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To what extent were the nationalist leaders across Southeast Asia motivated by

anti-colonialism in the period before World War Two?


For SEA, colonialism is often described as the control of less advanced people
by advanced ones, or in this case, the colonial masters. Colonialism can be
seen as a means of achieving their own ambitions, be it economic, political, or
more. The Europeans or colonial masters thus imposed this form of control on
their Southeast Asian colonies. A nation consists of people who share a common
language, culture and history. They are bounded by the common identity that
arises from their background. Nationalistic people sought to overthrow colonial
rule in order to achieve independence of their own country, thus creating parties
and colonial rule in order to achieve independence. This led to the two main
stages of nationalism that are mainly of anti-colonialism, the radical nationalists
and traditional resistance. However, SEA nationalist movements also involve the
eternal influence of Great Depression which does not centre of anti-colonialism. I
agree to a large extent that SEA nationalist movements before the WWII mainly
centred on anti-colonialism.
Radical nationalist movements before WWII were movements before WWII taken
by activists who challenge established views and operate outside the
paarameters of scoail convention. They wanted to achiev poltical aims by
employing extreme and violent methods, which were also entred to a large
extent on anti-colonialism in most SEA countries. These movements were
normally started by youth nationalists who were exposed to ideas from the west
through various program implemented by the colonial powers authority so as to
educate the locals and exploit their cheap labour to fill up the posts within the
political authority put in plce by the colonial masteres. These people, who were
exposed to ideas of the west through overseas education as elites, were
determined to change the situation in their home countries, whereby social
welfare such as the living conditions and eocnomiss has suffered under colonial
rule which caused land alienation and increased taxations. All these factors who
had all suffered the same fate of exploitation by the colonial masters. Hence, this
resulted in majority of nationalist mvoements before WWII to be centered on
anti-colonialism. Radical ethods such as revolts and mass organization were also
employed in these movements so that he nationalists aims which were normally
all out opposition, were achieved and had immediate effects. In Vietnam, the
radical nationalist were led by the Scholar patriots, who were Vietnamese, raised
under the Confucian system and were exposed to Western ideas such as
democracy and human rights due to the social changes brought about by the
French. The Vietnamese elites were sent to colleges such as the College d Adran
or College des Strategaries for training and played supportive roles in colonial
administration. Vietnamese students were also sent to France for further
different perspectives. Vietnamese were not an inferior race to the French, they
have no reason to be treated badly nor should they submit meekly to the
Frenchs harsh treatment and explotiations; they are of equal standing with the
French and should not be resigning themselves to their fate under the French
colonial rule. Hence, when Scholar Patriots spread this new view among their
fellow Vietnamese, it quickly captured the imagination of the Vietnamese in an
age of change anf of growing national awareness of thhe challenges facing
Vietnamese in an age of change and of they duty of Vietnamese to unite for
national independence. Among these elites, one of the most prominent scholar
patriots would be Phan Boi Chau, who attempted to reorganize the remnants of
the Can Vuong into a modern anti-colonial organization. He wrote the first ever
Vietnamese work expressing the nationalistic idea that all Vietnamese were

fellow countrymen who should be united in love of the country. However,


Confucianist was not abandones completely as he argue that Confuianist ideas
still had an important plac in modern Vietnamese state. Therefore, it resulted in
his strongest supporters to be the Confucian scholars. The Modernisaiton Society
was established to restore a mdoernised version of monarchy based on the Japan
model. With support from a prominent royal family member, Prince Cuong De,
the Society managed to raise an army which aimed to carry out an aarmed revolt
against the French in 1908. Even though this revolt failed in the end, with most
of the eladres, including Chau to be captured andexiled, his actions raised
awareness of nationalism against the French, further unifying the Vietnamese
and increased their determination of anti-colonialism. Hence, this resulted in the
Southeast Asian nationalist movement before WWII to be centered on anticolonialism. In Indonesia, the Student nationalist, who were students who
received their education overseas due to the growth of the Dutchh ethical policy
during the 1920s, led the radical nationalist mvoements through the
Perhimpunan Indonesia (PI). This was formed and exposed to ideas from the West
such as democracy, Communism and human rights. This exposure of new ideas
opened up a new path to anti-colonialism as they realized the unequal poltical
positions between the Indonesians and Dutch. They were not born to be slaves of
the Dutch and were not inferior to them in any other aspects. In addition, as the
Dutch never tried to hide their actions of openly exploiting the INdonesias, this
further heightened the frutrations of the Indonesians against openly exploiting
the Indonesians, thus further heightened the frustrations of the Indonesians
against the Dutch, unifying the people for a common goal which is anticolonialism die to their experience of common suffering which affected the
livelihood of the local.
Hence, with this common mindset, revolutionary
nationalist such as Mohammad hatta, Sultan Sjahrir, Soetomo and Sartono were
nurtured from this organization. In addition, the PI emphasized a unfied
archipelago-wide effort against the Ducth, with non-cooperation as a tactic. The
local coutnerparts of PI also had study clubs formed throughout Indonesia,
providing a common meeting ground for returned studednts and clubs formed
throughout Indonesia, providing a common meeting ground for returned returned
students and local nationalist, hence allowing the various nationalist a platform
to bond and suggest various solutions to the Dutch Colonial rule and the
problems faced by Indonesia under its rule. The most important study club was
the Study Club of bandung, which produced the most important figure in modern
Indonesian nationalism, Sukarno. Sukarno formed the Perserikan Nasional
Indonesia which called for the independence through non-cooperative methods
and mass organization. The promotion of the red and white flag, the national
anthem Indonesia Raya, the use of bahasa Indonesia as the national language
and replacing the term Dutch East Indies with Indonesia appealed greatly to the
locals as these actions suggested that they were no longer people without an
identity which serves as slaves to the Dutch; they had a new identity as
Indonesians. The counter-actions of the Dutch, which banned the poltical group
and its inspirational leader, Sukarno, also further unified the Indonesians and
gave them a strong sense of national pride, boosting the thought of anticolonialism. Therefore, the actions, of the Dutch resulted in SEA natonalism to be
centered on nationalism.
One example of a Southeast Asian nationalism movement is traditional
resistance, which include groups formed by religious leaders and officials that
disagree with the practices of their colonial masters an colonialism itself. These
groups were largely centered on anti-colonialism. Those who led the group were
generally religious elitiests or were drien by the colonial powers disregard of

sensitivity towards their religion. These religious leaders disapproved at the


unfair way that their people were treated and the way colonial masters degraded
their religion, and thus held rebellions to try to overthrow their colonial masters
and along the way gaining many other supporters who were frustrated at their
falling standard of living under he hands of their colonial masters. Traitional
movements in these country were also the first movements taken against their
colonial masters as they were started mostly by leaders who originally ruled the
country and were removed from power after the arrival of the colonial masters,
which they felt was unfair and degrading. Therefore, majority of these traditional
movemennts were centered on anti-colonialism. Types of traditional resistances
include peasant rebellions and guerilla wars. In Burma, traditional movemens
were carried out by Buddhist monks also known as pongyis, usch as U Ottama
and U Kelatha, and the younger ones fromed a national council for the monkhood
in 1922 to organize such anti-colonial activities. At the same time declaring
themselves as local rulers and gaining control of an area before the domination
of the British. Thye were able to get mch support from the peasant masses and
were abke to orgwanise strong peasant revolts with the most serirous one being
thee Saya San Rebellion which was fuelled by the results of the Great
Depression, which named after a former monk Saya San whow as an active
planner off anti-colonialism activities. The rebellion lasted from 1930 t 1932,
aimed at colonial officials, taxes and general bureaucratic interference with
village life. The peasant revolts were a result of mass frustration over taxation,
crime, rice prives, land alienation, indian immigrgation, unemployment and most
importantly colonial degradation of religion. As a result of these revolts, te
ponggyis have provided an access to supportfor rural Burmses, where they
would provide help to nationalists who needed support for more resistant
movements in the future to fight for their own rights if need be. Hence, such
traditionalit movements are largely centered on anti-colonialism. In Indonesia,
traditional movements in uprising led by political leaders and also uprisings
influenced by Islam, which was a direct act of opposition towards the Dutch rule,
hene causing the nationalist movement to be anti-colonial in nature. Poltical
leeaders such as Prince Diponegoro, also known as the man behind Java War
from 1985 to 1830 was an example of an anti-colonial resistance leader who
derieed his authority from tavelling to scared places thus convincing people they
he was a holy man. The reason he gave for rebelling and creating an uprisee was
that it was an act to purify the Javanese society by driving out the Duch which he
claimed were unholy.. This was likely because Prince Diponeegoro wanted
power for himself and also ddid not approe of the Dutchs way of ruling the
country in their ways that may not fulfill certain religious criteria. As for the
uprisings inspired by Islam, they were led by religious leaders kyai and religious
teachers ulama wwho established their beliefs in village schools known as
pesantrren, along with other religious masters of Muslim Brotherhood tarekat.
The first significant group that was started was the Padri movement whose aim
was to cleanse the Minangkabau region of Sumatra of unholy practies and to
implement the holy Islamic code which went directly against the dutch beliefs
and is seen as an act of direct conflict against the Dutch, who were their colonial
masters, hence causing the nationalist movement to be anti-colonial in nature.
With the Duth as colonial masters they took over land that had belonged to the
Javanese and possibly neglected religious sensitivity of the majority. The Dutch
also implemented rules that were mainly good of Europeans such as vaccination,
and most of the profits made in the economy were channeled back to the Dutch,
eaving the peasants with low wages and low standard of living, even with the
Great Depression taking place. Such movements were anti-colonial as these
poltical leaders wanted to overthrow their colonil masters and replpace them

with either themselves or by other local leaders, and many resorted to violence
such as the guereilla war the Achenese against the Dutch, leading to continual
occasional acts of vilent rebellion against their colonial masters until 1930. This
built up frustration among the Javanese and they felt that only through religious
ways were they able to buil a better lfie of themselves and hence proving that
such movements were largely centered on anti-colonialism.
However, SEAsian nationalist movements do not just centre on anti-colonialsim,
but also on othr factors such as the external influences due to the great
depression in 1929. The reat depression in 1929 which is a severe worldwide
economic downturn occurred in the 1930s also plays a part in shaping SEA
nationalist movements but not causing these movements to be entered on anticolonialmism. Instead, the Great Depression in 1929 diverts the attention of
nationalist movements from anti-colonialism to the focus of the interests of the
lcoals, which were severely affected due to the Great Depression. The Great
Depression causes much devastation to countries, especially to those whose
economies rely heabily on trade with the world market as it casuses the tumbling
of world commodities prices. Rapid decrease in profit earned by the peasants
worsens the existing situations of land alienation casuing them to fall into a
vicious cycle off overty as without land, many had to reent land from landowners
to grow cash crops which are normally colonial masters, to grow crops. During
poor harvest, they may not earn enough to feeed their family or had to resort to
borrowing money from moneylenders which are under the colonial masters to
get by. In event when peasants are unable to return their loans, they are often
thrown out of their households. These harsh treatments of the peasants causes
difficult times and even exploited them in the various aspects of their interest,
be it focused on the interests of the locals which were severely affected instead
of it being on anti-colonialism. In Burma, the Great Depression accelerates the
existing trend of land alienation and concentration a growth in substantial
tenated class as more of the peasants are unable tto earn enough due to the
rapidly declining crop prices. An example, is that rice prices in Cochinchina
declined from 7.15 piastres per quintal in 1929 to 1.88 in 1934. The most ovious
rural distress could be seen in lower Burma, there is a huge climb in the rate of
land alienation whereby the proportion of land held by non-agriculturalists
increased from 31% in 1930 to nearly 50% by 1935 and Chettiar moneylenders
controlled 25% of lower Burma area by 1937. Subsequently, despite half a million
hectares of land being left uncultivated as many wage labourers were dismissed
so as to cut cost, landlords continued to increase the exports of rice at the
expense of domestic consumption, casuing the welfare of local Burmese to take
a backseat as the rice consumption in Burma fell by 25% casuing the feelings of
displeasure to buildup. These various harsh treatments therefore allows the
pongyis,, which are Buddhists monks to garner support of the peasant masses to
organize a series of peasant revolts, leading to the most serious of such peasant
revolts, the Saya San reellion in 1930. The frustration over taxation, crime, rice
prices, land alienation, Indian immigration wwhich are normally the Chettiars,
unemployment and colonial degradation of religion by
targeting mainly
moneylenders due to the frustration exacerbated by the Great Dpression and
the colonial rule, alongside with its flaws only serves as a catalyst for the
peasants displeasure to reach its boiling point causing the SEA nationalism to be
concentrated on the lack of self-interests, in terms of economic and the changing
social status of the lcoals due to the continual exploitation of Burmese by the
British. In British Malaya, the Great Depression in 19229 have accelerated and
heightened the local of Malayas discontentment towards the problem of the
trend of existing land alienation by the British and the Chinese in addition with

concentration a growth in substantial tenanted class of non-locals such as the


Chinese, as more of the peasants are unable to earn due to the rapidly declining
commodities prces. Subseuently, as British Malayas economy solely depended
on the exports of the 2 main commodities of rubber and tin, which prices are
highly dependent on the world market, British Malayas economy was dealt with
a heavy blow as do not have much alternative to replace the loss of revenue
caused by rapidly declining commodities prices. An example would be the price
of rubber have declined rom 7.01 cents a pound to about 34.45 cents a pound, a
huge decrease of 82% and that tin has also suffered a huge decline in rpicees of
about 32% . Tis causes increasing and that many were in danger of losing their
land to repay their debts even though there was a Malay Reservations Bill which
poses as an obstacle to prevent non-Malay smallholders who were in debt were
increasing and that many were in danger of losing their land to repay their debts
even though there was a Malay Reservation Bill which poses as an obstacle to
prevent non-Malays town land reserved for Malays. These various economic
problems then accelerate the development of political awareness among the
Malays due to the changing status of Malays which affected their interests in
various aspects, especially economically. Hence, this in turn generates
nationalistic feelings among the Malays so as to protect their status and welfare
in their own country. These notions were expressed through radical nationalist
associations such as thee Political Reformers-Malay Raja Chulan and Dato
Abdullah, who assume unofficial member status on the Federal Council. The
associations aim to defend the Malay intersts relting to issues of rural poverty
and the growing demand by non-Malay population for more say in the
government. Therefore, SEAA nationalistmoements before WWII were not only
centered on anti-colonialism but also on issues regarding the locals interests.
In conclusion, I personally fefeel that the SEA nationalism movement before WWII
centered more on anti-colonialism compared to the exterenal influence of Great
Depression. The Southeast Asians were bounded by the common identity that
arises from their shared background. Tus when Europeans came and colonized
the Southeast Asian states, the SSoutheast Asians felt that they were being
mistreated and exploited them. Some were displaed from positions of power and
many faced changes which affect ttheir livelihood, which were ultimately worsen
de to the Gr3eat Depression. With refreene to the above ase studies, the Saya
San rebellion happened due to mass frustration over taxation, crime, rice, prices,
land alienation, indian migration unemployment and most importantly, colonial
degradation of relgion. Hence. The seet of grieveances allowed the nationalist
movements to grow even stronger. However, the nationalist movements is also
centred to small extent on external infleucens of the Great Depression in 1929
deu to its various impacts upon the lcaol community such as the economic
impact of increased taxation due to a loss in revenue caused by plummeting
world commodities prices in the case study of Burma and the social impact of the
changing status of the lcoals due to the growing infleucne of the Chinese and
Indians in the case study of British Malaya. Thus, I feel that the nationalist
movement was cnetred to a large extent on anticolonialism as the externmal
influence of the Great depression serves more as a catalyst, which is to speed
up thhe occurance of SEA nationalit movement by showing the colonies that the
colonial masters were ot an all powerful figure without flaws due to their failure
in preventing the occurring and resolving thte issue of the Great Dperession.
Hene I agree to a large extent that SEA nationalist movement was centered on
anti-colonialism.

In the early period of the rise of nationalism in Southeast Asian before World War
Two, most pre-war nationalist leaders started off being motivated merely by anticolonialism, having suffered much grievances from various unpopular impacts of
colonial rule. However subsequently, a growing number of leaders adopted a
greater vision of establishing a nation state that transcended beyond just
overthrowing the colonial government because they witnessed the process of
key international development which inspired them with a greater vision. While
foreign ideologies like republicanism and communism played an increasingly
important role especially after the occurrence of key international events, anticolonialism in its various forms like political and religious-cultural agenda was
still the driving force that spurred the nationalist leaders on throughout their
crusade to gain independence for their country. Hence, this essay seeks to argue
that nationalist leaders in the period before World War Two was mostly motivated
by anti-colonialism because foreign ideologies merely supplemented the
nationalist leaders desires to gain independence while anti-colonialist sentiment
remained the core underpinning throughout the nationalistic cause.
In the early stages of the rise in nationalist movement, even without a greater
vision of nation building, the sheer desire of the nationalist leaders to have a free

and independent nation alone, as inspired by the idea of nationalism they gained
from western education, led them on their pursuit of independence for their
countries, thus showing that anti-colonialism formed the premise motivating the
nationalist leaders vis--vis foreign ideologies. For instance, in Indonesia,
Mohammad Hatta, SutanSjahrir, Soetomo, Sartono embarked on their nationalist
cause because they were inspired by the idea of a modern independent state
they picked up while they studied in the western education system. When
Perhimpunan Indonesia (PI) was created in 1908, the nationalist leaders did not
even have a vision for nation building as the partys aim was only to gain
independence by advocating widespread non-cooperation with the Dutch.
Similarly, in the Philippines,
Compared to nation building, it was more of the fundamental concerns of the
nationalist leaders to modernise and defend their religion and culture against the
colonial government that kindled their desire to support independence, thus
showing the importance of anti-colonial sentiments over foreign ideologies in
motivating the nationalist leaders. For example in Burma, the pongyis, leaders of
Young Mens Buddhist Association (YMBA) created in 1906, became anti-British
and responded to the idea of nationalism because they lost their prestige and
status when the British abolished the Burmese monarchy which indirectly
invalidated the Sangha. Coupled with the influx of foreign customs, cultures,
traditions and languages, the twin pillars of Buddhism and the Burmese
monarchupon which the Burmese identity was built were gravely jeopardised. As
such, the pongyis adopted the idea of nationalism to revive Buddhism and to
restore the Burmese monarchy, and foreign ideologies clearly were not the focus.
Likewise in Indonesia, KyaiHadji and Ahmad Dahlan, leaders of Muhammadiyah
created in 1912, adopted nationalism because they wanted tomodernise reform
Islam in Indonesia and purify it of its non-islamic practices that had sipped in
with colonialism. By building schools, providing free healthcare and setting up
welfare organisations, the nationalist leaders sought to guide the muslim to
modern living and to see beyond their traditional mindset, so that would
understand the idea of nationalism. The fact that the nationalist leaders embrace
nationalism more because of religious and cultural concern which is but a source
of anti-colonialism showed that anti-colonialism is more important than foreign
ideologies in motivating the nationalist leaders.
However, increasing number of nationalist leaders became more motivated by
foreign ideologies and less by anti-colonialism as key international development
transpired to capture the imagination of the nationalist leaders with visions of
nation building they never once had. For example in Indonesia, inspired by the
1917 Bolshevik Revolution, HenkSneevliet, leader of the
IndischeSociaalDemocratischeVereenigning (ISDV) created in 1914, no longer
just wanted to establish a mass-based party, but he started pursuing the
establishment of a communist state and joined ISDV with Saraket Islam (SI)
created 1912 to form the PartaiKomunis Indonesia (PKI) in 1920. Then on, instead
of negotiating with the Dutch, the nationalist leaders adopted revolutionary
tactics of uprisings and uncooperation. Likewise in Vietnam, after 1911 Chinese
revolution, PhanBoiChau and Prince Cuong De also sought to not just gained
independence but to emulate the Chinese example and create a modern republic
through armed revolt and the use of violent tactics like assassination. Hence,
after key international development took place, nationalist leaders became more

motivated by foreign ideologies and less by anti-colonialism as their focus shifted


to a larger picture of nation building.

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