selected; these include foam stabilizing, dough conditioning,
amylose complexing, and crystal modifying (Flack and Krog, 1990).
Food emulsifiers are amphiphilic substances which, depending upon their chemical
structures, possess both hydrophilic and lipophilic properties. This is often quantified in
terms of their hydrophilic/lipophilic balance (HLB), and while this is a useful tool in
developing simple technical emulsions, it is much less useful in food systems due to the
complicated nature of food matrices.
In general terms, emulsifiers are used either to facilitate processing or to improve the
texture, consistency, and shelf-life of finished foodstuffs. As the structures of foods are
rather complex, it is not possible in many cases to explain precisely the functions of
emulsifiers at a molecular level. It is usual, therefore, to optimize emulsifier combinations
and concentrations empirically. In emulsion-type foods, the function of emulsifiers is to
form interfacial films which will contribute to the stability of emulsions against coalescence; thus, in this case, their effect upon long-term stability is of greater importance
than their ability to reduce droplet particle size distribution. Interactions between emulsifiers and starch components in starch-based foods such as bread, flour, confectionery,
processed potato, and pasta foods are also important.

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Emulsifiers possess many of the properties of fats and oils. They have an oily or fatty
consistency, may be present in different physical forms (liquid, solid, crystalline) depending upon temperature, have lubricity and possess the texture and cohesiveness of fat.
Emulsifiers form films or spread on surfaces, build or increase viscosity through hydration, and soften or weaken structures created by polysaccharides or proteins (Orthoefer
and McCaskill, 1992).
The mouthfeel properties of oils and fats are important characteristics to consider
when reducing or replacing fat in formulations. Mouthfeel results from a combination
of several basic parameters as shown in Table 10.3. Oils and fats may add to, modify,
or reduce flavor and sweetness perception, and reduction of oils and fats can also have
an effect upon processing and handling (Orthoefer and McCaskill, 1992). Furthermore,
as the reduction of fat may be part of a general calorie reduction process, other bulk
components such as sugar may also be reduced.
Table 10.3

Parameters in Mouthfeel

Physical property

Sensory characteristic

Viscosity
Lubricity
Absorption/adsorption
Cohesiveness/adhesiveness
Waxiness

Thickness, body, fullness


Creaminess, smoothness
Physiological effect on taste perception
Extension or delay of flavor perception
Coating of palate, delayed flavor

From Orthoefer, F. and McCaskill, D., Inform., 3(12), 1270, 1278, 1992.
With permission.

The desire to reduce fat without sacrificing organoleptic and textural properties has
resulted in the development of fat replacers. However, emulsifiers can also play a significant role in enabling reformulation using lower levels of fat in processed water-inoil (w/o) emulsions and oil-in-water (o/w) systems (Flack, 1992). Typical examples of
products in which proportions of fat can be reduced significantly, i.e., by 30% or higher,
include yellow fat spreads, biscuits, cakes, baking emulsions, ice cream, and salad
dressings.

10.2 YELLOW FAT SPREADS


Traditionally and until the late 1960s, the yellow fats spread market was dominated by
butter and margarine based on hard fats, which were used in the home for both spreading
and baking. Both have levels of about 80% fat. Subsequently, spreads with fat levels
reduced to about 40% became commonplace and more recently the emphasis has been
on very low fat products with fat contents down to 20% or lower. Concurrently, the types
of fat have changed, with a preference for the substitution of hard fats by soft fats with
high proportions of polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Margarine is essentially a stable product and the combination of milk proteins,
lecithins, and/or saturated mono- and diglycerides used in production is more than
adequate to ensure both stability and the desired eating characteristics (Flack, 1992).
However, in reduced and very low-fat spreads, where the initial disperse phase is in much
greater proportion than the continuous phase, several problems arise with instability,
melt-down, and flavor release.
While milk proteins are used in high fat products to improve mouthfeel and flavor,
they also act as oil-in-water (o/w) emulsion stabilizers and thus their use in low fat
products together with the considerable energy input needed to make this type of product

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can lead to phase inversion. Therefore, in low-fat spreads, it is necessary to use distilled
monoglycerides instead of mono- and diglycerides for greater emulsion stability since
monoglycerides have less interfacial activity than lecithin. Even when monoglycerides
are used, added lecithin can further reduce the interfacial tension as shown in Figure 10.1
and thus increase the ever-present risk of phase inversion (Borwanker and Buliga, 1989).
However, the work leading to this conclusion did not indicate the types of monoglyceride
used, which has some significance.

Figure 10.1 Interfacial tension at 50C of oil-in-water systems containing (a) 1.27% distilled
monogylceride and (b) 1.27% distilled monoglyceride + 0.51% lecithin in the oil phase and
3.6% NACI in the aqueous phase. (From Borwanker, R. P. and Buliga, G. S., A.I.Ch.E. Symp.
Series, Vol. 86, No. 277, 44, 1990. With permission.)

Problems with instability, melt-down and flavor release can be overcome by a combination of formulation and processing steps. Important factors in the formulation include
the melting characteristics of the fat blend, the type and level of emulsifier, and the
addition of thickeners to increase the viscosity of the water phase. To improve flavor
release, low levels of whey protein, as later shown, can be used with the added advantage
of a reduced pH of the water phase, thereby improving the keeping properties (unlike
casein, whey proteins do not precipitate at low pH). The speed (i.e., rate of throughput)
and emulsion temperature are also important factors in the stability of the spread.
Madsen (1989) evaluated the stability of a 40% fat spread containing different combinations of emulsifiers by quantitative measurement of water separation as a factor of
time, as shown in Table 10.4. In the case of a 20% fat spread (containing 4.0% skim
milk powder, 3.0% gelatin, and 1.5% sodium alginate in the aqueous phase at pH 6.8),
the presence of 0.8% distilled monoglyceride from sunflower oil (iodine value approximately 105) resulted in phase separation in the chiller, whereas the use of the same
emulsifier at 0.5% in conjunction with 0.5% of polyglycerol ester of interesterified
ricinoleic acid (iodine value approximately 85) produced a fine, stable spread with good
spreadability and mouthfeel. The trial batches in both cases were made in a 3-tube
Perfector pilot plant. Both examples indicate the potential instability of these emulsions

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Table 10.4 Effect of Types and Blends of Emulsifiers on the Stability


of a 40% Fat Spread
Water separation % after
Levels of use
0.6%
0.6%
Plus 0.2%
0.4%
Plus 0.2%

Types of emulsifiers
Distilled monoglyceride from vegetable oil
Iodine value 80
Distilled monoglyceride from vegetable oil
Iodine value 80
Polyglycerol ester of fatty acids
Iodine value 80
Distilled monoglyceride from vegetable oil
Iodine value 80
Polyglycerol ester of interesterified ricinoleic acid
Iodine value 85

5 min 10 min 15 min 20 min


1.6

2.6

9.5

15.8

1.0

2.6

6.3

Note: Formulation of spread: water phase (pH 4.5): 56.4% water, 0.5% whey powder, 1.5% gelatin, 1.5%
salt, 0.1% potassium sorbate. Fat phase: 39.239.4% fat blend, 0.60.8% emulsifier (as above), 4
ppm beta-carotene.
From Madsen, J., World Conference on Edible Oils and Fats, AOCS, Maastricht, 1989. With permission.

and the differences in stabilizing effects of varying emulsifier combinations even at low
dosages (Madsen, 1989).
Although possible, it is more difficult to produce low-fat butter spread due to the
hardness of butter oil at low temperatures. Spreads with a butterfat content of about 40%
can be produced using 5.0% sodium caseinate in the water phase and 0.5% distilled
monoglyceride with an iodine value of approximately 55 in the fat phase. However, the
pH of the water phase cannot be lowered since the caseinate precipitates and loses its
emulsifying properties and thus the keeping properties of the spread are limited.
Alternatively, low fat butter spread can be produced using dairy cream with a fat
content adjusted to the level desired in the finished spread and using a distilled monoglyceride with a high iodine value (80 to 105) added to the cream together with a thickening
agent such as sodium alginate. Phase reversion, i.e., from o/w to w/o, can then be achieved
in the tube chiller, using normal or slightly reduced cooling and utilizing 40 to 50% of
the normal capacity. To achieve an adequate working effect, a high rotor speed in the
tube chiller cooling cylinder is preferable (Madsen, 1989).

10.3 BISCUITS (COOKIES)


The characteristics generally of importance in biscuits (cookies) include crispness, shortness, the correct texture for the biscuit type whether soft or hard (tough), and good flavor
release. Changes in these characteristics can be related to the type of flour used, the
proportions and types of sugar and fat used, the method of mixing, treatment of the
dough, and the method of baking. Fats or shortenings are used to reduce the hardness
of the biscuit and thus, simply reducing fat in the recipe results in a harder biscuit. This
can also affect the cutting and machining of the dough whereby the finished biscuit may
be misshapen. Furthermore, for the fat reduction to be of any value either economically
or dietetically it needs to be significant, for example, 20 to 30% of the total fat.
Originally, harder fats were used for biscuit production, but more recently, in view
of the recommendations on fat consumption contained in various reports such as COMA,
(Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy, DoH, U.K.) 1984, blends including

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highly unsaturated oils are used in order to increase the P/S ratio, that is, the ratio of
polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids which in itself affords a small reduction in fat
without any significant loss of quality.
Many trials have been undertaken to investigate the effect of emulsifiers on the texture
of biscuits, especially in connection with the reduction of fat. Trials reported by Hutchinson and co-workers in 1977 were carried out using a cookie formula based on the
American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC) Method 10-50 (1962). The formula
containing 13.5% fat, 47.6% flour, and 27.5% sugar as the main components, was used
to screen the effects of various emulsifiers at levels increasing from 0.125% to 1% on
flour weight. The dough was mixed in a Hobart N-50 mixer and baked in a reel oven at
204.5C for 10 min. Samples were packaged in heat sealable poly bags and stored at
room temperature (22 to 24C) for three months. Initial texture readings were observed
after 18 h of storage. Textural evaluations were measured using an Instron Texturometer,
model 1132 with a 500 g combination load cell (tension/compression). Cookies were
compressed to a depth of one half normal thickness or 4 mm, six cookies being evaluated
for each emulsifier level and storage period. To observe the effects in a reduced-fat
system, the formula was modified by (1) reducing the shortening by 20% (i.e., to 10.8%)
and (2) increasing the water by one half of the weight of shortening removed (i.e., an
increase of 32% in water level) necessary to maintain proper formula balance. Only two
levels of each emulsifier (0.25 and 0.5% of flour weight) were tested in the reduced-fat
cookies. The study showed that all the experimental cookies gave textural values below
or were softer than the control. At the lower level of addition (0.25% of flour weight),
the strongest softening effects were found using sodium stearoyl lactylate (SSL) and
succinic acid ester (SMG) with medium effects observed with polyglycerol ester (PGE),
ethoxylated monoglyceride (EMG), mono-di 40% and diacetyl tartaric acid ester
(Datem), and with no appreciable effect using lactic acid ester (Lactem). At the higher
level (0.5% of flour weight) an improved effect was seen with PGE, Datem, and Lactem,
but poorer results with EMG, mono-di, and SSL. SMG gave similar results at both levels
(Hutchinson et al., 1977). Unfortunately, as in many other early trials, exact specifications
for the emulsifiers used in this study were not stated. This can be of great interest as
esters can vary quite widely in their esterified acid levels, which can have a strong bearing
on their effectiveness.
Early trials at BBIRA (British Baking Industries Research Association), later FMBRA
(Flour Milling and Baking Research Association, Chorleywood, U.K.), have been
reported by Stevens in 1975. Reference was made to trials carried out in 1953 when
glyceryl stearates (unspecified) were found to give satisfactory results in Osborne biscuits
when used at a level of about one third of the amount of the fat that had been omitted,
up to a maximum reduction of 20% of the fat (Stevens, 1975). However, trials in
shortbread were reported as unsatisfactory at higher levels of replacement, even with up
to half of the fat removed. By 1975, however, with a wider range of emulsifiers being
available, trials were conducted using distilled monoglycerides and Datem at low levels
in both semisweet 16% fat (Marie) and short dough 32% fat (Lincoln) biscuits, in which
the fat calculated on flour weight was reduced by 20%, i.e., down to 12.8 and 25.6% fat
on flour weight, respectively). Preliminary tests showed Datem to be the most effective
emulsifier even though used at only half the levels of monoglyceride (i.e., 0.5 to 0.75%
vs. 1 to 1.5%) and thus the follow-up investigations centered on this type of compound.
The Datem paste used in the Stevens (1975) trials had a total tartaric acid content of
17 to 20%, an acid value of 70 to 90, and a saponification value of 380 to 425, both of
the latter calculated as mg KOH/g product. The results of these trials indicated that goodquality biscuits with a reduced fat level could be produced with the aid of this emulsifier,
as illustrated in Table 10.5. However, Stevens (1975) also noted in the accompanying

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Table 10.5

The Effect of Datem Emulsifier on Lincoln (L) and Marie (M) Biscuits with Fat Level Reduced by 20%
Dough properties

Product
type
Lincoln
Lincoln
Lincoln
Lincoln
Marie
Marie
Marie
Marie

Sample
code

Fat
% std.

Datem
% fat

L1
L2
L3
L4
M1
M2
M3
M4

100
80
80
80
100
80
80
80

0
0
0.5
0.75
0
0
0.5
0.75

Consistency

Weight
g 10

Stack height
cm 20

Mean diameter
cm

Density
g/cc

Texturemeter
seconds

Reflectance
%

Satisfactory
Dry and crumbly
Crumbly
Crumbly
Optimum
Tight
Satisfactory
Optimum

117.0
121.3
121.9
120.3
75.7
77.2
75.9
76.0

100.6
105.1
104.1
104.0
60.4
61.4
60.4
60.2

16.6
17.6
17.6
17.6
10.8
11.2
11.0
11.1

5.76
5.70
5.72
5.68
5.92
5.97
5.92
5.91

0.465
0.468
0.460
0.466
0.406
0.392
0.399
0.396

21
26
24
21
26
28
28
26

36
36
33
32
45
46
44
41

From Stevens, D. J., FMBRA Bull., 1, 1975. With permission.

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Biscuit properties

Dough piece wt.


g 10

discussion that in the case of the 20% fat reduction in the Lincoln recipe, the amounts
of ingredients were severely unbalanced and thus, adjustment of the ingredient levels as
well as of the processing and baking conditions was advisable.
Later work at FMBRA was more extensive and more detailed. In a report by Burt
and Thacker (1981) details were given of trials carried out screening 20 commercially
available emulsifiers as an extra ingredient in the FMBRA Lincoln biscuit recipe, having
a fat content of 18% of dough weight (as against 32% of flour weight reported in the
1975 study by Stevens). The emulsifiers selected were those permitted for use in biscuits
in the U.K. and which were thought to be of value in biscuit manufacture. Three
alternative modes of addition were utilized in the water, in the fat, or direct to the
dough as the last ingredient at the creaming stage and all at an inclusion rate of 1%
in a firm dough in the initial trials. Following the elimination of some types for practical
reasons, the main trials involved 13 emulsifiers at 0.4% level of addition. Details of the
types used, the mode of addition and their effects upon dough firmness, dough piece
weight, and biscuit hardness are shown in Table 10.6.
Table 10.6

The Effect of Emulsifiers on Dough and Biscuit Properties


% Change in Property
Addition
Level %

Mode

Dough
firmness

Dough
piece wt.

Biscuit
hardness

1
0.4
1
0.4
1
0.4

Fat
Fat
Water
Water
Water
Water

ns
45
75
39
36
40

2.8
4.4
3.1
2.2
1.5
1.7

18
22
28
23
18
ns

1
0.4
0.4
1
1
1
1
0.4
1
0.4
1
0.4

Fat
Fat
Fat
Direct
Direct
Fat
Water
Water
Fat
Fat
Water
Water

ns
ns
ns
ns
2.0
ns
84
30
ns
ns
39
65

2.4
2.9
2.6
ns
ns
2.3
3.4
2.4
1.9
2.0
2.6
4.1

ns
ns
11
29
28
36
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns

PGE*

0.4

Water

ns

1.4

11

SSL

1
1
0.4
1
0.4

Direct
Water
Water
Water
Water

ns
99
114
ns
ns

2.1
4.2
6.1
1.9
1.9

ns
ns
19
ns
ns

Emulsifier

Abbreviation

Monoglycerides

Mono (unsat)
(sat)

Monodiglycerides
Acid esters of
monoglycerides:
Lactic acid

Mono-di (sat)

Acetic acid
Citric acid
Diacetyl
tartaric acid
Sorbitan
monostearate
Sorbitan
tristearate
Polyoxyethylene
sorbitan
monostearate
Polyglycerol
monostearate
Sodium stearoyl2-lactylate

Acetem
Citrem
Datem

Calcium stearoyl2-lactylate

Lactem*

SMS*
STS*
Polysorbate

CSL*

Note: ns = not significant.


* No effect on these properties when added directly to the dough.
From Burt, D. J. and Thacker, D., FMBRA Bull., 2, April, 1981. With permission.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Since it had been established separately that increasing the level of fat in the recipe
produced softer biscuits, it was judged that those emulsifiers which produced softer
biscuits when added to the control recipe should be suitable alternatives to fat. The
emulsifiers satisfying this criterion (Table 10.6) were Citrem, Datem, SSL, and PGE. On
closer examination, the latter was found to have too small an effect to be of potential
value as a fat replacer. Reductions of up to 30% in the level of fat in the control recipe
were used for estimating the trade-off between emulsifier and fat. The effect of fat
reduction on hardness in Lincoln biscuits, measured by the Baker Perkins Texturemeter,
is shown in Figure 10.2, the reading for the control biscuit being about 12 s and for the
30% fat-reduced biscuit being about 16.5 s (Burt and Thacker, 1981). This represents
an increase of about 37% in hardness relative to the control biscuit.

Figure 10.2 Effect on biscuit hardness of decreased levels of fat in the recipe, measured on
Baker Perkins Texturemeter at constant force. (From Burt, D. J. and Thacker, D., FMBRA Bull.
2, April 1981. With permission.)

Further investigations by Burt and Thacker (1981) involved adding Datem via the fat,
Citrem and SSL in the recipe water, and Datem and SSL by direct addition to the dough.
In the latter approach, a modified recipe was used which adjusted dough water levels to
obtain the same firmness as the control doughs. The results are shown in Table 10.7.
Clearly, the mode of addition had a significant influence on the effectiveness of added
emulsifiers in terms of fat replacement, while the convenience of direct addition offered
distinct practical advantages. However, it should be noted that substitution of significant
levels of fat by emulsifiers affects biscuit properties other than hardness and therefore
emulsifiers should not be considered as equivalent to fat in all respects. The data in
Table 10.8 show the differences in biscuit properties between biscuits prepared using the
control recipe (18% fat on dough weight) and those containing 30% less fat (i.e., 12.6%
fat on dough weight) and 0.5% Datem on an ingredients basis. Taste panel tests on
biscuits with emulsifier levels from 0.25% to 1% after storage at 21C and sealed in
laminate for both 3 months and 6 months, did not reveal any serious off-flavors. The
final conclusions from these trials were that the most effective and economical fat
replacers were Datem and SSL when added directly to the dough and Citrem when added
to the dough water (Burt and Thacker, 1981).
A continuation of these trials reported by Burt and Thacker (1983) centered on Datem
and SSL via two modes of addition each, i.e., Datem direct and via the fat and SSL
direct and via the water. Particular note was made of the effect on biscuit hardness at
varying levels. The difference in fat sparing effect, depending upon mode of application
suggested in the earlier work, was not fully substantiated in this study. The conclusion
finally reached was that these emulsifiers would be effective when added to the dough
directly at low levels of 0.1 to 0.25% of the dry ingredients, up to a level of replacement
1996 CRC Press LLC

Table 10.7
Emulsifier
type

The Trade-off between Fat and Emulsifier in Short Dough Biscuits


Mode of
addition

Datem

Fat
Direct
Direct
SSL
Water
Direct
Citrem
Water
Emulsifier on fat basis**:

Calculated equivalence in fat% for addition* of emulsifier at:


0.125%

0.25%

0.5%

12
20
20
4
20
11
0.64%

19

13
1.27%

30

17

18
2.5%

Recipe
FMBRA
FMBRA
Alternative
FMBRA
Alternative
FMBRA

* Ingredients basis not including dough water.


** 0.74% for alternative recipe.
From Burt, D. J., and Thacker, D., FMBRA Bull., 2, April, 1981. With permission.

Table 10.8 Effects on Biscuit Properties of a Datem Emulsifier at


a Reduced Fat Level

Biscuit property
Weight
Thickness
Width
Length
Moisture

Control biscuit
18% fat

Control, less 30%


fat plus 0.5%
Datem

% change in
property

9.33 g
0.83 cm
5.73 cm
5.65 cm
1.6%

+7
+10
2
1
+45

8.72 g
0.75 cm
5.83 cm
5.71 cm
1.1%

From Burt, D. J. and Thacker, D., FMBRA Bull., 2, 1981. With permission.

of 20% fat. At higher levels of replacement, the dough became sticky which, it was felt,
would cause problems in production.
Separately, lecithin was tested at six levels from 0.0 to 1.0% but was found to have
only a minor effect on biscuit hardness. For example, a level of 0.25% in the same recipe
as above gave an average reduction in the Texturemeter reading of only 0.6 s correlating
to a reduction of about 5% of total fat in the recipe.
In recent years, biscuits in which the levels of fat have been reduced by more than
20% have been shown to be commercially viable with several brands now available. The
substitution of normal shortening by very stable fat emulsions previously thought to be
impractical, has enabled the production of satisfactory biscuits with significant reductions
in fat levels, although the emulsion itself has presented problems in handling which,
when solved, offers an interesting alternative. The work in this area is still under development.

10.4 CAKE
The role of fat in the stabilization of air bubbles in cake batters was studied by Brooker
(1993), using shortening containing emulsifier by the all in method. During mixing,
fat crystals are coated with an interfacial layer of adsorbed protein (crystal-water interface) and absorb to the surface of the bubbles by a process which involves the fusion of
the crystal-water interface with the air-water interface. The adsorption of fat crystals

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helps to stabilize large numbers of small bubbles which must expand without rupturing
during baking if the batter is not to collapse. During heating, the fat melts and runs over
the internal surface of the bubble, leaving behind the fat crystal-water interface to enable
expansion.
Almost all the air bubbles which ultimately create the texture in cake are incorporated
during the preparation of the batter, and previous study has shown that the polymorphic
form of the crystalline fat in the shortening affects the way in which air is incorporated.
Thus, it has been observed that when the solid fat consisted primarily of b1 crystals,
many small bubbles were stabilized, but when the much larger b crystals predominated,
relatively little air was incorporated in fewer large bubbles (Brooker, 1993). This has led
to the proposal illustrated in Figure 10.3 that the fat in the cooked batter forms a
continuous layer on the inside surface of the air bubbles. Previously it had been reported
that shortenings containing emulsifiers can stabilize larger numbers of small bubbles and
can produce a finer crumb structure in the final product than shortening alone (Brooker,
1993).
The size, shape, and number of the adsorbed fat crystals determine the area of interface
that can be made available to the surface of air bubbles per volume of fat. Small fat
crystals such as most b1 forms have a large surface area to volume ratio and are more
efficient at contributing interface to air bubbles during cooking than would a similar
weight of the larger b crystal form. Furthermore, the smaller b1 crystals usually have a
lower melting point and melt faster than the larger b form and thus make available their
fat-water interface more rapidly during baking. The incorporation of shortenings containing emulsifiers which help stabilize fat crystals in the lower melting forms such as
Lactem and PGMS are, therefore, essential to ensure stable high volumes in cake batters
when using lower levels of fat.
This is, therefore, but a step away from the complete replacement of shortening by
suitable emulsifiers which are stabilized in their lowest melting alpha form as aqueous
dispersions. Of importance in this respect are the saturated distilled monoglycerides
which disperse in water to form various mesophases at different temperatures (Krog,
Riisom, and Larsson, 1988). This phenomenon is illustrated in Figure 10.4, from which
it can be seen that the binary phase diagrams of saturated and unsaturated distilled
monoglycerides differ considerably. Saturated distilled monoglycerides with 95%
monoester form lamellar mesophases at 55 to 70C while unsaturated products form
predominantly cubic mesophases at room temperature (20C+). The structure of various
liquid crystalline phases formed by food emulsifiers, including monoglycerides, are
shown in Figure 10.5. The latter is a highly schematic representation which only provides
an indication of structure of the phases. The cubic model has been revised more recently
and is much more complicated than the model shown in Figure 10.5 (Larsson, 1990).
The process for the formation of the lamellar mesophase and (after cooling) the gel
phase, is represented in Figure 10.6. At temperatures up to approximately 50C, the
monoglyceride remains in its stable b form, floating in water. At about 50C, the
monoglyceride starts to absorb water between the layers of polar groups and, if mixed
in the right proportions of water to monoglyceride, a liquid crystalline phase is formed
at 60 to 65C. This is a fully homogeneous system where the monoglyceride molecules
are oriented in a lamellar structure with water between their polar groups. At temperatures
above 70 to 80C, the monoglyceride transforms into a viscous isotropic phase in which
there is a fixed ratio between the monoglyceride and water and where excess water is
present as free water. The lamellar dispersion can be cooled to form an alpha crystalline
gel, but it is unstable at room temperature and quickly transforms to a coagel (b crystals)
unless used immediately. The efficiency of monoglycerides in various mesomorphic
forms is shown in Table 10.9 (Tamstorf, 1983).

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Figure 10.3 Diagrammatic representation of the interfacial behavior of fat in the preparation
and cooking of cake batter. (A) Adsorption of fat crystals to the air-water interface; (B) crystals
melt during baking; (C) the oil runs over the internal surface of the bubble, thus releasing fatwater interface and permitting bubble expansion without rupture; (D) in the cooked batter, the
fat forms a continuous layer on the inside surface of bubbles. (From Brooker, B. E., Food
Structure, 12, 285, 1993. With permission.)

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Figure 10.4 Phase diagrams of distilled monoglycerides from (a) hydrogenated lard and (b)
sunflower oil. (From Krog, N., Riisom, T., and Larsson, K., in Encyclopaedia of Emulsion
Technology, Vol. 2, Becher, P., Ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, 321, 1988. With permission.)

While aqueous dispersions of monoglycerides are unstable, it is possible to stabilize


the monoglyceride in the alpha form by the use of so-called alpha-tending emulsifiers
(Acetem, Lactem, PGMS) and solvents such as propylene glycol to form a gel (Tamstorf,
1983). A typical cake gel system which can remain stable in the alpha form is composed
of 20% saturated distilled monoglyceride (IV max 2) but with 8% distilled PGMS
dissolved in 16% propylene glycol at 85C, into which is slowly stirred a solution of
25% potassium stearate in glycerol (5%) and demineralized water (51%) also at 85C,
which is left to cool under slow agitation. Typical results obtained when using such a
gel in a fat-free sponge cake, are shown in Figure 10.7. The actual dosage required in
any recipe depends on the equipment used and the desired volume of the finished cake.
In these trials, the batter was whisked once using a Hobart mixer. The importance of
maintaining the emulsifier in its alpha crystalline form is illustrated in Figure 10.8. In
these cases, simple dispersions were made as appropriate and whisked in a Hobart mixer.
Such dispersions or gels can be utilized to maintain high levels of aeration in cake batters
which have either reduced-fat levels or are entirely fat-free.

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Figure 10.5 Schematic structure models of lamellar, hexagonal, and cubic mesophases.
(From Krog, N., Riisom, T., and Larsson, K., in Encyclopaedia of Emulsion Technology, Vol. 2,
Becher, P, Ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, 321, 1988. With permission.)

Figure 10.6 Structure models showing (a) orientation of surfactant molecules in the crystalline
state, (b) formation of a lamellar mesophase above Tc (Kraft Point) in the presence of water,
and (c) the formation of a gel phase below Tc. The structure parameters d, da, dw and S can
be measured by X-ray diffraction. (From Krog, N., in Food Emulsions, 2nd ed., Larsson, K. and
Friberg, S. E., Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 127, 1990. With permission.)

10.5 ICE CREAM


In most countries, legislative requirements stipulate minimum levels of fat in ice cream,
the requirement varying between 5% and 12% (Flack, 1991). In the U.S. the standard
product still requires a minimum of 10% fat but descriptor definitions for lite products,
including low-fat and fat-free products, have been implemented. The opportunity to
reduce fat, therefore, may be limited by legislation if the fat-reduced product is still to
be called ice cream or by whatever name it is given in national legislation.

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Table 10.9 The Aeration Efficiency of Saturated Distilled


Monoglycerides in Various Mesophases
Type of mesophase
Neat
Viscous isotropic
Viscous isotropic + H2O
Dispersion
Gel + H2O
b crystals + H2O
Mechanical dispersion at 68
in H2O (fresh)

Volume in cake batter


ml/kg

Volume in cake
cm3

1137
1112
1560
2970
2660
1370
1915

680
664
1012
1318
1200
810
1100

From Tamstorf, S., Grindsted Symposium, Beijing, 1983. With permission.

Figure 10.7 Effect of cake gel additions on batter and cake characteristics in fat-free sponge.
(From Tamstorf, S., Grindsted Technical Paper TP 9-1e, presented at Grindsted Symposium,
Beijing, September, 1983. With permission.)

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Figure 10.8 The aeration effects of distilled monoglyceride dispersions in alpha- and betacrystal forms.

Ice cream has a complex structure, being an aerated, partially frozen o/w emulsion
in which the air bubbles are surrounded by absorbed fat globules. Thus, the fat not only
provides a creamy taste but also helps create the structure of the ice cream. Emulsifiers,
mainly monoglycerides (40 to 90% monoester), are used at the levels needed to provide
approximately 0.21% 1-monoglyceride in the mix in order to destabilize the fat globule
membrane structure formed following homogenization and leading to partial churningout in the freezer, which then facilitates foaming and improves air cell distribution (Flack,
1988).
The destabilization process which takes place during ageing of the mix at 5C involves
desorption of interfacially bound protein (casein). Simultaneously, an increase in fat
globule crystallization occurs which also amplifies the rate of protein desorption. The
removal of adsorbed proteins increases the hydrophobicity of the fat globules and promotes their agglomeration and orientation around the air cells in the finished ice cream.
The desorption of protein is related to the temperature of the mix. At temperatures above
40C, the amount of protein adsorbed to the fat phase is high; when the temperature of
the emulsion is lowered, the amount of adsorbed protein is reduced (Krog, 1992).
Studies of the interfacial tension in o/w systems with or without emulsifiers dispersed
in the oil phase and with milk proteins dissolved in the water have shown that temperature
has a very pronounced effect on the surface activity of monoglycerides (Barford et al.,
1993). At high temperatures, the solubility of monoglycerides in the oil phase is high
and the reduction in surface tension minimal. However, upon cooling, the solubility
decreases while the adsorption of monoglycerides at the o/w interface increases, resulting
in lower surface tension. When monoglycerides are present, the interfacial tension
decreases at low temperatures to values below that of the protein film, and consequently
the increased adsorption of monoglycerides displaces the protein molecules. The interrelationship between decrease in interfacial tension, protein desorption, fat crystallization, and the agglomeration of fat globules due to increased hydrophobicity, is shown in
Figure 10.9 (Barford et al., 1993)
An important element in the processing of ice cream mix is homogenization, during
which the fat is distributed as small globules. The particle size distribution of the fat is
affected by both the temperature at which homogenization is carried out and the pressure
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Figure 10.9 Changes in interfacial phenomena, such as interfacial tension, protein desorption
and fat crystallization related to agglomeration of fat globules in ice cream as a function of a
decrease in temperature with (+E) and without (-E) added monoglyceride emulsifier. (From
Barford, N. M., Krog, N., Larsen, G., and Buchheim, W., Fat Science Technol., 24, 1993. With
permission.)

at which it takes place. The optimum temperature usually recommended is 75 to 85C,


and the pressure varies according to the fat content in order to obtain the preferred results
organoleptically, including mouthfeel (cold or warm eating), consistency (soft, brittle),
creaminess, and melt-down. Optimum homogenization pressures related to fat percentages have been evaluated as shown in Figure 10.10 which also indicates the differing
pressures suggested for similar fat levels derived from different origins (Flack, 1983).
Trials using pressures up to 40 kp/cm2 above and below the optimum have shown that
increased pressures result in quicker melt-down and less churning-out. On the other hand,
ice cream that has been subjected to higher pressures is colder-eating, more brittle, and has
a looser texture. The explanation for these phenomena is found in variations in particle size
distribution. The effect of varying homogenization pressures on the particle size of a mix
containing 10% fat derived from double cream is shown in Table 10.10 (Larsen, 1988).
When surface areas are compared with FFE (free fat estimated) values, a clear
correlation can be seen, as illustrated in Figure 10.11 (Larsen, 1988). The explanation
for this is that when the surface area of the fat globule is increased, the ratio between
emulsifier and protein on the fat globule surface changes. The concentration of the
monoglyceride is reduced relatively and thus the amount of churned out fat is also
reduced. This leads to reduced air stabilization and quicker melt-down.
As previously indicated, monoglycerides are the preferred emulsifiers for ice cream
production, although polysorbates may be used at low levels in combination with monodiglycerides, as they strongly influence agglomeration. It must also be noted that with

1996 CRC Press LLC

Figure 10.10 Optimum homogenizing pressures for ice cream mixes of varying fat type and
content. (From Flack, E. A., Ice Cream and Frozen Confectionery, Ice Cream Alliance, Ltd.,
London February 1983. With permission.)

Table 10.10 The Effect of Varying Homogenizing Pressures


on Particle Size of a 10% Fat-Based Ice Cream
Homogenizing pressure, kp/cm2

140

160

180

200

220

Average size, m
Variance, m

1.67
1.02

1.25
0.75

1.14
0.70

1.08
0.67

1.00
0.55

From Larsen, G., Paper presented at Inter-Ice 1989, Selingen. With permission.

such high water levels in the product, hydrocolloids play an important role in the structure
and stability of the ice cream due to their influence upon the rheological conditions of
the water phase (see Chapter 9).
From all these observations, it can be seen that ice cream with lower fat levels can
be produced by varying the balance of raw materials within the recipe and by adjusting
processing conditions. Examples of standard, low-fat and non-fat ice cream are shown
in Table 10.11, indicating the variations required to achieve optimum results and to ensure
organoleptic acceptability. Other food products in which an appreciable reduction in fat
1996 CRC Press LLC

Figure 10.11 Churning out as a function of surface area. (From Larsen, G., Paper presented
at Inter-Ice 1988, Solingen, November 1988. With permission.)

Table 10.11
Creams

Composition of Standard, Low-Fat, and Fat-Free Ice


Standard ice cream

Butterfat %
Msnf %
Sugar %
Corn syrup solids %
Monoglyceride (60%) %
Stabilizer blend %
Total solids %
K/cal/100 g
Homogenization kp/cm2

10.0
10.5
12.0
5.0
0.35
0.15
38.0
204
160

Milk ice
3.0
11.2
12.0
6.0
0.49
0.21
32.9
149
220

Non-fat dessert
0
11.8
12.0
7.0
0.6
0.4
31.8
130
240

can be achieved by utilizing the emulsifier functionalities described in the foregoing,


often in association with appropriate hydrocolloids, include desserts and toppings, dairy
analogues, dressings, sauces and pastries.

10.6 CONCLUSION
From this chapter, some general conclusions relating to the use of emulsifiers in fat
replacement can be drawn. First, a reduction in fat requires changes in both formulation
and processing to maintain quality comparable to the original product. Second, while
oils and fats may be used more efficiently in combination with emulsifiers, activation of
emulsifiers, for instance by hydration, to form dispersions and gels, may be required for
optimum performance, in which case a change in the composition of emulsifier blends
toward more hydrophilic properties may be necessary. The art of fat reduction may often
be in the creation of fat-like rheological properties by changing the aqueous components
in food systems.
1996 CRC Press LLC

REFERENCES
ALS, G. and Krog, N., Emulsifiers as food processing aids, in World Conference on Oleochemicals into
the 21st Century, Applewhite, T. H., Ed., AOCS, Kuala Lumpur, 67, 1990.
Barford, N. M., Krog, N., Larsen, G., and Buchheim, W., Effects of emulsifiers on protein-fat interaction
in ice cream mix during ageing 1: Quantitative analysis, Fat Sci. Technol., 24, 1993.
Borwanker, R. P., and Buliga, G. S., Emulsion properties of margarines and low fat spreads, A.I.Ch.E.
Symp., Vol. 86, No. 277, 44, 1990.
Brooker, B. E., The stabilization of air in cake batters the role of fat, Food Structure, 12, 285, 1993.
Burt, D. J. and Thacker, D., The use of emulsifiers in short dough biscuits, FMBRA Bulletin 2, April, 1981.
Burt, D. J. and Thacker, D., Further investigations of emulsifiers in short dough biscuits, FMBRA Bulletin
5, October, 1983.
Flack, E. A., Important factors which affect homogenisation efficiency, in Ice Cream and Frozen Confectionery, Ice Cream Alliance Ltd., London, February, 1983.
Flack, E. A., Europe Ice cream, legislative requirements, Paper presented at Grindsted Technical
Seminar, ICA Exhibition, Glasgow, 1991.
Flack, E. A., The role of emulsifiers in reduced fat and fat-free foods, in Food Technology International
Europe, Turner, A., Ed., Sterling Publications Limited, London, 1992, 179.
Flack, E. A., The Role of Emulsifying and Stabilizing Agents in Ice Cream, Grindsted Technical Paper
TP 210-1e, 1988.
Flack, E. A. and Krog, N., Emulsifiers in modern food production, Lipid Technol., 2(1), 11, 1990.
Hutchinson, P. E., Barocchi, F. and Del Vecchio, A. J., Effect of emulsifiers on the texture of cookies, J.
Food Sci., 42(2), 399, 1977.
Krog, N., Riisom, T. and Larsson, K., Applications in the food industry, in Encyclopaedia of Emulsion
Technology, Vol. 2, Becher, P., Ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1988, 321.
Krog, N., Food emulsifiers and their chemical and physical properties, in Food Emulsions, 2nd ed.,
Larsson, K. and Friberg, S. E., Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1990, 127.
Krog, N., The role of low-polar emulsifiers in protein-stabilized emulsions, in Emulsions a Fundamental
Practical Approach, Sjblom, J., Ed., Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands, 61, 1992.
Larsen, G., The principles of homogenization of an ice cream mix, Paper presented at Inter-Ice 88,
Solingen, November, 1988.
Larsson, K. and Dejmek, P., Crystal and liquid crystal structures of lipids, in Food Emulsions, 2nd ed.,
Larsson, K. and Friberg, S. E., Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1990, 97.
Madsen, J., Low-calorie spread and melange production in Europe, in World Conference on Edible Oils
and Fats, AOCS, Maastricht, October, 1989.
Miller, A. R., Ferguson, E. F., Thacker, D. and Wheeler, R. J., Fat reduction in biscuits and crackers,
FMBRA Report No. 140 Part 2, December, 1988.
Orthoefer, F. and McCaskill, D., Emulsifiers and their role in low-fat and no-fat processed foods, Inform,
3(12), 1270, 1278, 1992.
Stevens, D. J., The use of emulsifiers in biscuits, FMBRA Bulletin 1, February, 1975.
Tamstorf, S., Emulsifiers for bakery and starch products, Grinsted Technical Paper TP 9-1e, presented at
Grindsted Symposium, Beijing, September, 1983.

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Chapter

11

The Role of the Bulking


Agent Polydextrose in Fat
Replacement
Helen L. Mitchell
CONTENTS
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5

Introduction and Historical Perspective


Production Process and Patent Status
Chemical Composition
Physical and Functional Properties
Applications
11.5.1 Reduced-Fat Pastry
11.5.2 Other Applications
11.6 Nutritional and Toxicological Aspects
11.7 Legislative and Labeling Status
References

11.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE


Polydextrose is a unique material that was invented by Dr. Hans Rennhard at Pfizer
Central Research Laboratories, U.S., in the mid-1970s (Rennhard, 1975). Polydextrose
is a low-calorie bulking agent which can replace all or part of the sugars and some of
the fats in foods while maintaining a pleasant texture and mouthfeel. This multifunctional
food ingredient can also be used as an humectant, texturizer, thickener, stabilizer, and
cryoprotectant. Polydextrose is a complex carbohydrate made from glucose, sorbitol, and
citric acid, and it has been used in human food as a low-calorie bulking agent since the
early 1980s. Polydextrose, improved polydextrose (Litesse), and super-improved polydextrose (Litesse II) are currently manufactured by Pfizer Food Science in the U.S.

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11.2 PRODUCTION PROCESS AND PATENT STATUS


Polydextrose is prepared by a vacuum melt process involving polycondensation of glucose in the presence of small amounts of sorbitol and citric acid in the ratio 89:10:1,
respectively. Sorbitol acts as a plasticizer and citric acid as a catalyst in the polymerization. It is important that the molecular size of the polymer is controlled (MW about
5,000) during the manufacturing process in order to restrict the formation of large
molecular weight molecules. This control prevents the formation of insoluble materials
and results in the highly water soluble nature of polydextrose (Allingham, 1982; Beereboom, 1981). The polymer is subjected to various clean-up procedures to produce
several qualities of polydextrose. The process was patented by Rennhard in 1975.

11.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION


Polydextrose is a randomly linked polymer of glucose that contains sorbitol end groups
and an occasional citric acid moiety attached by an ester linkage. The random bonds in
the polymer (both alpha and beta and predominately 16, but with some 12, 13, 14
and 11 bonds) creates a structural compactness and complexity that prevents mammalian
digestive enzymes from readily hydrolyzing the molecule. A hypothetical structure for
a typical polydextrose oligomer is shown in Figure 11.1.

Figure 11.1 The chemical structure of polydextrose. (Courtesy of Pfizer Ltd., Kent, United
Kingdom.)

Polydextrose has an average degree of polymerization of 8 glucose units and a


molecular weight below 5,000 (Allingham, 1982; Beereboom, 1981). Beside the polymer, polydextrose contains small quantities of unreacted monomers (glucose and sorbitol), low levels of 1,6-anhydroglucose (levoglucosan), and trace amounts of
5-hydroxymethylfurfural. The latter products are formed from glucose during the manufacturing process (Murray, 1988; Moppett, 1991; Thomas, 1991). All starting materials

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used in the manufacture of polydextrose are food grade products. Polydextrose is


supplied to the industry in compliance with the Joint Expert Committee on Food
Additives (JECFA) and the Food Chemical Codex compendial specifications.

11.4 PHYSICAL AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES


Polydextrose is an odorless, white to light cream amorphous powder, and its physicochemical properties are summarized in Table 11.1. It has virtually no sweetness and an
energy value of only 1 kcal/g. Unlike the polyols, polydextrose takes part in the Maillard
reaction with amino acids, similar to reducing sugars, so allowing the characteristic
flavors of caramel and toffee to develop. Polydextrose, improved polydextrose (Litesse),
and super-improved polydextrose (Litesse II) have positive heats of solution (9 kcal/g),
unlike sucrose (4.3 kcal/g) and most of the polyols (8 to 35 kcal/g).
Table 11.1 The Physical and Chemical Properties
of Generic Polydextrose
Molecular weight range

Appearance
Odor
Melting point
Solubility (25C)
Viscosity (25C, 50%w/w)
Heat of solution
Water activity (20% w/w)
pH in water (100g/liter)
Titratable acidity
Caloric value
Relative sweetness
Water
Sorbitol
Glucose
a

1625,000
88.1%
5,00010,000
10.0%
10,00016,000
1.2%
16,00018,000
0.1%
White-cream amorphous powder
None
130C
80% w/w
33.2 centipoise
9 Kcal/g
0.992
2.53.5
0.140.16 meq/g
1 kcal/g
None
Max 4%
Max 2%a
Max 4%a

Anhydrous, ash-free basis.

Courtesy of Pfizer Ltd., Kent, United Kingdom.

Polydextrose is highly soluble in water to approximately 80% w/w at 20C. As shown


in Figure 11.2, polydextrose is more soluble than any of the polyols. When making up
aqueous solutions of high concentration, it is recommended to use a slow rate of addition,
moderate heat (35 to 40C) and high shear mixing. Preblending with other water soluble
ingredients also aids in the rate of solution of polydextrose. Polydextrose solutions are
clear, but at high concentrations exhibit a characteristic yellow color. This color has not
been found to be a problem in most food product applications.
Solutions of polydextrose have a higher viscosity than sucrose or sorbitol solutions
at equivalent concentrations and temperatures. This characteristic enables polydextrose
to provide the desirable mouthfeel and textural qualities so important when replacing
sugars and fats. The changes in viscosity with increasing concentration and temperature
for polydextrose, sucrose, and sorbitol are compared in Figures 11.3 and 11.4.

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Figure 11.2 A comparison of the solubility of polydextrose, sucrose, and selected polyols at
20C. (Courtesy of Pfizer Ltd., Kent, United Kingdom.)

Figure 11.3 Concentration/viscosity relationship of polydextrose, sucrose, and sorbitol at


25C. (Courtesy of Pfizer Ltd., Kent, United Kingdom.)

Polydextrose can function as an humectant, helping to slow down undesirable changes


in the moisture content of foods. Figure 11.5 illustrates how polydextrose (Litesse and
Litesse II) absorbs moisture under conditions of high relative humidity until an equilibrium is reached. Polydextrose solutions have only a slightly higher water activity than
sucrose solutions at any given concentration and temperature. Therefore, since polydextrose is not sweet, it may be used in savory applications as a means of controlling the
water activity of a product and hence helping to prolong its shelf life.
Freezing point depression is an important function, required for the preparation of
creamy and palatable frozen desserts. In conventional frozen products, sucrose and other
bulk sweeteners are used to produce the correct consistency and mouthfeel of the finished
product. The lower the molecular weight of an ingredient, the greater its effect on the
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Figure 11.4 Temperature/viscosity relationship of 70% solutions of polydextrose, sucrose, and


sorbitol. (Courtesy of Pfizer Ltd., Kent, United Kingdom.)

Figure 11.5 A comparison of the moisture pick-up of Litesse, selected sugars, and polyols at
a Relative Humidity of 66% (30C). (Courtesy of Pfizer Ltd., Kent, United Kingdom.)

freezing point depression. Polydextrose has a higher average molecular weight and
therefore has a reduced and favorable effect on the freezing point depression compared
with smaller molecules such as sucrose or sorbitol, as shown in Figure 11.6 (Baer and
Baldwin, 1984 and 1985). Polydextrose has also shown some potential as a cryoprotectant
in fish and beef surimi (Park, 1986; Park and Lanier, 1987); in these products, polydextrose has some advantages over the traditionally used cryoprotectants such as sorbitol as
it does not add any unwanted sweet flavors.
Litesse and Litesse II are second and third generation polydextroses with a reduced
titratable acidity and improved flavor compared to polydextrose (Table 11.2). Litesse II
was specifically developed for use in light foods that are more flavor sensitive and where

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Figure 11.6 Freezing point depressions of Litesse, selected sugars, and sorbitol at various
concentrations. (Courtesy of Pfizer Ltd., Kent, United Kingdom.)

a higher level of sugar and fat replacement is required, e.g., confectionery, chocolate,
bakery fillings and toppings, jams/jellies, syrups, and spreads. The sensory characteristics
of Litesse and Litesse II in aqueous solution were similar when judged by trained panelists
using Quantitative Descriptive Analysis, and there were no significant differences
between the two at equivalent concentration in aqueous solution. However, sweetness
was the most intense flavor characteristic and Litesse II was judged sweeter than Litesse
at a concentration of 20%. The sweetness of Litesse II was probably enhanced by its
lower titratable acidity. Litesse II was also less bitter, astringent, and oily than Litesse.
Since Litesse II has a tenfold lower titratable acidity compared to Litesse, products made
with the former rarely have to be buffered. The acidity of Litesse II also means that
sucrose inversion in the presence of Litesse II is negligible and there is minimal effect
on fat rancidity and subsequent flavor changes. In practical terms, this means that in
most applications there is no need for an additional neutralization step when using Litesse.
Litesse II can be used at greater levels in a formulation because of its clean, mildly sweet
taste. In all other respects Litesse and Litesse II have the same bulking and functional
properties as the original polydextrose.

Table 11.2 Comparison of Some Characteristics of Polydextrose,


Litesse and Litesse II
Property

Polydextrose

Litesse

Litesse II

Taste
Acidity (mequiv/g)
Usage levels

Tart, acidic
0.1
Low
<5%
Strong
High
Yes

Bland, neutral
0.03
Medium
510%
Manageable
Modest
Sometimes

Clean, mildly sweet


0.003
High
10%
Negligible
Minimal
Rarely

Extent of sugar inversion


Extent of fat rancidity
Neutralization required

Courtest of Pfizer Ltd., Kent, United Kingdom.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Granulated forms of Litesse are also available for ease of handling and speed of
dissolution. The primary applications for granulated Litesse are in the beverage, confectionery, and frozen dairy segments. Granulated Litesse has been shown to dissolve in
water (80 g/100 g water, 23C, 270 rpm) in 4.5 min compared with similar quantities of
generic polydextrose and Litesse which took 9.3 and 12.2 min to dissolve, respectively.
The flavor quality of the new generation polydextroses, Litesse and Litesse II, is such
that these bulking agents can successfully replace sugar and some fats in food products
without any adverse reaction on the taste quality of the final product. Since the polydextroses are essentially bland-tasting, they can be used in both sweet and savory applications. To maintain the sweetness level in sweet products such as confectionery, it is
advisable to replace the sweetness by the use of an approved high intensity sweetener.
The new generation sweeteners such as aspartame, acesulfame-K and alitame can be
used with polydextrose.

11.5 APPLICATIONS
Polydextrose is most commonly used to replace sugars in various desserts, confections,
baked goods, and other sweet foods. Typical applications for polydextrose include: ice
cream, instant puddings, jams, jellies, pastry, chilled desserts, bakery fillings, cakes,
biscuits, confections, frozen desserts, toppings and frostings, instant drinks, cereal bars,
extruded snacks, sauces, salad dressings, and peanut spreads. In these applications,
polydextrose reduces calories while maintaining the body and texture of full-sugar foods.
Although polydextrose is not a fat-replacer per se, it has a relatively high viscosity in
solution and can therefore contribute to the mouthfeel and creaminess of fat-reduced
formulations. Polydextrose can therefore be considered as a fat-mimetic in some applications.
11.5.1 REDUCED-FAT PASTRY
Polydextrose can be used to make fat-reduced pastry. In shortcrust pastry, the fat content
can be reduced by up to 50% with the addition of polydextrose while maintaining the
texture normally associated with traditional full-fat pastry. Studies have shown that the
addition of polydextrose to shortcrust pastry increased the crispness (especially noticeable in oven-reheated pastry products); reduced pastry shrinkage; improved the machinability of very thin sheets of dough; caused browning under microwave reheat conditions;
and reduced the amount of sugars and fats in shortcrust pastry without affecting the
organoleptic quality of the product. All of these benefits were possible without any
changes in processing conditions.
The effect of adding polydextrose to fat-reduced pastry dough in apple pies has been
studied. Polydextrose was added to the short-crust pastry dough at a rate of 13% on a
flour weight basis as shown in Table 11.3. The flour, fat, and sodium metabisulphite were
placed into the bowl of a planetary style mixer fitted with a pastry knife and mixed on
slow speed for 2 min. The salt, sugar, or polydextrose were dissolved in the water and
added to the flour and fat over a period of 10 s on slow speed. The mixture was then
mixed on medium speed for 45 s. The dough was left to stand for 30 min. For the apple
filling, the glycerine was dispersed with water before blending with the other ingredients.
Subsequently, 45 g of paste was blocked into 11 cm foil trays and filled with 60 g of
apple pie filling. The paste was also sheeted to 2.5 mm and lids cut at 11.3 cm diameter.
A steam vent was cut into each lid before they were blocked onto the base of the pie.
The pies were baked for 20 min in a gas fired reel oven, cooled, and stored in cellulose
film at 20C.

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Table 11.3 The Use of Polydextrose in a Reduced-Fat


(38%) Pastry for Apple Pie
Ingredients

% Flour weight
For the pastry:

White pastry flour


White shortening or vegetable oil
Salt
Water
Sodium metabisulphite (SMS)
Polydextrose or sucrose
Ingredients

100
38
(Fat reduced from 47%)
1.2
19
0.0223
13
% Apple weight

For the apple filling:


Canned chopped apples
Sucrose
Salt
Water
Pregelatinized waxy maize starch
Glycerine

100
100
1
23
10
12

Courtesy of Pfizer Ltd., Kent, United Kingdom.

After baking, the pies made from fat-reduced pastry containing polydextrose were
slightly darker than products made from a control pastry without polydextrose. Both the
lid and base pastry were darker in the polydextrose-containing samples. The brown color
development may be due to Maillard reaction or even the polydextrose itself. The
polydextrose pies were approximately 10% larger than the control samples. Since polydextrose reduces pastry shrinkage, thinner sheets of dough may be machined (<2.5mm)
and baked.
Polydextrose has been evaluated in savory and sweet, fat-reduced, shortcrust pastry
and found to give satisfactory products in all respects. Polydextrose produced a slightly
more crumbly, short texture when used as a substitute for sucrose or as a partial fat
replacer. In thin dough sheets, the baked product remained crisp yet friable.
Using polydextrose, the fat content of shortcrust pastry can be reduced to as little as
13 to 15% of dough weight while maintaining acceptable sensory characteristics. The
addition of small amounts of other shortening agents such as cornflour and rehydrated
potato flakes may improve the rework properties of the doughs at very low fat levels. In
general, the use of polydextrose at levels between 5 to 8% dough weight are optimal.
In studies sponsored by Pfizer Inc., light and electron microscopy methods have been
used to examine the structures of raw and cooked samples of pastry containing polydextrose. In addition, the effects of polydextrose on the hydration of the individual flour
components have been assessed using simple model systems (Groves et al., 1990).
Stereolight microscopy of fractured pieces of pastry showed a difference in crumb
structure between pastry containing polydextrose and the control sample. The control
sample had a more solid and continuous structure whereas addition of polydextrose
produced a coarser structure with an increased layering effect. The surfaces of the
polydextrose pastry were also darker.
Cold-stage Scanning Electron Microscopy (Cryo-SEM), was also used to examine
the polydextrose pastry (Groves et al., 1990). The surface of the cooked control sample

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was smoother and more continuous than that of the samples containing 10% (dough
weight) polydextrose. Figures 11.7 and 11.8 demonstrate the differences between the
samples. The outlines of the starch grains could be seen more clearly in the pastry with
polydextrose, and larger spaces or cracks were visible (Figure 11.8).
Raw pastry samples were also examined using a resin-embedding technique and light
microscopy (Groves et al., 1990). In the control samples, more protein was dispersed to
form an even, continuous network linking the dark, oval-shaped starch grains. By contrast, in the polydextrose pastry, the protein was not as well-dispersed resulting in a
coarser, less homogeneous structure than in the control samples (Figure 11.8). The effects
of polydextrose were seen at levels of addition as low as 2.5% (dough weight basis), but
were most marked at the 10% level.
To gain further information on the effect of polydextrose on water absorption in pastry,
model systems were prepared using a gluten wash method (Groves et al., 1990). In these
models, 12 g of gluten, wheat starch, or flour were mixed with 18 g of water or 18 g of
water and 2 g of polydextrose and the free water was assessed visually. The observations
showed that there was more free water present in the model containing gluten, water,
and polydextrose than in the model containing gluten and water only, suggesting that
polydextrose was interfering with water uptake by the gluten. Little difference in water
uptake was found in the starch- and flour-based models.
Both the gluten and flour model systems described above were examined using coldstage SEM (Groves et al., 1990). The samples were etched to sublime away some of the
water, leaving a lacy network structure where less bound water was present. Comparison
of the model systems showed that addition of polydextrose resulted in a more icy matrix
(Figure 11.9). This indicated reduced hydration of the gluten in the presence of polydextrose.
When flour and water are mixed together, the gluten proteins hydrate, uncoil, and
form a three dimensional visco-elastic structure of large proteins primarily linked together
by disulphide bonds. In order to make shortcrust pastry, the fat in the recipe acts as the
shortening agent, interrupting and preventing continuous gluten development (Patient,
1994). It has been proposed that in fat-reduced pastry containing polydextrose, shortening action is achieved by three mechanisms. First, polydextrose absorption of water
reduces the amount of water available to the gluten and starch; second, polydextrose
reduces the pH of the system, thereby inhibiting formation of gluten; and third, polydextrose binds to the protein. The microscopy and model system studies have indicated
that polydextrose inhibited the rapid development of strands of gluten when wheatflour
endosperm came into contact with water. It is therefore likely that the first mechanism
predominates, although the second and third mechanisms cannot be ruled out.
11.5.2 OTHER APPLICATIONS
Polydextrose can be used to replace part of the fat in soft chewy candies with little effect
on structure. Since polydextrose has a higher viscosity than simple sugars and polyols
at equivalent concentrations, it can contribute to the creamy mouthfeel of the product.
Spoonable and pourable dressings can be made with reduced levels of oil using
polydextrose. Polydextrose provides some of the functionality of the oil by providing
mouthfeel, viscosity, and bulk in this application (Kappas et al., 1993).
Polydextrose functions particulary well as a sugar replacer and fat mimetic in chilled
desserts. A dessert can readily be formulated with polydextrose to achieve a 50% calorie
reduction when used with a high intensity sweetener. Layered desserts and yogurts
(Barrantes and Tamime, 1993) have been successfully formulated using polydextrose as
a low-calorie bulking agent.

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b
Figure 11.7 Cold-stage scanning electron micrograph of the surface of cooked control pastry
(a) and cooked pastry containing 10% (dough weight) polydextrose (b). (Courtesy of Leatherhead Food R. A., Surrey and Pfizer Ltd., Kent, United Kingdom.)

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b
Figure 11.8 Light micrograph of a resin section of raw control pastry (a) and raw pastry
containing 10% (dough weight) polydextrose (b). (Courtesy of Leatherhead Food R. A., Surrey
and Pfizer Ltd., Kent, United Kingdom.)

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b
Figure 11.9 Cold-stage scanning electron micrograph of the control flour and water model
system (a) and of the flour and water model system containing polydextrose (b). (Courtesy of
Leatherhead Food R. A., Surrey and Pfizer Ltd., Kent, United Kingdom.)

Polydextrose can be used as a low-calorie bulking agent and texture modifier in the
water phase of a variety of emulsion products that can be considered spreads. A 33%
calorie and fat reduction is possible in products such as peanut spread (FAP, 1988; Pfizer,
1989).

1996 CRC Press LLC

11.6 NUTRITIONAL AND TOXICOLOGICAL ASPECTS


Numerous studies in animals and man have shown that polydextrose shares many metabolic characteristics with other naturally occurring or synthetic low-digestible nonstarch
polysaccharides. In particular, it was found that only a small fraction of polydextrose
can be hydrolyzed by digestive glycolytic enzymes (White et al., 1988; Kruger et al.,
1990; Kobayashi and Yoshino, 1989) and that a certain amount of the undigested and
thus unabsorbed material is fermented by the intestinal microflora (Kruger et al., 1987).
Furthermore, it has been shown that a substantial amount of ingested polydextrose can
neither be digested nor fermented and is thus excreted in feces (Figdor and Rennhard,
1981; Figdor and Bianchine, 1982; McGaw, 1991; Achour et al., 1992). It follows from
these metabolic features that polydextrose is only incompletely metabolized and that it
has therefore a reduced physiological energy value. The results of numerous metabolic
disposition studies on polydextrose in animals and man indicate that for the purpose of
nutrition labeling, a physiological energy value of 1 kcal/g may be attributed to this
polymeric compound. This value is supported by the results of three recently completed
studies in germ-free and conventional rats as well as in healthy human volunteers (Juhr
and Franke, 1992; McGaw, 1991; Achour et al., 1992) and by a meta-analysis of the data
from these three studies and all earlier studies using a consistent approach based on
determination of digestibility, fermentability and energy salvage.
Polydextrose is well tolerated in amounts likely to be consumed. Studies by Pfizer,
Inc., have shown that a single dose of 50g is unlikely to cause gastrointestinal effects
except in particularly sensitive persons. In a study in which participants received up to
130g/day, the mean laxative threshold dose was 90g/day.
The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and the EC
Scientific Committee for Food (SCF) have awarded polydextrose an Acceptable Daily
Intake (ADI) not specified in February 1987 (FAO/WHO, 1987) and 1990 (Commission
EC Report, 1990), respectively. An examination of the available data indicates that
gastrointestinal tolerance to polydextrose is better than to polyols (Grossklaus, 1990).
This is not surprising in view of the fact that polydextrose is osmotically less active (higher
molecular weight), and that only half of an ingested dose is fermented in the colon.
Oral tolerance tests with 50 g of glucose, starch and polydextrose, respectively, were
performed in noninsulin dependent diabetics. After glucose administration, the increase
in capillary blood glucose and serum insulin concentration were significantly higher than
after starch and polydextrose intake. Therefore, polydextrose can be used as a dietetic
susbstitute for diabetics (Bachman et al., 1982).
Tests have shown that polydextrose has a very low potential for promoting dental
caries. These results have been confirmed in a number of in vitro, in vivo, and pH
telemetric studies. The Swiss government allows a Safe For Teeth labeling for polydextrose on the basis of studies carried out by Muhlemann (1980).
Polydextrose is recognized as a valuable source of fiber in Japan and in a growing
number of other countries. Japanese regulations allow polydextrose to be used as a source
of soluble fiber in many beverages and other products (Hamanaka, 1987). The Japanese
definition of dietary fiber includes polysaccharides, related polymers, and lignin, which
are resistant to hydrolysis by the digestive enzymes of man (The Foundation for Health
and Physical Development, Japan, 1990). Applications for the use of polydextrose as a
source of fiber are pending in a number of countries.

11.7 LEGISLATIVE AND LABELING STATUS


Following The Scientific Committee for Foods (SCF) safety evaluation, polydextrose
was included in the EC positive lists of additives and is now included in the Council
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Directive on Food Additives other than Colors and Sweeteners (95/2/EC) in Annex 1
(generally permitted food additives at quantum satis levels), and Annex V (carriers and
carrier solvents). Polydextrose is listed as E1200 in Europe and is currently approved in
over 45 countries.
In the U.S., polydextrose is approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
for use in the following product categories: chewing gum, confections and frostings,
dressings for salads, frozen dairy desserts and mixes, gelatins, puddings and fillings,
hard candy, soft candy, baked goods and baking mixes, fruit spread, peanut spreads,
toppings, and sweet sauces. The FDA also allows labeling of a caloric value of 1 kcal/g
for polydextrose, as do most countries where polydextrose is approved.

REFERENCES
Achour, L., Flourie, B., Briet, F., Pellier, P., Martealp, Ph., and Rambaud, J.C., Gastrointestinal effects
and energy value of Polydextrose in normal man, Unpublished report of INSERM, Paris, 1992.
Allingham, R.P., Polydextrose-a new food ingredient, in Technical Aspects, Chemistry of Foods and
Beverages: Recent Developments, Academic Press, New York, 1982, 293.
Bachmann, W., Haslbeck, M., and Mehnert, H., Untersuchungen zur diatetischen Vewendung von Polydextrose bei Diabetikern., Akt. Endokr. Stoffw., 3, 124, 1982.
Baer, R.J. and Baldwin, K. A., Freezing points of bulking agents used in manufacture of low-calorie
frozen desserts, J. Dairy Sci., 67, 2860, 1984.
Baer, R.J. and Baldwin, K.A., Bulking agents can alter freezing, Dairy Field, February, 1985.
Barrantes, E. and Tamime, A.Y., Fat-free yogurt-like or dislike, Ingredients Focus, November, 1993.
Beereboom, J.J., Technical aspects of polydextrose, Polydextrose Trade Press Briefing, New York, May
28, 1981.
Commission of the European Communities Report of the 71st Meeting of the EC-Scientific Committee
for Food., Brussels, January 25/26, 1990.
FAP. (7A3998), Use of Polydextrose in peanut butter spread, Fed. Register 53, (16), January 26, 1988.
Figdor, S.K. and Rennhard, H.H., Caloric utilization and disposition of 14C polydextrose in the rat., J.
Agric. Food Chem., 29, 1181, 1981.
Figdor, S.K. and Bianchine, J.R., Caloric utilization and disposition of 14C polydextrose in man., J. Agric.
Food Chem., 31, 389, 1983.
Grossklaus R., Gesundheitliche Bewertung der Risiken durch Lebensmittelzusatzstoffe am Beispiel der
Zuckeraustauschstoffe., Bundesgesundheitsblatt, 12, 578, 1990.
Groves, K., Foster, T., Buchanan, M., and OSullivan, M., An Examination of the Effects of Polydextrose
Addition on the Texture and Structure of Pastry. A confidential report P3125 for Pfizer, Inc.,
Leatherhead Food Res. Assoc., Surrey, U.K. May, 1990.
Hamanaka. M, Polydextrose as a water-soluble food fibre, Food Ind., 30(17), 73, 1987.
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants, Thirty-first report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, World
Health Organization Technical Report Series 759, 31, 1987.
Kappas, J.D., Kopchik, F.M., and Moppett, F.K., Litesse, in Science for the Food Industry of the 21st
Century, Biotechnology, Supercritical Fluids, Membranes and other Advanced Technologies for
Low Calorie, Healthy Food Alternatives, Manssur Yalpani, Ed., ATL Press, Mount Prospect, IL,
1(3), 1993.
Kruger, D., Grossklaus, R., Wesolowski, T., and Beier, M., Microcalorimetric investigations into the
metabolic activity of rat caecal flora in the presence of different sugars and sugar substitutes,
Microbios, 57, 42, 1987.
Kruger, D., Ziese, T., and Grossklaus, R., Caloric availability of Polydextrose in rats., Akt. Ernahr.- Med.,
15, 82, 1990.
Kobayashi T. and Yoshino H., Enzymatic hydrolysis of Polydextrose, Denpun Kagaku, 36, 283, 1989.

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McGaw, B.A., The development of a method to measure the caloric availability of bulking agents.,
Unpublished report of the Rowett Research Institute, Aberdeen, 1991.
Muhlemann, H.R., Polydextrose-ein kalorienarmer Zuckererstzstoffe. Swiss Dent., 1(3), 29, 1980.
Murray, P.R., Polydextrose, in Low-Calorie Products, Birch, G.G. and Lindley, M.G., Eds., Elsevier
Applied Science, London, 1988, 83.
Moppett, F.K., Polydextrose, in Alternative Sweeteners 2nd ed., OBrien Nabors, L. and Gelardi, R.C.,
Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1991, 401.
Park, J.W., Effects of cryoprotectants on properties of beef protein during frozen storage, Ph.D. Dissertation, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, 1986.
Park, J.W. and Lanier, T.C., Combined effects of phosphates and sugar and polyols on stabilization of
fish myofibrils., J. Food Sci., 52(6), 1509, 1987.
Patient, D., The chemistry of pastry products, Nutr. Food Sci., 4, 33, 1994.
Pfizer, Inc., Polydextrose in Peanut Butter, U.S. Patent 4,814,195, 1989.
Rennhard, H.H. (Pfizer), U.S. Patent 3,876,794, 1975.
The Foundation for Health and Physical Development, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Tokyo, Japan.
Thomas, J.W., Brown, D.L., Hoch, D.J., Leary, J.J., and Dokladalova, J., Determination of polydextrose
(polymer) and residual monomers in polydextrose by liquid chromatography, J. Assoc. Off. Anal.
Chem., 74(3), 571, 1991.
White, J.S., Parsons, C.M., and Baker, D.H., An in vitro digestibility assay for the prediction of the
metabolizable energy of low-calorie dextrose polymeric bulking agents., J. Food Sci., 53, 1204,
1988.

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Chapter

13

Low-Calorie Fats and


Synthetic Fat Substitutes
Barry G. Swanson
CONTENTS
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Structured Lipids/Low-Calorie Fats
13.3. Carbohydrate Fatty Acid Polyesters
13.4. Other Synthetic Fat Substitutes
13.5. Conclusions
References

13.1 INTRODUCTION
Fats and oils contribute flavor, palatability, mouthfeel, creaminess, and lubricating action
to foods (Swanson and Akoh, 1994). Frying in fats or oils transmits heat rapidly and
uniformly, evaporates moisture, and provides a high temperature, promoting crisping and
browning. The desirable contribution and functions that fat provides in foods are important to consumer expectations, desires, and acceptance of fat-containing foods.
The basic approach for achieving calorie reduction while maintaining the chemical
structure of the triacylglycerol is by manipulation of the composition of the fatty acids
esterified to the glycerol. This type of compound therefore constitutes a separate group
of fat replacers, i.e., the low-calorie fats. Since replacement of the fatty acids of triglycerides with alternative acids is usually achieved through structuring of triglycerides by
hydrolysis and random transesterification of medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) and
long-chain triglycerides (LCTs), such compounds are commonly referred to as structured
lipids.
Synthetic fat substitutes are compounds that physically and chemically resemble
triglycerides, are stable to cooking or frying temperatures, and theoretically replace fat
on a one to one, gram for gram basis in foods (Rudolph et al., 1991). Fat substitution
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conceptually is the reduction in fat-contributed calories from a food by substituting a


fat-like substance in the food that is neither hydrolyzed nor absorbed like triglycerides,
contributing less calories than fat (Hamm, 1984).
Recognized strategies for developing a poorly or nondigested, and poorly or nonabsorbed fat-like substance are to reengineer, redesign, chemically alter, synthesize, or
structure conventional triglyceride components of fats and oils to retain conventional
functional properties in foods while reducing or removing susceptibility to hydrolysis
and/or absorption in the intestine. Suggested design strategies for fat substitutes include
(Hamm, 1984; Mascioli et al., 1988; Matthews and Kennedy, 1990; Singh et al., 1991;
Swanson and Akoh, 1994):
1. Replacement of the glycerol moiety of triglycerides with alternative polyols or sugars
2. Reversal of the ester linkage of fatty acids to glycerol
3. Reduction of the ester linkage of the glycerol moiety to an ether linkage

Another approach to develop or discover reduced-calorie fat substitutes is to explore


compounds with functional and physical properties similar to fats or oils, but with a
chemical structure unrelated to triglycerides. Two examples suggested by Hamm (1984)
are nonabsorbable polymeric phenyl methyl siloxane or silicon oils, and microcapsules
to replace dispersed oil droplets in emulsified foods.

13.2 STRUCTURED LIPIDS/LOW-CALORIE FATS


A structured lipid is a triglyceride obtained by the hydrolysis and random transesterification of medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) and long-chain triglycerides (LCTs) (Mascioli et al., 1988; Matthews and Kennedy, 1990). The fatty acids of MCTs are of carbon
chain length twelve and less, while the fatty acids of LCTs are of carbon chain length
greater than twelve (Matthews and Kennedy, 1990). More recently, structured lipids have
also been prepared with short-chain fatty acids (acetic, propionic, and/or butyric) and
long-chain fatty acids (predominantly stearic) esterified to the glycerol backbone (Smith
et al., 1994). Structured lipids provide the physical and functional properties of fat while
contributing approximately one half of the calories of the normal edible oil (Matthews
and Kennedy, 1990; Smith et al., 1994).
Short- and medium-chain fatty acids are hydrolyzed from triglycerides, quickly
absorbed, and transported via the portal vein to the liver for oxidation and energy
production. Long-chain fatty acids are hydrolyzed from triglycerides, absorbed through
the intestinal wall, reesterified to triglycerides, and packaged with protein and phospholipids to form chylomicrons. Chylomicrons enter the lymphatic system and later the
circulatory system for distribution to cells. Thus, short- and medium-chain fatty acids
bypass the lymphatic system and are more readily used for caloric energy than longchain fatty acids, and have a low tendency to be incorporated into tissue lipids to form
depot fat. Short-chain fatty acids provide fewer calories per unit weight than long-chain
fatty acids. In contrast to short-chain fatty acids, long-chain fatty acids are poorly digested
and absorbed (Finley et al., 1994; Hayes et al., 1994; Matthews and Kennedy, 1990;
Smith et al., 1994).
Structured triglycerides are created by chemically catalyzed transesterification or
interesterification of hydrogenated vegetable oils with triacylaglycerols of short- or
medium-chain fatty acids (Klemann et al., 1994). The resulting triglycerides contain fatty
acid distributions representative of the initial triglycerides, with the short-, medium-, and
long-chain fatty acids randomly distributed on the glycerol backbone (Klemann et al.,

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1994; Smith et al., 1994). Selection of triglycerides containing specific short-, medium-,
and/or long-chain fatty acids for the initial reaction mixture allows for control of the
functional and physical properties of the resulting fats or oils.
Caprenin was the first structured lipid introduced on the market as a medium- and
long-chain low-calorie triglyceride by the Procter & Gamble Company. Caprenin is a
synthetic triglyceride composed of caprylic (C8:0), capric (C10:0), and behenic (C22:0)
fatty acids. The medium-chain triglycerides are derived from coconut and palm kernel
oils, while the behenic acid comes from hydrogenated canola oil. Because the long-chain
behenic acid liberated in gastric hydrolysis is mostly transported through the intestinal
tract unmetabolized, and because the remaining caprylic and capric fatty acids are
metabolized less efficiently than more common fatty acids, Caprenin provides a caloric
density of 5 kcal/g. Caprenin is approved for use as a confectionery fat, apparently
because the fatty acids in Caprenin occur naturally in other foods. Minor concerns remain
in relation to the limited knowledge surrounding the metabolism of behenic acid. Caprenin was designed to mimic the physical properties of cocoa butter or confectionery fat,
and is being used in conjunction with polydextrose (Pfizer Specialty Chemicals Group)
in Milky Way II and Milky Way Lite (Mars, Inc.) candy bars. The potential utility of
Caprenin as a frying fat is limited by thermal stability and price.
A more recent family of structured triacylglycerols named Salatrim was discovered
by the Nabisco Foods Group (Smith et al., 1994; Softly et al., 1994). Salatrim is composed of a random distribution of short-chain fatty acids (acetic, propionic, and/or
butyric) and long-chain fatty acids (predominantly stearic). The caloric availability of
Salatrim is approximately 5 kcal/g. The melting temperature range of Salatrim is controlled by incorporation of various preparations of short-chain fatty acids on the triacylglycerol with the long-chain saturated fatty acids. The ratio of short-chain fatty acids to
long-chain fatty acids is used to obtain flexibility in the functional and physical properties
of Salatrim. Salatrim preparations are available to emulate cocoa butter, as well as for
use in baked products and filled dairy products. An extensive testing program of the
chemistry, genetics, toxicology, animal feeding outcomes, and human clinical trials
concluded that consumption of anticipated concentrations of Salatrim resulted in no
significant adverse biological, toxicological, or nutritional effects (Hayes and Riccio,
1994; Hayes et al., 1994a, b, c; Smith et al., 1994). In 1994, it was announced that Pfizers
Food Science Group had licensed the Salatrim family of reduced-calorie fats from
Nabisco and was planning to develop and commercialize Salatrim for enrobed and
molded chocolates, ice cream, dairy products, snacks, and baked products (Venardos,
1995).
Jojoba oil, although not a synthetic or structured triglyceride, is interesting in the
context of this chapter because it contributes less than 4 kcal/g to foods due to the
presence of C20:1 and C22:1 fatty acids leading to poor digestibility (Hamm, 1984).
The viscosity and interfacial tension of jojoba oil are similar to other types of edible
oils. Jojoba oil is only slightly hydrolyzed in vitro, suggesting possible resistance to
digestion in vivo. (Artz and Hansen, 1994; Hamm, 1984; Ranhotra and Gelroth, 1989).
Since the majority of jojoba oil is not absorbed, potential problems with anal leakage,
diarrhea, reduced growth, nutrient absorption, and death may result from excessive
consumption (Decombaz et al., 1984; Ranhotra and Gelroth, 1989). Jojoba oil and its
derivatives are being used in a variety of nonfood applications including cosmetic and
pharmaceutical products (Hamm, 1984; Winsniak, 1994).The potential for jojoba oil as
a low-calorie oil substitute may be limited due to its cost and limited availability (Artz
and Hansen, 1994; Ranhotra and Gelroth, 1989).

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13.3 CARBOHYDRATE FATTY ACID POLYESTERS


The development of carbohydrate-based and alkyl glycoside-based fatty acid polyesters
as fat substitutes to replace edible fats and oils on a one-to-one basis in food is described
in detail by Akoh and Swanson (Akoh, 1994; Akoh and Swanson, 1987a and b, 1989a
and b, 1990, 1994). Carbohydrate and alkyl glycoside fatty acid polyesters exhibit
functional and physical properties resembling conventional triglycerides without contributing significantly to the caloric content of the diet. Digestion and absorption are
reduced by saturating a carbohydrate, sugar alcohol, or an alkyl glycoside with fatty
acids esterified to the available hydroxyl groups. Utilizing the wide variety of fatty acids
and carbohydrate moieties naturally available, carbohydrate and alkyl glycoside fatty
acid polyesters can be synthesized to incorporate desirable physical and functional
properties. The carbohydrate fatty acid polyesters are macroingredients substituted for
fats and oils in foods to incorporate desirable functional properties including frying,
while reducing the caloric contribution of fats and oils.
The most often studied and only noncaloric synthetic fat substitute that is being
reviewed for FDA approval is olestra produced by The Procter & Gamble Company.
Olestra is a patented and registered trademark name for the mixture of the octa-, hepta-,
and hexaesters formed from the sugar, sucrose, and the long-chain fatty acids isolated
from vegetable oils (Jandacek, 1991). Sucrose fatty acid polyesters (SPE), more accurately called sugar, polyol, carbohydrate, or saccharide fatty acid esters, are defined in
the patent literature as the hexa-, hepta-, and octaesters of polyols such as methyl glucose,
sucrose, raffinose, mannitol, or sorbitol with saturated or unsaturated fatty acids (Hass,
1968).
The nomenclature chosen, carbohydrate polyesters, is not chemically accurate. The
carbohydrate or polyol moiety is not a chain of sugars, nor are the fatty acids or esterified
fatty acids chains that resemble fibers, plastics, or cloth recognized as polyesters. Carbohydrate fatty acid polyesters are a synthesized chemical compound with one to four,
eight, eleven or more fatty acids esterified to the hydroxyl groups of polyol carbohydrates
such as methyl glucose, sucrose, raffinose, or maltodextrins.
Carbohydrate fatty acid polyesters are lipophilic, nondigestible, nonabsorbable fatlike molecules with physical and chemical properties of conventional fats and oils (Akoh,
1994; Toma et al., 1988). Carbohydrate fatty acid polyesters are generally synthesized
by one of four methods: (1) transesterification of the saccharide with methyl, ethyl, or
glycerol fatty acid esters; (2) acylation with fatty acid anhydrides; (3) acylation with
fatty acid chlorides; or (4) acylation with fatty acids per se (McCoy et al., 1989).
A solvent-free, two-stage synthesis of sucrose fatty acid polyesters avoiding the use
of toxic solvents is reported by Rizzi and Taylor (1976 and 1978). In the first stage, a
3:1 mole ratio of fatty acid methyl ester and sucrose is reacted in the presence of
potassium soaps forming a homogeneous melt containing predominantly the smaller fatty
acid methyl esters of sucrose. In the second stage, additional fatty acid methyl esters are
attached to produce saturated sucrose fatty acid polyesters in yields up to 90% based on
sucrose at temperatures of 130 to 150C. In both stages, the sucrate ion generated with
alkali metal hydrides or Na-K alloys catalyze sucrose ester synthesis. Modifications of
the solvent-free two-stage synthesis by Hamm (1984) include adding methyl oleate at
the beginning of the reaction, and adding sucrose and sodium hydrides in increments
during the synthesis reaction. As reaction temperatures and times increase, the color of
the reaction mixtures becomes darker and more difficult to clean up. Approximately 80
to 90% yields of sucrose polyester are achieved by reacting sucrose octaacetate with
methyl palmitate in the presence of sodium or potassium metal at 110 to 120C for up
to 6 h (Mieth et al., 1983). Yamamoto and Kinami (1986) reported that an admixture of

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sucrose mono- and di-esters of oleate, molten sucrose, and methyl oleate, a basic catalyst
(1 to 10%) such as sodium, and potassium carbonate or hydroxide to form a homogeneous
melt at 120 to 180C under less than 10 mm Hg pressure, yielded 95 to 99% sucrose
fatty acid polyester.
A solvent-free single step synthesis combines the sugar, acetate, fatty acid methyl
esters (FAME) and 1 to 2% sodium metal in a three-neck reaction flask prior to heating
(Akoh and Swanson, 1990; McCoy et al., 1989). Formation of a one phase melt is
achieved 20 to 30 min after heat is applied (Akoh and Swanson, 1990). High yields of
sucrose fatty acid polyesters (SPE) are obtained at temperatures as low as 105C, and
synthesis times as short as 2 h by utilizing a vacuum of less than 5 mm Hg pressure
(McCoy et al., 1989). The advantage of the solvent-free single step synthesis is that
acetate groups in the sucrose octaacetate are good leaving and protecting groups against
sucrose degradation and carmelization during SPE synthesis; thus the yield of SPE is
increased and isolation and recovery of SPE are more convenient (Akoh and Swnason,
1988; McCoy et al., 1989; Mieth et al., 1983).
Modification of syntheses by selecting catalysts such as potassium hydroxide, potassium carbonate, and/or sodium methoxide results in improved yields and more efficient
clean-up procedures (Akoh and Swanson, 1988; Drake et al., 1994; Feuge et al., 1970;
McCoy et al., 1989; Myhre, 1971; Yamamoto and Kinami, 1986). The success of oligosaccharide fatty acid polyester syntheses has led to interest in the possibility of
synthesizing even larger polysaccharide esters such as those based on maltodextrins
(Akoh, 1994; Akoh and Swanson, 1987a, 1989a and b).
Direct esterification of reducing sugars such as glucose and galactose results in
extensive sugar degradation and charring. Therefore, glycosylation or alkylation is necessary to convert reducing sugars with reactive C-1 anomeric centers to nonreducing less
reactive anomeric centers (Akoh, 1994; Akoh and Swanson, 1989a). Synthesis of alkyl
glucoside fatty acid mono- and di-esters for use as emulsifiers (Albano-Garcia et al.,
1980; Gibbons and Swanson, 1959), antimicrobials (Yang, 1993), or additives to culinary
mixes (Myhre, 1971) is reported. However, little is reported on the synthesis of alkyl
glycoside fatty acid polyesters for use as fat substitutes to replace edible fats and oils in
foods. Myhre (1971) describes a two-stage process for synthesis of methyl glucoside
tetrapalmitate utilizing sodium methoxide as a catalyst and methyl glucoside mono-, di-,
tri- and tetra-propionates as intermediates for interesterification with methyl palmitate.
Akoh and Swanson (1989a) reported synthesis of novel alkyl glycoside polyesters by
solvent-free interesterification of the alkyl glycoside tetraacetate with fatty acid methyl
esters of long chain fatty acids from vegetable oils. The potential utilization of methyl
glucoside fatty acid tetraesters as noncaloric fat substitutes is under investigation.
In recent years, the increased availability and reduction in price of specific lipases
have meant that the preparation of carbohydrate fatty acid polyesters by enzymic interesterification is an increasingly attractive proposition (Bjorkling et al., 1989; Riva, 1994;
Seino et al., 1984). Enzymic syntheses offer the advantage of specificity, low reaction
temperatures, reasonable yields, and less purification technology compared to chemical
syntheses. For example, clean-up and purification of chemically synthesized carbohydrate
fatty acid polyesters involves a variety of procedures including washing extensively (four
to five times) with 10 to 20 volumes of water at 70C; washing five times with 95%
ethanol at 80C; clay washing with 5% by weight of bleaching clay; short path distillation;
and finally steam distillation.
The fatty acids selected as starting materials for the synthesis of sucrose fatty acid
polyesters contribute to the functional properties of the synthetic fat substitute including
the melting point onset and temperature, consistency, color, heat stability, and others.

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The physical properties of carbohydrate fatty acid polyesters are reported by Akoh and
Swanson (1989a and b, 1990), Jandacek and Webb (1978) and Drake and colleagues
(1994a, b, and c). In general, the color, consistency, density, specific gravity, and refractive
indices of the carbohydrate fatty acid polyesters approximate the physical properties of
the natural vegetable oils and animal fats used in their preparation (Akoh, 1994). However, the melting point onset, hardness, and fatty acid profiles of milkfat blend polyesters
are different than those of milkfat, and are dependent on the fatty acid composition of
the sucrose fatty acid polyesters (Drake et al., 1994a). The viscosities of milkfat SPE
and milkfat-blend SPE are significantly greater than the viscosity of milkfat (Drake et al.,
1994c). The rheological behavior defining the viscoelastic behavior of milkfat SPE as
storage (G ) and loss (G ) moduli are frequency dependent whereas those for milkfat
are not. Milkfat is more elastic than milkfat SPE at 20C as determined by a smaller
loss tangent, the ratio of loss modulus to storage modulus.
Practical applications of sucrose fatty acid polyesters in foods such as ice cream (Wei,
1984), Cheddar cheese (Drake et al., 1994a), sausage (Linares, 1995), and as a vegetable
oil ingredient or frying fat suggest great potential for promoting improved consumer
health as well as achieving functional and economical acceptance and success. For a
detailed discussion of some of the nutritional implications of replacing part of the fat in
the diet by SPE, the reader is referred to Chapter 2.

13.4 OTHER SYNTHETIC FAT SUBSTITUTES


Many partially and poorly digested organic compounds are being investigated as potential
fat substitutes and these are discussed in a comprehensive review by Artz and Hansen
(1994). Since none of these are allowed for use in foods to date, the range of compounds
is discussed only very briefly in the section below.
Esterification of (poly-) pentaerythritol and other polyhydric alcohols with selected
fatty acids produces noncaloric, nondigestible, heat resistant organic compounds that
retain the functional attributes of fats or oils. Alcohols with the neopentyl nucleus
((CH2)4C), pentaerythritol, trimethyloethane, trimethylol-propane, trimethylolbutane,
and neopentylalcohol, can be esterified with fatty acids to produce potentially acceptable
fat substitutes (Artz and Hansen, 1994; Barth et al., 1944; Minich, 1950).
Polyvinyl alcohol (PPVA) fatty acid esters have been suggested for use as fat
substitutes (DAmelia and Jacklin, 1990). The polyvinyl alcohol fatty acid esters can be
synthesized by direct esterification of low MW polyvinyl alcohol with excess fatty acids,
chlorides or anhydrides; interesterification of polyvinyl acetate with fatty acid methyl esters;
or transesterification of polyvinyl alcohol with an excess of unsaturated fatty acid esters.
Trialkoxytricarballylate (TATCA) (Best Foods Division of CPC International Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ) is similar to a triglyceride with polycarboxylic acids with two to
four carboxylic acid groups such as tricarballic acid replacing glycerol and saturated or
unsaturated alcohols replacing the fatty acids (Schlicker and Regan, 1990). TATCA is
sometimes called retrofat (Dziezak, 1989) and its synthesis has been described by
Hamm (1984). TATCA has been suggested as a substitute for vegetable oils in margarine
and salad dressings (Anon., 1990; Hamm, 1984; LaBarge, 1988). Margarines prepared
with TATCA melted more quickly and were softer than vegetable oil margarine (Hamm,
1985). TATCA is not digested by animals, but when fed at medium to high concentrations
(9%) resulted in anal leakage, depression, weakness, and fatalities. The deaths were
attributed to starvation or laxative effects as a result of interference with nutrient absorption rather than to toxicity (Hamm, 1984 and 1985; LaBarge, 1988).

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Trialkoxycitrate (TAC) and trialkoxyglyceryl ether (TGE) were also investigated


by Hamm (1984). Because the ester bonds in TAC are reversed from corresponding esters
in triglycerides, the esters in the polycarboxylic acid fat substitutes are not susceptible
to lipase hydrolysis, and do not contribute calories to the diet. Polymorphic behavior is
exhibited during melting and TAC viscosity and surface tension are similar to corn oil.
Thermal decomposition problems may prevent TAC from being used in frying oils.
Trialkoxyglyceryl ether (TGE) production on a large scale is difficult and time-consuming
(Hamm, 1984; LaBarge, 1988). TGE exhibits viscosities and surface tensions similar to
vegetable oils at room temperature. While functional properties may allow TGE use as
a fat substitute, synthesis problems will make commercial production difficult (Artz and
Hansen, 1994; Hamm, 1984; LaBarge, 1988).
Dialkyl dihexadecylmalonate (DDM) (Frito-Lay, Inc., Dallas, TX) is a mixture of
hexadecyl dioleylmalonate and dihexadecyl dioleylmalonate fatty acid esters of malonic
and alkylmalonic acids which exhibit thermal stability (Dziezak, 1989; Fulcher, 1986;
Gillis, 1988). Small molecular weight DDM are synthesized by reacting a malonyl
dihalide with a fatty alcohol. Larger molecular weight DDM require the addition of an
alkyl halide in a basic solvent (Artz and Hansen, 1994). DDM is noncaloric and absorption is negligible (Fulcher, 1986). Frying of potato and tortilla chips in DDM produces
crisp chips with reduced oiliness (Anon., 1990).
Esterified propoxylated glycerols (EPG) (Arco Chemical Company, Newtown
Square, PA) are produced by reacting glycerine with propylene oxide to form a polyether
polyol subsequently esterified with fatty acids (Anon., 1990; Gillis, 1988; Schlicker and
Regan, 1990; Sowinski, 1991; White and Pollard, 1989). The structure of EPG is similar
to triglycerides, except that an oxypropylene is incorporated between the glycerol and
the fatty acids. Although many polyols are acceptable, the glycerol triol is preferred.
Preferred fatty acids are in the C14 to C18 range, and preferred sources of fatty acids are
soybean, olive, cottonseed, corn oil, tallow, and lard (Whilte and Pollard, 1989). EPG is
low-to-noncaloric, heat stable (Anon., 1990; Arciszewski, 1991; Dziezak, 1989), and
partially digestible (White and Pollard, 1989). EPG feeding studies with rats indicate no
toxicity (White and Pollard, 1989).
Polydextrose, derived from glucose, sorbitol, and citric acid, can also be esterified
with C8-C22 fatty acids to produce polydextrose derivatives of potential value as fat
substitutes (Vianen et al., 1991).
Phenylmethylpolysiloxanes (Dow Corning 550 Gluid, Contour Chemical Co., North
Reading, MA) are organic derivatives of silica (SiO2) with a linear polymeric structure
consisting of the generic formula [R2SiO], where the R is an organic radical such as a
methyl, phenyl, or other aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbon (Bracco et al., 1984). Polysiloxanes are chemically inert, nonabsorbable, and nontoxic, with viscosities ranging from
0.65 to 106 centistokes (cs) at ambient temperature depending on molecular weight.
Phenylmethylpolysiloxane is an oil that is similar in functionality to soybean oil, is oilsoluble, and exhibits lipid-like character in organic solvents.
Similarly, phenyldimethylpolysiloxane (PDMS) (Dow Corning Corp., Midland, MI)
is another potential noncaloric heat stable fat substitute (LaBarge, 1988). PDMS exhibits
thermal and oxidative stability, minimal change in viscosity over a broad temperature
range, water repellant ability, and biological inertness. The polysiloxanes possess physical, functional, and organoleptic properties of fats and oils that are inherent to unique
silicon chemistry and are totally unrelated to glyceride structure. Polysiloxane has been
shown to be a safe and effective calorie diluent in foods fed to experimental rats (Bracco
et al., 1987).

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13.5 CONCLUSIONS
The sucrose fatty acid polyester olestra is currently the only synthetic fat substitute with
a petition in review by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. A November, 1995
hearing on the safety of olestra before the FDA Food Advisory Committee resulted in a
recommendation for approval. Final FDA approval for olestra is expected early in 1996.
Beck concluded in 1992 that synthetic fat research is dynamic and exciting; synthetic
fat commercialization mostly isnt. Synthetic fat substitutes share not only structural
similarities and bulk which simulate the properties of fat, but also chemical, sensory,
and functional similarities, as well as a resistance to digestion by pancreatic lipases and
absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. Synthetic fat substitutes are not a panacea for
poor dietary habits. The effect of synthetic fat substitutes on reducing fat consumption
remains to be seen, but at the very least, synthetic fat substitutes will improve the
palatability and acceptability of reduced-fat foods (Sowinski, 1991; Swanson, 1992).

REFERENCES
Akoh, C.C. and Swanson, B.G. Base-catalyzed transesterification of vegetable oils. J. Food Proc. Pres.
12(2), 139, 1988.
Akoh, C.C. and Swanson, B.G., Carbohydrate Polyesters as Fat Substitutes, Marcel Dekker, NY, 1994,
269.
Akoh, C.C. and Swanson, B.G., One-stage syntheses of raffinose fatty acid polyesters, J. Food Sci. 52,
1570, 1987a.
Akoh, C.C. and Swanson, B.G., Preliminary raffinose polyester and methyl glucose polyester feeding
trials with mice. Nutr. Rep. Int. 39, 659, 1987b.
Akoh, C.C. and Swanson, B.G. Syntheses and functional properties of alkyl glycoside and stachyose
fatty acid polyesters. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 66, 1295, 1989a.
Akoh, C.C. and Swanson, B.G. Preparation of trehalose and sorbitol fatty acid esters by interesterification.
J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 66, 1581, 1989b.
Akoh, C.C. and Swanson, B.G. Optimized syntheses of sucrose polyesters: Comparison of physical
properties of sucrose polyesters, raffinose polyesters and salad oils. J. Food Sci. 55, 236, 1990.
Akoh, C.C. Syntheses of carbohydrate fatty acid polyesters, in Carbohydrate Polyesters as Fat Substitutes,
Akoh, C.C. and Swanson, B.G., Eds., Marcel Dekker, NY, 1994, chap. 2.
Anonymous. Fat substitute update. Food Technol. 44(3), 92, 1990.
Albano-Garcia, E., Lorica, R.G., Pama, M., and de Leon, L. Solventless synthetic methods for methyl
glycoside and sorbitol esters of coconut fatty acids. Phillipp. J. Coconut Stud. 5, 51, 1980.
DAmelia, R.P. and Jacklin, P.T. Polyvinyl oleate as a fat replacement. U.S. Patent 4,915,974, 1990.
Arciszewski, H. Fat functionality, reduction in baked foods. Inform 2(4), 392, 1991.
Artz, W.E. and Hansen, S.L. Other fat substitutes. In Carbohydrate Polyesters as Fat Substitutes, Akoh,
C.C. and Swanson, B.G. Eds., Marcel Dekker, NY, 1994, chap. 11.
Barth, R.W., Park, R., and Burrell, C. Polyhydric alcohol esters. U.S. Patent 2,356,745, 1944.
Beck, C.I. Whats really happening with synthetic fats? Conference on Fat and Cholesterol Reduced
Foods, International Business Communications, Stratecon, Winston-Salem, NC 1992.
Bjorkling, F., Godtfredsen, S.E., and Kirk, O. A highly selective enzyme-catalyzed esterification of simple
glycosides. J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Comm. 934, 1989.
Boutte, T.T. Methyl glucose and sucrose polyesters: Feeding studies and interactions with supercritical
carbon dioxide. Ph.D. Dissertation, Washington State University, Pullman, 1993, 125.
Bracco, E.F., Baba, N., and Hashim, S.A. Polysiloxane: potential non-caloric fat substitute; effects on
body composition of obese Zucker rats. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 46, 784, 1987.
Feuge, R.O., Zeringue, Jr., H.J., Weiss, T.J., and Brown, M. Preparation of sucrose esters by interesterification. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 47, 56, 1970.
Finley, J. W., Klemann, L. P., Leveille, G. A., Otterburn, M. S., and Walchak, C. G., Caloric availability
of Salatrim in rats and humans, J. Agric. Food Chem., 42, 495, 1994.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Decombaz, J., Ananthraman, K., and Hesie, C. Nutritional investigations on jojoba oil. J. Am. Oil Chem.
Soc. 61(4), 702, 1984.
Drake, M.A., Boutte, T.T., Younce, F.L., Cleary, D.A., and Swanson, B.G. Melting characteristics and
hardness of milkfat blend sucrose polyesters. J. Food Sci. 59, 652, 1994a.
Drake, M.A., Boutte, T.T., Luedecke, L.O., and Swanson, B.G. Milkfat sucrose polyesters as fat substitutes
in Cheddar-type cheeses. J. Food Sci. 59, 326, 1994b.
Drake, M.A., Ma, L., Swanson, B.G., and Barbosa-Cnovas, G.V. Rheological characteristics of milkfat
and milkfat-blend sucrose polyesters. Food Res. Int. 27, 477, 1994c.
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of mutagenicity in the Salmonella/microsome reverse mutation assay, J. Agric. Food Chem., 41,
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876, 1989.

1996 CRC Press LLC

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1996 CRC Press LLC

Appendix

Classified List of Fat


Replacers and Their
Applications*
Sylvia A. Jones

The following table groups fat replacers according to the classification presented in
Chapter 1 (Section 1.4.2). In each group, the fat replacers are listed in alphabetical order
of their trade names (or common names). This should enable the reader to easily locate
a particular fat replacer in the table. It should be noted that, while registered trademarks
are not included in the table, the majority of the trade names do in fact carry registered
trademarks and the ownership of these belong to the developers or manufacturers which
are given in the fourth column of the table. Other information given in the table includes
chemical name/composition (with origin of the base material and processes used, where
appropriate and when available), the concentration at which the fat replacer is normally
used, special features, and applications in foods.
All the information given in the table has been compiled over the years at the Leatherhead Food Research Association from published data, ingredient launches, and company brochures, and is exclusively concerned with those ingredients that have been
purposely developed, or, in the case of established ingredients, have been claimed and
used to replace some of the functional properties of fats in terms of mouthfeel, structural,
or textural characteristics. Hence, the list deliberately does not include those ingredients
which have been developed to provide only the flavors associated with particular fats or
oils. Furthermore, standard basic ingredients (e.g., gelatin, caseinate, other proteins, and
starches) are omitted in order to simplify the table, although, as discussed in Chapters 1
and 4, it is well recognized that some play useful supporting roles in replacing fat in
* Reproduced from Jones, S. A., Fat replacers database, Leatherhead Food Research Association. With
permission.

1996 CRC Press LLC

certain products. On the other hand, some fat replacers that made an impact at one time
but were either not commercialized or their production has subsequently been discontinued, are included in the list, and the significance of these is made apparent in Chapter 1
and Chapter 4. Finally, synthetic fat substitutes are included in the table. At the time of
writing, they remained only as possible concepts for fat replacement in the future, since,
so far, none have been approved for use in foods. As mentioned in Chapters 1 and 13,
petitions for the use of olestra in foods have been with the FDA since 1987, and a final
decision was expected before the end of 1995.
It should be noted that, although the table includes nearly 300 individual ingredients
or systems introduced by different companies, absence from the list does not have any
negative implications. Furthermore, the inclusion in this list of a fat replacer from a
particular manufacturer does not indicate preferential endorsement of a product.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Group

Trade Name/
Common Name

Chemical Name/
Composition

Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier

Concentration Used/
Special Features

Starch-derived

Amalean I

Modified high amylose corn


starch

American Maize Products


Company, IN, USA

18%

Starch-derived

Amalean Instant II

Modified high amylose starch

American Maize Products


Company, IN, USA

Gel forms at 25% solids

Starch-derived

C*Pur 01906
C*Pur 019R7

Cerestar SA/NV, Brussels,


Belgium

12% in salad dressings,


310% in margarine spread

Starch-derived

CrystaLean

Dairytrim

Starch-derived

Debranched Araban

Starch-derived

Enzymically
debranched starch

Starch-derived

Instant Pure-Flo

Opta Food Ingredients Inc.,


MA, USA; (to be
manufactured by -) National
Starch & Chemical Co., NJ,
USA
Partnership Quaker Oats
Company, IL, USA and
Rhone-Poulenc Food
Ingredients, NJ, USA
British Sugar plc.,
Peterborough, UK
National Starch & Chemical
Company, Food Product
Division, NJ, USA
National Starch & Chemical
Company, Food Product
Division, NJ, USA

Highly crystalline
maltodextrin with high fiber
content

Starch-derived

Potato maltodextrin (enzymic


process)
01906-DE 25
019R7-DE 37
Maltodextrin (physical and
biochemical process) from a
hybrid variety of high
amylose corn; 30% dietary
fiber
Hydrolyzed rice and oat flour

1996 CRC Press LLC

Enzymically debranched
sugar beet araban
Partially enzymically
debranched waxy maize
starch
HP waxy corn starch

Applications
Cheesecake, pour/spoonable
salad dressings, sauces,
cream fillings, dips, spreads,
bakery, dairy products
Bakery, sauces, gravies,
soups, salad dressings, dairy
products, dips, icings,
cheese spreads, desserts
Salad dressings, sauces, ice
cream, butter cream,
margarine, processed meats
Extruded and baked foods,
biscuits, crackers, cookies

Spreads, dips, cookies,


processed cheese, frozen
desserts
So far not commercialized
So far not commercialized

Low-fat spreads, ice cream,


chilled or frozen desserts
Dressings, ice cream, pork
pie fillings and pastry
Bakery products, instant
desserts

Group

Trade Name/
Common Name

Chemical Name/
Composition

Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier

Starch-derived

Leanbind

Modified starch

Starch-derived

LoDex 5
LoDex 10

Maltodextrin from waxy


maize starch

Starch-derived

Lycadex 100

100 = Potato maltodextrin


DE < 5 (enzymic process)
200 = Corn maltodextrin DE
<5
Corn starch maltodextrin
DE 4
Corn starch maltodextrin
DE 913
Corn starch maltodextrin
DE 1418

Roquette, Lille Cedex,


France

National Starch & Chemical


Company, Food Product
Division, NJ, USA
National Starch & Chemical
Company, Food Product
Division, NJ, USA

Lycadex 200
Starch-derived

Maltrin M040
Maltrin M100
Maltrin M150

Starch-derived

N-Lite B

Waxy maize maltodextrrin

Starch-derived

N-Lite CL

Modified food starch

1996 CRC Press LLC

Concentration Used/
Special Features

National Starch & Chemical


Company, Food Product
Division, NJ, USA
American Maize Products
Company, IN, USA

Grain Processing
Corporation, IA, USA

Applications
Meat, fish and poultry
products

100 Gel forms at 25%


solids
200 Gel forms at 1020%
solids
(M040 soluble in hot
water, M100 readily
soluble in water)

Baby foods, bakery products


and ingredients, beverages,
breakfast cereals, sauces,
confectionery, dairy
products, desserts, salad
dressings, spreads, icings,
frozen novelties, soups,
gravies, snack foods,
puddings
Salad dressings, spreads,
bakery products, ice cream

Gel forms at 2530% solids

Bakery and snack foods,


beverages, confectionery,
dairy products, salad
dressings, dips, margarine,
spreads, frozen desserts,
meat, fish and poultry
products
Bakery products

For use in flavor sensitive


systems

Milk drinks, ice cream,


yogurt

Starch-derived

N-Lite D

Modified starch

National Starch & Chemical


Company, Food Product
Division, NJ, USA
National Starch & Chemical
Company, Food Product
Division, NJ, USA

24%

Dairy products

Starch-derived

N-Lite L

Modified waxy maize starch

210%

Modified waxy maize starch


(liquid/pregel)

National Starch & Chemical


Company, Food Product
Division, NJ, USA

210%

N-Lite S

Modified waxy maize starch

National Starch & Chemical


Company, Food Product
Division, NJ, USA

2%

Starch-derived

N-Lite SP

Modified waxy maize starch


(liquid/pregel)

National Starch & Chemical


Company, Food Product
Division, NJ, USA

23%

Starch-derived

N-Oil
Instant N-Oil
Instant N-Oil II

N-Oil and Instant N-Oil =


Tapioca dextrins,
Instant N-Oil II = instant
tapioca maltodextrin

National Starch & Chemical


Company, Food Product
Division, NJ, USA

Usually incorporated as 25%


solids dispersion which
forms a gel system

Starch-derived

Navadex 120-01
Navadex 120-10

Hydrolyzed oat flour


120-01-DE 1
120-10-DE 10

National Oats Co., IA, USA


(division of Curtice Burns
Foods Inc., NY, USA)

Starch-derived

Novelose

Maltodextrin (physical and


biochemical process) from a
hybrid variety of high
amylose corn; minimum
15% resitant starch

National Starch & Chemical


Company, Food Product
Division, NJ, USA

Liquid systems (process


temp. > 65C for > 5 min)
e.g., salad dressings, soups,
sauces
Cold process liquid
systems, e.g., pourable salad
dressings, dry mix soups,
sauces
Liquid systems (process
temp. > 70C for > 5 min),
e.g., spoonable salad
dressings, soups, dips,
sauces, vinaigrette
Liquid pregel systems, e.g.,
salad dressings, microwave
soup and sauce mixes,
instant dessert mixes
Confectionery, soup, frozen
desserts, spoon/pourable
salad dressings, sour cream
type products, yogurt,
sauces, gravies, puddings
Cookies, baked goods, salad
dressings, soups, sauces,
puddings, ice creams and
dairy products
Extruded products, bakery
products, fiber fortified RTE
cereals, pasta, snacks

Starch-derived

N-Lite LP

Starch-derived

1996 CRC Press LLC

Maltodextrin with high fiber


content

Group

Trade Name/
Common Name

Chemical Name/
Composition

Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier

Concentration Used/
Special Features

Starch-derived

OptaGrade

High-amylose corn starch


(physically modified)

Opta Food Ingredients Inc.,


MA, USA

Suitable for no-fat


applications, provides
opacity

Starch-derived

Paselli SA2
Paselli Excel

Potato maltodextrin (enzymic


process; DE 2)

Avebe America Inc., NJ,


USA

Minimum concentration
20% solids to form a gel
system
Paselli Excel cold water
soluble, flavor free

Starch-derived

Pure-Gel B-990

Modified corn starch

Grain Processing
Corporation, IA, USA

Starch-derived

Quaker Oatrim
Quaker Oatrim
Quaker Oatrim
Quaker Oatrim
Pro-Oatrim

Enzymically hydrolyzed oat


flour; typically 5%
-glucan, DE 5;
Pro-Oatrim watersoluble

Based on USDA patented


process for Oatrim;
Licensed to partnership
Quaker Oats Company, IL,
USA & Rhone-Poulenc
Food Ingredients, NJ, USA

110% Typically gel formed


at 25% solids and used after
24h refrigeration period

Starch-derived

Remyline range
Remygel range

Remyline Starch from


waxy rice hybrids
(amylopectin/amylose
ratio = 98: 2)
Remygel Modified starch
from waxy rice hybrids

REMY Industries S.A.,


Leuven, Belgium/A&B
Ingredients Inc., NJ, USA

15% (Stable to freeze-thaw


cycles, sterilisation, and
acid conditions)

1996 CRC Press LLC

1
5
10
5Q

Applications
Fermented dairy products,
processed cheese, frozen
desserts, salad cream, watercontinuous-margarine-type
spreads
Dressings, sauces, spreads,
frozen desserts, toppings,
cakes, butter creams and
fillings
Dips, spreads, sauces,
gravies, sausages, ham and
other meat products
QO 5 processed meat,
bakery, prepared foods
QO 5Q delicately flavored
applications. Generally
bakery products and
ingredients, beverages,
sauces, dairy products,
meat, fish and poultry, salad
dressings, soups, spreads
Dairy products, baby foods,
sauces, soups, salad
dressings, mayonnaise,
baked goods, margarine,
frozen foods, ice cream,
processed meats

Starch-derived

Rice*Trin
Rice*Trin
Rice*Trin
Rice*Trin
Rice*Trin

Starch-derived

3 Complete
10 Complete
18 Complete
10
18

Zumbro Inc., MN, USA

Rice-gel L-100

R*Trin 3, 10, 18 Complete


Enzymically hydrolyzed
complete rice solids (10%
protein, 90% maltodextrin
at 3, 10 and 18 DE,
repectively)
R*Trin 10, 18 Rice
maltodextrin (10 and 18 DE,
respectively)
Rice Flour

Starch-derived

Slenderlean

Modified tapioca starch

1%

Starch-derived

Sta-Slim 142

Modified potato starch


(instant)
Modified potato starch (cookup)
Modified tapioca starch
(instant)
Modified tapioca starch
(cook-up)
Modified starch
Agglomerated waxy corn
maltodextrins

National Starch & Chemical


Company, Food Product
Division, NJ, USA
A. E. Staley Manufacturing
Company, IL, USA

24%

142, 143, 151, 150


Bakery, sauces, dairy,
desserts, salad dressings,
soups
171 Meat, fish, poultry
products

A.E. Staley Maufacturing


Company, IL, USA

Available as DE 1, 5, 10, or
15. High bulking ability

California Natural Products,


CA, USA

13%

Bakery, beverages, sauces,


dairy, desserts, salad
dressings, soups
SPR Puddings, baked
goods
SPW-LP Frozen products

Sta-Slim 143
Sta-Slim 150
Sta-Slim 151

Starch-derived

Sta-Slim 171
Star-Dri range

Starch-derived

StarchPlus SPR
StarchPlus SPW-LP

1996 CRC Press LLC

SPR Natural rice starch


from medium-grained rice
SPW-LP native starch
from high-amylopectin
short-grain rice

36% Gels at > 15% conc. in


water. Also available in
agglomerated form
Insta*Rice*Trin Complete

Rivland Partenership, USA

Bakery products, bakery


ingredients, breakfast
cereal, baby foods, sauces,
dairy products, meat, fish
and poultry products, salad
dressing, cheese spread,
cream cheese, desserts

Meat, fish and poultry


products
Sausage and ground beef
products

Group
Starch-derived

Trade Name/
Common Name
Stellar

Chemical Name/
Composition

Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier

Acid hydrolyzed corn starch


crystallites

A. E. Staley Manufacturing
Company, IL, USA

High shear (> 8,000 psi)


required at 2025% solids
Low temperature stability (up
to 70C)

Crystalline particles of
modified golden pea
carbohydrate, (90%
carbohydrate in that 10%
dietary fiber)
Partially pre-gelatinized
starch derived from cassava
flour
Enzymically hydrolyzed oat
flour; typically 5%
-glucan, DE 5;
OC 23% -glucan
B-Trim = Reduced viscosity
form

Woodstone Foods
Corporation, Manitoba,
Canada

Absorbs 10 times their


weight of cold water and 12
times their weight of hot
water

Tipiak Inc., Pont-St-Martin,


France/Fibrisol Service
Ltd., London, UK (agent)
Based on USDA patented
process for Oatrim; licensed
to partnership ConAgra,
NE, USA and A. E. Staley
Manufacturing Company,
IL, USA = Mountain Lake
Manufacturing

23% in sausages
Available in granulated,
powder and flake forms
110%
Typically gel formed at 25%
solids and used after 24h
refrigeration period

Concentrated from the cell


walls of oat groats, rich in
soluble and insoluble
dietary fiber
Microcrystalline cellulose
(MCC), alginate salts

Alko Ltd., Rajamaki,


Finland/
A&B Ingredients Inc., NJ,
USA
FMC Corporation, PA, USA

Instant Stellar

Starch-derived

Still-Water Crystals

Starch-derived

Tapiocaline range

Starch-derived

TrimChoice (Oatrim) =
TrimChoice 5
TrimChoice OC
B-Trim

Fiber-based

Alko oat bran


concentrate (OBC)

Fiber-based

Avicel AC-815

1996 CRC Press LLC

Concentration Used/
Special Features

Applications
Baked goods, frostings,
fillings, gravies, sauces,
dairy products, salad
dressings, cheese products,
soups, spreads, meat
products, confectionery,
frozen dairy desserts
Baked goods, dairy products,
and processed meats

Meat products, ready meals,


sauces, dairy products
Salad dressing, mayonnaise,
meat products, baked goods,
confectionery, ice cream,
beverages, sauces, gravies,
soups, cheese, margarine,
dietetic foods, spreads, pet
foods
Bakery products, breakfast
cereals, etc.

1%
Enhanced flavor release;
opacity

Bakery products, sauces

Fiber-based

Fiber-based

Avicel FD-006
Avicel FD-100
Avicel PH-105
Avicel LM
Avicel RC-501
Avicel RC-581
Avicel RC-591F
Avicel CL-611
Better Basics Advanced
Oat Fibre White (780)
Tan (770)
Extra-fine (782)
Cellulon

Fiber-based

Cellulose Powder

Fiber-based

Centu Tex
Centara II

Golden Pea Fiber

Fiber-based

Enzymically
hydrolyzed cellulose

Mixture of oligomers derived


by the degradation
(enzymic, chemical or
physical) of a cellulose
derivative CMC, Methyl
Cellulose, Methyl Ethyl
Cellulose

Fiber-based

1996 CRC Press LLC

FD and PH Powdered
grades of micro crystalline
cellulose (MCC)
LM Reduced porosity
MCC
RC and CL Colloidal
grades. i.e., co-processed
MCC and CMC
Oat fiber

FMC Corporation, PA, USA

0.25.0%
High shear required for all
grades
FD Liquid foods,
LM Low moisture foods,
RC/CL Improved
dispersability

Salad dressings, dips,


spreads, bakery products,
dairy products, ice cream,
and frozen desserts, meat
products

Williamson Fibre Products,


County Cork, Ireland

36%

Bacterial cellulose obtained


through aerobic
fermentation using
Acetobacter strain (9395%
cellulose)
Alpha-cellulose

The Weyerhaeuser Company,


Washington, D.C./MD,
USA

Available as wet product


(approx. 20% solids) and in
a dry form. Fine fiber
structure; high surface area

Processed meats, ice cream,


batter coated products and
deep fried food, chocolate,
mayonnaise, spreads, frozen
yogurt, danish pastry
Pourable/spoonable
dressings, frozen desserts,
sauces

J. Rettenmaier and Sohne


GmbH and Co.,
Rosenberg/Holzm,
Germany
Woodstone Foods
Corporation, Manitoba,
Canada
Alko Ltd., Rajamaki, Finland

High in pectin and


hemicellulose. High water
absorption capacity

Baked goods, pasta, cheese,


soups, sauces, fat spreads,
comminuted meats,
meat/fish spreads
Low calorie icings

Cakes, icing, mayonnaise,


spreads, margarine, pate (other meat emulsions),
cookies, snack fillings,
creams, confectionery,
extruded snacks, cereals,
batters for frying

Group

Trade Name/
Common Name

Chemical Name/
Composition

Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier

Fiber-based

Ex-Cel

Processed cellulose gum with


sodium CMC

Functional Foods Corp., USA

Fiber-based

Fibercel

Beta-Glucan fiber derived


from yeast

Alpha-Beta Technology, Inc.


MA, USA

Fiber-based

Fibrex

Hemicelluloses from sugar


beet pulp

Delta Fibre Foods Inc., MN,


USA

Fiber-based

Fibrim
Fibrim
Fibrim
Fibrim

Fiber derived from cell wall


material of soybean
cotyledon

Protein Technologies
International, NJ, USA

1996 CRC Press LLC

1020
1250
1255
1450

Concentration Used/
Special Features

(Only permitted under


current FDA legislation to
be used in some cold
processed products e.g.,
dressings)

Applications
Bakery products, beverages,
sauces, confectionery, dairy
products, desserts, fruits and
vegetables, meat, fish and
poultry products, salad
dressings, mayonnaise,
snack foods
Ice cream, frozen yogurt,
cheese products, processed
meats, puddings,
mayonnaise, salad
dressings, frostings and
icings, fillings, beverages,
soups, canned foods, breads
Baby foods, bakery products
and ingredients, beverages,
breakfast cereals, sauces,
confectionery, dairy
products, desserts, fruit and
vegetables, meat, fish and
poultry products, pet foods,
salad dressings, soups,
snack foods
1020 Liquid beverages
1250 RTE cereals
1255 Extruded snacks and
low calorie baked goods
1450 High fiber and
reduced calorie baked goods

Fiber-based

Fibruline

Inulin
(fructose polymers, DP
260, with one glucose
unit); obtained from chicory
root
Hemicellulose

Cosucra SA, Momalle,


Belgium

Fiber-based

Hemicellulose

Fiber-based

Just Fibre

99% Dietary fiber Two


varieties available
Powdered Alpha Cellulose,
and Bleached Vegetable
Fibre
CL-35H Cellulose
CS-35H Cottonseed fiber

Filler Corporation, New York


State, NY, USA and
Lawrence Industries,
Staffordshire, UK

Fiber-based

JustFiber CL-35H
JustFiber CS-35H

Fiber-based

Lean Maker

Oat bran and oat fiber based


product

Fiber-based

Methocel
Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose

Methylcellulose (MC)
Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC)

Heller Seasonings and


Ingredients, IL, USA (Main
Ingredient Supplied by
Quaker Oats Company, IL,
USA)
The Dow Chemical Co. MI,
USA

Fiber-based

Opta Oat Fibers

Fiber derived from oat hulls

1996 CRC Press LLC

540%
Stable at temp < 85C and
down to pH 2. Bifidus
stimulating properties

The NutraSweet Company,


IL, USA

Mayonnaise, salad dressing,


butter substitutes, cheeses,
dips, sour cream substitutes,
whipped topping, spreads,
sauces
Bakery products, meat
products, spreads, salad
dressings, sauces

Van den Bergh, Food


Ingredients Group, IL, USA

Opta Food Ingredients Inc.,


MA, USA/Pfizer Inc., Food
Science Group, New York,
USA

Ice cream, cheese spreads,


chocolate, dressings, meat
products

3% in low-fat meat
5% in pork sausages

Form gels on heating; on


cooling reverse to
pseudoplastic flow

Dairy products, salad


dressings, bakery products,
beverages
Meat, fish and poultry
products, e.g., ground beef
products, pork sausages
(Potentially bologna, hot
dogs, pizza toppings)
Fried foods, salad dressings,
sauces, bakery products,
frozen cheesecake, whipped
toppings
Bakery products, fried foods,
extruded products, frozen
desserts, pasta

Group

Trade Name/
Common Name

Fiber-based

P-Fiber 150

Fiber-based

Potex
Potex PPC

Fiber-based

Raftiline
Raftiline
Raftiline
Raftiline
Raftiline

Fiber-based

Snowite

Fiber-based

Sofalite F179
Sofalite M176

1996 CRC Press LLC

GR
HP
LS
ST
ST-Gel

Chemical Name/
Composition
Pea fiber
150C Coarse, particles
1-2 mm
150M Medium ground,
particles 200 mm
150F Fine ground,
particles 30 mm
Potato fiber (75% dietary
fibers (-cellulose, pectin,
hemi-cellulose, lignin), 10%
starch and other
carbohydrates, 0.3% fat)
Inulin (fructose polymers, DP
2 - 60, with one glucose
unit) obtained from chicory
root
GR Granulated
HP High Performance
LS Low Sugar (2%)
ST Standard (8% sucrose)
ST-Gel Instant
Alkaline peroxide treated oat
fibers

Prepared by separation,
purification, drying and
grinding of specific pea
species

Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier

Concentration Used/
Special Features

Applications

Grindsted (now Danisco


Ingredients), Brabrand,
Denmark

150M/F 3% in liver paste


or luncheon meat;
150C 17% in marzipan

Meat products (sausages,


pate, liver paste, luncheon
meat), also mayonnaise,
dressings, marzipan

Agri Plot (part of Swedish


Potato Co.)/Avebe America
Inc., NJ, USA

Able to withstand conditions


of low pH, high temp.,
freeze-thawing

Meat products, bakery


products, ketchup

Orafti (previously Raffinerie


Tirlemontoise) Belgium and
Rhone-Poulenc Food
Ingredients, NJ, USA

Bifidus stimulating

Bakery products and


ingredients, beverages,
confectionery, dairy
products, desserts, meat,
fish and poultry products,
spreads, ice cream, yogurt,
soft cheese

210%

F179 dairy products,


desserts, meat products,
M176 cooked sausages,
pate, veg/meat/fish terrines

Canadian Harvest USA, MN,


USA (Company formed
jointly by DuPont and
ConAgra, NE, USA)
Sofalia, Paris, France

Fiber-based

Solka-Floc 900 FCC

100% Cellulose (Beta 1 - > 4


glucan polymer)

Fibre Sales and Development


Corp. (subsidiary of Protein
Technologies International,
NJ, USA)/James River
Corp.

Various fiber lengths and bulk


volumes available

Fiber-based

Swelite

Pea fibers from the inner


fibers of the pea kernel, (2/3
insoluble cellulose and 1/3
soluble pectic substances)

Cosucra SA, Momalle,


Belgium

150%
High-shear processing aids
its water retention properties

Fiber-based

Tabulose
Tabulose
Tabulose
Tabulose

BLANVER
FARMOQUIMICA LTDA
(Brazil)/BLANVER USA
(New Jersey)/ZetaPharm,
Inc.

0.520%

Fiber-based

UltraCel range

101 and 102 Powdered


microcrystalline cellulose
SC-601 and SC-681
Colloidal microcrystalline
cellulose and sodium
carboxymethylcellulose
Microdisassembled fiber
product derived from
refined cellulose matrices

Watson Foods Co. Inc., CT,


USA

0.352.50%
Synergistic with xanthan
gum, CMC, and
galactomannans; unaffected
by high temp., high salt,
extreme pH, and freezethaw cycling

1996 CRC Press LLC

101
102
SC-601
SC-681

Bakery products and


ingredients, beverages,
pasta, cakes, sauces,
confectionery, dairy
products, fruits and
vegetables, salad dressings,
meat, fish and poultry
products, pet foods, soups,
snack foods, cheese, frozen
novelties
Hamburgers, poultry
products, sausages,
vegetable products, soft
cheese, ketchup, dressings,
biscuits, extruded products
Mayonnaise, salad dressings,
sauces, dietary products,
bakery products, imitation
cheese products, canned
meat products
Bakery products, spreads,
meat products, icing,
coatings, soups

Group

Trade Name/
Common Name

Chemical Name/
Composition

Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier

Concentration Used/
Special Features

Applications

Fiber-based

Vitacel range

Alpha-cellulose powder
produced in several variants
with varying fiber lengths

J. Rettenmaier and Sohne


GmbH and Co.,
Rosenberg/Holzm,
Germany

Bakery products and


ingredients, beverages,
sauces, dairy products,
desserts, fruits and
vegetables, pet foods, pasta,
spreads, snack foods,
cheese, soups, slimming
foods and dietetic products,
comminuted meats,
meat/fish spreads, fat
spreads

Protein-based

Complete Milk Protein


(CMP-I)

Complete milk protein

American Dairy Specialties,


USA

Protein-based

Dairy-Lo

Whey protein concentrate


partially denatured
(6080%)

Protein-based

Dairylight

Whey protein concentrate


partially denatured
(6080%)

Ault Foods Ltd., Canada.


(Marketed and sold outside
Canada by -) Pfizer Food
Science Group, New York,
NY, USA
Ault Foods Ltd., Canada

Bakery products, beverages,


sauces, confectionery, dairy
products, desserts, meat,
fish and poultry products,
salad dressings, soups,
snack foods, spreads
As for Dairylight

Protein-based

Finesse

Containing piezo proteins


similar to Simplesse

1996 CRC Press LLC

Reach Associates, Inc. NJ,


USA

As for Dairylight (Dairylight


was re-launched as DairyLo by Pfizer)

25%
(Water binder and
emulsifier)

Frozen desserts, ice cream,


yogurt, cheese, spreads,
sour cream, possibly nondairy products

Protein-based

Lactalbumin 75
Lactalbumin 70 SGH

Protein-based

Lactomil 9000
Lactomil HF

Protein-based

Lita A
Lita C
Lita D
Lita KC

Protein-based

Miprodan

Protein-based

Nutrilac DR-6010
Nutrilac DR-7015
Nutrilac DR-8080
Nutrilac HA-7570
Nutrilac IC-7702
Nutrilac PSE-7
Nutrilac PSE-10
Nutrilac PSE-54
Nutrilac YO-5010
Nutrilac YO-5011
Nutrilac YO-7703

1996 CRC Press LLC

Partially denatured milk


protein
% Protein/% Lactose/% Fat
7575%/9.5%/6.0%
70 SGH 72%/9.0%/6.0%
Partially denatured milk
protein
% Protein/% Lactose/% Fat
9000 87%/0.5%/1.0%
HF 72%/10.5%/2.8%
Microparticulated zein
protein from corn gluten,
coated with a
polysaccharide
A = 90% zein, 5% CMC, 5%
gum arabic
C = 95% zein, 5% CMC
D = 100% zein
KC = 95% zein 5% Kappa
carrageenan
Milk protein
All derived from 100% milk
ingredients. Whey protein
concentrates obtained
through extrusion to
produce a semi-solid fat-like
product with good
spreadability and smooth
consistency

MILEI, Germany

610%

Dairy based products: butter,


frozen desserts, cream
spreads, sour cream, ice
cream

MILEI, Germany

610%

Dairy based products: butter,


frozen desserts, cream
spreads, sour cream, ice
cream

Opta Food Ingredients Inc.,


MA, USA

Hydrophobic
microparticulated protein

Frozen desserts, mayonnaise,


sour cream, salad dressing,
whipped topping, milk
yogurt, non-dairy creamer,
frosting, cream soups and
sauces, cream/cottage
cheese, dips, processed
meats, chocolate and
confectionery

MD Food Ingredients, Viby J,


Denmark
Danmark Protein A/S,
Denmark
Royal Proteins Inc., IL,
USA

Ice cream
YO-5010 and YO-5011
1.02.0%,
YO-7703 0.62.5%,
DR-6010 1.05.0%,
DR-8080 0.54.0%
(DR 6010 needs heat
treatment for best results)

YO Yogurt and cultured


products. DR-6010
dressings, mayonnaise,
sauces, dips. DR-8080
Salad dressings, cold
processed mayonnaise. IC7702 dairy products. DR7015 Salad dressings.
HA-7570 Meat, fish and
poultry products

Group

Trade Name/
Common Name

Protein-based

Pea Protein

Protein-based

Simplesse 100

Protein-based

Chemical Name/
Composition

Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier

Pea protein, extracted using


water and an ultrafiltration
process
Whey protein concentrate
microparticulated protein
Liquid form (42.5% solids,
23% protein, < 2% fat)

Feinkost Fine Ingredients,


Germany

Simplesse 300

Egg white, skim milk, sugar


and pectin
microparticulated protein
Liquid form (22.7% solids,
11.8% protein)

The NutraSweet Company,


IL, USA

Protein-based

Simplesse D-100

The NutraSweet Company,


IL, USA

Protein-based

Simplesse D-500

Protein-based

Soy Protein
Concentrate

Whey protein concentrate


microparticulated protein
Dry form (54% protein, 36%
sugars, < 4.5% fat)
Whey protein concentrate
microparticulated protein
Dry form (36% protein, 51%
sugars, < 4.5% fat)
70% Protein
22% Dietary Fiber

1996 CRC Press LLC

The NutraSweet Company,


IL, USA

The NutraSweet Company,


IL, USA

The Central Soya Company


of Rotterdam, The
Netherlands

Concentration Used/
Special Features

130%
(Initally heat sensitive,
later developed to withstand
UHT, pasteurization and
retorting conditions. 35 days
shelf-life under refrigerated
conditions) Production
discontinued
120%
(Higher viscosity than
Simplesse 100
Short shelf-life under
refrigerated conditions)
Production discontinued
130%
Powder form with
performance equal to
original liquid form (S100)
45%

3%

Applications
Meat products, dressings,
sauces, baked products,
biscuits
Frozen desserts, dairy
products, baked goods,
salad dressings, spreads,
sauces, toppings, frostings

Used exclusively by one food


producer

As for Simplesse 100

Ice cream, frozen desserts

Meat and dairy products,


patties, hamburgers,
frankfurters, cream cheese,
sour cream, dips, fillings,
toppings, soup bases

Protein-based

Supro range

Isolated soy proteins

Protein Technologies
International, NJ, USA

Protein-based

Trailblazer range

Microfragmented protein
formed through
protein/polysaccharide
interaction, e.g., whey
protein concentrate/egg
white and xanthan
Trailblazer II Whey
protein based
Trailblazer III Skim milk
based

Kraft General Foods, IL,


USA

Gums/gels/
thickeners

Aquagel
Aquavis
Milkgel
Milkvis
BenGel
Benvisco
Benlacta

Carrageenan

Marcel Carrageenan Inc.,


USA

Carrageenan

Shemberg USA, ME, USA

Gums/gels/
thickeners
Gums/gels/
thickeners

Genu carrageenan

Iota carrageenan

Kelcogel range

Gellan gum

Hercules Food Ingredients


Group, DE, USA
Kelco Unit of Monsanto Co.,
CA, USA

Gums/gels/
thickeners

Kelcoloid LVF

Propylene glycol alginates


(PGA)

Gums/gels/
thickeners

1996 CRC Press LLC

Kelco Unit of Monsanto Co.,


CA, USA

Up to 20% by wt.(s) of the


dispersion. KGF decided
not to commercialize the
Trailblazer range

Water holding capacity/skin


formation

Meat products, non-dairy


products, coffee creamers,
pasta, soups, powdered and
liquid beverages, food bars,
and nutritional supplements
Frozen desserts, spreads,
dressings, sauces, cheese
products, cultured dairy
products, processed meat
products, baked goods

Bakery products, beverages,


sauces, confectionery, dairy
products, meat products,
salad dressings
Dairy products, desserts,
beverages, meat, fish and
poultry products, salad
dressings
Meat products
Margarines, spreads, cakes,
cookies, dips, frozen
desserts, salad dressings,
sauces, gravies
Margarine, spreads, salad
dressings, sauces, gravies

Group

Trade Name/
Common Name

Chemical Name/
Composition

Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier

Concentration Used/
Special Features

Gums/gels/
thickeners

Keltrol range

Xanthan gum

Kelco Unit of Monsanto Co.,


CA, USA

0.10.5%

Gums/gels/
thickeners

Konjac-N

Konjac flour (glucomannan)


made from Devils Tongue
Potatoes (tubers of
Amorphophallus Konjac)

Earth House Corporation,


CA, USA

High water retention ability


Weak gel/paste forming

Gums/gels/
thickeners

Liangels
Spraygum
Gelamix
Emulgum
Nutricol Konjac Flour

Carrageenan
Acacia gum
Xanthan gum

Colloides Naturels
International, Neuilly sur
Seine, France

Glucomannan gum obtained


from tubers of Konjac plant
(Amorphophallus Konjac)

FMC Corporation, Food


Ingredients Division, PA,
USA

Gums/gels/
thickeners

Procol range

Guar gum

Polypro International, USA

Gums/gels/
thickeners

Rhodigel

Xanthan gum

Rhone-Poulenc Food
Ingredients, NJ, USA

Gums/gels/
thickeners

Slendid 100
Slendid 110
Slendid 200

100 and 110 Lowmethoxyl pectin from citrus


peel (sodium salt)
200 High-methoxyl pectin
from citrus peel (calcium
salt)

Copenhagen Pectin A/S,


Denmark (Division of
Hercules Food Ingredients
Group, DE, USA)

Gums/gels/
thickeners

1996 CRC Press LLC

High water retention ability


Forms thermally stable gels
Synergism with kappacarrageenan or xanthan gum

0.41.5%
100 and 110 require
calcium ions to form gels
(30mg Ca++/1g) and high
shearing of the gels formed
200 Water binder

Applications
Salad dressings, sauces,
frozen desserts, bakery
products, margarine,
spreads
Sponge cake, soft biscuits,
bread, frozen foods,
sausages, processed meat
and fish products, soups,
sauces, dressings, ice cream

Cream soups, sauces, ground


meats, mayonnaise, spreads

Salad dressings, sauces,


soups, condiments, bakery
products, frozen desserts
Margarine, spreads, cakes,
brownies, confectioery
products, cookies, crackers,
dips, frozen desserts,
sauces, gravies
Spreads, mayonnaise,
dressings, processed meats,
ice cream, processed cheese,
desserts, bakery products

Gums/gels/
thickeners
Gums/gels/
thickeners

Supercol F

Guar gum

Henkel Corp. IL, USA

Xanthan gum

Xanthan gum

Jungbunzlauer Inc.,
Switzerland

Instant products, soups,


desserts, toppings, canned
foods, frozen foods

Emulsifiers

Atmos range

Mono and diglycerides

Witco Corporation, (Chem.


division) New York, NY,
USA

Emulsifiers

Atmul range

Mono and diglycerides

Emulsifiers

DATEM
GMS
SSL

Emulsifiers

Dimodan range

DATEM Diacetyl Tartaric


Acid Ester of
Monoglycerides
GMS Glycerol
MonoSterate
SSL Soduim Stearol2-Lactylate
Distilled Monoglycerides

Witco Corporation, (Chem.


division) New York, NY,
USA
Available from all major
producers/suppliers of
emulsifiers

Bakery products and bakery


ingredients, sauces,
confectionery, dairy
products, desserts, salad
dressings, spreads
Margarines, spreads, bakery
products

Emulsifiers

Mono and diglycerides

Emulsifiers

Dur-Em 114
Dur-Em 117
Dur-Em 204
Dur-Lo

Mono and diglycerides

Van den Bergh, Food


Ingredients Group, IL, USA

Emulsifiers

Emulsilac SK

Sodium stearoyl lactylate

Witco Corporation, (Chem.


division) New York, NY,
USA

1996 CRC Press LLC

Grindsted (now Danisco


Ingredients), Brabrand,
Denmark
Van den Bergh, Food
Ingredients Group, IL, USA

DATEM Biscuits
GMS Cakes, spreads, nondairy whipping systems
SSL Bread and biscuits

0.11.0%

Shortening substitute, butter,


spreads, dough products
Margarine, spreads, bakery
products
Bakery products and
ingredients, dairy products,
desserts
Condiments, sauces, dairy
products, pasta products

Group

Trade Name/
Common Name

Chemical Name/
Composition

Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier

Emulsifiers

Myvacet 9-45

Distilled acetylated
monoglycerides

Eastman Chemical Co., TN,


USA

Emulsifiers

Polyaldo range

Polyglycerol esters of fatty


acids

Lonza Inc., NJ, USA

Emulsifiers

Triodan R90

Polyglycerol ester of
interesterified ricinoleic
acid

Grindsted (now Danisco


Ingredients), Brabrand,
Denmark

Bulking
agents

Maltitol

Towa Chemical Industry


Company Ltd

Bulking
agents

Polydextrose
Litesse
Litesse II

Bulking
agents

Sta-Lite

Polyalchohol (D-glucosyl(1-4)-D-glucitol), produced


by the hydrogenation of
maltose
Polydextrose polymer of
glucose with sorbitol and
citric acid, (89: 10: 1)
Litesse Improved
polydextrose
Litesse II Super-improved
polydextrose
Polydextrose

Low-calorie
fats

Aldo MCT

Medium Chain Triglyceride

1996 CRC Press LLC

Concentration Used/
Special Features

Applications
Bakery products and
ingredients, breakfast
cereals, sauces, dairy
products, spreads
Frozen desserts, margarine,
shortenings, peanut butter,
whipped toppings, and
bakery goods
w/o spreads

Pfizer Inc., Food Science


Group, New York, NY, USA

Litesse Reduced acidity,


improved flavor; granular
form available
Litesse II For flavor
seneitive applications and
higher fat reductions

A. E. Staley Manufacturing
Company, IL, USA

Fast dissolving

Lonza Inc., NJ, USA

8.3 kcal/g. Lower tendency to


form depot fat

Brownies, pie fillings,


spreads, cakes, cookies, dry
mixes, frozen desserts, salad
dressings
Pastry, confectionery
products, dressings,
spreads, bakery fillings,
toppings, chilled desserts

Confectionary and bakery


products

Low-calorie
fats

Caprenin

Triglyceride composed of
caprylic (C8:0), capric
(C10:0) and behenic
(C22:0) fatty acids

The Procter & Gamble


Company, OH, USA

30% in milk chocolate,


5 kcal/g.
Designed to replace cocoa
butter

Low-calorie
fats

Captex 300
Captex 350
Captex 355
(New AKomed range)
Neobee M-5 MCT Oil

Medium chain triglycerides


(C6:0 to C12:0, mostly
C8:0 and C10:0)

Karlshamns, Sweden

Medium chain triglyceride


MCT. Made from glycerine
and caprylic/capric fatty
acids
Acronym for Short And
Long Chain Acid
Triglyceride Molecules
(Short chain acetic,
propionic and/or butyric;
Long chain
predominantly stearic)

Stepan Company, NJ, USA

8.3 kcal/g.
Delivers quick energy
Lower tendency to form
depot fat
7% in oatmeal cookies
8.3 kcal/g.
Delivers quick energy

Nabisco Foods Group,


NJ, USA/Pfizer Inc.,
Food Science Group,
New York, NY, USA

5 kcal/g.
Designed to replace primarily
confectionery fats

0.250.5%
Fat replacer and flavoring
system
Contains 13.5% fat
Availability depends on FDA
approval for Olestra

Low-calorie
fats

Low-calorie
fats

Salatrim

Fat extenders

Dried Cream Extract

Concentrated milk fat flavor


encapsulated with
maltodextrin

Cumberland Packing Corp.,


USA

Fat extenders

Olestrin

Blend of sucrose polyesters,


triglycerides and dextrins

Reach Associates, Inc. NJ,


USA

Fat extenders

Prime-O-Lean
Prime-O-Lean Vit
(or Algesteren)

P-O-L Mix of canola oil,


beef proteins, tapioca flour,
and water
P-O-L Vit Mix of water,
partially hydrogenated
canola oil, wheat gluten,
tapioca starch, egg white,
sodium alginate, lecithin
and flavor

The Bon Dente Company,


Washington, D.C./MD,
USA (Licensed to -)
Lipidyne Inc., Washington,
D.C./MD, USA, Devro Inc.,
NJ, USA

1996 CRC Press LLC

< 25%
Replacement for animal fat
No longer available from
Devro Inc.

Chocolate, confectionery
products, (salad dressing,
mayonnaise, baked goods,
frozen dinners, margarine,
spreads, milk, cheese)
Primarily as a replacement
for liquid vegetable oils in
products
Margarine, mayonnaise,
salad oils, processed cheese,
baked goods and frying
foods (Below 325F)
Chocolate coatings,
confectionery products,
baked goods. Patent
applications include
natural and processed
cheese, cultured products,
and ice cream
Dairy products

Cakes, muffins, biscuits,


crackers, frozen desserts,
yogurt and salad oil
Ground meat products
Sausages, hamburgers,
processed meat

Group

Trade Name/
Common Name

Fat extenders

VanSystem PC-50
VanSystem CF-50

Fat extenders

Veri-Lo 100

Fat extenders

Veri-Lo 200

Synthetic fat
substitutes

Synthetic fat
substitutes

Chemical Name/
Composition

Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier

PC-50 Partially
hydrogenated soybean and
cotton seed oils, mono and
diglycerides, BHT, citric
acid
CF-50 PC + Lecithin
O/w emulsion containing:
water, soya oil, modified
starch, agar, mono- and
diglycerides, polysorbate
60, potassium sorbate,
phosphoric acid
O/w emulsion containing
ingredients as for Veri-Lo
100 except that soya oil is
replaced by anhydrous milk
fat and polysorbate 60 is
replaced by polysorbate 80

Van den Bergh, Food


Ingredients Group, IL, USA

AGFAPs

Alkyl glycoside fatty acid


polyesters

Alkoxylated alkyl
glycosides esterified
with fatty acids

Alkoxylated alkyl glycosides


esterified with fatty acids,
e.g., ethyl glucoside
tetraacetate, ethyl maltoside
polyoleate

1996 CRC Press LLC

Pfizer Inc., Food Science


Group, New York, NY, USA

Concentration Used/
Special Features

Applications
Bakery products, bakery
ingredients

Replaces fat on 1: 1 basis,


giving 6775% fat reduction
(refrigerated storage) o/w
emulsion; 35% solids, 33%
fat
Discontinued production
Replaces fat on 1: 1 basis,
giving 6775% fat reduction
(Refrigerated storage)
o/w emulsion; 27% solids,
25% fat
Discontinued production

Salad dressings, mayonnaise,


sandwich sauces

Curtice Burns Foods Inc.,


NY, USA

Non-digestible
Non-caloric

Procter & Gamble Company,


OH, USA

Non-digestible
Non-caloric

Shortenings, margarines,
butter, salad, cooking and
frying oils, mayonnaise,
salad dressings,
confectionery coatings
Baked goods, shortenings,
spreads, frying oils, meat
products, confectionery
products

Pfizer Inc., Food Science


Group, New York, NY, USA

Dairy products

Synthetic fat
substitutes

Carboxy/carboxylate
esters

Carboxy/carboxylate esters,
e.g., didecyl stearoyloxymethanedicarboxylate

Nabisco Brands Inc. NJ, USA

Low- to non-digestible
Low- to non-caloric

Synthetic fat
substitutes

Colestra

Food Ingredients and


Innovations, MA, USA

Non-digestible
Non-caloric

Synthetic fat
substitutes

DDM

As for Olestra (-mixture of


hexa- to octa-ester of
sucrose with natural
occurring fatty acids (C8 to
C22)), but designed
especially to mimic milk fat
Dialkyl dihexadecymalonate
fatty alcohol ester of
malonic and alkylmalonic
acids

Frito-Lay Inc., TX, USA

Non-digestible
Non-caloric

Synthetic fat
substitutes

Dialkyl glycerol ethers


Glycerol monoester
diethers

Swift and Co., IL, USA

Non-digestible
Non-caloric

Synthetic fat
substitutes

Diol lipids

Dialkyl glycerol ethers,


glycerol monoester diethers
(Examples of alkyl glyceryl
ethers)
Diol lipids ethylene glycol
esters of fatty acids and
derivatives (e.g., long chain
diol diesters)

Nabisco Brands Inc. NJ, USA

Partially digestible; 0.58.5


kcal/g.

Synthetic fat
substitutes

EEEP

EEEPs Esterified epoxide


extended polyols
EPGs Esterified
propoxylated glycerols

Arco Chemical Technology


Inc., PA, USA

Low- to non-digestible
Low- to non-caloric

EPG

1996 CRC Press LLC

Filled creams, ice cream,


milk, cheese products,
wafers, coconut oil mimetic,
butter icing, frozen desserts,
puddings, margarine, meat
products
Primarily dairy applications

Low mol. wt. DDM Cold


processing, e.g.,
mayonnaise, margarine
High mol. wt. DDM
Synthetic frying oils

Frozen desserts, puddings,


margarine substitutes,
bakery goods, mayonnaise,
salad dressing, cheese
spreads, frying oil, meat
products, cocoa butter
replacer
EPG Stable for frying and
baking, salad dressings,
mayonnaise, ice cream,
toppings, sauces

Group

Trade Name/
Common Name

Chemical Name/
Composition

Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier

Concentration Used/
Special Features

Synthetic fat
substitutes

Ether-bridged
polyesters

Ether-bridged polyesters
(two multibasic acids joined
by ether linkage)

Nabisco Brands Inc. NJ, USA

Low- to non-digestible
Low- to non-caloric

Synthetic fat
substitutes

Ethyl esters

Dow Chemical Inc., MI, USA

Partially digestible

Synthetic fat
substitutes
Synthetic fat
substitutes

Glycerol dialkyl ethers

Ethyl esters of fatty acid


dimers and trimers;
polybasic acids
Glycerol dialkyl ethers

Swift and Co., IL, USA (part


of Beatrice Co., IL, USA)
The Procter & Gamble
Company, OH, USA

Non-digestible
Non-caloric
Non-digestible
Non-caloric*

Arco Chemical Technology


Inc., PA, USA

Non-digestible
Non-caloric

Olestra (sucrose
polyester)

Mixture of hexa- to octaesters of sucrose with


naturally occurring fatty
acids (C8 to C22)

Synthetic fat
substitutes

PEP

Synthetic fat
substitutes

Polyhydroxyl esters
Polyhydroxyl ethers

Synthetic fat
substitutes

Polyorganosiloxanes

PEPs Partially esterified


polysaccharides; also
partially esterified
oligosaccharides
Total substituted long chain
esters and ethers of
polyhydroxyl compds
(sucrose, triglycerol,
polyethylenglycol)
Polymerised organic
derivatives of silica. e.g.,
Polydimethylsiloxane
(PDMS)

Compatible with any


vegetable/animal fat. For
use in margarine,
mayonnaise, baked goods
Frozen desserts

Margarine, ice cream, cheese,


salad dressing, baked
products, processed meats,
confectionery products,
snacks, cooking/frying oil
PEPs salad oils, cooking
oils, margarine, butter
blends, mayonnaise,
shortening, etc.

Partially digestible

Dow Corning Corporation,


MI, USA

Non-digestible
Non-caloric

* Since completing this manuscript, the U.S. FDA announced on January 24, 1996 their approval for the use of olestra in selected savory snacks.

1996 CRC Press LLC

Applications

PDMS frying media


Polyorganosiloxanes
frying, salad dressings

Synthetic fat
substitutes

Polyoxyalkylene
Polyalklene oxide

Polyoxyalkylene
Polyalklene oxide

Dow Chemical Inc., MI, USA

Non-digestible
Non-caloric

Synthetic fat
substitutes

Polysaccharide
polyesters

Curtice Burns Foods Inc.,


NY, USA

Non-digestible
Non-caloric

Synthetic fat
substitutes

Polyvinyl ester

E.g. raffinose, sorbitol,


trehalose and stachyose
polyesters
Polyvinyl oleate

Nabisco Brands Inc., NJ,


USA

Low- to non-digestible
Low- to non-caloric

Synthetic fat
substitutes

Propylene glycol
diesters

The Procter & Gamble


Company, OH, USA

Low- to non-digestible
Low- to non-caloric

Synthetic fat
substitutes

TATCA

Best Foods (Division of CPC


International, NJ, USA)

Non-digestible
Non-caloric

Mayonnaise, margarine, egg


frying, cake baking

Synthetic fat
substitutes

THMA

Propylene glycol diesters of


medium and long chain
saturated fatty acids
Trialkoxytricarballate
tricarballic acid esterified
with fatty alcohols
Tris-hydroxymethyl alkene
esters

Nabisco Brands Inc., NJ,,


USA

Partially digestible; 0.56.0


kcal/g.

Frozen desserts, puddings,


margarine, salad dressing,
dairy and non-dairy cheese
spreads, frying oil, meat
products, bakery products,
cocoa butter replacer

Synthetic fat
substitutes

Trialkoxyglyceryl
ethers

Trialkoxyglyceryl ethers
(Example of alkyl glyceryl
ethers)

CPC International, NJ, USA

Non-digestible
Non-caloric

1996 CRC Press LLC

Cooking/salad/frying oil,
shortening, cakes, ice
cream, confectionery,
mayonnaise, margarine,
potato chips, snack food
Deep fat frying, salad
dressings, non-dairy sour
cream
Frying oils, baked goods,
frozen desserts, margarine,
salad dressing, meats,
frostings and fillings
Chocolate flavored products

Group
Combination
systems

Trade Name/
Common Name
Atmos 378K

Atmos 659K

Chemical Name/
Composition
378K Mono and
diglycerides, polysorbate
60, sodium stearoyl
lactylate
659K Mono and
diglycerides and propylene
glycol mixed esters
Mono and diglycerides,
sorbitan monostearate,
polysorbate 60
Carrageenan, dairy protein

Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier

Applications

Witco Corporation, (Chem.


division) New York, NY,
USA

Bakery products and bakery


ingredients, sauces,
confectionery, dairy
products, desserts, salad
dressings, spreads

Witco Corporation, (Chem.


division) New York, NY,
USA
Sanofi Bio-Industries, Paris,
France
California Raisin Advisory
Board, CA, USA

Bakery products

Combination
systems

Atmos 758K

Combination
systems
Combination
systems

Bindtex
California Raisin Paste

59.3% soluble noncellulose


polysaccharides, 30.7%
cellulose, 10% insoluble
noncellulose
Polysaccharides.

Combination
systems

CarraFat

Water, carrageenan, salt,


flavoring

Carrageenan Marketing
Corporation, CA, USA

Combination
systems

Dariloid

Xanthan gum/galactomannan
blends

Kelco Unit of Monsanto Co.,


CA, USA

Combination
systems

Dried Plum (Prune)


Powder

Dried Plum (Prune) Powder

Vacu-Dry Co., CA, USA

1996 CRC Press LLC

Concentration Used/
Special Features

Low water activity of


0.510.62
Made by extruding raisins
through a fine mesh screen.
A mild heat treatment keeps
paste pliable and soft during
storage
Emulsified solid gel (ca. 90%
water); 4 weeks shelf-life
under refrigerated
conditions

Developed for low-fat meat


applications
Dairy, confectionery, snacks,
bakery, cereals

Meat, fish and poultry


products

Ice cream, frozen desserts,


dairy products, dry mixes,
sauces, dressings, dips
Bakery products,
confectionery products

Combination
systems

Dried Plum Puree

Composition of dried plum


puree: 45% dried plums;
55% various
combinations of water, corn
syrup &/other fruits/fruit
pectins

Combination
systems

EC-25

Combination
systems

Enrich 301

Combination
systems

Fat Replacer 785


Fat Replacer 786

Combination
systems

Fat-Tastic

Propylene glycol, mono and


diglycerides, partially
hydrogenated soybean oil
lecithin
Blend of cultured non-fat dry
milks derived from a multi
fermentation process with
sugar
785 Combination of
carbohydrates
(maltodextrins and
vegetable fiber), stabilizers
(carrageenan,CMC) and
flavor
786 785 + Egg albumen
Carrageenan, water, salt, and
flavors; pre-hydrated and
gelled

1996 CRC Press LLC

Suppliers:Caravan Prodts.
Co. Inc./Henry and Henry,
Inc./Mariani Packing Co.
Inc./Natural Fd Techn.
Inc./The Plumlife Co.
Inc./Skjodt-Barrett Fds
Inc./Sokol and Co.
Inc./Stapleton-Spence
Packing Co./Sunsweet
Growers Inc./SYSCO
Corp./Valley View Packing
Van den Bergh, Food
Ingredients Group, IL, USA

Fat replaced with half weight


or volume of dried plum
puree

Quest International Flavours


and Food Ingredients Co.,
CA, USA

1.52.5%

Ice cream, ice milk, frozen


yogurt, frozen dessert premixes, soft serve dairy
mixes
Meat products burgers,
sausages, liver pate

515%
Also available in dry powder
form and based on modified
starch instead of
carrageenan

Meat products e.g.,


ground beef, pork sausages
Non-carrageenan version
hot dogs, bologna

Bakery products

Vaessen-Schoemaker
Chemische Industrie B.V.,
Holland

Wixon/Fontarome, WI. USA

Bakery products

Group

Trade Name/
Common Name

Combination
systems

Gatodan 415

Combination
systems
Combination
systems

Just Like Shortenin

Combination
systems

Kel-Lite * BK
Kel-Lite * CM

Combination
systems
Combination
systems

LeanMaker

K-Blazer

Matricks

1996 CRC Press LLC

Chemical Name/
Composition

Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier

Blend of distilled
monoglycerides and alphatending emulsifiers
Dried plums, apples, water

Grindsted (now Danisco


Ingredients), Brabrand,
Denmark
The PlumLife Co., CN, USA

Blend of whey, propylene


glycol monoester, modified
starch, oat fiber, mono- and
diglycerides, polysorbate
60, sodium caseinate,
diacetyl tartaric acid ester,
dipotassuim phosphate,
silicon dioxide and xanthan
gum
BK = Cellulose gel, sodium
stearoyl lactylate, xanthan
gum, gum arabic, dextrin,
lecithin, mono- and
diglycerides
CM = same as BK but
without cellulose gel
Oat bran, flavorings,
seasonings
Water, maltodextrin, sodium
alginate

Kraft Foods Ingredients, TN,


USA (Division of Kraft
General Foods, IL, USA)

Kelco Unit of Monsanto Co.,


CA, USA

Heller Seasonings and


Ingredients, IL, USA
Lifewise Ingredients Inc., IL,
USA

Concentration Used/
Special Features
(Readily disperses in water)

Applications
Low-fat batter systems,
muffins
Bakery products, sauces
Shortening replacement
system for bakery products
e.g., breads, rolls, cakes,
brownies and other
confectionery products
Also available in Europe
without propylene glycol
and polysorbate 60.

Shortening replacement
systems

Breads, rolls, cakes,


brownies, cookies, crackers

Meat applications
Meat, fish and poultry
products

Combination
systems

MichaeLite range

E.g., 420 buttermilk


powder, maltodextrin, veg.
gums, egg white powder,
cellulose, mono- and
diglycerides, polysorbate 80
and dextrose

David Michael and Co. Inc.,


PA, USA

420 3% in dairy desserts

Combination
systems

N-Flate

National Starch & Chemical


Company, Food Product
Division, NJ, USA

68%
Developed for cake mixes to
increase air incorporation

Combination
systems

N-Lite F

Novagel RCN-10
Novagel RCN-15

National Starch & Chemical


Company, Food Product
Division, NJ, USA
FMC Corporation, PA, USA

Air entrapment system

Combination
systems

Mono- and diglycerides,


polyglycerol ester, modified
starch, guar gum, non-fat
dry milk
Modified starch, guar gum,
nonfat dry milk,
polyglycerol monoester
RCN-10 = 90% MCC + 10%
guar gum
RCN-15 = 85% MCC + 15%
guar gum

Combination
systems

Nu-Rice

Rice extract, modified


proteins and carbohydrates

Ribus Inc., USA

1996 CRC Press LLC

0.55.0% Need moderate


shear to disperse

420 dairy desserts


421 frostings for cakes
and other bakery products
458 puddings, cake mixes,
fillings and hamburgers
819 shortening
replacement
Bakery products, bakery
ingredients, cakes, whipped
products
Icings, fillings, frostings,
frozen desserts and dry
mixes
RCN-10 Frozen desserts,
processed cheese, meat
products
RCN-15 salad dressings,
icings, frostings, gravies
Fat free cake, brownies,
chocolate frosting,
compound coatings,
sandwich cookie cream and
cake fillings

Group

Trade Name/
Common Name

Combination
systems

NutriFat
NutriFat
NutriFat
NutriFat

Combination
systems

PALs (ALACO)

Combination
systems

Pioneer

Combination
systems

Prolestra

Combination
systems

Prolo 11

Combination
systems

Prune Tec

1996 CRC Press LLC

C
PC
Instant PC
PC Supreme

Chemical Name/
Composition
C Blend of specific
hydrolyzed dextrins,
derived from wheat, potato,
corn and tapioca, and
soluble fiber
PC C + series of animal
and veg. proteins
Instant PC same as PC but
req. no heating
PC Supreme dextrins and
protein particles (piezo)
Whey protein concentrate,
milk protein concentrate, (or
other milk proteins),
cellulose gel
MCC, mono- and
diglycerides, cellulose gum,
carrageenan
Up to 30% sucrose polyester
and a mixture of animal and
vegetable proteins

Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier

Concentration Used/
Special Features

Applications

The NutriFat Co. a division


of Reach Associates, Inc.
NJ, USA

Frozen desserts, salad oils,


mayonnaise, margarine,
muffins

New Zealand Milk Products


Inc., CA, USA

Sauces, dairy products

Germantown Manufacturing
Company, PA, USA
Reach Associates, Inc. NJ,
USA

Availability depends on FDA


approval for olestra

Nonfat milk, whey protein


concentrate, calcium
caseinate

Kerry Ingredients, WI, USA

Thermally stable and able to


withstand HTST processing

Dried plum paste

California Prune Board, CA,


USA

For low water activity


applications

Ice cream, salad oils,


mayonnaise, spreads,
sauces, snacks, baked
products
Prolo 11 Ice cream, frozen
yogurt, shakes, frozen
novelties
Also Prolo 44 available for
bakery applications
Bakery and confectionery
products

Combination
systems

Rhodilean SD

Combination
systems

RP Lean I
RP Lean II
RP Lean III

Combination
systems
Combination
systems

Sherex Enlite

Combination
systems

Simplesse Bakery
Blend 720

Combination
systems

Simplesse Bakery
Blend 730

Combination
systems

Simplesse D-550

Combination
systems

Slimgel 100
Slimgel 100/i
Slimgel 200

Simplesse Bakery
Blend 710

1996 CRC Press LLC

Tricalcium phosphate,
Quaker Oatrim, (Rhodigelbrand) xanthan gum
I = Quaker Oatrim, iota
carrageenan
II = Quaker Oatrim, Quaker
oat bran, corn syrup solids
III = Quaker Oatrim, kappa
carrageenan
Emulsifier/stabilizer blend
Blend of whey protein
concentrate,
monoglycerides, and
sodium stearoyl lactylate
Blend of whey protein
concentrate, propylene
glycol monoesters, distilled
monglycerides, and sodium
stearoyl lactylate
Blend of whey protein
concentrates, mono- and
diglycerides, lactic acid
ester of mono- and
diglycerides and lecithin
Blend of whey protein
concentrate (D-500) and
hydrolyzed oat flour
100 Guar gum, gelatin
100/i Cold soluble gelatin
with guar gum, pectin,
maltodextrin
200 Gelatin, locust bean
gum

Rhone-Poulenc Food
Ingredients, NJ, USA

Cold water soluble

Oil-free salad dressings

Rhone-Poulenc Food
Ingredients, NJ, USA

(III especially useful


where maintaining the
appearance of fat is
important)

Quest International
Bioproducts, CA, USA
The NutraSweet Company,
IL, USA

Stabilizes air cells in low-fat


ice cream products
Contains 40% protein

I and II Sauces, coarsely


ground reduced-fat meat
products to be stored frozen,
fish and poultry products
III Meat, fish and poultry
products
Low- or no-fat frozen
desserts, ice cream
Muffins, sweet dough

The NutraSweet Company,


IL, USA

Contains 35% protein

Cakes

The NutraSweet Company,


IL, USA

Contains 48% protein, 9% fat

Frostings, pastry doughs,


cookies

The NutraSweet Company,


IL, USA

Contains 34% protein

PB Gelatins (a division of
Tessenderlo Chemie,
Vilvoorde, Belgium)

0.62.5%

Spreads, butter creams, salad


dressings, sauces, pate,
frankfurters, sausages, ice
cream, dairy creams,
cheese, yogurt, baked
products

Group

Trade Name/
Common Name

Combination
systems

Solex

Combination
systems

Superbase

Combination
systems

Supercreme C
Supercreme SD

Combination
systems

Tandem

Combination
systems

Ticaloid No Fat 102


range

Combination
systems

Ultra-Freeze 400
Ultra-Freeze 500

1996 CRC Press LLC

Chemical Name/
Composition

Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier

Concentration Used/
Special Features

Applications

A stabilizer/emulsifier
system which will work
synergistically with
Simplesse
Hydrolyzed rice starch,
modified starch, whey
protein concentrate and
xanthan gum and 0.73% fat

Germantown Manufacturing
Company, PA, USA

0.91.2%

Frozen desserts from ice


cream to frozen yogurts

Exelcon, WI, USA/Sanofi


Bio-Industries, Paris,
France

Dissolve in hot or cold water.


Resistant to high temp., high
shear, low pH and freezethaw cycles

Cultured cottage cheese,


gelatin, xanthan gum,
carrageenan, locust bean
gum, flavoring, propylene
glycol
Mono and diglycerides,
polysorbate 60

Commercial Creamery Co.


WA, USA

Fat replacer and flavor system


C 94% moisture system,
short shelf-life
SD Dry blend

Primarily: sauces, gravies,


dips
Also: puddings,
pour/spoonable dressings,
soups, etc.
Bakery products, dairy
products, meat, fish and
poultry products, salad
dressings, soups

Blends of hydrocolloids each


designed for a particular
food application include:
gum arabic, alginate, starch,
pectin, carageenan,
tragacanth, xanthan, etc.
400 Modified starch,
vegetable protein
500 Modified starch, soya
protein

Witco Corporation, (Chem.


division) New York, NY,
USA
TIC Gums, MD, USA

Gunther Products (division of


A.E. Staley Manufacturing
Company, IL, USA)

Bakery products and


ingredients
0.52.0%

Meat products, salad


dressing, bakery products,
dairy products

Ultra-Freeze 400
0.751.25%
Ultra-Freeze 500
0.751.5%
(500 can be dry blended
and dissolves readily in
water)

400 Frozen yogurt,


sherbets, novelties,
(Potentially cheese
sauces, cream cheese,
frozen waffle mixes and
other frozen foods)
500 Dairy products and
substitutes

Combination
systems

UltraBake NF

Combination
systems

Viscarin carrageenan
Viscarin SD 389

1996 CRC Press LLC

Granular starch, modified


vegetable protein, xanthan
gum
Carrageenan salt,
carrageenan, dextrose

A. E. Staley Manufacturing
Company, IL, USA
FMC Corporation, PA, USA

23%

Bakery products

Meat, fish and poultry


products, salad dressing

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