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Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 -

SAMAJAKARYADA
HEJJEGALU
SOCIAL WORK FOOT-PRINTS

A Peer Reviewed Quarterly Social Work Journal

Copyright : SAMAJAKARYADA HEJJEGALU

Contents
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1. Editors Desk
Ramesha M.H.

2. Evolution of Nursing as a Profession


K. Prabakar

3. Sustainability and Social Work


T.K.Nair

4. Family Relations in Living Arrangements


and the Quality of Life of Older Persons
Smita Bammidi

5. Organ Shortage Crisis and Health Care :


Revisiting the Challenges and Prospects
Abdul Azeez E.P.

6. Rights of Rural Children from Protection


Perspective
N.V. Vasudeva Sharma

- 121
- 123
- 149

- 167

- 187

- 201

7. Olinda Pereira Karnatakas Social Works


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Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 -

Editors Desk

Samajakaryada Hejjegalu (Social Work Journal) is in its fifth


year of publication and the present issue contains five English
articles, three Kannada articles and one bi-lingual feature on a
prominent social worker. Perhaps this is the only journal in
Indiawhich has peer-reviewed regional language articles. From
this issue , the journal proposes to have a feature on a womansocial
worker of eminence.
Evolution of Nursing asa Profession by K. Prabakar traces
the historicaldevelopment of nursing as a profession in different
societies. The article discusses the professional characteristics of
nursingand the personality requirements of a nurse. Professional
accountability and professional ethics of nurses are examined in
detail by Prabakar. The article concludes with the development of
nursing in India. The article will be of great use toall human
service professionals and students in these fields of practice.
April 22is World Earth Day and hence it is appropriate to
have an article on Sustainability and Social Work by T.K.Nair
in the April issue. The article has three sections. In the first section,
the author presents briefly the elements of Planet Earth and the
environmental destruction that has been taking place for decades.
Part two is a summary of the famous book Living
Pathwayswritten by M. Nadarajah, a former student and now
aclose associate of T.K.Nair. In the third section, Nair critically
analyses the poor response of social work profession to the
environmental crisis engulfing humanity.
Smita Bammidis research-based article Family Relationsin
Living Arrangements and the Quality of Life of Older Persons
explains that Living Arrangement (LA ) is a basic determinant
and an indicator of the care and nature of informal supports
available to the old persons in their families and therefore their
Quality of Life (QOL). Smitas study is a departurefrom the usual
studies on the situation of the elderly in India. An interesting
finding of Smita is that son is the hardest person to live with or to
get along with in the households followed by the daughter-in-law.
Emergence of medical technology for human organ transplant
is one of the crucial elements in maintaining health and in

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Editors Desk

sustaining life. Though the technology is getting more and more


advanced, the difficulty in securing the needed organs in time has
been a major constraint. The large gap between demand and supply
of organs is a threat for the survival of many patients in critical
condition in the country. The article Organ Shortage Crisis and
Health Care : Revisitingthe Challenges and Prospects by Abdul
Azeez is timely and very significant.
Children constitute 39 per cent of the total population in India
and about three-quarters of the child population are in rural areas.
N.V.Vasudeva Sharma,in his article Rights of Rural Children
from ProtectionPerspective, writesthat most of the rights of rural
children are violated. He adds that there is an urgent need for the
appropriate district levelstatutory juvenile justice body to act on
the poor or non-implementation of the different measures initiated
by the state and central governments.
Progress of Higher Education in India : An Overview by
Govindaraju analyses the structure and growth of higher education
institutions, gross enrolment rates , andteacher-student ratio,
among other aspects. Research and development issues and
challenges in the Indian higher education system are discussed
criticallyby Govindarajuin this article.
S.S.Madivalar and R.Devaraj describethe developmentwork
of NIVRUTH Trust in the article Improving the Livelihoods of
Small Farmers through Dairy Farming and the Role of an
Organisation: A Study of VarkoduVillage in Mysore District.
The article concludes that if the smallfarmers, particularly the
women, engage themselves in dairy farming and fodder cultivation,
there could be good improvement in their quality of life.
Sex workers are a highly exploited and neglected group of
women in Indian society. B.Bharati, in the article Tradition and
Commercialisation of Sexual Exploitation, makes an attempt to
understand the different dimensions of traditions in the sexual
exploitation of women and the ruthlesscommercialisation of their
service or trade.
Dr. Olinda Periera , outstandingsocial work educator and
human service practitioner, has been chosen by the advisory board
of Samajakaryada Hejjegalu as the first social worker to be featured
in the new initiative of the journal. Dr.Henry J DDouza, Professor
of Social Work atthe University of Omaha, pays glowing tribute
to his and his wifes mentor in the feature.
Ramesha M.H.
Editor

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Evolution of Nursing as a Profession


K. Prabakar

Dr. K. Prabakar
CEO, Apollo Knowledge, Chennai

Abstract
The article traces the evolution of nursing as a globally
recognizedprofession from an intuitive art in the homes. The
historical development of nursing by Egyptians, Greeks, Romans,
Chinese, Hindus, Christians, and Arabs is discussed. Nursing in the
modern era, with its low and high points, and the contribution of
Florence Nightingale as the turning point in the development and
recognition of nursing arealso examined in the article. The
professional characteristics of nursing, the personal qualitiesneeded
for a professional nurse, code of ethics, and professional
accountability are the other key components of the article.

Nursing evolved as an intuitive response to the desire to keep


people healthy as well as to provide comfort and assurance to the
sick. The essence of this desire was reflected in the caring, comforting,
nourishing and cleansing the patients by the care givers. Simple
procedures for the care of the sick were adopted, skills in practising
these remedies were improved, and knowledge of the efficient system
was passed on from one generation to another. Beginning as an
art in the homes where a member of the family cared for the sick,
it has today developed as a highly skilled service to meet the health
needs of the community and society, and a professional service to
prevent illness as well as to care for the sick.

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Historical Background
It is extremely difficult to trace how prehistoric society dealt with
their sick. One of the earliest evidences of compassion for the sick
comes from the Neanderthal stage of human evolution (about
1,00,000 years back). From one of the burials of an old man, it is
seen that the old man has suffered a bone deformation crippling
him. Palaeontologists say that the old man lived long after he was
crippled and his death was not due to this deformity. Obviously he
could not have survived without being a good hunter. With the
deformity he could not have hunted. He must have been looked
after by others of his group.
The study of various civilizations provides an insight into the
concept of health and health care practised in different societies.
The civilization of Mesopotamia believed that health care was
religion-oriented. The practitioners were herb doctors, knife doctors
and spell doctors equivalent to the present day intensivists, surgeons
and psychiatrists.
The Egyptians believed that medicine was divine and the person
in-charge was the priest physician. The priest was elevated to the
rank of God, temples were built in his name and the sick people
were taken to the site for healing. The Egyptians developed the art
of embalming the body after the death for preserving the same in
the pyramids.
The Greeks also considered medicine as divine. Apollo, the Sun
God, was considered the God of medicine. The dynasties of curative
medicine and preventive medicine came into existence. Priest
physicians were in-charge of the temples and the sick people were
brought to the temples and kept for relief. The greatest Greek
physician Hypocrites studied and classified diseases based on
observation and reasoning. He challenged the tradition of magic
in medicine and initiated a new approach by applying clinical
methods in medicine. Greeks rejected the supernatural theory of
disease and looked upon disease as a natural process.
The contribution of Romans was mainly in the field of
comparative anatomy and experimental physiology. The greatest
Roman medical teacher Galen felt that health preceded disease and

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hence it was important to preserve health first, before working on


the factor of cure.
The Chinese medicine is acclaimed to be the worlds first
organized body of medical knowledge dating back to 2700 BC.
This is based on two principles: The Yang and the Yin, Yang is the
active masculine principle and the Yin is the negative feminine
principle. The balance of these opposing forces meant good health
(Dolon, 1973). The Chinese had great faith in their traditional
medicine and it was fully integrated with modem medicine. The
Chinese developed the art of acupuncture and this was considered
a universal panacea.
The earliest contribution of ancient Hindu society to medicine
is reflected in the vedas. Out of the four vedas, the Atharva-veda
contained innumerable incantations and charms for diseases, and
discourses on injuries, sanity, health and fertility. Among these
compendiums of ancient knowledge was Ayur-veda (Ayur means
life and Veda means knowledge) or the science of life. In ancient
India, the celebrated authorities in Ayurvedic medicine were Atreya,
Charaka, Susruta and Vaghbatt, The practitioners of ayurveda
subscribe to the Tridosha theory of disease. The doshas or humors
are Vata (wind), Pitta (gall) and Kapha (mucus). Disease was
explained as a disturbance in the equilibrium of the three humors.
When there is a balance and harmony between these three, the person
is said to be healthy (Park, 1996).
The contributions of the civilizations reflect a high degree of
empiricism, and scientific observation in the clinical role of the
doctors. However, there was no identifiable nurse or organization
of nurses other than the continued role of the individual
compassionate nurse figure - the mother. Though there was a
significant progress in the field of medicine the contribution to the
field of nursing was almost nil during this phase.
From the moment the significance of Christs teachings penetrated
the thinking of the early Christians, special places were set aside in
their homes for hospitality and the care of the sick. These were
called Christrooms, showing a literal interpretation of the words of
Christ. These rooms whether in the home of a bishop, deaconess or
other person, were called diakonia. Xenodochia was the name given

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to the shelters built for the sick and poor pilgrims, and nosocomia
was the name given to hospitals built by St. Zoticus in
Constantinople during the reign of Emperor Constantine. The
Christian Bishop St. Basil built up a Xenodochiam called Basilias
in Caesarea in Palestine (Dolon, 1973).
The early Christian period (till 500 AD) created a base to nurture
nursing. Charity and love in action based on the teachings of Christ
were apparent in nursing which took root during this period. The
first organized visiting the sick began with the establishment of the
order of Deaconesses and they endeavoured to practise corporal
works of mercy. This work included the basic human needs such as
to feed the hungry, to give water to the thirsty, to clothe the naked,
to visit the imprisoned, to shelter the homeless, to care for the sick,
and to bury the dead. Charity was considered as the greatest social
reform during that period.
After the order of Deaconess, a group of noble Roman matrons
distinguished themselves in the field of nursing. They were women
of wealth, intelligence and social leadership. They founded hospitals,
convents and monasteries and worked for the good of others. These
nurses were not just comforters, but they were also nurturers,
observers, listeners, counsellors, and teachers, and gave care to the
patient and the family. These intellectually and socially skilled leaders
identified the basic ingredients of nursing care through careful
assessment of needs. They realized the dependency of the acutely
ill patients upon their nurse for vital life processes.
The nurses role of healer as well as builder of health was achieved
by cleaning up the filth and squalor, and by rectifying human
indignities and degradation. Nurses, in effect, were early social
reformers. The site of health delivery occurred where the need existed
- in the community, in the hospital, in the home, in the hostel of a
pilgrim, and in a home for the elderly. The nurses during this period
were motivated by a strong spiritual force and were independent
practitioners.
With the fall of the Roman Empire the medical schools established
during that period disappeared. Europe was devastated by various
diseases like plague, smallpox, leprosy, and TB. The practice of
medicine reverted back to the primitive medicine dominated by

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superstitions and dogma. Glorification of spirits became the accepted


pattern of behaviour. Dissection of the human body for medical
research was prohibited. There was no progress of medicine in this
period. This period is therefore called the Dark ages of medicine
(Park, 1996).
During the middle ages religious institutions helped in preserving
the ancient knowledge, at the same time rendered active medical
and nursing care. The middle age was quite turbulent and the world
changed politically to a great extent. During the medieval times
there was a rise and fall of feudalism in Europe and this had a great
effect on the common man. It was a time of famine accompanied
by miseries and serious illness. Though medical care and nursing
care were needed these were not available to them. However,
feudalism gradually disappeared in the 13th century.
This period also saw the establishment of hospitals. The first
hospital on record in England was built in York in 937 AD and a
chain of hospitals came up from Persia to Spain. Early medieval
hospitals rarely specialised in the treatment of the sick; On the
contrary, the sick were received for catering to their bodily wants
and spiritual needs. The monasteries during this period gave
opportunities for women to pursue a career in which they could
satisfy their intellectual and spiritual aspirations, and develop nursing
skills (Park, 1996). At the close of the middle ages there were hospitals
all over Europe.
When Europe was passing through the Dark Age, the Arabs
took over the rest of the civilization, They translated the Graeco Roman medical literature into Arabic. They developed their own
system of medicine by borrowing largely from Greeks and Romans,
and the new system they developed was called the Unani system of
medicine, They founded schools of medicine and hospitals in
Baghdad, Demascus, Cairo and other cities. Leaders in arabic
medicine were the Persians. The greatest contribution of Arabs was
in the field of Pharmacology as they introduced a large number of
drugs both herbal and chemical. They invented the art of writing
prescriptions and introduced a wide range of syrups, oils, pills,
powders, and aromatic waters. The Golden age of Arabic medicine
was between 800 -1300 AD (Park, 1996).

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During the renaissance many medical and nursing schools were


started. The period witnessed nurses, both women and men,
providing nursing care to people of all ages in a variety of settings.
Nurses expanded their role while continuing to use intellectual skills
and judgments in the execution of physical as well as
psychological nursing care (Dolon, 1973).
Nursing sank to its lowest level in the countries in which Catholic
organizations were banned. The state closed churches and there
was little provision for the institutional care of the sick. When the
demand became great, lay persons were made to run the hospitals
because of social necessity. There was no honour to work in a
hospital. Nursing lost its social standing. Nurses at that time were
mostly recruited from lower classes. The low status of women in
the social structure also contributed to this situation. The Catholic
Church gave women more freedom and opportunity to move about
in the world. The Protestant church did not think much of freedom
for women and the nursing services. Many women were assigned
nursing duties in lieu of serving jail sentences (Rao, 1996). This
Dark Period of Nursing between 1550 - 1850 saw nursing
conditions at their worst. Nursing was of a very poor standard due
to the poor salary and miserable living conditions of the nurses.
The work places also contributed to the depressing situation and
nursing work was considered to be the most menial. These poor
conditions made women feel that there was no future for them as
nurses. Due to these factors there was a rapid deterioration in the
care of the sick. After the counter reformation (Catholic revival)
through the Society of Jesuits founded by Ignatius Loyala, a
Spanish noblemen, religious orders were reopened and they tried
to bring back some of the traditions. Some humanitarians like St.
Vincent De Paul, John Howard, and Charles Dickens did much to
relieve the depressing situation during that time (Rao, 1996).
Eighteenth century also witnessed notable achievements in
conquering certain diseases, devising diagnostic equipments,
developing humane treatment for the mentally ill and expanding
the basis for chemistry and physics (Dolon, 1973).
Nineteenth century was marked by the demand for liberation of
women who were forced to live a life without educational and

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career opportunities. However, leadership of great women like Susan


B Anthony, Elizabeth Blackwell and Florence Nightingale was
remarkable. They created history in their areas of operation. Susan
Anthony fought for the rights of women for higher education and
an opportunity to practice profession. Elizabeth Blackwell struggled
to gain admission to medical school and finally she gained the
degree of doctor of medicine. She was responsible for founding the
Womens Medical College of the New York Infirmary for Women
and Children (Dolon, 1973).
The social reformers of the early nineteenth century had focused
attention on the plight of the poor and on the needs for reform in
prisons, hospitals and nursing. Leadership in the social aspects of
living and in nursing was needed. The person who responded to
this exigency was Florence Nightingale who cannot be considered
as the product of her time but rather must be regarded as one of
those rare and gifted people who transcend the period of their own
existence, and whose plans and accomplishments represent the
thinking of a much later period of history (Dolon, 1973).
Florence Nightingale was born on 12th May 1820 at Florence
in Italy. After her education, she became interested in politics and
the social conditions of the people. She felt she had a special purpose
for her life. She decided to take up nursing. In this journey, she
became familiar with the nursing of Roman Catholic sisterhood
and American missionaries. She felt the need for systematic training
for nursing. She took up a nursing programme in 1847 in
Kaiserworth and completed it. She considered it as her spiritual
home and once again studied nursing under the Sisters of Charity
at Maisondela providence. After returning to London, Nightingales
first position was the Superintendent of the Establishment for Gentle
Women during illness. She planned for the patients and the doctors
with great skill, and was successful. Within a short time she was
asked to become the superintendent of nurses at Kings College
Hospital where she began her work. She was called to go to Crimea
with a mission of mercy to help the wounded soldiers of the Crimean
war.
At that time when schools of nursing were unknown she
assembled her staff in less than a week. She had in her group 38

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nurses. Nightingale and her 38 nurses were given charge of 1500


patients at the Barrack hospital. The hospital conditions were
extremely poor. The death rate was 42%. In two months, she had
transformed the hospital into an efficiently managed institution. In
six months she had reduced the death rate to 2% and had won the
respect of most surgeons. She utilised scientific methods of gathering
data and was skilled as a statistician presenting the factual evidence
in the most graphic way. Doctor Winslow referred to her as the
Lady with the Slide Rule as well as a Lady with the Lamp of
compassion (Dolon, 1973).
It should be noted that Florence Nightingale made very clear
the distinction between persons professionally qualified for the
practice of nursing, and the knowledge essential for every woman
who can be called at any time to render nursing service in some
form. Students today marvel at the current pertinence of these basic
principles of good nursing care and how clearly Nightingale
delineated the role of identification for nurses. Florence Nightingale
was not interested in simply keeping people alive; she stressed that
Nursing is helping people to live.
The Nightingale Training School for Nurses, which opened in
1860, was a completely independent educational institution. The
size of the classes was small which permitted a high degree of
selectivity with only 15 to 30 students. In 1865 Florence Nightingale
contributed two books on nursing in a community setting.
Nightingale helped in founding the first Community Nursing
Association in Liverpool.
There were two major components to nursing in her thinking :
sick nursing and health nursing. This involved the preservation
of wellness as well as the care of illness. She said that nursing
proper is therefore to help the patients suffering from disease to live,
just as health nursing is to keep or to put the constitution of a
healthy human being in such a state as to have no disease. The
Community Health Home Care Services have continued under this
aegis of nursing to the present. She defined nursing as that care
which put a person in the best possible condition or nature to restore
or to preserve health, to prevent or to cure disease or injury.
Nightingale stressed that the sick person must be treated and not the

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disease. She identified a nurse the sick and not the sickness
philosophy many years before Dr. Osler pronounced his famous
statement: it is better to know the patient who has the disease than
the disease the patient has (Dolon 1973).
After Florence Nightingale, other nursing professionals like Mary
Adelaide Nutting, Isabel Hampton, Lavania L Dock and Fredericka
Fliedner contributed much to the development of nursing.
Certain hospitals for many years accepted men to a short course
in nursing. The men were called attendants but not nurses. In
1888, at Bellevue Hospital in New York, the Mills School was
established with a two year course; its graduates were also called as
attendants, following the custom of the time. In 1943 there were
four schools of nursing for men only; the Mills School, New York,
the Pennsylvania Hospital School of Nursing for Men and the two
Alexian Brothers hospitals in Chicago and St. Louis. Many more
men opted for nursing programmes and by 1948 the number of
male student nurses increased.
The period that followed World War I saw a greater demand for
nurses. It opened up new fields of specialisation, accelerated the
educational process to create public consciousness with regard to
the importance of good nursing. The World War taxed the medical
and nursing resources of the world to the maximum. Two
catastrophic episodes of World War I-the epidemic of pneumonia
in 1917 and the pandemic outbreak of influenzea in 1978emphasized the need for well-prepared nurses.
World War II also had a profound influence on nursing. In the
United States almost revolutionary changes came about as a direct
result of it. Many nurses were needed for the great army camps
established throughout the country, and many responded to the
governments appeal. In 1940, the nursing leaders had comprehended
the potential need and had formed the Nursing Council of National
Defence, composed of representatives from all the national nursing
bodies. In 1942 this body became the National Nursing Council for
War Service.
With the inception of Nursing Section of the World Health
Organisation in 1949, Oliver Baggallay was appointed chief and
she continued in this office until 1954. Miss Baggallay graduated

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from St. Thomas in London and had been secretary of the Florence
Nightingale International Foundation from 1934 to 1949. In July
1954, Lyle Creelmana, graduate of Vancouver General Hospital
School of Nursing, became the chief of the Nursing Section of the
World Health Organisation. She had been public health nursing
administrator in the Nursing Section of WHO since 1949. Her
guidance and counsel had been extended in the area of public health
nursing to all, throughout the world.

Nursing a Profession
Over the years people doubted whether nursing is a profession
or is it a semi-profession. The doubts are not centered whether or
not the nurses have professional attitude or professional
organizations but on whether the nurses meet the criteria of
professionalism. Then what is Nursing? Is Nursing an art or a
science? Is the Nurse a professional? If nursing is to be a profession,
what are the criteria for it to be a profession? To understand these
and related issues there is a need to first study the definitions of
Nursing.
Beginning with the simplest definition, a nurse is a person who
nourishes, fosters and protects - a person who is prepared to care for
the sick, injured and aged. In this sense Nurse is used as a noun
and is derived from the Latin word Nutrix which means nursing
mother. Dictionary meaning of a nurse includes suckles or
nourishes, to take care of. In this way nurse is used as verb,
deriving from the Latin word nutrix meaning to suckle or
nourish. According to Schulman (1972) nursings long historical
orientation has been based on a concept of mother- surrogate, a
role characterised by affection, intimacy and physical proximity
with an orientation for meeting the needs of the dependent ward,
providing for protection and identification.
Florence Nightingales (1859) Notes on Nursing describe the
nurses role as one that would put the patient in the best conditions
for nature to act upon him. Nursing in its broadest sense may be
defined as an art and science which involves the whole patient body, mind and spirit ; promotes his spiritual, mental and physical
health by teaching and by example ; stresses health education and

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health preservation as well as ministration to the sick; involves the


care of the patients environment - social and spiritual as well as
physical; and gives health service to the family and the community
as well as to the individual.
A classic definition used by nurses internationally is that of
Virginia Henderson (1966), distinguished American Nursing
educator and writer : The unique function of the nurse is to assist
the individual, sick or well, in the performance of those activities
contributing to health or its recovery (or to peaceful death) that he
would perform unaided if he had the necessary strength, will or
knowledge. And to do this, in such a way, as to help him gain
independence as rapidly as possible. She is the master of this part of
her function as she initiates and controls it. In addition, she helps
the patient to carry out therapeutic plan as initiated by the physician.
She also, as a member of the medical team, helps other members, as
they in turn help her, plan and carry out the total programme
whether it be for the improvement of health or the recovery from
illness or support in death.
Schlotfeldt (1978) states that Nursing is an essential service to all
of mankind. That service can be succinctly described in terms of its
focus, goal, jurisdiction and outcome as that of assessing and
enhancing the general health status, health assets and health potentials
of all human beings. It is a service provided for persons who are
essentially well, those who are infirm, ill, or disabled, those who
are developing and those who are declining. Nurses serve all peoplesometimes individuals and sometimes collectives. They appropriately
provide primary and long term care and as professionals are
independently accountable for the execution and consequences of
all nursing services
Fagin (1978) maintains that primary care has been the academic
discipline of nursing, since its public health evolution in the early
days of nursing. Nursing is defined as including the promotion
and maintenance of health, prevention of illness, care of patients
during acute phases of illness and rehabilitation and restoration of
health.
The ANA (1973) standards of practice states, Nursing practice
is a direct service, goal directed and adaptable to the needs of the

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Evolution of Nursing as a Profession

individual, family and community during health and illness.


Professional practitioners of nursing bear primary responsibility and
accountability for the nursing care clients/ patients receive.
Nursing is the process of recognising, understanding and meeting
the health needs of any person or society and it is based upon
constantly changing body of scientific knowledge (Zwemer, 1996).
According to the American Nursing Association, nursing means
the performance for compensation of any act in the observation of
care and counsel of the ill, injured and infirm or in the maintenance
of health or prevention of illness of others or in the supervision
and teaching of other personnel, or the administration of
medications and treatments as prescribed by a licensed physician or
dentist; requiring substantial specialised judgment and skill, and
based on knowledge and application of the principles of biological,
physical and social sciences.
From a period of time lasting approximately from the 1950s
through the 1970s or mid 1980s nursing periodically was reviewed
against the characteristics of a profession that had been established
in the sociological literature. The activities for which nurses were
responsible, the legal ramifications of practice, and particularly the
education of future nurses were subjected to the scrutiny of
sociologists and nursing leaders found it challenging to examine
nursing against established standards. The characteristics of a
profession have been discussed by many scholars. According to them
generally a profession will:
Possess a well defined and well organized body of knowledge
that is on an intellectual level and can be applied to the
activities of the group;
Enlarge a systematic body of knowledge and improve
education and service through use of the scientific method;
Educate its practitioners in institutions of higher education;
Function autonomously in the formulation of professional
policy and in the control of professional activity;
Develop within the group a code of ethics;
Attract to the profession individuals who recognize this
occupation as their life work and who desire to contribute to
the good of society through service to others;

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Strive to compensate its practitioners by providing autonomy,


continuous professional development, and economic security
(Bixler and Bixler, 1945, Pavalko 1971).
Nursing leaders believe that nursing is an unique profession as it
has borrowed various concepts and skills from biologic sciences,
social sciences, and medical sciences. Nursing researchers are working
towards developing an organized body of knowledge which is
unique to nursing. There are nursing professionals who are working
to advance the standing of nursing through the development of
code of ethics, standards of practice and peer review. As a result of
all this nursing has emerged as a profession.
A profession should have the ability to grow and change
according to the requirements in this dynamic world. The growth
is expected to be systematic over a period duly supported by scientific
methods. Provision of nursing care is a problem solving process.
The nurse first gathers data about her patient, then identifies the
problem. An approach to the problem is selected and carried out.
Finally, the result of this approach, in terms of consequences for
the patient are evaluated. By using this process, the nurse can
individualize her care and be accountable by providing a
scientifically based service. Nursing diagnosis is the title given to
the stage of identifying the problem.
Research activities in nursing have added value to the established
body of knowledge in this discipline. Tangible proof for this growth
is the added literature in the nursing textbooks. All this reflects the
continued growth of the body of knowledge in nursing.
Nursings heritage, like that of medicine, was founded in an
apprenticeship beginning. Students were assigned to experienced
practitioners who taught the skills with which they were familiar.
Once those skills were acquired, the student moved into the world
of employment. The earliest programmes of education were located
in hospitals rather than in universities. Today by far the majority of
nursing programmes preparing registered nurses are located in school
or collegiate settings affiliated to medical universities.
Critics review professions against standards for professions. They
place emphasis on the ability of any group to develop its own policy
and to function fairly autonomously. This has always been a

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problem for nursing. Traditionally the nurse works under the


direction of the patients physician, often in a hospital setting. The
physician writes the orders for medical care that are to be
implemented by the nurse, and the agency or hospital sets the policies
under which that care is delivered. Only in the last 50 years has
nursing made significant inroads in defining the unique role of the
nurse in care as opposed to cure of the patient. Today nurses
are responsible for planning and implementing the nursing care
patients are to receive and are also accountable for the care provided.
Nursing diagnosis, once challenged as an inappropriate responsibility
for nurses, has become a standard of good nursing care. Although
nurses continue to carry out the medical instructions by physicians,
a more collaborative relationship is beginning to occur and the
contribution of the nurse is receiving more recognition.
The general standard for professional behavior of nurses in the
United States is the American Nursing Association Code for Nurses.
This document was developed by the ANA and is periodically
revised to address current issues in practice. The International
Council of Nurses, housed in Geneva, Switzerland, has also
developed a code for nurses that reiterates many of the behaviours
outlined in the ANA code. The international code sets the standards
for ethical practice by nurses throughout the world.
Bixler and Bixler (1945) emphasize in their listing of criteria for
professions that a profession should attract people of intellectual
and personal qualities who place service above personal gain and
who recognize their chosen occupation as a lifework. Pavalko (1971)
also identifies as a significant criterion the sense of commitment the
members have toward work as a lifetime or at least a long-term
pursuit rather than as a stepping stone to another profession. Studies
of nursing indicate that most individuals gaining educational
preparation for nursing remain within the profession although
concern has been voiced regarding the burnout that occurs from
stress. Today there is a tendency for individuals to enter the
profession of nursing at one educational level and to continue to
advance in practice and education by pursuing additional degrees
and experience.
The criteria of professions includes concepts like altruism, service

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to the public and dedication, and these must be the motivating force
for the individual to take to the profession of nursing care. The
image of nursing as a profession had a strong religious heritage
supported by the concept of giving of self to the profession.
The heritage of nursing is a rich one. The history of nursing has
given us a complete picture regarding the growth and the
development of the profession and the contributions of various
nursing leaders. The vision of the great nurses of the past has to
develop nursing practice with ethical standards for the good of the
society. Quality nursing care has become a very important factor
for the survival of a health care institution. Todays nurse is required
to possess all round personality, necessary general education,
professional education, and a high degree of commitment and
maturity to work as a nurse.

Nursing Practice
The important personal qualities needed for a professional nurse
are a caring attitude, a willingness to put service before personal
gain, poise, self discipline, honesty, courage, a pleasant and neat
personal appearance, and good health.
A caring attitude usually comes with being able to express a
sense of spiritual love to the fellow human being. Professionally it
includes concern and empathy. Putting service first rather than
personal gain is extremely important in spite of the changes in ethics
and values, which are taking place in the nurses professional work
and relationships with patients. A well balanced and a stable
personality is a requirement for the nursing profession as nurses
will have to take full control of the emotions, mental activities and
actions under pressure. It is important for an individual nurse to be
self disciplined to develop into a good quality professional nurse.
Self discipline supported by being truthful, sincere and fair will not
only make a good nurse but also a good individual. A nurse will
have to be courageous in handling difficult times while treating a
patient. A neat clean pleasant appearance with good health and a
well balanced life will help a nurse to be good and effective in a
profession (Ann, 1996).
The most important goal of a hospital organization is to provide

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the best and the immediate medical treatment to the patients. In a


modem hospital the health team providing treatment to the patients
consists of doctors and nurses. The doctor focuses on the curative
aspects and the nurse focuses on the care process. The nurse is the
key figure to articulate the therapeutic process and shares the
responsibility of acting as a mediator between the patient and the
doctor. She infuses confidence in the doctor, in the patients and in
the treatment process. By virtue of playing complex and delicate
roles, the nurse has become indispensable in the modern therapeutic
system. The central values of health care are a responsibility of the
nurses and the doctors. The real inspiration and hope for progress
is given by the nurses among other health professionals. Ethics play
a very important part in determining the values of the nursing
profession. The moral and ethical dimensions in health care are
reflected by the performance of the individuals concerned. The
nature of nursing practice is an important factor in the genesis of
issues in relation to the moral and ethical problems connected with
people or institutions.
Moral and ethical problems in a hospital can be divided into
three categories: moral uncertainty, moral dilemmas and moral
distress. Moral uncertainty arises when one is unsure of what moral
principles or values to apply. Moral dilemma arises when two or
more moral principles apply but they support mutually inconsistent
courses of action. Moral distress arises when one knows the right
thing to do but institutional constraints make it impossible to pursue
the right course of action. These problems are symptoms of crisis of
rapid change in the health care delivery system. Nurses play a central
and varied role in patient care and the management of health care
delivery. They are educated in different levels with a variety of
academic qualifications and they practice many specialities. They
perform many different jobs in patient care and administration.
Nurses face many ethical conflicts in relation to their job.
The practice of nursing means the performance for compensation
of professional services requiring substantial specialised knowledge
of the biological, physical, behavioural, psychological and
sociological sciences and of nursing theory. It is the basis for
assessment, diagnosis, planning, intervention and evaluation in the

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promotion and maintenance of health, the case finding and


management of illness, injury or infirmity, the restoration of
optimum function, or the achievement of dignified death. Nursing
practice includes administration of medication and treatment
prescribed by persons authorised by law apart from ward
administration, teaching, counselling, supervision, delegation and
evaluation of practice. These services are performed under the
supervision of a registered nurse and utilise standardised procedures
leading to predictable outcomes in the observation and care of the
ill, injured and infirm, to safeguard and maintain life and health
of the patients. Each registered nurse is directly accountable and
responsible to the patient for the quality of nursing care rendered.
Nursing functions can be classified as maintaining or restoring
normal life functions, observing and reporting science of actual or
potential change in a patients status, assessing his/her physical and
emotional state and immediate environment, formulating and
carrying out a plan for the provision of nursing care based on
medical regimen including administration of medications and
treatment, interpretation of treatment and rehabilitative regimens,
counselling families in relation to other health related services and
teaching.
In one study, nursing educators project the evolving functions
of nursing as data gathering, including history taking and
assessment; nursing diagnosis (and some aspects of medical
diagnosis); nursing intervention; evaluation, including evaluation
of nursing team performance, evaluation of community resources;
and administration, including carrying 24 hour responsibility for
nursing care (Torres, 1975).
Yura and Walsh (1973) state that the term nursing process was
not prevalent in the nursing literature until the mid 1960s, with
limited mention in the 1950s. In 1967, a faculty group at the Catholic
University of America specifically identified the phases of nursing
process as assessing, planning, implementing and evaluating of the
services. The nursing process is described as an orderly systematic
manner of determining the clients problems, making plans to solve
them, initiating the plan or assigning others to implement it and

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evaluating the extent to which the plan was effective in resolving


the problems identified.
The focus of clinical practice, clinical research and nursing
education depends heavily on the systematic and orderly
arrangement of the nursing process. A major thrust in nursing today
is identification and the use of conceptual frame work. The Nursing
Process was a forerunner in the presentation of theories that guide
and support nursing (Yura and Walsh, 1973). From the mid-1960s
to the early 1970s, there was much discussion about the nursing
process which emphasized on the assessment phase of the process.
Nurses were so enamoured with the systematic way of performing
nursing, but they became bogged down in data collection. A number
of assessment tools were developed. The concept of health was
assumed to be subjective, relative and dynamic, it is a state that is
subject to the modification by invasion of pathogens by the
functional ability, adaptability and reserve capacity of a person (Yura
& Walsh, 1973). Four factors were used as a basic frame work,
essential to the concept of health in long term clients: demographic
characteristics, physical status, psychological status, and self care
practices. Extensive testing for reliability and validity produces an
instrument that can assist the nurse in classifying clients according
to the types of the care they need.

Professional Ethics
To become a nurse is not just a matter of learning particular
knowledge and skills, or adopting forms of behaviour appropriate
to the context. It is also a matter of assimilating the attitudes and
values of the nursing profession in a way, which can influence the
thinking, the personality and the lifestyle of the individual concerned.
There is a combination of knowledge, skill and acquired moral
responsibility, which is a part of the process of nursing education.
Those entering the nursing profession may fail to realize the difficult
decisions one has to take which can question ones own personal
convictions and values. Doctors are highly specialized and skilled,
and they are often seen to be dealing with the matters of life and
death of a patient. As nursing sometimes is carried out by lay people
in a family apart from professionally qualified nurses it makes it

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difficult for new corners to the profession to appreciate the


responsibilities and complexities involved in the nursing process and
therefore encounter moral conflicts. The risk of conflict between
the personal and the professional values are at its peak during the
early years of professional life as the incumbent has to get adapted
to the values of the profession. The socialization process helps the
individual to build personal moral convictions and values which
are required to balance the emotional responses when they enter
into the nursing profession. Professional nursing within an
organization relies on the notion of roles rather than individuals
(Kath & Boyd, 1995).
Nursing ethics is a part and parcel of professional nursing. The
applicability of a fidelity rule concerns with implicit promises. The
principle of confidentiality and patients expectations that nursing
staff will promise to undertake their duties with a required degree
of skill and care according to Beauchamp and Childresss
framework is dependent on four moral principles. They are the
principles of respect for autonomy, the principle of beneficence, the
principle of nonmaleficence, and the principle of justice (Edwards,
1996).
The challenge in a health care unit is the creation of healing
environment for patients. Florence Nightingale demonstrated
through her work, the specific requirements, attention and aspects
of patient care which promote healing. Three decades ago, Edmund
Pellegrino, physician and noted medical ethicist, commented on
working relationships between nurses and physicians as a major
challenge in the patient care environment. The working relationship
between and among nurses and patients are an ethically significant
aspect in patient care environment. The compassionate patient care
requires a collegial and collaborative working relationship both
within nursing, and between nurses and doctors. A collegial or
collaborative working relationship is defined as working together
with mutual respect for the contribution and accountability of each
profession to the shared goal of quality patient care (Aroskar, 1998).
Nurses who work in critical care units are confronted with ethical
issues, which produces mental and moral distress. The primary
challenge which confronts the nurses and the physicians are cost

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containment on one side and resource allocation on the other side


during the course of the treatment. The other challenges which
confront them are the values of individuals involved, communication
pattern, trust, integrity, role responsibilities, and role conflicts.
Values are inculcated through family upbringing and training.
The values which are learned are modified by education and work
experience. Ethical conflicts may arise between various professional
care givers as they have different work experiences and different
values on issues connected with patient care such as what comprises
informed consent, extent or invasiveness of treatment, when to stop
treatment, or when to resuscitate. The nurses sometimes are also
caught in quandary between physicians and the patients with
conflicting values about termination of life sustaining treatment.
Two important factors that affect communication between nurses
and doctors are gender and prestige. Though the image of the nurse
as the physicians handmaiden is fading, still this influence continues.
Sometimes the nurses opinion not valued by the doctors and the
nurses are afraid to confront and challenge them. They have a fear
of intimidation as the doctors are more powerful and hence nurses
are not assertive particularly in the Indian context. The nurses are
obedient soldiers in just following strictly the physicians orders of
treatment.
Trust and integrity play a very important role in effective nurse
physician relationship. Patient conditions may change rather quickly
and unexpectedly. Although the nurse may know what interventions
are necessary she waits for the physicians order to act beyond the
standard protocols of treatment. However some of the nurses carry
out certain actions required for managing a patient once she has a
trust that the concerned consultant will back her actions. Nurses
are torn between the loyalty to the physician and the patient as
nurse - physician relationship depends on trust between each other
and violating it can create an imbalance in the system.
The major role of nurses is to carry out the doctors orders. The
knowledge base of bedside nursing care for a nurse is much more
than that of a physician. The critical care nurses have a major
responsibility of monitoring the patient and provide early
intervention in case of an emergency. Nurses have more intense

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exposure to the patient and hence expect to be involved in the decision


making process about the patients care. However when physicians
do not share this perspective it leads to lack of understanding
between each others responsibilities creating mental distress there
by affecting the patient care.
The ethical work environment should support a collaborative
team approach by blurring professional boundaries and clarification
of values, as well as the process to monitor and evaluate ethical
performance. Necessary protocols and critical pathways for treatment
have to be developed which can bring in consensus between doctors
and nurses in the delivery of effective and efficient patient care.
The principle of confidentiality has a long tradition amongst
health care professionals, and for doctors it has its origin in the
Hippocratic Oath. For nurses, respecting confidences is often seen
as having two practical applications: firstly, respecting the confidences
of the patient and, secondly, respecting the confidences of colleagues.
Health professionals have a special duty to respect the confidences
of the patient as part of their professional responsibility. This type
of responsibility has been described by Hart (1994) as role
responsibility. Professor Hart suggests that if a person occupies a
distinctive place or office within society and as a result has duties
attached to this position, then that person is responsible for fulfilling
whatever duties are recognised as part of that role within society.
The role responsibility is not restricted to the professional roles but
also to other roles like parents (Fletcher & Holt, 1995).
Rushton and Brooks-Brunn (1997) have proposed a strategy for
developing environments that support ethical practice. Although they
focus on end-of-life care, their recommendations are pertinent for
all ethical issues in a health care environment. They identified six
key points to use in assessing an organisations structure to monitor
ethical performance: (1) performance reporting that includes ethical
behaviour, (2) employees considering ethical aspect part of their
job, (3) recognition of employees who provide ethical leadership,
(4) procedures for dealing with ethical code violations, (5)
mechanisms for accountability to the public and patients, and (6)
assessing frequency of use of conscientious objection (taking a stand
on an ethical issue different from that of the majority). These

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assessment criteria can be used by the health care institutions to


gauge their progress in enhancing the organizational cultures to
functions at a higher ethical level (Corley, 1995).

Professional Accountability
In the health services sector the doctor, the nurse and the
organization become the service provider and the patient is the
purchaser. The introduction of the purchaser and provider concept
has raised the issue of accountability in the health care services.
The concept of accountability impinges on nurses the ways in which
it does not impinge many other non-professional occupations.
Nursing as a profession demands training and registered
qualification in order to practice the profession. The nurses are
accountable to the patients and to the hospitals for their practice
and this accountability is regulated by statutory bodies (Watson,
1981).
The average nurse appears to believe that accountability is
following procedure and making sure one is covered by having
the right kind of note or record and refer back to when something
goes wrong or where for whatever reason the acquisition is made.
Nursing accountability is moral responsibility narrowed down to
the role of a nurse. Nurse is one element of the health care unit. So
the nature of accountability to the patients is moulded by the
particular political, economic and administrative forms which the
institution takes.
There are two ways through which the gap between the patient
and the institutional ends are reconciled. The reconciliation takes
the form of self regulation otherwise called lateral accountability.
The nurses keep a check on each other for the best interests of the
patients. The other takes the form of upward accountability, that is,
the nurses are checked by the authorities for the best interests of the
patients.
The first type depends an notions of honourable, gentlemanly,
lady like behaviour which underlies reputation and justifies public
trust. The second rests on authority, the rule of experts and discipline
(Hunt, 1994).
Nurses may be expected to account for their actions and to explain

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procedures on a day to day basis to the patients. Such accountability


is quite informal and the nurse is not obliged to be accountable in
the fullest sense to the patients and relatives. It has been argued that
nurses could be viewed as being accountable for rather than to
the patients and relatives.
Nurses are not unique in this and they share accountability of a
kind involving patients and relatives with the medical profession.
The situation for the medical profession is however very clear in
legal terms. Doctors do not have to take account of the wishes of
the relatives of an incompetent adult patient in arriving at a decision
to treat the patient or not.
The complicated nature of the accountability can be seen from
the above. At one extreme nurses are fully accountable to the
statutory body and on the other extreme nurses exercise visible
accountability daily to the bodies very close to them professionally
and within the profession for aspects of nursing which are accounted
for to bodies outside nursing (Watson, 1981).

Development of Nursing in India


In the past, the progress of nursing in India was hindered due to
a number of reasons such as the low status of women, purdha
system among Muslim women, the caste system, illiteracy, poverty,
political unrest and the image of the nursing profession. Since
Independence, many changes for the betterment of nursing profession
have taken place in tune with the advancement of technology and
professional expertise.
Military nursing was the earliest type of nursing in India. In
1664 the East India Company started a hospital for soldiers in
Madras. This was followed by a civilian hospital and the hospitals
were looked after by the staff of the military hospital. In 1797, a
hospital for the poor called Lying in Hospital was built in Madras.
The government started a training school for midwifes in 1854 in
this hospital. In 1871, a training school for nurses was started. The
faculty for this institution came from England. Due to the efforts of
Florence Nightingale in 1861, the reforms in military hospitals led
to the reforms in the civilian hospitals. The government hospital
for women and children at Egmore is one of the earliest and the

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chief midwifery training schools in Madras. In 1885, the Royal


Victoria Caste and Gosha Hospital was started. The Methodist
Mission Kalyani Hospital, Mylapore, and Christian Rainy Hospital,
Royapuram were started by the Missionaries (Rao, 1996).
In India, there was a lot of prejudice for sending educated girls
from the families of the Hindu and Muslim communities to take
up nursing as a profession. Only Christian girls came forward to
take up this profession. The Americans and the Britishers started
many schools of nursing between 1880 and 1900, and the first two
well known nursing schools were established in Madras and Bombay
in 1884 and 1886, respectively. The mission hospitals played a very
important part in starting short programmes in nursing so that more
nurses were available for taking up the job in one of their hospitals.
Ida Scudder started her work in a small hospital in Vellore for
which she raised funds in America, and it was opened in 1902. She
felt the need for training nurses very early and contemplated to start
a nursing school with the help of Delia Houghton who was an
American nurse in 1909. The origin of the school and its
development had a great influence in South India (Abraham,1996).
Scudder, along with the fellow American nurse, Delia Houghton,
started a medical school in 1918 in the hospital premises. Houghton
was the founder of nursing profession in India. In 1946, the nursing
school got recognition by the Madras University as a College of
Nursing and the first Dean of the College was Florence Tailor. In
1968, the MSc programme was started.
After World War II, the practice of nursing in India reached
greater heights. The Indian nurses started preparing themselves for
administrative and teaching positions which were till then handled
by the English nurses. In 1943, the health survey and development
committee was appointed for studying the conditions of nursing in
India. The report of the committee known as Bhore Committee
was published in 1946 which described the nursing conditions as
deplorable and stressed the importance of having educated Indian
women join the profession in order to raise the standard of nursing.
The Indian Nursing Council Act was passed by an Ordinance
on December 31, 1947. The council was constituted in 1949. The
purpose of the council was to co-ordinate the activities of the State

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Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Registration Councils and to set standards for nursing education


and practice.
In 1908, the Trained Nurses Association of India (TNAI) was
formed. In 1912, the TNAI got affiliated to the Nursing Council.
The Nursing Journal of India published in 1909 was the official
organ of the TNAI.
Nursing as a profession in India today provides an opportunity
for service. With present trends leading towards greater opportunities,
supported by growing social and professional recognition, the
profession of nursing is becoming more open and challenging as
well.

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Ann, M.T.
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Aroskar, M.A.
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Hunt, G. (ed.). Nursing and the Concept of Care. New York: Routledge.
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B I Publications.

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Sustainability and Social Work


T.K.Nair

Dr.T.K.Nair
Development and CSR Consultant

Prakriti Rakshathi Rakshitah


(Nature Protects When Protected)

Abstract
The article has three parts .The environmental crisis facing Mother
Earth is described in the introductory part. The second section
Sustainability and Spirituality is a summary of the meditations on
sustainable cultures and cosmologies in Asia and the associated
writings of Nadarajah in his seminal, visual-textual book Living
Pathways. The final part looks at the expected role of social work
profession in the environmental justice movement and the
disappointing reality.

Mother Earth
Mother Earth is the only planet that supports life .Scientists
estimate that the Earth came into being about 4.6 billion years ago
(Ignacimuthu, 2010) .Three concepts are used interchangeably in
the discussion on the planet Earth: nature, environment and ecology.
Nature refers to the physical world comprising all living and nonliving components. All living forms from microbes to human beings
including plants with diverse shapes, sizes, statures and colours
constitute the living components. Light, air, water, soil, temperature,

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T.K. Nair

Sustainability and Social Work

energy and a whole host of things are the non-living components.


Environment means all those components that surround us and
affect us in many ways. Ecology refers to the scientific study of
living beings, their habitation, and the interaction between and
among the living and non-living components .Environment is an
integral part of all human beings. We need to breathe air, to drink
water, and to eat fruits, vegetables, etc for our survival. We depend
on plants, animals, minerals, which, in turn, depend on the Earth.
Abuse of even a fraction of the environment will have far reaching
effects on our lives by upsetting the equilibrium in the interdependent
relationship between the living and non-living components of the
Earth. Destruction of the environment causes serious human
suffering. Our Earth continues to tolerate disappearance of forests,
degradation of land, desertification, extinction of plants, birds,
animals and other species; and pollution of air, water and land.
The environmental crisis is caused solely by the behaviour, greed
and consumption of the humans. The present environmental crisis
is as much a socio-economic and socio-political problem as much
it is an environmental one.

Sustainability and Spirituality


Our business as usual approach in our social existence hides a
dangerous crisis engulfing us; that is, the crisis of sustainability,
says Nadarajah (2014). A quintessential sociologist, an
uncompromising social activist, a crusading journalist, and a creative
documentary maker, Nadarajah has devoted his entire life working
on the interconnected issues of development, urbanism, culture,
communication, environment and sustainability. A serious student
of historical materialism, Nadarajah found the class-reductionist
explanation of Marxism inadequate in understanding non-class
issues like ethnicity, culture, feminism and environmentalism, and
in addressing the complex problems of contemporary local and
global societies. Based on his extensive research, he proposed a nonworkerist model of historical materialism, and the prestigious
Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU) awarded PhD to Nadarajah

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for his thesis. His pathbreaking dissertation was published as a book


titled Culture,Gender and Ecology: Beyond Workerism in 1999.
Dr.Nadarajah contributed numerous columns to the print media in
Malaysia and wrote books on urban crisis, culture, politics and other
themes including one co-edited volume for the UN University at
Tokyo. In this volume, the Urban Crisis, he proposed the
Kanazawa Approach to the role of culture in the sustainability
of cities. The Asian Public Intellectual Fellowship of the NIPPON
Foundation in 2005 took him to many ethnically and religiously
diverse and culturally rich communities in Asia on what Nadarajah
terms as a serious research pilgrimage leading to the publication
of a classic volume LIVING PATHWAYS. The book contains
beautiful photographs of the splendour of nature as well as its painful
dimensions captured imaginatively by the lens of Nadarajah, a gifted
photographer. The book comprises uncaptioned photographs on
one side and text on the other side. The text is divided into different
sections or meditations on the cosmologies of the Asian region,
which the reader may use for self introspection and social analysis,
while the photographs may help as aids to look into rather than
as mere pictures to look at. The photographs add intensity to the
meditations.
Gratification of human needs of the ever increasing global
population steadily led to the mindless use of the environment. But
the last two and a half centuries after the industrial revolution
witnessed humongous destruction of the environment because of
the rambunctious consumption patterns in the developed Western
societies led by the United States, and also because of the efforts of
the developing countries to be in the high consumption club.
Alarmed by the deterioration of the global environment, the United
Nations constituted the World Commission on Environment and
Development with the then Prime Minister of Norway Gro Harlem
Brundtland as its chairperson to study the global environmental
impact of development and industrial activities. The Commissions
report known as Brundtland report was brought out in 1987 with
the title Our Common Future. The UN document on sustainable

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development recognized that environment and development are


inseparable entities. The three cornerstones of this recognition are
economic growth, environmental protection and social equity.
Intergenerational equity and justice is underscored by the UN
sustainable development report. However the report placed the major
onus of sustainable development on big business and governments,
thereby exposing the soul of sustainable deveopment to agents of
abuse.
UNs sustainable development is a highly contested concept that
has many meanings and implications. Sustainable development has
become a political compromise between growth and
environmental sustainability that is acceptable to the pro-growth
delegations at the United Nations and that works within a neoliberal agenda according to Nadarajah.The sustainable development
orientation in practice does not dramatically change business
practices for the better. On the other hand, it opens new ways of
commodification to organize business within a sustainable
development regime. Thus the mainstream explanation of
sustainable development fits well within the anthropocentric,
procapitalist market growth model asserts Nadarajah. He adds that
the UN definition of sustainable development does not at all
encompass an understanding of Asian concerns and traditions as
this definition has been borne out of Western experiences in dealing
with the problems caused by commodification, exploitation, profit
motive and alienation characteristic of capitalist growth-oriented
development.
Nadarajah argues that increasing urbanization; moving out of
the youth from the villages to embrace the shiny facade of urbanism
breaking the cultural transmission line; chasing the American
dream; growing influence of the American way of life ; and the
attraction to conspicuous, vulgar consumerism and consumption
have made serious inroads into the sustainable cultures of Asian
societies. Americanism as a concept and practice has many positive
features: a love of freedom, the pursuit of happiness, the dignity of
labour, and justice for all. Unfortunately, these positive features have

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been reshaped by the negative consequences of nationalism,


American exceptionalism and predatory corporate capitalism
dictated by the market and military forces. American state and its
education system overtly and covertly promote the view that the
American culture is superior to other cultures. Nadarajah asserts
that jingoists strongly believe in the concept of social Darwinism;
that is, the stronger superior cultures will overtake the weaker inferior
cultures in a survival of the fittest. American cultural imperialism
continues to be a conscious and persistent dark side of the
American dream.The souls of Asian nations have been integrating
the ideals of the American dream, and this is clearly manifested in
the numerous high-end upmarket sites all across urban Asia.
The environmental cost of Americanization of Asia and the rest
of the world is enormous claims Nadarajah. At this rate, the Earth
needs to be cloned several times if each one of us consumed as
much as the average American does. Nadarajah strongly feels that
Asia cannot simply afford Americanism as Asians cannot live a
mindless private life of mass consumption. The popular belief of
the Americans that Earth has limitless resources for consumption
leads to a silently destructive process. Asia inadvertently consumed
the urban commodity culture of the West, but also their hegemonic
anthropocentrism, which is a form of philosophical ecology
separating humans from the natural world in the most extreme
ways. Urbanism has affected the relationship of human beings with
nature. Nature is tamed, packaged and re-presented as commodities
to us, says Nadarajah. Theme parks and artificial beaches are
examples. The present shape of urbanism is pathological. Nadarajah
feels that the mainstream urbanism is poised to grow into a
complex disease if not addressed with urgency. The growthoriented development strategies and urbanism affect natural balance
in a drastic manner. For instance Japan has become a super-aged
society with fewer children raising serious concerns of caring for
the beneficiaries of longevity. Europe is also facing a childless
future. Childlessness is becoming a reality in Asia too laments
Nadarajah. And without children, we do not really have a future.

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Political emancipation is not accompanied by intellectual


independence in Asian countries. Although many theoretical
perspectives originating in Europe and the United States have not
withstood in alien environments, these are widely followed in Asian
Universities. Asian world of ideas and of practices has been hijacked.
Even before countries in Asia could decide upon their modes of
development, they were suffocated with imported solutions. The
cultural hegemony of the West is a form of enslavement which has
been presented intelligently as a liberating philosophy to the Asian
societies with the sole purpose of material progress.
There are many trajectories of development in the Asian
countries. But it is the mainstream mega - metropolitan development
that Asia proudly exhibits to the world instead of the microdevelopmental sustainable initiatives in different regions. The
projection of this achievement and Asian triumph is at a great cost
warns Nadarajah. He adds that Asians have become blind citizens
of urban centres and mega-cities, and this becoming is taken for
granted. The recycling of Western images in the form of Asian
urban life, with its inherent blind speed, impacts human beings
in various negative ways accelerating the stress levels leading to
suicides, mental illnesses and crimes. Asian societies want to move
from the periphery to the centre of mainstream development;
that is, to move from Asia to America. The present form of urbanism,
the empire of now, is based on a dangerously erroneous
assumption that the resources that are being consumed
indiscriminately will never run out. But when these resources are
finally used up, what then asks Nadarajah.
Consumption is the end of a complex process, and sustainable
principles have to be part of each stage for real sustainable
consumption to be possible. Nadarajahs search took him to Asias
indigenous societies which managed their consumption sustainably
in contrast to the urban-centred capitalist societies. He adds that
deep within the Asian context, there was no notion of sustainable
development. On the other hand, these cultures engaged themselves
with the practice of sustainability, which is intimately integrated

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with spiritual practices. The difference between sustainable


development and sustainability is like the difference between having
and being.
Sustainability is a way of life within an indigenous cosmology
of sustainability that promotes the concept that each human being
is organically a part of the larger narrative, explains Nadarajah. He
says that the future of emancipatory politics is sustainability, and
the future of sustainability is spirituality. Spirituality is not the same
as religion. Spiritual sustainability encourages non-materialism and
non-materialistic development. A holistic cosmology once framed
the world view and world feel of human beings, there by establishing
an intimate relationship between nature and human beings. But a
mechanistic cosmology now dominates human societies and life
has become a struggle for survival and domination.
Nadarajah explains the cosmology of sustainability as a triadic
relationship of fundamental realities comprising: Human world
(relationships and society), Natural world (flora, founa and nonliving things), and Spiritual world (gods, spirits). In Asias
indigenous communities, the cosmologies of sustainability are
nurtured by the triadic relationship of fundamental realities. Another
component of cosmology of sustainability is the conception of
personhood, specifically the belief and practice of inter-being. This
belief suggests that there is no atomised individual as viewed in
the Western construct, but only interconnected individuals, who
are dependent beings interwoven into a web with neither beginning,
nor end.
Nadarajah is of the view that sustainability and spirituality are
two sides of a single reality: one side looks inward and the other
side looks outward. If one reframes this reality, the issue of
sustainability is a spiritual crisis instead of a crisis that revolves
around mere consumer goods and production values. Cosmologies
of sustainability are inherent features of Asian history and
experience, which go far beyond the mainstream discourse of
sustainable development and which are still preserved among Asias
indigenous peoples. The voice of the indigenous culture is the most

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global in spirit, perspective and practice. It is cosmovision


(Dankelman, 2002). Cosmovision refers to ways certain population
groups interpret life, the world around and the cosmos. The
relationships between the social world, the natural world and the
spiritual world are central to peoples cosmovision.
The global crisis of sustainability is a multi-dimensional crisis
which is felt more by the poor communities across the world.
For them, it is a permanent crisis. Nadarajah observes that even
for academics and analysts, there will never be a situation without
the poor among us. The suffering of the poor is never seen as the
crisis that is. Instead, it is taken as a natural part of the system and
the society of the non-poor is not shaken by it. Foor the poor, crisis
is the way life is, and they deal with that on a day-to-day basis.
Nadarajah advocates for a new cosmology, a cosmology of
sustainability. The root of our inability to deal with our
unsustainable behaviour really lies in the domain of the routinised,
taken-for-granted every day-ness of our lives. We are often both
the perpetrators and victims of the world we have created by
conscious action or silent acceptance. Science and technology alone
cannot help solve the crisis created by the development pathways
chosen by us, because science and technology developed by us are
inherent components of the root causes of the global crisis of
sustainability. Instead of the growth-oriented capitalist wisdom of
the weak sustainability approach, the proponents of the strong
sustainability approach argue that we transform our needs to sustain
the Earth rather than trying to transform Earth to suit our needs.
This approach moves away from anthropocentrism to biocentric
egalitarianism. Many Asian communities offer simple and
beautiful messages of and for life. The only thing preventing these
simple messages from becoming our ways of conscious selfdevelopment and social organization is the lack of individual and
collective will cultural, social and politicalto nurture them
against imperialistic and hegemonic materialistic and hedonistic
cosmologies.

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Sustainability and Social Work


About 3.7 million years ago, Laetoli, a site in Tanzania, had
Hominin footprints on its soil, which are still preserved in volcanic
ash. But in a short span of about two hundred years, and more
specifically during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the
development strategies and technological processes adopted by
humans, whose footprints had spread across all parts of the globe,
have caused grave threat to the environment and human life on
Earth. All industrial nations are big polluters of air, land and water.
Enormous tracts of tropical rainforests are destroyed. Deserts are
spreading in all parts of the world due to deforestation and land
degradation. Ozone layer is being depleted exposing living organisms
to excessive ultra-violet radiation. Bio-diversity is disappearing at
an alarming rate. The other forms of environmental destruction are
legion. These problems loom over our planet and affect all living
beings. Devastation of the environment affects all regions, races and
cultures as it is a universal threat. Because of the globalization of
the market economy and corporate practices all natural systems on
Earth are disintegrating. The present crisis is caused merely by the
behaviour of the humans. Mahatma Gandhi cautioned: Earth
provides enough to satisfy every mans needs, but not to every mans
greed. Human greed is at the root of the existential crisis of the
twenty-first century humans.
An illustration of the environmental crisis in Gods Own
Country, Kerala, is the Endosulfan Tragedy. The state-owned
Plantation Corporation of Kerala preferred endosulfan aerial
spraying of its cashew plantations from 1978 to 2001 despite protests
from environmental activists. The tragedy of families exposed to
endosulfan is heartrending: children born with bone deformities,
epilepsy, mental retardation, congenital malformation,
hydrocephalus, congenital heart diseases, neuro-behavioural
disorders, etc in many villages in Kasaragod district. Abortions,
cancer, and other illnesses were reported for adults. More than 4,000
deaths took place during this period due to the harmful effects of
endosulfan.The state government was guilty of laxity and apathy

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though peoples protests were mounting. Finally, the collective


pressure from the media, civil society, political parties and other
groups made the government to put an end to the endosulfan
pesticide use. Judicial intervention sealed further adventurism from
the officialdom.
The pesticide-induced tragedy in Kerala is not an isolated event.
It is one of the countless environmental disasters causing enormous
loss of human lives in all countries in the world. Behind these lie
the current levels of consumption which are not at all sustainable
by the Earth, and these vary between economically developed and
economically developing countries. According to ecofuture.org ,if
all countries in the globe were to match the current levels of
American consumption, then it is estimated that the Earth could
sustain only one-half billion people, while at current African levels
the Earth could sustain 40 billion people. Human population and
consumption continue to grow at a fast pace, while the resources of
the Earth are finite. If we fail to take cognizance of this ecological
crisis and to act on it appropriately, that inaction will result in the
destruction of the very Earth that sustains human life.
The critical condition of the planet and the impoverishment
and destitution of an increasing proportion of the worlds population
are rooted in a global economic system devoted to profit, growth,
and monopolization of resources by fewer and fewer players
namely transnational corporations and the international financial
systems that support them (Hoff,1997). A sustainable approach to
development should encompass different types of sustainability
linked as an integrated whole. Nadarajah (2014) suggests five
categories and their concerns.
Environmental/Ecological Sustainability
Biological diversity
Population management, resource planning, space use
management
Inter-species equity

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Economic Sustainability
Dematerialising the economy, market alternatives, appropriate
technologies
Efficient resource allocation, foot print management, use/
waste management
More equitable access to resources for all
Glocalism (that is, the adaptation of a product or service
specifically to each locality in which it is marketed )
Political Sustainability
Human rights
Democratic development, multi stakeholder participation
Good governance, accountability, transparency, trust
Social Sustainability
Improved income distribution with reduced income
differential, both locally and globally
Gender equity and equality, equity and equality for indigenous
peoples and people with disabilities
Social investment in health and education, and in the family
Emphasis on peoples participation and empathy
Cultural Sustainability
General sensitivity to cultural factors, enlightened localism
Cultural diversity and dialogical transaction
Values contributing to non-anthropomor phism /
dematerialisation
Long term time sense and holism
The environmental justice movement in the world for ensuring
the human rights of all people to live in a clean and healthy
environment has a history of over five decades initiated by the United
Nations and its related agencies and divisions. The environmental
human right is the right to live in an environment free from toxic
pollution and to have control over local natural resources (Hancock,
2003 ). The UN Conference on the Human Environment held in

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Stockholm in 1972 was the first global conference on environment


and its declaration, popularly known as the Stockholm Declaration,
was a landmark document which stated in no uncertain terms the
right to a healthy environment, and led to the formation of the
United Nations Environment Programme. The Earth Summit (UN
Conference on Environment and Development) held in Rio de
Janeiro in 1992 stated that poverty as well as excessive consumption
by the affluent place damaging stress on the environment (un.org ).
The World Summit on Sustainable Development (Earth Summit
2) held at Johannesburg in 2002 endorsed the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) for specific change in 8 areas by 2015
in all countries:
1. Poverty and hunger,
2. Primary education,
3. Gender equality,
4. Child mortality,
5. Maternal health,
6. Disease (particularly HIV/AIDS and Malaria) control,
7. Environmental sustainability, and
8. Responsibility of developed countries towards developing
countries.
The goal of environmental sustainability (Goal 7) specifies four
targets:
1. To integrate the principles of sustainable development into
policies and programmes of the governments,
2. To reduce biodiversity loss,
3. To halve the proportion without access to safe drinking water
and basic sanitation, and
4. To achieve a significant improvement in the lives of at least
100 million slum dwellers.
Goals 1 to 6 are closely interlinked to Goal 7 (The Millennium
Development Goals Report, 2008).
Social work as a helping profession arose as a humanitarian
response to the excesses and adverse effects of capitalism experienced
at the levels of individuals, families and communities. Implanted

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from the United States in many countries including India, social


work has global presence, but the professional recognition and focus
of practice areas of social work have substantial difference between
the developed and the developing countries. The present discussion
on social work is, therefore, centred around the practices in the
West. The early phase of social work practice was heavily dependent
on psychoanalysis. In time, influenced by sociology and ecology,
social work shifted to the Person-in-Environment (PIE) perspective
which is based on the acceptance that a person and his or her
behaviour cannot be understood adequately without the analysis
of the different aspects of the persons familial, temporal, social,
economic, spiritual and physical environment. Harriett Bartlett
(1970), medical social worker by practice base, was the first to
modernize the construct Person-Interaction-Environment to reinforce
PIE as the common domain of social work practice any where in
the world. Social work steadily took upon itself the tasks of ensuring
social justice and protecting human rights.
Five types of sustainability were explained in detail earlier
(Nadarajah, 2014). Social work profession has all along been
concerned with social sustainability, and has been giving minimum
attention to economic, political and cultural sustainability ;and
almost ignored environmental sustainability. Dewane (2011) is
critical of social work profession for its long neglect of environmentin- person although it was governed by the person-inenvironment principle. It was only in 2010, the Council on Social
Work Education (CSWE) declared sustainability as the social justice
issue of the new century at its 56th annual conference. Coates (2003)
states that ....the environmental crisis has remained largely outside
of social work discourse, and the profession has instead played a
largely mitigating role in addressing social problems.
Environmental inequity exists within industrialized countries also,
with poorer segments of the population disproportionately living
in environmentally degraded conditions. But the overwhelming
influence of economic forces puts greater value on profit than on
ecological or social well-being. Besthom (2002) observes strongly

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that the Western focus on humans as the centre of all ecosystems,


called anthropocentrism, is at the root of racial and gender
oppression, and is responsible for exploiting both humans and the
environment while increasing poverty and ecological devastation.
The Life Model of Social Work Practice was the first social work
approach to incorporate the natural world by putting problems in
living in an all inclusive environmental context (Hawkins, 2010).
Though proposed in 1980, the Life Model was dormant till 2008.
The purpose of the Life Model is to improve the level of fit between
people and their environments especially between human needs and
environmental resources to influence social and physical
environmental forces to be responsive to peoples needs (Gitterman
& Germain, 2008).
Social justice and human rights are presently not within the
practice areas of social work profession in India. Only in 2012, a
statement of intent was declared at the end of a national consultation
of social work educators organized by the Tata Institute of Social
Sciences committing themselves to the cause of social justice.
Environmental justice has never been discussed in the occasional
conferences of social workers or educators. Like social justice issues,
environment related action has been an individual initiative in India.
An illustration is the Timbaktu Collective by a couple.
Mary Vattamattam, a social work graduate, and her husband
C.K.Ganguly, a commerce graduate, known as Bablu, were
organizing farm labour in a non-governmental organization. Tired
of their constant agitationist mode of work, they decided to do
constructive work in villages in Ananthapur district, the second
most drought affected area in India. They bought 32 acres of barren
land in Chennakothapatti village in 1991. The soil in the
surrounding villages was depleted and unproductive, and the hills
were barren rock formations due to deforestation. The couple named
their piece of land Timbaktu, meaning Sarihaddu Rekha in Telugu,
that is, the last horizon where the earth meets the sky. In 1993, they
set up the Timbaktu Collective. Inspired by the Japanese author and
farmer Fukuoka Masanobus seminal book on natural farming The

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One-Straw Revolution, Bablu and Mary set in motion an


ecologically and culturally sensitive process of development in
association with some families in the village. The movement has
spread to many villages in the area.
[One-Straw Revolution is one of the founding documents of the
alternative food movement. This do-nothing approach to farming is
revolutionary for growing food. Sustainable agriculture with no ploughing,
weeding, and fertilizers, Masanobus minimalist approach reduces labour
time to a fifth of more conventional practices. Yet his success in yields is
comparable to more resource-intensive methods. This method is now being
widely adopted to vegetate arid areas and to reduce desertification. His
method shows the crucial role of locally based agro-ecological knowledge in
developing sustainable farming solutions].
The key ideological initiative of Timbaktu Collective is the Vikalp
Sangam (Alternative Confluence) which is rooted in the notion of
collectively questioning the dominant framework of the present
economic and political system, which is unsustainable and
inequitable. After twenty years the signs of change were remarkably
visible. Some milestones are mentioned here. More than 250 water
bodies and streams have regained life; more than 8,500 acres of
common village land and 700 acres of reserve forest are regenerated;
over 15,000 acres of agricultural land have been restored; and more
than 1,800 smallholder families have been introduced to organic
farming on 9,000 acres of agricultural land. Biodiversity of over
300 varieties of plants, birds, and other species has been accomplished
(The Hindu, April 3, 2013). Swasakthi, a womens collective, has
reached about 17,000 women with a capital base of INR 120 million.
Dharani Farming and Marketing Mutually Aided Co-operative has
been functioning actively to protect the farmers from the clutches of
middlemen. Schools for children and collective of persons with
disabilities have also been initiated. These are only examples of the
quiet revolution taking place in the Ananthpur villages as a
participatory ecological movement. If a couple can catalyze such a
massive revolutionary change, the possibilities of a human service
profession like social work are unlimited.
A paradigm shift is taking place around the world regarding

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sustainability and environmental justice. But it has not reached a


critical mass necessary for global change, because humans have not
yet responded decisively. Social work must actively join this
movement if it has to stay relevant in the 21st century. It is incumbent
upon social work education to prepare students for this challenge,
and for social work practitioners to embrace sustainability
(Hawkins, 2010).
The sustainability crisis that stares menacinglyat the human race
has evolved over decades by the predatory business practices and
the insatiable consumption by the affluent,abetted by the
development-obsessed governments. Human service professions, civil
society, media and other groups have been mute or weak spectators
of the enveloping environmental disaster as the trade off between
environment and growth has been taken for granted. Thepresent
perilous crisis can neither be reversed nor arrested. A sustained
spirituality-enabledsustainability movement alone canmake an
impact on the fast deteriorating environmental crisis. Social work,
along with other groups, has a role to play in the sensitization of
the growing younger generation, conscientization of communities,
mass mobilization, and collective action, among other proactive
initiatives, in the sustainability movement. But, beinga profession,
it has limitations as is evident from the global definition of social
work approved by the general meeting of the International Federation
of Social Workers (IFSW) and the general assembly of the
International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW) in
July. 2014 (ifsw.org). Social work is a practice-based profession
and an academic discipline that promotes social change and
development, social cohesion, and the empowerment and liberation
of people. Principles of social justice, human rightsand collective
responsibility and respect for diversities are central to socialwork.
Underpinned by theories of social work, social sciences and
indigenousknowledge, social work engages people and structures
to address life challenges and enhance well-being. In India, the
commitment and competence of social work profession in
environmental activism are doubtful because of its pastperformance
record and the increasing privatization of social work education.
Even in the pioneering school of social work in the country,

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sustainability is not a subject of study despite many social work


degree programmes offered by the schoolin itsdifferent centres.
Ritualistically, social action has beenmentioned as a method of
social action in the social work curricula. But after reviewing the
literature for fifty years pertaining to social action by Siddiqui
(quoted by ShankarPathak in Social Work and Social Welfare,
2014 :207 ) for the Indian Journal of Social Work, he concluded
that : The changing social characteristics of social work, together
with thereorganization of the work and the market situation of
social work, seem to suggest that the scale of militancy in the
profession will decrease rather than increase....Social action, as a
method, therefore will remain on the periphery rather than become
a central mode of intervention in India. No wonder that social
justice, leave alone environmental justice, has been confined to some
closed door discussions among social work academics and
practitionersafter the neo-liberal market economy has been dictating
the social order.

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Family Relations in Living Arrangements


and the Quality of Life of Older Persons
Smita Bammidi

Dr. Smita Bammidi


Assistant Professor,
College of Social Work- Nirmala Niketan, Mumbai

Abstract
The ageing scenario in India has transformed in the recent decades
due to the observed demographic trends among the older population
and rapid social change that has led to the decline in informal
supports for older persons within the family, which may be adversely
affecting their well-being. In this context, Living Arrangements (LAs)
are identified as a basic determinant and an indicator of the care and
nature of informal supports available to the older persons within the
family, and therefore of their Quality of Life (QoL). In the current
study, while understanding the family relations that are part of LAs
of the older persons, the findings revealed who the hardest and easiest
person to get along with them were, and that respondents perception
about the level of interest shown by their family members towards
their well-being varied according to their current LAs and seemed to
impact their QoL and its related factors such as loneliness and
adaptation to old age. The implications thereby point out to the
necessity for efforts towards making families aware of who the older
persons reported as having difficult relations with in the different
LAs, what are the perceptions of older persons about indifference
shown by their family members, and its possible impact on their
lived realities. Further, planning appropriate interventions to improve

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the understanding and bonding between the generations, facilitating


the family members to develop & practice positive attitudes towards
the older parents/relatives and making efforts to spend quality time
with them, are suggested actions for the social work practitioners.
Key Words: Older Persons, Living Arrangements, Family
Relations, Perceived level of interest and Quality of Life

Introduction
Ageing is a multi-faceted process that is determined not only by
the passage of time, but also by certain physiological, psychological,
social, economic, and cultural factors. Hence, the experience of
ageing by individuals differs across the countries and regions.
Moreover, there are variations in the experience of ageing even
among the elderly within a country or region due to factors such as
age, gender, marital status, health, place of residence, economic
status, attitudes, work and retirement policies, importance given to
social security, living arrangements, level of family support and the
sexual orientation (Calasanti & Sleven, 2001; Virpi, 2008). In
general, old age is seen both as a time of decline and fulfillment,
depending on the individual and generational resources, and
opportunities to which persons have access during their lives.
Older persons are coming to comprise a significant proportion
of a nation/countrys total population. The various demographic
trends among the older population have been observed across the
globe since the 1900s. In 2013, the people aged (60 or over)
comprised almost 841 million i.e. they were 12 % of the then total
world population. It will increase more rapidly in the next four
decades to reach % in 2050. During 2013, in the case of developing
countries, the proportion of older persons ranges from 9% to 22%
of their respective total populations (Global Ageing Watch Index
Website, 2013). In India, the older persons (60 or over) comprised
of about 121 million i.e. 9 % of the nations total population (Census
2011). For example, in India, 1 out of 5 persons will be found to be
60 or over years. Older persons are large in absolute numbers and
this trend of their proportion in the total population will only increase
in coming years. Along with demographic trends, rapid social

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Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 169

change took place during the 1900s due to the occurrence of the
social processes such as industrialization, globalization,
westernization and modernization. Changes in family structure
(joint to nuclear), changes in family values & obligations, social
roles, attitudes of individuals took place, women were going out to
work, adult children migrated in search of better prospects.
Individualization and lifestyle change, economic development,
consumerism and technological advances occured. These sweeping
changes altered the roles of older persons in the family and society,
our attitudes towards them, ideas on obligations for caregiving and
gave rise to social institutions that care for older persons. Hence,
every issue may obviously effect a large number of older persons
and therefore makes it necessary to identify them, understand their
implications and attempt to address the same.
In the Indian context, in keeping with the developments at the
global level, and the Government of India being a signatory to the
initiatives by the UN, a policy for the older persons and several
interventions to enhance the quality of life of older persons were
initiated. The Govt. announced the National Policy for Older
Persons (NPOP) in January 1999. While recognizing the need for
promoting productive ageing, the policy also emphasized the
important role of family in providing vital non-formal social security
for the elderly (Government of India (NPOP), 1999). In view of
the changing trends in demographic, socio-economic, technological
and other relevant spheres in the country, a committee was constituted
for formulating a new draft National Policy for Senior Citizens
(NPSC), 2011 that advocated priority to those needs of the senior
citizens that impact the quality of life of those who are 80 years and
above, elderly women, and the rural poor (Government of India
(8th NCOP), 2010). The focus of the draft NPSC, 2011 would be
to promote the concept of ageing in place or ageing in own home.
From this angle, housing and living arrangements, income
security, home based care services, old age pension, access to
healthcare insurance schemes and other programmes and services
are seen as important to facilitate and sustain dignity in old age.
This draft policy recognizes the need for intergenerational bonding,
so that care of the senior citizens remains vested within the family,

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Family Relations in Living Arrangements.....

which may partner with the community, government and the private
sector for provision of informal supports. Hence, it emphasizes
institutional care as the last resort (Government of India (NPSC
Draft), 2011).

Family Relations
One of the most influential factors in peoples lives is the
environment in which they live. For the older persons this is
particularly true as they spend most of the time in their home, as
compared to other groups in the society (Van Solinge & Esveldt,
1991). Their living arrangements emerged as a parameter of great
importance for understanding the actual living conditions of the
older population in the developing countries (and their Quality of
Life) within the contemporary ageing scenario, affected due to the
lack of public institutions and social security nets (Sen & Noon,
2007). In view of this, exploring the above aspects has important
implications for social work practice with the older persons- in
improving their living conditions and quality of life within the
rapidly changing contexts. Hence, in the current study, an attempt
is made also to explore about the family relations within the living
arrangements of the older persons (hardest and easiest person to get
along with, frequency of arguments and tensions caused by hardest
person, perceived level of interest shown by family members towards
their wellbeing in different LAs as effecting their QoL domains and
its related factors such as loneliness and adaptation to old age) that
affect their quality of life.

Method
The data used in the present analyses were collected as part of
an exploratory and descriptive study that was conducted during
the period 2010-2012. A household survey of sample elderly
respondents in the Vadodara (Urban) Municipal Corporation
(VMC) limits was taken up using an interview schedule, as part of
the quantitative approach and for qualitative approach the case study
and observation methods were used. The schedule comprised of
questions covering socio-demographic and family details, work and
economic background, financial security, living arrangements, family

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Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 171

relations, interaction with family members, social interaction,


nutrition and access to food, leisure time and daily routine activities,
preferential living arrangements and life preparatory measures.
Measures like WHOQOL-BREF Questionnaire (WHOQOL Group,
1996), Index of Independence in Activities of Daily Living (Katz,
Down, & Cash, 1970), University of California and Los Angeles
Loneliness scale (Version 3) (Russell, 1996), and Adaptation to Old
age Questionnaire (Efklides, Kalaitzidou, & Chankin, 2003) were
incorporated into the interview schedule to collect information about
the key variables of the study. Both fixed end and open ended
questions were used.

Sampling
Multi-stage probability sampling was used to arrive at a sample
of 243 respondents who are 60 years and over, selected from the 13
wards in the Vadodara City. The map of the Vadodara city with
the 13 wards already outlined was divided into equal sized grids
and then the grids were serially numbered. Thus, it resulted in 26
grids. Out of the 26 grids, only 22 grids covered residential areas.
Further, in the 26 areas which have been identified falling in the 22
grids covering the 13 wards, older persons living in the family context
were enumerated using the preliminary data sheet. In this manner,
a list with a total of 640 elderly was enumerated from all the 26
areas. Next, keeping the constraints of time and human power in
view, it was decided to select randomly around 40 per cent of the
older persons from the list thus generated. Thus, the researcher arrived
at a sample of 250 respondents. While finalizing the filled interview
schedules, 7 schedules were found to be incomplete and therefore
were discarded thus making 243 persons as the final sample for
study. The sample turned out to be purposive in view of the mobility
and non-availability of some of the respondents when approached
during data collection.

Analytical Framework
This article explored the family relations (an important factor of
the living arrangements) such as the hardest and easiest persons to
get along with vis-a-vis LAs, duration of stay and the frequency of

172

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Family Relations in Living Arrangements.....

tensions with hardest person and the perception of level of interest


shown by others towards their well-being and its association with
the QoL domains & its related variables. The hardest and easiest
persons to get along with for the respondents could be associated
with their sex, age and current living arrangements, and the
respondents perception about the level of interest shown by the
family members about their well-being may vary with the living
arrangements. Further, it was explored whether these aspects might
influence the Quality of Life and the related variables of the older
persons.

Results
The data analysis of information pertaining to the family relations
of older persons as part of their living arrangements collected during
the study revealed various findings that are presented in this section.

Profile of the Respondents


Table 1 shows the distribution of the sample respondents by the
kind of living arrangements that they currently dwell in and it was
reported that a majority of them were living with their adult children
who were married/unmarried (64%) followed by 24% who were
living with their spouse only.
Table 1: Distribution of the sample older persons by
of Living Arrangements
Type of Living Arrangement
Frequency
Parent-child co residence
156
Living alone
9
Living with spouse only
57
Living with relatives
18
Living with assistance
3
Total
243

the type
Percent
64.2
3.7
23.5
7.4
1.2
100

The person hardest to get along with


Of the 243 sample respondents, about half of them (comprising
58 men and 63 women) reported a family member as the hardest
person to get along with in their life, who might or might not be

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Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 173

living with them at the time of the study. Of the 121 respondents
who reported a hardest person, about 55 per cent (n=66) said they
were actually staying with that person. Of these, 80 per cent reported
that person as their primary care giver. Now, who figured or were
reported as being the hardest persons for the older persons?
Table 2: Sex-wise distribution of the sample older persons by
the relationship to the hardest person to get along with as
reported by them
Relation with the
Sex of Respondent
Total(n=121)
Hardest Person
Male (n=58) Female (n=63)
Son
24 (41.4)
20 (31.8)
44 (36.4)
Daughter-in-law
8 (13.8)
16 (25.4)
24 (19.7)
Spouse
12 (20.7)
7 (11.1)
19 (15.7)
Sister-in-law
1 (1.72)
6 (9.5)
7 (5.8)
Daughter
2 (3.2)
2 (1.7)
Son-in-law
2 (3.2)
2 (1.7)
Other a
13 (22.4)
10 (15.8)
23 (19)
Note. a Includes siblings, grandchild, nephew, niece, spouses relatives,
and child (ren)s in-laws.
Son emerged as the hardest person in the case of both men (41
per cent) and women (32 per cent). Daughter-in-law (20 per cent)
was the person hardest to live with for women (25 per cent) than
men (14 per cent). The next hardest person reported was the spouse,
mostly by the older men (21 per cent). While in the case of older
men, the daughter or son-in-law did not emerge as the hardest
persons to live with, in the case of a few older women they were
reported as such. The other persons identified as hardest to live
with were sister-in-law, siblings, grandchildren, nephew, niece,
spouses relatives and childrens in-laws (see Table 2).
It was further explored in Table 3 whether the age of the older
persons was associated with who was the hardest person being
reported. If we consider the median age of the elderly respondents,
much older respondents (70 years) reported son and daughter-inlaw as the hardest persons to live with. The respondents who
mentioned spouse and daughter as hardest persons were relatively
younger with their median ages being 68 and 66 years respectively.

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Table 3: Distribution of the sample older persons by their


mean and median ages, and the hardest person to get along
with
Relation with
n
Age of Respondent
Hardest Person
Median
Mean
S.D
Spouse
19
68
68.63
7.40
Son
44
70
70.86
6.88
Daughter
2
66.5
66.5
9.19
Son-in-law
2
68.5
68.5
4.95
Daughter-in-law
24
70
70.63
8.66
Sister-in-law
7
66
65.86
2.34
a
Other
23
63
66.83
7
n=121
Note. a Include siblings, grandchild, nephew, niece, spouses relatives,
and child (ren)s in-laws.
In the case of older persons who reported others, their median
age was much lower (63 years) though the mean age was higher
(66.8 years) indicating lot of differences in the ages of the
respondents figuring in this group. On the whole, the relationship
between age and the hardest person emerged as a pattern in the life
course of respondents.
Next, it was explored whether the relation named as the hardest
person was associated with the living arrangements of the sample
respondents.
Table 4: Distribution of the sample older persons by the
relation with hardest person and Living Arrangements
Relation

Living Arrangement

Total

with

Parent-child Living

Living Living

Living (n=121)

Hardest

Coresidence with

Alone with

with

Person

(n=77)

(n=4)

Spouse

Relatives Assist-

(n=26)

(n=11) ance
(n=3)

Son

33 (42.8)

5 (19.2)

2 (50) 3 (27.2)

1 (33.3) 44 (36.3)

Daughter

19 (24.6)

3 (11.5)

2 (66.7) 24 (19.8)

-in-law

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Spouse

7 (26.9)

2 (18.1)

19 (15.7)

Sister-in-law 1 (1.2)

4 (15.3)

2 (18.1)

7 (5.7)

Daughter

2 (2.5)

2 (1.6)

Son-in-law

1 (25) 1 (9)

2 (1.6)

12 (15.5)

7 (26.9)

1 (25) 3 (27.2)

23 (19)

Others

10 (12.9)

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 175

Note. a Include siblings, grandchild, nephew, niece, spouses relatives


and child (ren)s in-laws.

Of the older persons who lived in parent-child coresidence, a


majority (43 per cent) reported son, followed by daughter-in-law
(25 per cent) as hardest persons to live with. Further, in the case of
those who lived with spouse, 27 per cent reported spouse as the
hardest person to get along with. Thus, it appeared that parentchild coresidence, and living with spouse were the most frequent
sites of conflict for the older persons (see Table 4).
Table 5: Distribution of the sample older persons by the
medians and means of their duration of stay with the hardest
person
Relation with
n
Duration of Stay
Hardest Person
Median
Mean
S. D
Spouse
18
41.5
44.89
10.5
Son
22
35
33.5
12.41
Daughter
2
30
30
28.28
Son-in-law
1
2
2
Daughter in law
15
15
17
8.23
Sister-in-law
2
29.5
29.5
10.6
Other a
6
16
22
19.92
Total
66
33
31.11
16.09
Note. a Include siblings, grandchild, nephew, niece, spouses relatives
and child (ren)s in-laws.
As indicated earlier, of the 121 elderly respondents who reported
having a hardest person to get along with, more than 50 per cent
(n=66) actually stayed with those persons and the duration of the
stay is shown in Table 5. Though the overall duration of stay came

176

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to be 33 years, it varied greatly with reference to the relationship of


the hardest person with the older persons. Thus, duration of stay of
the respondent with the hardest persons- spouse, son, daughter and
sister-in-law figured in that order. Though daughter-in-law figured
among the hardest persons, the median duration of stay with her
was short (15 years).
Out of the 121 elderly who mentioned having a person hardest
to get along with in their life, 86 reported that the hardest person
caused arguments and tensions.
Table 6: Sex-wise distribution of the sample elderly by the
frequency of arguments and tensions caused by the hardest
person during the preceding year
How often in an year
Sex of Respondent
Total (n=86)
Male(n=41)
Female(n=45)
10 times
30 (73.2)
30 (66.7)
60 (69.8)
20 times
2 (4.9)
1 (2.2)
3 (3.5)
More than 20 times 3 (7.3)
3 (3.5)
Almost daily
6 (14.6)
14 (31.1)
20 (23.3)
According to the data, a majority (n=60) comprising of 73 per
cent men and 67 per cent women reported that arguments & tensions
with the hardest person occurred as frequently as about 10 times in
a year. In the case of 23 per cent of the older persons (mostly women)
such situations had occurred almost daily (see Table 6). Out of the
total sample respondents, about 6.5 per cent (12 women and 4 men)
reported abuse and neglect by family members in their current living
arrangement.

Not having a hardest person to get along with


Out of the total sample, 122 older persons (52 per cent men and
49 per cent women) reported they did not have a hardest person to
get along with in their life. Interestingly, they consisted of a majority
of the older persons who belonged to the age range of 75-84 years
(52 per cent), and more than half of the elderly who lived alone
(56 per cent).

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Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 177

Easiest person to get along with


Next, the respondents were asked to mention the easiest person
to get along with in their family. Out of the total sample, 239 elderly
(50 per cent each of men and women) reported such a person in
their life, who might or might not be staying with the respondent at
the time of the study. The persons reported as easy to get along with
varied with the type of living arrangements of the older persons.
The details are as follows.
Table 7: Sex-wise distribution of the sample older persons by
the relationship to the person reported by them as easiest to
get along with
Relation with
Sex of Respondent
Total(n=239)
Easiest Person Male(n=119) Female(n=120)
Spouse
43 (36.1)
29 (24.1)
72 (30.1)
Daughter
26 (21.8)
31 (25.8)
57 (23.8)
Son
23 (19.3)
29 (24.1)
52 (21.7)
Grandson
8 (6.7)
11 (9.16)
19 (7.9)
Daughter-in-law 8 (6.7)
5 (4.1)
13 (5.4)
Granddaughter 2 (1.6)
4 (3.3)
6 (2.5)
Cannot specify 4 (3.3)
2 (1.6)
6 (2.5)
one
Son-in-law
1 (0.8)
1 (0.8)
2 (0.8)
a
Others
4 (3.3)
8 (6.6)
12 (5)
a
Note. Include siblings, nephew, niece, in-laws of children and
spouses relatives.
Spouse (30 per cent), daughter (24 per cent) and son (22 per
cent) figured in that order as the easiest persons to get along with.
However, more men stated their spouse, and most women stated
their daughter and son as the persons easiest to get along with.
Slightly more men (7 per cent) as compared to women (4 per cent)
mentioned that it was easy to get along with daughter-in-law (see
Table 7).

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Table 8: Distribution of the sample older persons by relation


to the easiest person and the Living Arrangements
Relation
Living Arrangement
with
Parent-child Living
Living
Living
Easiest Coresidence with
Alone
with
Person (n=152)
Spouse
(n=9)
Relatives
(n=57)
(n=18)
Spouse 45 (29.6)
Daughter 33 (21.7)
Son
44 (28.9)
Grand
7 (4.6)
son
Daughter 10 (6.5)
-in-law
Son-in- 1 (0.6)
law
Grand
4 (2.6)
daughter
Cannot 5 (3.2)
specify
Others a 3 (1.9)

25 (43.8)
19 (33.3)
5 (8.7)
6 (10.5)

2 (22.2)
2 (22.2)
1 (11.1)

2 (11.1)
1 (5.5)
5 (27.7)

Total
Living (n=239)
with
Assist
ance
(n=3)
72 (30.1)
2 (66.7) 57 (23.8)
1 (33.3) 52 (21.7)
19 (7.9)

1 (1.7)

2 (11.1)

13 (5.4)

1 (11.1)

2 (0.8)

2 (11.1)

6 (2.5)

1 (1.7)

6 (2.5)

3 (33.4)

6 (33.3)

12 (5)

Note. a Includes siblings, nephew, niece, in-laws of children and spouses


relatives.

An attempt was made in Table 8 to see whether the relationship


to the person mentioned as the easiest to get along was associated
with living arrangements of the older persons. In case of the
respondents who lived with the spouse, a majority 44 per cent
followed by 33 per cent named the spouse and daughter respectively
as the easiest person. Among the older persons living in parentchild coresidence, approximately equal percentage (30 per cent) of
them reported spouse and son as the easiest to live with.

Level of Interest shown by family members about the older


persons well-being
For the well-being of older persons it is not only important that
family members show interest in them, but this has to be perceived

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Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 179

as such by the older person. To look into this aspect, the respondents
were asked to rate their perception regarding the level of interest of
the family members about their well-being and the results are shown
in Table 9.
Table 9: Sex-wise distribution of the sample older persons by
their perception of the level of interest shown by family
members about their well-being
Perceived Level
Sex of Respondent
Total
of Interest
Male(n=120) Female(n=123)
(n=243)
Interested
93 (77.5)
92 (74.8)
185 (76.1)
Somewhat interested 17 (14.2)
14 (11.4)
31 (12.8)
Not interested
7 (5.8)
10 (8.1)
17 (7)
Indifferent
3 (2.5)
7 (5.7)
10 (4.1)
A majority (76 per cent) of the sample perceived that their family
was interested in their well-being while around 13 per cent felt that
they were somewhat interested in their well-being. A slightly more
percent of women compared to men felt that their family was not
interested or indifferent toward them. Data were analyzed to see
the relationship between the type of living arrangement and the
perception of the elderly sample about the level of interest shown
by family members about their wellbeing. The results are shown in
Table 10.
Table 10: Distribution of the sample older persons by their
perception of the level of interest shown by the family
members about their well-being and type of Living
Arrangements
Perceived
Living Arrangement
Level of Parent-child Living
Living
Living
Interest Coresidence with
Alone
with
(n=156)
Spouse
(n=9)
Relatives
(n=57)
(n=18)
Interested 113 (72.4)
Some23 (14.7)
what
interested

50 (87.7)
3 (5.3)

5 (55.6)
2 (22.2)

Total
Living N=243
with
Assist
ance
(n=3)
14 (77.8) 3 (100) 185 (76.1)
3 (16.7) 31 (12.8)

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Family Relations in Living Arrangements.....

Not
11 (7.1)
interested
Indifferent 9 (5.8)

3 (5.3)

2 (22.2)

1 (5.6)

17 (7)

1 (1.8)

10 (4.1)

It seems that a majority of the older persons across the five living
arrangements felt their family was interested about their well-being.
However, around half of the elderly who were living alone reported
that their family members were somewhat or not interested about
their well-being. Similarly 16.7 per cent and 5.5 per cent elderly
living with relatives respectively felt that their families were somewhat
interested and not interested.
Table 11: Distribution of the sample elderly by their
perception of level of interest shown by the family about their
well-being and the means and SDs of scores on the three
measures used
Perceived

Quality of Life

Loneli Adapt -

Level of

Physical

Psychol

Social

Envir-

Interest

Health

ogical

Relatio-

onment

well-

nsh ips

ness

ation
to Old
ag e

bei n g
Interested Mean

14.74

16.14

14.3

16.93

43.19 63.74

(n=185)

2.857

2.23

2.17

8.7

Somewhat Mean

SD

13.64

14.68

11.48

14.33

49.12 55.58

8.94

interested

SD

3.31

2.52

2.89

2.27

7.18

Not

Mean

12.1

12.98

9.96

13.2

53.05 54.41

interested

SD

2.77

2.65

2.98

2.94

7.51

10.3

Indifferent Mean

10.62

11.93

9.73

12.3

58.1

49

(n=10)

SD

3.09

4.48

2.81

3.8

10.81 8.13

Total

Mean

14.24

15.56

13.45

16.15

45.25 61.44

N=243

SD

3.08

2.68

3.35

2.73

9.39

10.58

(n=31)

(n=17)

10.12

An attempt was made to examine the relationship between the


different levels of interest shown by the family members about their
well-being as perceived and reported by the elderly, and QoL

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Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 181

domains, loneliness and adaptation to old age of the sample older


persons, as shown in Table 11.
It could be seen that the older persons who perceived the family
as interested in their well-being reported better on the 4 quality of
life domains- physical health (14.74; SD=2.85); psychological wellbeing (16.14; SD=2.23); social relationships (14.30; SD=3.00); and,
environment (16.93; SD=2.17). And they also experienced lower
degree of loneliness (mean=43.19; SD=8.70) and have a better
adaptation to old age (mean=63.74; SD=8.94). Interestingly, the
older persons who perceived their family as indifferent to their wellbeing reported poorly on the 4 domains of quality of life experienced
a higher degree of loneliness and had a poor adaptation to old age.
This shows that there might exist a close association between the
older persons perception of interest of the family about their wellbeing and their quality of life & related variables. The perceived
indifference about their well-being by the family members was found
to be more damaging for them.

Major Findings and Discussion


Hardest person to get along with
1. Of the 243 sample elderly, 50 per cent reported having a family
member who was hardest to get along with.
2. Son was mentioned most frequently (36 per cent) as the
hardest person to get along with by elderly men (41 per cent)
and women (31 per cent). The next hardest people reported
were spouse and daughter-in-law. While none of the elderly
men reported daughter or son-in-law as the hardest person to
live with, in the case of elderly women they figured as the
hardest persons.
3. For the elderly who lived in parent-child co residence, son
(43 per cent) followed by daughter-in-law (25 per cent) figured
as hardest persons to live with.
4. Of the 121 elderly who reported having a hardest person,
about 55 per cent (n=66) reported they were actually staying
with that person. Of the 66 elderly who actually stayed with
the hardest person, 80 per cent reported that person as their
primary care giver.

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5. For the 66 elderly who lived with the hardest person, the
overall duration of stay with that person was 33 years.
Further, in terms of the duration of stay of the respondent
with the hardest persons- spouse, son, daughter and sister-inlaw figured in that order.
6. Of the 121 elderly who mentioned they had a hardest person,
71 per cent (n=86) reported that the person had been creating
tensions and arguments, during the preceding year. Of these
86 elderly i.e., 70 per cent revealed that conflicts occurred 10
times a year, while 23 per cent of them said it occurred almost
daily.
7. Out of the total sample, 122 elderly did not report having a
hardest person to get along with. Interestingly, a majority
(52 per cent) of the elderly who belonged to the age range of
75-84 years and more than half of the elderly (56 per cent)
who lived alone did not report a hardest person to get along
with.
Easiest person to get along with
8. Out of the total sample elderly, 98 per cent (n=239) reported
having persons in their life who were easy to get along with.
9. Of the 239 elderly who reported an easiest person to live
with, a majority (30 per cent) reported the spouse as the one,
followed by daughter and son.
10. In terms of living arrangements, 44 per cent of the elderly
living with spouse reported that their spouse was the easiest
person to get along with. Even in parent-child co residence,
spouse was reported as the person easiest to get along with.
Level of Interest shown by family members and the well-being of the older
persons
11. A majority i.e. 76 per cent of the elderly perceived that their
family members were interested in their well-being.
12. A majority of the elderly across all the five living
arrangements felt their family was interested about their wellbeing.
13. Calculation of the means of quality of life scores and the
related variables showed that the elderly who perceived their
family as interested in their well-being reported better on the

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4 domains of quality of life experienced a lower degree of


loneliness and had a better adaptation to old age. Thus, the
perceived indifference (than little or no interest) about their
well-being by the family members was found to be more
damaging for the elderly.
With regard to the sample older respondents interaction with
the children and family members in the context of different living
arrangements, data indicated that nearly half of the sample
respondents reported having a hardest person to get along with in
the family and they are facing arguments and tensions created by
such a family member. Most of the hardest persons reported are the
primary care givers of the older persons. Interestingly, it appears
that the most frequent sites of conflict for the older persons are
parent-child co residence and living with spouse. Son followed by
the daughter-in-law and spouse, have figured in these contexts as
the hardest persons to get along with. Evidently, this is because a
majority of the older persons live with their married son (s), and
living with spouse is the next frequent form of living arrangement.
This information clearly indicates that even while living in the family
itself, the older person may be prone to instances of physical and
emotional abuse.
On the other hand, almost all the sample elderly (n=239) also
reported having a family member who is easiest to get along with.
This means that the older person who reported a hardest person
almost always have a person with whom they had a trusting
relationship, and who is a source of support for him/her in the
living arrangement. Spouse followed by daughter and son are
reported as the easiest persons to get along with. Even in parentchild co residence, spouse figured as the easiest person to get along
with.
The results further indicate that older persons who experience a
positive environment in the family and who felt that their family is
interested about their well-being, perform better on all domains of
quality of life, experience a lower degree of loneliness, and have a
better adaptation to old age. On the contrary, the perceived
indifference of the family toward their well-being was found to be
more damaging for the elderly. It may be noted that most of the

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Family Relations in Living Arrangements.....

elderly from the parent-child coresidence reported indifference of


family members toward them. The reason may be that in this form
of living arrangement the family members though living with them
are often busy with their lives and have less time to spend or interact
with the older persons.

Suggestions and Implications for Social Work Practice


Suggestions
Intergenerational bonding may be nurtured and strengthened
so that the younger generation can value/ appreciate the need
to take care of the older persons. Value based education to
strengthen intergenerational bonding can be incorporated in
school text books and in other educational contexts.
Family life education /life-long learning programmes in
taking care of older persons may be introduced. They can
include issues covering older persons mental health and wellbeing, long term care, cultural traditions and values congenial
for the promotion of respect and dignity of the older persons,
intergenerational bonding etc. which will strengthen the
familys ability and motivation to take care of the older
persons.
Family support services such as tax benefits, subsidies for
medical needs and health care of the older persons, especially
of the urban poor, the oldest old and widowed women makes
the families better partners in the care of the elderly.
Mass media has an important role to play in highlighting
the changing situation of the older persons and to mould
peoples realistic opinion towards their issues. NGOs and
social workers working with the older persons can make
positive use of media in this direction.
Promotion and strengthening of senior citizens groups in
the community will be a source of social support for those
lacking family support.
Social Work Practice
Professional social work interventions with the older persons
can take place at different levels- policy, individual, family
and community.

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Social workers can extend support to the families or primary

caregivers of the older persons by organizing training


programmes for them to better care for the older people.
Social workers can organize workshops for building skills of
the older persons so that they are equipped to cope with
situations in the different types of living arrangements.
Another important social work intervention is to support
those older persons who are abused and neglected through
provision of crisis intervention, legal aid, counseling the
family members, provision of shelter in need and advising
for an alternate living arrangement or placement in a home
for the aged, as a last resort.

References:
Calasanti, T. M.,
& Sleven, K. F.,
2001
Efklides, A.,
Kalaitzidou, M.,
& Chankin, G.,
2003
Government of
India,
1999
Government of
India,
2010
Government of
India,
2011
Global Ageing
Watch Index,
2013
Katz, S.,
Down, T.D., &
Cash, H.R.,
1970
Registrar General
of India,
2011

Gender, Social Inequities and Ageing. Walnut


Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press.
Subjective quality of life in old age in Greece: The
effects of demographic factors, emotional state and
adaptation to aging. European Psychologist, 8 (3),
178 191.
National Policy on Older Persons. Ministry of Social
Justice and Empowerment, New Delhi: Govt of
India.
Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment.
Minutes of the 8th meeting of the National
Committee on Older Persons. New Delhi: Govt of
India.
National Policy for Senior Citizens (Draft policy).
Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. New
Delhi: Govt of India.
http://www.helpage.org/global-agewatch/.
Retrieved on 02/04/2015
Progress in the development of the index of ADL.
Gerontologist, 10, 20 -30.

Census of India, 2011. New Delhi: Govt of India.

186

Smita Bammidi

Russell, D. W.,
1996

Family Relations in Living Arrangements.....

UCLA loneliness scale (version 3): Reliability,


validity and factor structure. Journal of Personality
Assessment, 66, 20 - 40.
Sen, M., & Noon, J. Living arrangement: How does it relate to the
2007
health of the elderly in India? Prepared for
submission at the Annual Meeting of the Population
Association of America, New York (March).
Van Solinge, A., & Living arrangements of the Dutch elderly (1956Esveldt, I.,
1986), with a focus on elderly living in with their
1991
children. Paper presented at the European
Population Conference, Paris.
Virpi, T.,
Ageing societies: A comparative introduction. New
2008
Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill.
World Health
WHOQOL-BREF. Introduction, administration,
Organization
scoring and generic version of the assessment
(WHO),
(WHO Field Trial Version). WHO Programme on
1996
Mental Health, Geneva, Switzerland.

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Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 187

Organ Shortage Crisis and Health Care:


Revisiting the Challenges and Prospects
Abdul Azeez E.P.

Abdul Azeez E.P.


Assistant Professor, Department of Social Work,
School of Social Sciences, Central University of Rajasthan
Ajmer, Rajasthan, 305817.

Abstract
Advancement of medical sciences have influenced significantly
on the lives of people, it broadened the scope for well being, improved
the quality and expectancy of life. A large number of health problems
and diseases are under control through the improvement of medical
technology. Emergence of medical technology for human organ
transplantation is one of the crucial steps in the journey of sustaining
health, and life. Even the technology is advanced in regard with the
organ transplantation but the non availability of the organs always
constrained the process. Present paper analysis how the changing
epidemiology and etiology have an impact on the organ shortage crisis
and the various prospect to address these issues. Different types of
organ donation and its sources are discussed in detail. This paper
views the lack of availability of organs as an important health issue
by correlating it with the needs and importance of availing organs
through a voluntary donation perspective. The statistical data on
existing demand and supply has been analyzed in this paper. Possible
attempt were made to rationalize the strategies to meet the existing
needs of human organs by exploring different sources of availability,

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Organ Shortage Crisis and Health Care .....

especially in the voluntary donation perspective. The existing data


shows that there are huge variations in demand and availability of
organs and that are correlated with voluminous socio-cultural and
legal aspects.
Key Words: Organ Failure, Organ Donation, Voluntary,
Challenges, Prospects.

Introduction
Health care is one of the fields that achieved significant
development in the past century in regard with the advancement in
the technology of care and cure. The innovation in medical care
has reflected as the potential benefits in different dimensions of
human life include physical, psychological and social well being.
Many of the health problems, issues, diseases are under control
through continues research and advanced practices. The
improvement of pharmacology and vaccination methods yields
positive results in preventing number of public health vulnerabilities.
The first organ transplantation in the year 1952 was one of such
milestones in the history of medical care, especially the critical care.
It gave hope to a colossal section of population who are under the
burden of organ failure. Organ failure is a public health issue, thats
having significant implications on the lives of people and the whole
society. The failure of a human organ is disabling him/her in holistic
aspects of life which include familial, economic and psychological
and social dimensions. The possibilities of modern medical science
can be better utilized for overcoming the issues created by organ
failure, but the shortage of organ availability for transplantation is
a constrain. The changing epidemiology of health problems shows
that organ failure is one of the foremost health issues that create
significant socio-demographic, psychological and economic impact.
Every year lakhs of people were dying or severely disabled due to
the failure of organs. Most of the organ failures are threaten to
sustain life and organ failures like corneal blindness lead to extreme
kind of socio- physical disability. Organ transplantation is the most
suitable and last option for many diseases, but the shortage of donors

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is the challenges in this regard. Successful transplantations give


patients with otherwise untreatable degenerative diseases a new lease
on life, or enable them to lead a more fulfilling or productive existence.
(Teck- Chuan Voo 2009). The transplantation is possible only when
the availability of donor exists; in this context the endeavors on
organ donation is a thorny for country like India where the
awareness on the organ donation is quite low. According to
Illangovan Veerappan (2012a) lack of organ donation awareness
in India is the major barrier for deceased donation. The lack of
awareness lead to the shortage of needed organs for transplantation.
The primary ethical dilemmas surrounding organ transplantation
arise from the shortage of available organs (Childress JF, 2001).
The only tool and strategy to combat with the organ failure is
ensuring the availability of organ for transplantation, its possible
only through the voluntary donation. Then only the demand and
supply can be adjusted.

Organ Failure: Issues and Challenges


Organ failure is a medical condition where the expected function
of an organ unable to perform it. This may affect the functions of
other body functions too and the person may have to face multiple
difficulties in healthy body function which affects the overall quality
of life of the individual. Organ failure is being considered as one of
the foremost among the modern health issues, which is having
correlation with different factors like the epidemiology and etiology
of different diseases, especially life style health problems. An organ
failure is having serious implications on the life of an individual
which affects the different aspects of his/her life and those who
dependents them also. In Indian context the increase in number of
disease which affects the organ dysfunctions likes kidney failure,
liver dysfunctions, cardiac dysfunctions, lungs dysfunctions and
corneal blindness has raise the demands of organs for
transplantation. In many cases, the best (and sometimes the only)
answer is to replace the damaged organ with a healthy one (Tom
Scheve, 2008). The variations in demand and supply is adversely

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affects the hope and life of people, who are waiting for organ
transplantation with terminal illness. Unofficial statistics from India
indicate that there are nearly 300 deaths every day due to failure of
organ. That is more than one lakh deaths per year (Sudheendran,
2010). There are several issues which related should be highlighted
in relation with the organ failure.

Changing Epidemiology and Etiology of Diseases


The last two decades of the 20th Century and the first decade of
21st century have distinguished in regard with the pattern of
epidemiology and the etiology. The health profile of India at the
close of the 20th century appears promising. Impressive
improvements in the socioeconomic, nutrition and health status of
people as well as the successful eradication, elimination and control
of major killer diseases have contributed largely to the resultant
epidemiological and demographic transition observable in the
country (M.D. Gupte, 2001). Even though with the advancement,
there is a marked change can be observed in the past two decades
on the pattern of diseases, chronic illness and the mortality rate.
Among these, life style diseases are the prominent in relation with
the death rates and which leads to dysfunction. The changes in the
living pattern widely contributed for the variations in the etiological
pattern. Non-communicable Diseases (NCDs) account for nearly
half of all deaths in India. Cardiovascular Diseases (CVD), Cancer,
Diabetes, Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (COPD), Mental
Disorders and Injuries are main causes of death and disability due
to NCDs. (Peoples Health Report, 2011). Except the mental diseases
all of the above diseases are directly or indirectly adversely effects
the functions of organs and ultimately it will be life threaten.
Although non-communicable diseases like cancers, diabetes,
cardiovascular diseases, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, etc
are on the rise due to change in life style (Peoples Health Report,
2011).
The numbers of people who are effecting with life style diseases
and other illness which lead to organ failure is in increase

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subsequently it caused to raise the mortality rate and dysfunctions


of human being. Another most crucial socially and biologically
relevant dimension of organ failure is the severity of Burden of
Diseases. The burden of diseases is high in organ failure, which
limits the patients from basic biological functions and reflects on
the personal and social life. Finally leads to disability and death.

Demand and Supply: The variations


There are reasonable differences are exists in demand and supply
of the organ availability for transplantation. Globally, especially in
the developing and under developed countries the shortage of organs
for transplantation is a leading cause for death, where in developed
country at some extent awareness on the issue, leads to the donation
and availability. In developing societies the lack of appropriate
medical facility, experts in the field, financial resources and
availability of organs are the serious health issue. There is currently
shortage of donor organs worldwide; the ageing populations and
increasing incidents of diabetics will worsen the shortage (Ritahlia
et al, 2009). Of the worlds 6 billion population, four-fifth is from
developing countries. Unfortunately the transplant rates in the
developing world is much to be desired at less than 10 per million
population comparing to the 45-50 per million in the developed
countries (Vathsala, Moosa, 2004). This organ shortage crisis has
deprived thousands of patients of a new and better quality of life
and has caused a substantial increase in the cost of alternative
medical care such as dialysis. (Abouna, 2008b)
The major barrier to transplantation is money and availability
of live related donor in India. Even in the better performing regions
of the country the deceased or cadaver renal transplantation rate is
only 0.08 per million per year, i.e., 2 % of the total transplantation.
(Chugh KS, 2009). Of the 9.5 million deaths in India every year, at
least one lakh are believed to be potential donors; however less
than 100 actually become donors. The remaining nearly 99,900 are
lost. The demand for organ transplantation has rapidly increased
all over the world during the past decade due to the increased

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Organ Shortage Crisis and Health Care .....

incidence of vital organ failure, the rising success and greater


improvement in post transplant outcome. However, the
unavailability of adequate organs for transplantation to meet the
existing demand has resulted in major organ shortage crises. As a
result there has been a major increase in the number of patients on
transplant waiting lists as well as in the number of patients dying
while on the waiting list. (Abouna, 2008a)
In developing countries socio cultural factors and lack of
awareness adversely affects the availability of organs for
transplantation. Without awareness it is going to be difficult to
convince the relatives of the deceased patients to donate the organs
for transplantation. Contrary to logical understanding, educational
status, socio-economic status, language barrier, cultural and religious
factors do not affect the decision for or against donation (Alkhawari
FS, 2005).
Organ Demand (yearly) Met needs Ratio
Kidney 200,000
3000-4000 Only 1 out of 30 people
who need a kidney receive
one
Liver
100,000
1000-1500 Only 1 out of 32 people
who need a liver receive
one
Source: Times of India, DNA India.

Organ Transplantation
Organ transplantation is a surgical method where the failed
organs of human body is removed and replace with a healthier
one. The advancement in medical technology significantly influences
in the quality of the surgery and post surgery care. Today, most
organ transplantations are safe procedures, no longer considered as
experiments, but considered as treatment option for thousands of
patients with medical indication, such as those suffering from renal
failure, heart diseases, respiratory disease and cirrhosis of liver (Otak.
K, 2004). Organ transplantation has been hailed as one of the

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greatest achievements in modern surgery (Linda, 2009). Its one of


the sensitive kinds of surgery in regard with the issues of medical,
legal, social and psychological aspects. The modern medical ethics
stresses on the needs of providing medico-legal education to the
donor and recipient, which helps the patients to be aware about the
risks, possibilities and pre and post transplant complications.
The main sources of organ availability can be classified as
cadaveric donation and live donation. The first one, Cadaveric
donation means the organs taken from the recently died individual,
its include both natural and brain death. Second source of organ
donation is live donor, in this type of transplant the organ is taken
from the living human being and transplanted to the person in need.
A colossal percentage of live donors are relatives of the recipient.
In Indian context the live donation is much more time double than
cadaveric organ donation, where this one is considered as most
sustainable and medically suggestible kind of organ transplantation.
Cadaveric transplantation reduces the risk factors, which exists in
live donation.

Cadaveric Donation & Brain Death


As discussed cadaveric donation is the most sustainable and
balanced mode of organ transplantation, which helps to avoid
unnecessary surgical and clinical intervention on the donor. In
western world and other developed countries cadaveric donation is
much wider than the remaining part of the world. The national
average of India in Cadaveric donation is many times lower than
developed countries, even though the country is having much more
possibility to avail of human organs through deceased donor.
According to Vathsla (2008b), the differences in cadaveric donation
and live donor in Asian countries are due to the racial and cultural
attitudes towards death and sanctity of the human body, thereby
affecting consent for cadaveric donation. Therefore its not surprising
that living donor organs contributes 85- 100% of developing
countries as opposed to 1-25% in developed countries (Moosa,
2004b).
There are two sources for cadaveric organ donation.

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Organ Shortage Crisis and Health Care .....

Brain Death
Brain Death is the irreversible and permanent cessation of all
brain/ nervous system functions. Brain is the centre which controls
the vital body activities includes the basic and necessary functions
like breathing, sensation, obeying commands etc. Most of the brain
deaths are due to the head injuries. Brain death is a complex issue
encompassing overlapping areas of medicine, philosophy, ethics,
and the law (Laureys S, 2005).Conformation on brain death is
medically and legally a sensitive issue, the procedures are different
from countries to country and region to region. In India, organ
transplantation is regulated by the Transplantation of Human Organs
Act, 1994. The act defines brainstem death to mean the stage at
which all functions of the brainstem have permanently and
irreversibly ceased.
This Act calls for a panel of four physicians to make the diagnosis
of brainstem death, composed of the following team.
(i)
Physician treating the patient
(ii) Physician in charge of the hospital treating the patient
(iii) A specialist physician from an unspecified specialty
(iv) A neurologist or a neurosurgeon.
In the context of organ transplantation, brain death is one of
the potential sources of organ. Therefore one cadaveric donor can
possibly save many terminally ill patients by donating both solid
and non solid organs, as indicated in the Table. No. 01. Cadaver
transplantation involves declaring brain death, seeking permission
from the relatives, retrieval of the organs, storage of organs, transport
to the recipients hospital and ultimately transplantation. The first
two stages are the more difficult ones (Illangovan Veerappan, 2012b).
There are number of organs, that can transplant only from the brain
dead individuals, heart, and lungs are the typical examples. Deceased
donor transplantation has the potential to significantly reduce the
mismatch between need and availability of the organs for
transplantation and minimize the burden on living donors for organ
donation (Illangovan Veerappan, 2012c).

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Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 195

Table: 01. Shows the possible organ donation in different


situations
Brain Death

Living Donor

Eyes & Cornea


Kidney
Heart & heart valves Portion of the Liver
Lungs
Lob of the Lung
Liver
Portion of Pancreases
Pancreas
Tissues
Pancreas
kidneys,
Bones, bone marrow
Middle Ear and
Blood Vessels.

Other than Brain


Death
Eyes & Cornea
Tissues
Bone and Marrows
Skin
Blood vessels

Death other than Brain Death


In natural death or any death other than brain death also there
are prosperities for organ donation. Eyes, blood vessels and bones
are the examples of this. The potential benefit of organs donation
after natural death have limitation to combat with terminal and
chronic illness.

Living Donor
A considerable percent of organ donation in India depends up
on the living donor; most probably the potential donors are the
relatives of the patient. A live donor who wishes to donate organs
can do it in two ways.
1. Donate one half of the paired organ set: Kidney is the best
suitable organ that can donate among the paired set of human
organs. Even with among the pair, both recipient and donor
can live healthily.

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2. Donate a portion of an organ: This type of organ donation


shall possible only for those organs that will able to function
still without the donated portion. Liver and lob of lung are
the typical examples of this model of donation.

Challenges and Prospects of Organ Donation:


The Way Ahead
Shortage of organ availability is basically a medical issue but
the complication of this will be affecting the holistic aspects of human
life. The answer to the question arising from issues of organ shortage
can deal by sensitizing it with a social concern in the public domain.
India doesnt have any governmental system for coordinating and
registering the organ needs as like many other developed or western
countries. The National Organ Transplant Programme (NOTP)
initiated by the Government of India is still in babyhood and yet to
develop. The NGO sector in India is significantly contributing for
the promotion of organ donation by realizing awareness is the largest
constrain for the shortage of organ availability. The medical advances
achieved through decades can be utilized in the field of organ
transplantation only through ensuring/availing the organs. In Indian
scenario there is a great prospect for different sources of organs, the
first and foremost are from the cadaveric organ donation, especially
from brain death. Statistics shows that 90% of the brain death is
due to the accidents, especially road accidents. According to WHO
Global Status Report on Road Safety (2013), India is the country
over 130,000 deaths annually; the country has overtaken China
and now has the worst road traffic accident rate worldwide. Among
the road accidents 70% of the cases are brain death. In the year
2013 India has witnessed for a death of 1, 33,938 people in road
traffic accidents. The organs of the persons who died in accidents
can be the prospective source for the cadaveric donation. Deceased

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donor transplantation has a great potential in bridging the ever


widening gap between availability and demand of organs for
transplantation (Illangovan Veerappan, 2012d). There are a plenty
of reasons exists in the prevailing situation that prevents the prospects
of organ transplantation.
India accounts large number of deaths and disability due to
organ failure while comparing to the Western and developed
countries, where 70 % of people voluntarily come forward or pledge
for organ donation while India its only 0.1 %. This situation
prevailing same for years mainly because of the lack of awareness
people have on the issue. A colossal of our population has
misconceptions and myths related to organ donation and it is related
to socio-religious aspects. People even hesitate to donate their organs
even after death. This has significant correlation with the religious
aspects and usually they are not ready to come out from the believe
system in they are. Unlike other western countries (where govt. is
the custodian of dead body) in India after death also family still
exist as the custodian of dead body and their decision on donating
organ depends the whole scene. As Jyoti Nagda (Rito Paul 2011) a
transplantation social worker said that Immediate family members
are often dissuaded by relatives. Some people believe that if an organ
is taken out of the body then the deceased will be reborn without
the same organs. Such misconceptions are common among people.
Awareness generation and sensitization can bring positive result
in the field of organ transplantation. Voluntary organ donation is
only the answer in Indian context as a number of medico-legal,
cultural and religious issues are prevalent. A pragmatic action to
promote voluntary donation is need of the time. Many countries
took active intervention to promote voluntary organ donation
among its citizens, China is typical example for the same, as they
have started nationwide programme in the year 2013.

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Organ Shortage Crisis and Health Care .....

Table No: 02. Number of accidental deaths during 2000-2013.


Year
Number of Deaths due to Accidents
2000
255883
2001
271019
2002
260122
2003
259625
2004
277263
2005
294175
2006
314704
2007
340794
2008
342309
2009
357021
2010
384649
2011
390884
2012
394982
2013
400517
Source: National Crime Record Bureau Report- 2013
The above table shows the hazardousness of traffic accidents in
Indian society. The persons who died in such situation can be the
potential donors and a large extend can it solve the problems of
organ shortage. Even though with these prospects of organ
availability, only less than 3% of these cases, especially relatives are
not ready to donate organs. The only answer to this dilemma is
voluntary organ donation. In Indian context, enhanced awareness
on the needs and importance of the issue of organ shortage definitely
yields positive outcome. And it improve voluntary donation, which
is the most suitable and sustainable strategy and tool for combat
with the organ shortage. Voluntarism is considering as the best and
tool and strategy for organ availability. This can be enhanced by
sensitizing and making awareness on the issue. The personal pledge
and decision on organ decision can helps to make light and hope
on the lives of many people.

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Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 199

Conclusion
Social interventions for sensitizing the issue of organ donation
can make a positive result. An intensive and grassroots level
awareness only can make the things possible. The issue of organ
availability will be manageable only when people are ready to donate
organs voluntarily after death. The typical example of such
improvement through awareness in medical field is blood donation.
Before two-three decades availability of blood in the same group
was a risky task but the meanwhile it has been improved a lot with
millions of potential blood donors. The voluntary organ donation
can also cease the commercialization of organ transplant. According
to Delmonico (2009) the ease of communication technology in 21st
century made organ trafficking and transplantation tourism/
commercialism in to a global issue, accounting 10% of the organ
transplant performed yearly in the world. The potential benefits of
voluntary organ transplant after death can prevent these kinds of
evils practice and shed hopes on the lives of many people.

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2008

Alkhawari FS,
Stimson GV,
Warrens AN
Childress JF
2001
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prevention/road_safety_status/2013/en/
index.html. on 03-12-2014

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 201

Rights of Rural Children from


Protection Perspective
N.V. Vasudeva Sharma

N.V. Vasudeva Sharma


Executive Director
CRT-Child Rights Trust

Abstract:
Children constitute 39 percent of the total population and majority
of the children (72% of the total child population) are in rural parts
of the country who are living in an unequal condition compared to
their urban brethren. Due to ignorance, lack of facilities, and omission
by the duty bearers most of the rights of the rural children are violated.
In the best interest of children several meaningful and powerful
statutes and systems are created, but fail to reach the poor and rural
children resulting in their continued exploitation. There is an urgent
need for the concerned statutory body like the District Juvenile Justice
System to take note of the real condition of rural children with facts
and figures and direct the concerned duty bearers to deliver expected
services. If we ignore the rural children today, all the good intended
programmes, projects and statutes fail our young citizens.

Introduction
Till recently, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of
the Child (UNCRC) 1989 was one of the favourite subjects to discuss
at the podiums and seminars. It was also a very good material to

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Rights of Rural Children from Protection Perspective

quote in judgements and papers. Even after 25 years with Child


Rights we are still clueless in many spheres on the application of
the same. Child Rights is a subject to be implemented. And
implementation of child rights is a serious matter to be reported
from every level, every sector to the higher ups till the United Nations.
The per-se reporting that was tolerated till recently is now being
questioned. Questioned not only by international human rights
bodies, but, also our own courts are questioning the Govt on the
implementation of child rights. They have made it clear that they
cannot tolerate any more nonsense meted out to children due to
unequal treatment.
The Indian society is full of unequal strata in terms of rights
holders. It is very evident in every sector of our society, be it in
terms of religion, or caste or education or place of dwelling or
earnings or power or gender or age. Dr.B.R.Ambedkar, while
commenting on educational rights had emphasised that ...India is
the country of diverse castes and tribes, which are unequal in regard
to their social status and economic standards. If these (groups) were
to be brought on the equal footing then the principle of unequal
treatment must be acknowledged and accordingly special facilities
must be given to the particular deserving classes In the current
scenario children belonging to most of the backward classes, castes,
regions, ethnic areas and rural parts deserve this kind of special
treatment.
India has accepted the UNCRC dictum and has declared in its
several documents including NPC-National Policy for Children
2012 that a child is any person below eighteen years. Analyses of
the Census figures reveal that children constitute almost 39% of
population in India.
A close look at the census figures show that around 34 crore
children live in rural India [i.e., 72% of the total child population
and 28% of the total population from all age groups]. But, without
any prejudice towards children in urban areas, any statistical data
shows that large number of facilities, be it schools, playgrounds,
recreational centres, health facilities, paediatricians, life skill

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 203

specialists, counsellors, skill training facilities, protection measures,


monitoring mechanisms on services to children etc., to specify a
few, hover around cities. Consequently, Govt and private investments
for children also get pulled into urban areas. Thus, the rural children
continue to suffer unequal treatment.

Violation of Rights of Children


Our society is still hesitant to accept the new age definition about
children. Several of our national statutes and statutory bodies have
varied and countering explanations to recognise children and
childhood. While all Acts state that their primary objective is to
guarantee justice to their specified groups, they fail to recognise the
changes that have been brought into new and progressive Acts. For
that matter, a few Acts promulgated post UNCRC 1992 and even
post NPC 2013 have turned a blind eye to the age of the child. The
much acclaimed RTE Act 2009 and the Vendors Act 2014 still
consider persons below 14 as children.
Indian rural parts are still facing numerous issues that include
illiteracy, poverty, big families, lack of nutrition, lack of medical
facilities, disability, child labour, bonded child labour, school
dropouts, missing and run away children, trafficking, lack of basic
facilities in schools, lack of transportation, children running around
to collect water, fodder and fuel, etc. To this list recent additions
are rural children falling prey to addictions. The caste and religious
discrimination are still plaguing our children, thus pushing children
to be victims of several kinds of exploitation.
To address these, both Central and State Governments have
hundreds of projects, programmes and schemes and stipulate crores
of rupees in every budget. But, any sample survey raises questions
about the feasibility, effectiveness and reach of programmes related
to social, survival, health, education and protection rights of rural
children while comparing them to the national development
indicators. There are two recognised reasons for this.
a. Most of the programmes meant for children are very generic
and many a times they fail to address the unequal masses

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Rights of Rural Children from Protection Perspective

b. Even now planning for rural children do not begin with


consultation from grassroots.
The UN CRC 1989 directs the States parties that there should be
no discrimination among any (groups of) children. But, as
mentioned earlier, as Dr.B.R.Ambedkar recognised long back, the
disadvantaged children due to unequal treatment continue to suffer
discrimination. A basic reason for this is omission on the part of
the duty bearers who firstly have the responsibility of identifying
the problems and addressing them effectively by using the available
resources and secondly, reporting to the concerned authorities about
the real situations. Problems of all kinds of violations
(discrimination, physical, psychological, sexual, and economic);
child marriages, infant mortality, devadasi, trafficking of children,
etc., are not at all serious matters to most of the duty bearers. Over
and above, children in need of care and protection are hardly
recognised for any benefit and children in conflict with law are
rarely recognised and brought before the corrective system. Apart
from this the development thinkers are worried about the problems
associated with very high rate of migration to urban areas and the
children living in slums without any facilities. With this perspective
we are in an emergency situation to redefine and realign all services
and protection measures for rural children.
All of us presume that every parent aims to provide basic
necessities and protect their children. But, unfortunately this is not
a societal or mass stand. Existence of child labour in various forms,
including bonded labour, child trafficking, child marriages, physical
and sexual harassment of children are just a few testimonies for
this. While the Constitution proclaims these as violations and there
are strong and stringent Acts that ban or prohibit these, we the
citizens of this country still treat them as common, tradition or
inevitable. That too, if such violations are in rural parts there is still
lack of facilities that monitor and report them.
Some of the most visible offences against children that are in
blatant violation of child rights can be perceived by analysing the
following sample facts:

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 205

Sex ratio: While the Sex ratio in all age groups is 943 [Rural

949 and Urban 929]; the child sex ratio [0-18 years age group]
is 907 [Rural 911 and urban 896].
Health: Although India has made several strides in achieving
health targets, large chunk of children are still out of
immunisation cover, routine health checkups, referral services,
ICU care due to inactive PHCs.
Child Marriages: In every 100 marriages, 47 brides were
below 18 years. [56 Rural and 29 Urban]
School Dropouts: In the midst of the much acclaimed RTE
Act and other programmes and having almost 100%
enrolment in schools, 50 to 60% of children dropout much
before they complete their primary schooling. Again rural
dropout rate is higher than the urban areas and added to it
girl child dropout in rural areas is much higher than the
latter. Over and above, the recent studies also have shown
that children in schools have not attained required academic
skills that re expected to be.
School facilities: Most schools and particularly rural schools
[Government, aided and unaided] schools even today report
lack of basic facilities, adequate number of teachers, etc] that
result in poorly equipping the students who fail to compete
with their counterparts from urban areas.
Missing and run away children: On an average one lakh
children go missing in the country and almost 50% of the
missing children go untraced. It is girls from rural areas who
are the most susceptible. As per the reported number of cases,
a child goes missing every 8th minute.
Child labour: As per Census 2011, the child workers [in 5 to
14 years age group] number is around 43 lakhs [2001 it was
1 crores 26 lakhs]. Although this sounds very encouraging,
one may have to question about what do the school dropout
children do and where do the missing children go?
Abuse, violence, crimes against children: The statistical trend
clearly shows that there is increase in the reported number of

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Rights of Rural Children from Protection Perspective

crimes against children [2012: 38,172 and 2013: 58,224 an


increase of 52%]. With the addition of POCSO 2012 wherein
mandatory reporting and most offences made cognizable,
the crime rate against children is bound to go up. Interestingly,
in most of the discussions, it is claimed that bulk of the crimes
reported are from urban areas! This in itself reveals the hidden
real fact. Along with this, children in conflict with law are
also a matter of concern. The current report indicates that
there is a minor increase in the rate of cases filed against
children in the Juvenile Justice Boards. It is around 1 to 1.2%
of the total crimes reported in the country.
Not all the above mentioned categories come directly under the
so called definition of CRIME as understood in a police station.
Most of them are per se omission of duties. And omission of duties
is never perceived as harming some body.

Measures to Protect the Rights of Children


Indian society has come a long way, from the age of denial to
the period of accepting the fact that children have rights and the
adult world has the duty to respect and uphold the rights of the
children. This has not happened automatically. Continued public
outcry, advocacy by NGOs, legal activism, academic and action
researches, advice and pressure by international and UN bodies,
etc., have resulted in formulating new legislative instruments or
application of the existing statutes effectively. Thus, the inherent
right of children as citizens is getting recognised. Apart from
Constitutional guarantee for rights, there are several statutes
pertaining to health and survival; protection; education and
development; various policies, programmes also strive for protecting
the rights of all children.
Some of the notable measures are:
National and State Commissions for Protection of Child
Rights
District level special courts to trial crimes against children
District Child Welfare Committees with judicial authority
for care and protection of children

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 207

District Juvenile Justice Boards for addressing the issues of


children in conflict with law
Child Welfare Officers at every police station who are part of
the SJPU-Special Juvenile Police Units
ChildLine 1098 free Helpline
DCPU-District Child Protection Units
Child Rights Grama Sabhas
These and many other programmes and projects with designated
official machinery from national level to Grama Panchayat level
are striving to uphold the rights of every child. But, the rural children
who are victims of unequal treatment even today miss out on many
of their legitimate rights due to lack of personnel, information,
appropriate channels to approach for justice and timely help from
the statutory bodies. Very often, their vulnerability increases multi
fold due to either inaction or omission on the part of duty bearers
or misinterpretation, inappropriate implementation of the existing
statutes or hesitation to apply appropriate measures.
The need of the hour is to activate all the existing statutory bodies
at various levels, particularly in rural set up to act as per their
objectives and prevent crimes against children at families; homes,
hostels and orphanages; implementation of welfare schemes, public
places; schools; recreation centres; play grounds; hospitals or any
place children frequent or are found in.

Panchayat System a Legitimate Authority to Protect the


Rights of Children
The Karnataka Panchayat Raj Act empowers the GP, TP and
ZP to be the local Government to take up planning locally to uphold
the rights of children through several social programmes. Be it health,
nutrition, education, disability development, sharing information,
etc. It is expected that GPs take up planning after situational analysis
for child development.
In this context, it will be relevant to refer to Pakistani economist
Mehboob-ul Haque and Nobel laureateAmartya Sen who changed
the world perception about development by introducing HDIHuman Development Indicators (1989).

208

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Rights of Rural Children from Protection Perspective

Published on 4 November 2010 (and updated on 10 June 2011),


starting with the 2010 Human Development Report, the HDI
combines three dimensions:
A long and healthy life: Life expectancy at birth
Education index: Mean years of schooling and Expected
years of schooling
A decent standard of living:Gross national income
(GNI)at purchasing power parity per capita (PPPUS$)
If such planning and monitoring of all welfare and social
programmes are done at the bottom most level, i.e., the Grama
Pannchayat level all the rights of the children would be protected.

Recommendations and Conclusions


There is a myth that crimes against children are an urban
phenomenon. But, in reality, while the crimes in urban areas are
seen, heard and reported, most of the violations of child rights in
rural parts are buried or not recognised at all. While many service
providers choose to ignore the rights, even the law enforcement
authorities turn a blind eye towards them. This has to be addressed
by all concerned and activate the district, taluk and Grama
Panchayat level machinery to guard and uphold rights of rural
children.
The District Magistrate in charge of Juvenile Justice
Supervision has to have periodic review of all child centred
services and institutions while asking for realistic statistical
data from the concerned departments and review with cross
verification.
Child Rights should be an agenda point in all KDP
Kar nataka Development Programme reviews, while
demanding the administration to develop a realistic District
Plan of Action for children with clear cut development
indicators.
Zilla Panchayat, Taluk Panchayats and Grama Panchayats
should take child rights related issues as an agenda in their
regular meetings.
Most of the basic services for children are hampered largely

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 209

due to lack of personnel, supplies and delay in allocation of


funds. The district administration should be monitoring these
in the best interest of the child.
CWCs along with DCPU should conduct sensitising
programmes in taluks and selected grama panchayats to
disseminate information about services and protection
measures available as well as complaint mechanism in place.
The Legal Aid Services Authority of the district, with the
assistance of law students should hold free legal education
and legal aid clinics and camps and public hearings on child
centred issues jointly with CWCs, DCPU and Law colleges.
The field publicity dept of both centre and state government
should hold public education camps, exhibitions and jathas
on various child rights issues.
NGOs with Corporate Social Responsibility should take up
Child Rights centred advocacy and lobbying exercises and
prepare reports on the situation of children with statistics and
case studies to educate the peoples representatives and to
activate the service providers.

References
GOI
2013
GOI
2011
GOI
2009
GOI
2014
GOI
2000
GOI
2011
GOI
2015
GOI
2014
GOI
2011

NPC-National Policy for Children 2013


Census of India, Census Dept. censusindia.gov.in
accessed on 12.2.1015
The Right of Children for Free and Compulsory
Education 2009
Street Vendors (Protection of Livelihood and
Regulation of Street Vending) Act, 2014Sec. 4(1) GOI
Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act
2000/2006, GOI
Census of India, Census Dept. censusindia.gov.in
accessed on 12.2.1015
Draft National Plan of Action to Prevent Child
Marriages in India, wcd.nic.in/childwelfare/
draftmarrige.pdf accessed on 14.2.1015
National Crime Records Bureau 2014, http://
ncrb.gov.in/ accessed on 14.2.1015
Census of India, Census Dept. censusindia.gov.in
accessed on 14.2.1015

210

N.V. Vasudeva Sharma

GOI,
2005
GOI
2012
GOI
2000

GOI
2006
Govt of
Karnataka,
2006
Nayak.CD
2003

Rights of Rural Children from Protection Perspective

National Commissions for Protection of Rights of


Children 2005, GOI
Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act 2012,
GOI
Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act
2000/2006, GOI
Ibid
Ibid
ICPS Integrated Child Protection Scheme, GOI
Circular issued by Dept of Rural Development and
Panchayat Raj, Government of Karnataka 2006

Thoughts and Philosophy of Dr.B.R.Ambedkar,


Education and Ambedkar, (Pp82) , Sarup & Sons, New
Delhi
Satyarthi,
Globalisation, Development and Child Rights, Shipra
Kailash; Zutshi, Publications, NewDelhi
Bupinder
(Editors)
2006
United Nations United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
1989
1989 Art 2
Unicef
State of the World's Children, 2013, UNO, Geneva
2013
Verma R.R.,
Crimes in India 2013, a compendium, National Crime
(Editor)
Records Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs,
Government of India, New Delhi 66.
Ibid pp 131
Wikipedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_
Development_Index accessed on 14.2.2015

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 211

Olinda Pereira
Karnatakas Social Work's Finest Icon
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Compiled by: Ramesha M.H.

Born into a Catholic family in Falnir at Mangalore as the


youngest of the three sisters, Rita Olinda Periera embraced the
religious order of the Daughters of the Heart of Mary (DHM).
Dr. Olinda Periera pioneered social work education in the state of
Karnataka by setting up the School of Social Work "Roshini Nilaya"
in 1960 under the auspices of the Institute of Social Service which
offers BSW, MSW, and PhD besides other courses affiliated to the
Mangalore University. As its Founder-Principal, Dr.Periera was an
outstanding mentor and a role model. She was not only a great
social work teacher, but also a social work practitioner of eminence.
She founded the Urban Community Development Centre, Home
Science Institute, School for the Blind, Family Service Agency, and
Working Women's Hostel. She is keen to promote education and
empowerment of women. She has now been engaged in creating a
Golden Age Eco Village for the comprehensive community-based
care for the elderly as Director of Vishwas Trust. Dr.Periera says
that "there should be a law which enables Right to Dignified Death
on the lines of the Right to Education and Right to Information".
Olinda Periera has been a tremendous source of inspiration to

212

Ramesha M.H.

Olinda Pereira Karnatakas Social Works Finest Icon

hundreds of young men and women. Olinda Periera is synonymous


with selfless service to humanity, and has been a recipient of many
awards in India and abroad. In her 90 th year, Olinda Periera's
birthday falls on the Indian Independence Day : a befitting
coincidence .

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Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 213

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214

Ramesha M.H.

Olinda Pereira Karnatakas Social Works Finest Icon

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Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 215

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216

Ramesha M.H.

Olinda Pereira Karnatakas Social Works Finest Icon

Tribute to Olinda Pereira


Henry J. D'Souza*
Set your heart on doing good. Do it over and over again, and you will
be filled with joy.
- Buddha
If persons can be considered as musical instruments, then
theircontributions to society are the melodies that emerge. Dr. Olinda
Pereiras life has been such a sweet melody that has brought joy
and comfort not only to those around her but also to those who
are touched by the organizations she founded and programmes she
initiated.
I first met Dr. Pereira when I started my masters degree in social
work at the Roshni Nilaya School of Social Work in Mangalur
(also spelled as Mangalore in the anglicized phonetics and
RoshniNilaya means house of light) in 1975. Unlike typical nuns
with distinctive garments as a mark of their congregational identity,
the Daughters of the Heart of Mary (DHM), an international
religious society that was founded in France in 1790 during the
French Revolution, the religious society that Dr. Pereira belonged
to, wore sarees that blended with the traditional attire of the women
in India. My first impressions of her were, that she was kind,friendly,
full of joy, and easy to approach. She, instantaneously made one
feel at ease. Dr. Pereira was a professor and the principal of the
Roshni Nilaya School of Social Work, affiliated to the University
of Mysore at that time. I was a student in her classes where she
taught Abnormal Psychology. Dr. Pereira was the first one to
introduce me to various types of mental illnesses and the symptoms
that accompanied each, occasionally pondering whether I had those
psychopathic symptoms myself, during her lectures.
Born in Falnir, Mangalur, she turns 90 in 2015 on the day of
Indias independence. She made her First Profession, anexpression
for, becoming a DHM nun, in 1962 and was a pioneer to establish
the DHM Society in India along with PaivaCouceiro. Sheis one
of the founders of the Roshni Nilaya School of Social Work in
1960, one among the early schools of social work to be established

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 217

in India. As a result of her tireless workmobilizing the support


of the helpful bureaucrats, academic and community leaders and
her supporters in the DHM, she jumped through bureaucratic
hurdles, raised funds,and set up a number of community outreach
service agencies such as the Urban Community Development Centre,
the Fibre Centre, School for the Blind, Home Science Institute,
Family Service Agency, and Anganwadi Training Centre in and
round Mangalur. Over the years, these agencies have served
thousands of poor and needy people. Besides offering B.A. degrees
in a number of disciplines, RoshniNilayaoffers Bachelors in Social
Work, Masters in Social Work, Counseling, Criminology and
Forensic Science. The doctoral degree in social work was introduced
in 1983. The National Assessment and Accreditation Council of
India has accredited RoshniNilaya with A grade. The social
workers who graduated from the School, are serving all over India
and around the world.
After 20 years as a principal, Dr. Pereira retired in 1984, but she
did not stop working. The plight of the elderly in Mangalur drew
her attention. With the changing family structuretwo-child
families, erosion of the traditional way of taking care of the elderly
by children who stayed in the parental home, has exacerbated the
problems elderly face.Marriage and jobs result in children moving
away leaving the elderly parents to tend for themselves without any
social support or assisted living facilities as in many developed
countries. Recognizing the plight of the elderly, Dr. Pereira founded
the Vishwas Trust in 1998, to train caregivers for the elderly and
setting up a 24-hour helpline and developing comprehensive care
giving facilities. This, indeed is an indispensable service to the people
of Mangalur, a city that was ranked 13th in elder abuse based on a
survey by Helpage, India in 2013.
The Mangalur community has expressed its appreciation to Dr.
Pereiras long service, by conferring her the prestigious Abbakka
award by the VeeraraniAbbakkaUtsavaSamitiin January 2011. The
International Institute for Public Policy (IIPP) recognized her as
the Outstanding Community Leader for the 2013-1014 year. Dr.

218

Ramesha M.H.

Olinda Pereira Karnatakas Social Works Finest Icon

Pereira was alsohonoured with the privilege of inaugurating the


International Day Against Drug Abuse on June 26, 2014.
I have admired Dr. Pereiras work from far; I wish I could have
observed it up close. Dr. Pereira wasnt pleased about my leaving
India after getting married to my classmate, Eliza, who had
immigrated to the U.S., and to pursue my doctoral studies. One
ends up where the random events in our lives, which the Indian
culture recognizes as, Adrishta the unseen, invisible, and fate, take
us. When I was a student, Dr. Pereira helped me far more than I
realized at that time. I joined the School of Social Work after
leaving the St. Josephs Seminary in Jeppu;jumping the wall as
such acts are reproachfully labeled, gave much anguish to my mother
who wanted me to be a Catholic priest. Changes like these are
distressingand turbulent at that young age. Dr. Pereira was a strong
support during those difficult years. I would not have completed
my Masters degree in social work, if she had not secured me a
scholarship from the Indo-German Social Service Society. She
counseled and guided me through my youthful injudiciousness when
I was a student and during my first jobs at the Mukka Welfare
Society and the Madras School of Social Work in Chennai. As
anindebted recipient of her generosity and grace, I am, and will
always remain, grateful to Dr. Olinda Pereira. She is, indeed a
blessingPunya Athmanot only to me, but also to the community
of Mangalur and has exemplified the Roshni Nilaya motto adopted
from Tagore: Love is made fruitful in service in her life that
keeps on giving ever so joyful melodies.
Only a life lived for others is a life worthwhile.
- Albert Einstein

Dr.Henry J. D'Souza, Professor, Grace Abbott School of Social Work,


University of Nebraska at Omaha, United States of America.

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 219

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Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 221

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Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 223

sgvz Gv Pt zw

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Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 225

g PdU iv 3000QAv a zyU zRw A.


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Gv Ptz Ml zRwAi Cvz gj (29%) U zU
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Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 227

PP-8: Gv Ptz ifP zs UAU Ml zRwAi


Cv (2009-10)
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2008-09
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1990-91 2000-01 2010-11 2011-12


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: RUSA (g), MHRD. : JJLE-2010-11, JA.JZ.Dg.r

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zs A KjPAiiVgz Uz tU. Dzg
PP v zyU CvP CUtV rzg Prz.

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 229

U zs AAi Pgv PAAi zAiU


.35%g, gd zAiU .40% g, ri zAiU
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sgvz Gv Ptz Z
PP-13: Gv Ptz Z (f.r.Ai Pqg)

Ptz Z (f.r.Ai Pqg itzAv)


Pt (f.r.Ai Pqg)

Gv Pt (f.r.Ai Pqg)

2006-07

3.64

1.14

2007-08

3.4

1.09

2008-09

3.56

1.18

2009-10(RE)

3.98

1.29

2010-11 (BE)

3.8

1.22

PP-14: dP Zz Pqg Ptz Z

Pqg dP Z

Pqg Z (f.r.Ai Pqg)

1951-52

7.92

0.64

1960-61

11.99

1.48

1970-71

10.16

2.11

1980-81

10.67

2.98

1990-91

13.37

3.84

2000-01

14.42

4.28

2010-11 (BE)

14.16

3.8

: Ptz RZ irz DAi-Aiz u-JA.JZ.Dg.r

F PPU UzU dP Zz Pt PvP


Czg Gv PtP EAigU vA Pr AiVgz
PAqgvz. CAzg Ml fr Ai .1% QAv Prz. gAi
Pt w-1968 v 1986 (1992 g POA) EU Pg Ml
frAi .6% g Pt PvP qPAz sg irz.
Dzg 2010-11 (BE) g DAiAiz Ptz Z 3.8% g
jAz wzgvz.

230

UAzgd

sgvz Gv Ptz Uw: MAz CP

PP-15: eUwP lz Azs v CUV (R &D)


DyP Aiz AaP (DAi gU)
P.A

zU

Azs v CUV
DyP lz Pqg

DjP (Ai.J)

33.60%

Aig

25.00%

12.60%

12.50%

sgv

2.10%

Evg

15.00%

: l (Battele)Dg CAq r iUe-2009, Dg.r. ArAU


jm

Gv Ptz AzsAi Csd CAU. EzjAz vPtz


AU jwAi zu vg
zVz. Azs
v C UV
eUwP lz DyPV Ai iqzg sgv zz
2.1%, Z-12.5%. Cz F PPz Evg C
Az zU DyPvA
i Ai vjVz. EzjAz Azs

v C UV (R & D) DyPV Ai iqz aPAz
V wz gvz.

sgvz Gv Ptz Ai RV v AU
sgvz zAiz zs Ai DAiU (Aif)Ai Gv
Ptz Rz v vz. Ez zs Ai Pqz
C C Gv Ptz Gvv/ Utl zsj v
U PtP PAiPU AAif PAiU
iq dj Ag MAz AivvAi AAiiVz.
Ezz zs wg jvU PUU iv Pq v
wg AU v U z Ptz PUU
zsAi Pq djAi AUAzg AICTE, DEC, ICAR,
BCI, NCTE, RCI, MCI, PCI, INC, DCI, CCH, CCIM. EU
sgvzg wg jvUV.

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 231

sgvz Gv PtP g Pq Aid


g (RUSA)
sgv Pgz DyP Aiz Pm w 3 CPg
2013 gAz g (DgAiJJ), Ez sgvz Gv PtPg
Ag wAi qV vgz AidU PAz Cz
rv.
s gv z P Az P g 2013g G v P tP g
(DgAiJJ) JA PAz AidAi ejUv. Ez Gv
PtP wAi qVAwz, Ez gAi Gv Ptz
JAv zVz. Ezg R Uj gdlz Gv Ptz
zRw, v v Utl Gv Ptz C Aid
P vgzVz. g P FV Gv Ptz Ml zRw
Cv .19% jAz 2022g wU 32% gP a z
AifVz. UAi Gv PtP gdU AiVwg
t az jz. g AidAi PAz R
GzU F PVAw.
gd zAi U U A i v v U v z v
Dqv zsjz U gdlz Gv Pt
zwAi zsj AiPU Gj v Aid
AAiAz z.
gdlz
FUU Eg Gv Pt
AU
jtV
Utl vgz.
AU
U CUtV
v
z

g
AU
z
U x
az v zRwAi zAz
AU z.
G v Ptz zRwAi g z P C i v Ai
Ur zP ivAi vg n Gv Pt
AU g Eg zU AU Plz.
ifP v zAiUz Aig, CASvg,
jew/ j AUqz

g
, Azz U
v CAUPjU
j Ai i z CP U P G v Pt z vA i
az.
Gv Pt AU U Utl AAi Eqz.
Cz AAi x a vgw PAiPU
Pz.

232

UAzgd

sgvz Gv Ptz Uw: MAz CP

g AidAi A gZAi gAi lz 4 AU


Agvz. CUAzg z g Cxjn fP
C q, mQP m U CAq fP
qgPgm (JA.JZ.Dg.r Ai) E J jwAi
i U z , w tAi v Ai d u
A Ai f z U PAi g P v g P
v. gdlz wAiAz gdzAi m Aig
JdP P P Az Az Vg v z . Ez e P
qgPgmU (gd Pgz) Ai iqvz v mQP

m U
gd lz dP u, AAifz,
PAigP vgz U Gj rPvz. AAi
lz q Ds Ugg v eP injAU
Ai m RV A Ai g Ai d A i g Z
iqzVgvz. F AidAi FUU PAigP
Az.

sgvz Gv Ptz R U

z z G v P t n g PAz EA g U
Uz tUAi Azv Azg Gv Pt
UAz PV. EAz CwRV Jzjwg U
v UAzg
1. Pg (Access)
EAz Gv Pt Pr zRw qAiwz, CzgAU
Ml zRwAi Cv .19.4%gz. (Gv Pt qAi
CvAi 18-23 zg) v zz Ml zRwAi
Cv DjP (80)g, g (78)g, EAUAq (59)g,
Aii (40), Z (24) Avz C Ag v
C Azwg vP gUU P irzU
zz Ml zRw Cv Prz. Cz 2009-10g +2
Avz Cv qzg .67.55% g zRwAiizg .32.45%
g Gv Pt
Az gU gz rzg zP zRwAi
MAz Vz.
2. v (Equity)
sgv z zsvAi KPv Az v zs Aw,
zAiU MU
Arg g. Gv Pt
JjU iP

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 233

qP. Dzg 2011g Ml zRwAi Cv Uzg


.20.8%g gg .17.9%g Aijz, AU vgvz
vzjz. Cz Gv Ptz Pz ifP
zAiU Civ (Ml zRwAi Cv J. .13.5%,
J.n .11.2%-2011gAv)Ai z U gdAz gdP
v Ut v Ug zU q Civz. GzguU
Ut-.13.9%, Ug-.32.5% U vq .31.80%, g
.10.5%, eRAq 8.1%, Udgv .21.3%g Ml zRw
Cvgz. Ez Gv Pt CivAi Az
wz.
3. Utl (Quality)
Gv Ptz AU zs A v sv
sU Pgvz. 2008 g .40% g zs AAi
Pgv Jzjwg z jz. E P Pg .62%g
zAiU v .90% g PdU UUz Utlz
CAU gj Cx gjVAv Pr CAU Agz
Utlz JAvz JAz vjvz. E PP-zs
v PAijU jtz guAi Egz. KPAzg
PdUg iiz QAiAi PgtVz. Gv
P zzsgg ggw. E AzsAi PAiiVz,
Mmg Pt gzAwz Pr lz GzUP Pwg
Avz Utlz U Gv Pt EAz Jzjwz.
4. Dqv v tP
EAz zAiU PdUU AAid q Dqv
QAiAi zAiP Dqvz gAiiVz v zAiU
Dqvz jAiiz gZvPv v Aivvgz, SV
PdU PqU Gv Ptz az, EU Gv Ptz
sU z v z gr-AiU Dqv
QAi. E DyPV gd v PAz PgU
Prz. Cz Azsgz U DAiAiz vA
Pr Pqg jz UV.

234

UAzgd

sgvz Gv Ptz Uw: MAz CP

sgvz Gv Ptz CU U
zz Gv Pt Ai AZz 3 zq Gv
Pt Ag gVgzjAz g U
Ur AZz Cw zq Gv Pt Ai Pl
CP Ez. D n PAz UAzg
G v P t z a zRwAi AU Ml zRwAi
Cv az. Gv PtP Cvg 18-23g
Aiiz AidvAi Gv Ptz PqU Aiz
Ez P V CU v g Pt z P U lU x
a
z. AU +2 Avz Gv Pt
z iUz

q wU vgAiP. EzjAz zRwAi a
zsz.
Gv Pt q gdAz gdP, Ug v Ut
U ifP zAiUz Aig, CASvg,
J., J.n, Az z U, CAUPg zRwAi
CA v g g z U r i fP v
zAizjU Gv Ptz sU Pz
z CU Cj rP v CU gV
sUAv PAi Aid gP. E zP
Ci vA
i Ur (18-23 g Aiiz
g
Dzsgz
v Gv Pt qAi DQAi zAiU
CAzd ir CU jUt AU z
P Vz . C z U t z U v A P r
zRwgzjAz C CPg Pq zAiU
v PdU vgAiP.) U AzsvP v
ifP iU ZPn Gv Ptz jggAv
P PUP. zyU Aiiz jwAi sz-s
iqz gPz s Av ifP Pt
q CPvz.
Gv Pt MAz ifPV v Ug PzPwz.
KPAzg JZ.r JA Pt qzg id jP iq
PU Pgv v GzUP Av
AidU P PP U sv PAiU
J Pt AU EgAv rPz. Ez CAv

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 235

AU
Pg Cx SV PAU .J.Dg tAz
CUz. Ez gzUP. PAz v gd
PgU zzg SV PAU JDg t
Gv PtP AiVAv vz. Mmg J
jwAi Utl PrP PU vPt PAz v
gd PgU PUP.
zz Gv Pt RV rP Aif
AAi Dqvz Gv jwAi zuAiiUP. Ez
AivvAi PrPP. Aiiz Pg g
gdQAi PP Cx PAz PgP CVg gz.
U Gv Pt CUV jwAi Dqv Ai
PAvAz gA n Aif aAwP.
E DyP U AAzAv 1986g gAi Pt w
G v P t P .6% Ml frAi q P A z
gzjAz Pg v gd PgU Ezg Dzsgz
DAiAi iqAv rPP.
zAiU PdU AAidAi Dqv Ai
zsjz U G PwU DAiAi gzPvAi
vgz CPVz.

GAg
sgvz Gv Ptz CAi EAigU Uz
zs irzg C Ag vP gUU P
irzU zz Gv Ptz C Azz. UAi
C Azwg gUz Z, Aii, zQt PjAii
zU zz Gv PtQAv GvVz. vz sgvz
AU jwAi Gv Ptz evU GzUP irPmU
iv qsz Gv Pt Ai g zs. vPtz
Utl Pq n Gv Ptz Dqv, tP
U z U P v zRw v v U
UtlUAqAv aP B P CAQ-CAUAz
JAz PgU Gv Ptz vdg, AwU, SV Dqv
AqAig jP irPz EAz CvPVz. F
n Gv Pt CrPVz.

236

UAzgd

sgvz Gv Ptz Uw: MAz CP

Dzsg UAxU
CUg
2006

s g v z G v P t : z u A i CU v v
PAiAidAi R. 180, EArAi P sg
jZ D EAlg JPP j, z

.
Jm sg Ai jPgAm mUm r
g Ai.f..
Gv Ptz MAz Q l, z.

g
2007
Ai .f.
2013
Ji.JZ.Dg.r
g qPAm. z.
2013
Ji.JZ.Dg.r
J.L.J. JZ. E g, z.
2010-11
Ji.JZ.Dg.r
J.L.J. JZ. E g, z.
2011-12
Ji .JZ.Dg.r,
gAi Pt w, z.
sgv Pg
Ag-1986
sgv Pg
gAi e DAiUz gAi g-2006, z.
2007
Ji.JZ.Dg.r Djz CAQ CAU g.
J J J M 66 w g, 2009-10
J J J M 64 w g, 2009-10
l Azs
Dg CAq r Ai DyP Ai CAw g.
v C wP
2009

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 237

UjP P t gvg fAi


zsguA i AAi v: g fA i
P
q U z MAz Czs Ai
z J. rg
zgd Dg.

z J. rg
jAi AzsPj (GRAAM) v
jAi A, C u sU,
vPvg PAz, -q PA,
g zAi, g

zgd Dg.
A, C u sU,
vPvg PAz, -q PA,
g zAi, g

gA
dg Czg
V Ui Avg z
U

Cg DzAiz x
a
PAiAU AUu, PtP, e PtP, P
PtP, UjPAiAx P AA ZlnPU
R v v.
UjPAi t, Cw t gvg v s gvjU Czg AijU
Pr zgz Dg v PA MzVzg evU Cw RV
AiPjAiiVz. UjPAi Pq Uz t v Cw t gvg
G-DzAiz Rz Vz. `v j
AiA AAi
CAi dg Pj, Ai-PgUzV UjPAi
vVz; dg AAi A, Cjzg, U FU Czg
ws Aiwzg. P Rz UjPAi GAiUU v
juU
gvU
A
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AU ifP-DyP jw, MU
Arg
U U AAi g vU Pjv Aiv
iqVz. CzsAiz Ai ASvP v UuvP

238

z J. rg
v zge Dg.

UjP P t gvg fAi .....

zvAU
g
q

PArg iwAi
Vz. ASvP U
UuvPUgq Pgz zvAU AU - P v

s Vvz
ZZ zwU

Vv. zs
v s
vU

E Pqg
vjVz. `gvg vVg d sU
Ai ,
UjPAi irzg v f l
zsjPz JAz
F Czs AiAz PAqP
Vz. Dzg AiAzg Czg
PjU s
Ai
E, DzU Cg UjPAi wg z
AzAiAiv
v. UjPAi Pq Ug f GwPjz.

pP :

UjPAi AzP, Ai v CZjPVz,


AZz qjU a GzU U t itz gU
vz. UjPAi Ut qv, PAU Pgv, Evg
ifP U j zs zsUAzVz. Ji.J.
G U C Ji. (2012) CgU AUz
v Evg g zUAz `Ug, GUg v Ut sUz
dg fAiz zsguU t itz UjP
PAPj Azg. UjPAi MAz R DzAiz
wAi Vz, sgvz Aiiv, grv zU Cw
t v gvg V Ut z dg qv v
gzUU guAi Uj Ag ZlnPUAz JAz
jUt

Vz. Ewa U
DgU AgPu
A
i zsgu, Gzz
C, UjPAz e, AUu AiAz
U UjPAi Aiwz v Ut dg DyP wAi
tUU qzVz (APm 2008).
FU Qgvz Pv sgv P PPgUAq t
gvjAz vAz, Cg xPV AU v UPjU
MzV PlAP PPg CAzg. .80 g
P 2 jAz 5 U siAz ggeUvz. sgv
C Azwg MAz g. P zsVg E UjPAi
CAi s g EAz Rz OzVP
AUwAiiVz. UjPAi P f zu, v F
GAi dg U vqVzg, AiA K AAi v, E
zz AUwU U dg DyP w zsguU Pjz
U Cg zA f Aiz zu E CAU
wzP CzsAiPg (AzsP)g Cw DQ Azg.

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 239

gvjAz v AzU P AUz zvAU


u, G Ag v gAU F R MUArz.
Pq Uz DAi A gvgUAz U P
AUg wQAi/GvgU CAU uU Vz. ig
5420 dASAi Ag, E dg fAi
P CAv v g UgP wgzg l
U Pq. AiA AAi DAiz Pg v dg
DQA
iAU U zu E PAqgwz v UjPAi
CvAv UwgVgzjAz Ug fAi zsjnz.

zs v VU :

v CzsAi ASvP zs Av UuvP PgzVz.


idz zs UU izjUzsjz AAU zs
zvA AU R zsV Vz. Pq Uz
w
AU Ai U v
v
AUwUz eg u,
zU PnU, fv jwU Pjv iw AU AzsPg
`Pu zs zg. UjPAzz Cg f Ai
zu Pjv iw AU `- P PUVz.
Pq gvg CAi, CP, Cs, s zz xP
z zvAU AU `ZZ zs Vz. Ai AWAz DAi iqnz 10 d ssUAU
A zs P g Z a z g . U q g DU UjP
iqwg 100 d gvg Q 10 dg AzsPg ZZU DAi
irPArzg.

CzsAiz z :

v CzsAi zz Pq U 12 0 28 Gvg
CPA 760 76 gSAU A z PAq gwz,
z lAz 721 lg Jvgz Ez. f z jAz
P 15 Q.. CAvgzzg, gdz gdzs AUjAz 148
Q.. zgzz. Pq U gu Ai dAU
U AZ Ai PAzAi UVz, Gvgz gAUlt,
zQtz AdUq, Fz Aqg v z n.
gg vPUAz v
jAinz. zj Uz G UUz
qU Ar, q Ar, PAUq Ar U ArU
Ezg Ai j.
P q i g 1133 P lAU Ag U

240

z J. rg
v zge Dg.

UjP P t gvg fAi .....

ZAiVz, 2011 g dUtw Pg Ezg Ml dASAi


5420 Ez. Ezg 2782 gg v 2638 d Aijzg. F
U ZAiz gj AUv PlPz AUvQAv
P r z . CAz g P q U z 1000 g j U 948
Aijzg, PlPz gj AUv 973 Ez. C C
P AUv gdz gjVAv Prz. CAzg PlPz
897 Ezg Pq Uz 948 Ez. UAi E Pgv
it gdz gj PgvVAv PrAi Ez. PlPz .
75.36 Ezg, Pq Uz . 63.26 gz. E gg
PgvAi . 69.64 gzg Aigz . 56.58 gz.
Uz Ml dASAi j ewAi d . 6.22 Ezg,
j AUqz d . 0.72 Pq Uz Ml dASAi
1951 dg MAAz OzVP ZlnPAi vqVzg. .
89.70 g PUgg v GzU R GzUAz
t
zg. Cz UAzg
z 6 wAUU CP P v u
DzAi U P A i v q V g v g . E z . 10.30 d g
fAizV t-l OzVP ZlnPU P
v DzAi Uwzg. R GzUz vqVg 1951 dg
Q, 719 d Gg (Av Cx AiP) P 454 dg P
PPgVzg.
P av jAv Pq Uz . 35 gg MPU
dAU zs zAiVz, . 30 gg Jgq R
dzAi PAgg. F U z Evg zAiUz r
lg, PwAi Aig, DZAig, tg, AUAivg, j
ew, j AUq Jg j . 35 gzg.
F U z d g t q zg g Cz g 2
JPgVAv Pr dgg. P 1 Cx 2 gvg iv 2
JPgVAv CP d Agz. C aP sAi (2
JP g V Av P r d ) P lAz J z jU w
GzU MzVgz; UV Ug iV wgz
Ug zUU v fAiPV AiiAi PU Cg
Uvg, KPAzg Uz Az iq g Aiiz
P. Dzg Pq UjU AizAU t Az
iq UzAi UjPAz gAz sz iUz.

v l :

v UAfAig Zgzz Czg V `zg


Avg Rzz JA zqs APAi

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 241

.J. ZAzt JAg AiPvz v ( v P)


l AAi 1995 g Aznz. DgAsz ZAztgAU
P i Ug U z Perzg.
Aiz Avg l g Pq Uz Rg deUw
PAiP PArv. RV zj PAiP D
quAi U vd JAzg Pn qwzjAz djU
Cj CPvzzjAz KrVv. vzAvg Ug P
Czg djAi PAq , l Uz gvg U
PqU
v PAi PAPjv. AizAU a DzAi
MzV UjPU l Ai MzVv. 2010 g ijU
P QU AU iq/Aa zgvU zj
Ai AWU P Czg V AWU
PAiP j wiAi. D CAi Avg
g vQ `Qg AidAi gAsAi. 2013 gU 75
gz ssU, 2014g P-PU 100 vz. 2015 g
E ZU DAi lVz. FU Pq UAzg wAUU
CAzd 1.5 jAz 2 P lg Gvz v ggeUvz.

iwU u :
UjPU jw :

Azs zsz
Ai FUU jgAv U Rj
UjPAi PUArg 100 gvg Q 10 gvg A DV
DAi irPVz.
n-1 : A wAU jw
P.A.
GzU
wAU
AS
%
1.
Ai 5
50
2.
g
2
20
3.
Evg
3
30
Ml
10
100
: Pv P, 2015

n 1g vjzAv vB . 50 g d gvgVz, . 20
g dg t itz g iqwzg. Ez . 30

242

z J. rg
v zge Dg.

UjP P t gvg fAi .....

g dg Evg U, U, Plq PUj v


PUAv g g GzUU vqVPArzg.
n-2 : A wAU g
P.A.
U

wAU
AS
%
1
sv
5
50
2
gV
0
0
3
P
0
0
4
Evg
5
50
Ml
10
100
: Pv P, 2015

Pq UP j s gVgzjAz sv E
zs AiiVz. n 2 g Ez V UZjvz. .
g A gvg sv Ez . 50 g gvg vgPj
UAU Aivg.
n-3: A wAU UjP z DyP w
P.A.
DyP jwAi AvU
wAU
AS
%
1
Cw Gv
0
0
2
Gv
0
0
3
zs
6
60
4
izsPg
4
40
5
Pr
0
0
Ml
10
100
: Pv P, 2015

P n 3 gg U UjPAi PUzP AZ
Aiigg DyP jwAi Cw Gv Cx GvVg. .
60 g dg DyP wAi zs wAiz, Ez . 40 g
dgz izsPg wAiz. Aiig Pq Pr DzAiAzV
ZAi DyP wAigAz Avz AUw. CzP

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 243

PgtAzg Ut zU wAig PAiAU


CzP AAv Evg ZlnPU vqVPArgvg. Czg
V Pq Uz F AzAi PtzVz.

UjPAi rP v Az :
P.A.
1
2
3
4
5

n-4: U Rj CAvg
CAvgz C
wAU
AS
%
0-1 U Az
1
10
1-2 U Az
2
20
2-3 U Az
5
50
3-4 U Az
1
10
4 UU Z
1
10
Ml
10
100
: Pv P, 2015

nAi jAv UAi CP


dg UjPAi U Rj UjPAi UAgV
v q V P Arzg , Jg q Aw Z U U Rj
UjPAi vqVPAqg . 30 g div, . 60 P
a dg JgqjAz U C AiAi UjP
v wz Czg vqVPArzg. PV Jgq nU Q
zAizjAz dg Z Aq r Utlz
U PAqPArzg. . 70 g d g. 40,000/- iz
U Rjzg, . 10 g d g. 35,000/- iz U
Rjzg. Ez . 20 g dg g. 25,000/- iz
U qzg. Pr Ai CAzg g. 20,000/- iz
Aiig Rj. EzjAz gvg UtlP a
Pngz Uvz. VzU PP AS 6 rzg
DAiAmUvz. CzAzg . 60 g gvg U Pr
Ej Pqwgz wzgvz. Czg . 60 g
gvg U z P 10 lg Plg, . 20 gvg 20
lg qAiwzg. Gv Cx CP Ej qAi
gvg P . 20 iv, Cg AzP MAz Az 32
lg qAiwzg.

244

z J. rg
v zge Dg.

P.A.
1
2
3
4

P.A.
1
2
3
4

UjP P t gvg fAi .....

n-5 : U i
i g.U
wAU
AS
%
20,000
0
0
25,000
2
20
35,000
1
10
40,000
7
70
Ml
10
100
n-6 : Ej (w)
Ej (lgU)
Respondents
AS
%
10
6
60
20
2
20
20
0
0
32
2
20
Ml
10
100
: Pv P, 2015

P.A.
1
2
3
4

n-7 : U u Z (iP)
u Z (g.U)
wAU
AS
%
2000
2
20
2500
3
30
3500
3
30
5000P Z
2
20
: Pv P, 2015

Vzg, U...
Ez Uz gv .. Ugd JAg MAz
AzP CvP 36 lg Ej qwz.
Pgt qPV zj gvg Gv ,
Dg, P g gzz Czg uUV
aU t AiVvg Czg sV Gv ws.
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Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 245

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Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

P.A.
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Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 247

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Oliver Manton
2013
.f.J.
2009
Kindle Edition
2012
Uddin M.N.
Almamun M
2012
Venkatadri
2008

UAx It :

Recent Advances In Diary Farming, Random


Exports publishers, London
g qj, PAi P, g
The Art of Small Scale Farming with Dairy
Cattle, Atlantic Publishing Group Inc. Ocala,
Florida.
Small Scale Dairy Farming for livelihoods
of rural farmers: constraint and prospect in
Bangladesh. Journal of Animal Science
Advances J Amin Sci Adv.
A Study on improvement in rural livelihood
through Dairy Farming, National Institute
of Rural Development, PP. 1-3

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 249

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Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 251

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Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 253

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Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 255

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Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 257

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800/850/200/350/750/100/750/500/100/100/100/550/650/200/150/*****

NIRATANKA# 244, 3rd Main, Poornachandra Road,


MPM Layout, Mallathahalli, Bangalore - 560056,
Mob -9980066890, Off-080-23213710, 8064521470
Email: nirutapublications@gmail.com
Visit:
http://nirutapublications.blogspot.in/

Mode of Payment

You can Deposit/Transfer the amount or send DD/Cheque in


favour of Niruta Publications
Address:
Bank Details :
Syndicate Bank
Niruta Publications
Kengeri Satellite Branch
A/C No:04861010002019
Bangalore
IFSC Code : SYNB0000462

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 259

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu (SKH)


Social Work Foot-Prints
A bi-lingual (Kannada English) Social Work Journal
published 4 times a year: January, April, July and October.
Founded in 2010 by M.H.Ramesha, a social work and human
resources professional, SKHs primary focus is to popularize social
work and social development issues among social workers, social
work educators, social development professionals, students and
the Kannada-speaking people.

Guidelines for Authors

Basic Requirements

Title of the article should be relevant to the objectives


of SKH.
An abstract of about 100 words.
Length of article from 2,000 to 3,000 words.
References to be as per SKH style.
If an article does not meet these requirements, the article will
be rejected.

Declaration
Each article should be accompanied by a declaration by the
author(s) that:
He/she is the author of the article.
The article is original
The article has not been published, and has not been sent
for publication elsewhere.
A copy of permission from the copyright holder, if the
author has copied more than 500 words or tables or figures
from a published work.

Article Submission
The article should be submitted as soft copy, and hard
copy in duplicate

Hard copy should be typed in double space on one side


of A4 paper

260

The title page of the article should include the title and
the name of the author (without Dr, Mr, Ms, etc.) Then the
abstract should be typed in small font.
Authors degrees and other details should be at the end of
the article.
Communication regarding articles should be sent to
ramesha.mh@gmail.com, nirutapublications@gmail.com

Copyright
Once the article is accepted, the copy right of the article will be
owned by SKH journal. It should not be reproduced elsewhere
without the written permission of the Editor, SKH Journal.

References
Citation in the text briefly identifies the source. The last name
of the author and the year of publication are cited in the text. For
example, (Pathak, 2012).
The Reference List, given at the end of the typescript, should
provide complete information necessary to identify and retrieve
each source cited in the article: text, table or figure. Arrange entries
in the References in the alphabetical order by the last name of the
author and then by his/her initials.
1. References should be listed in two columns, separated by
a colon. The left hand column contains the detail of the
author(s) and the year of publication. The right hand
column contains the title of the publication and other data
related to that publication.
2. An article published in a journal should contain the
following details: Authors last name, initials, year of
publication, name of the article, name of the journal
(italicised), volume number, issue number in brackets, and
page numbers of the article.
For example:
Mohan, K. (1998). Social Change, Indian Journal of Social
Change, 23(2): 33-43.
3. An article published in an edited book should contain the
following details: Authors last name, initials, year of
publication, title of the article, initials and last name of

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 261

editors, Ed(s) in brackets, title of the book (italicised),


place of publication, name of the publisher and page
numbers of the article.
For example:
Nair, T.K. (2013). Old Age, In K.V.Rao (Ed), Older People
in India, Bangalore: Niruta Publications, 3-13.
4. A book should be listed in the following format: Authors
last name, initials, year of publication, title of the book
(italicised), place of publication and name of the publisher.
For example:
Pathak, S.H. (2012). Social Work and Social Welfare,
Bangalore: Niruta Publications.
5. When source is the internet, all the details of the
references should be given as described earlier. In
addition, mention as below:
Retrieved on 11.12.2013.

Book Review
Book review should follow the same requirements of
Article Submission like an article.

Copy right of book review will be owned by SKH


Journal.

Book review would need the concurrence of the Editor,


SKH Journal.

Reprints of your Article


We are happy to supply you with 25 reprints of your article if you so
desire in addition to the Two complimentary copies of the journal issue . The
cost of reprints and handling and mailing charges (Rs.575) may be sent by
cheque drawn in favour of "Niruta Publications". If you prefer online transfer, the details are as follows:
Bank Details:
Niruta Publications
A/C No:04861010002019
IFSC Code: SYNB0000462
Syndicate Bank
Kengeri satellite town branch, Bangalore-560060

262

MAG (3) NPP/321/2010-2011

ISSN No. : 2230-8830

SUBSCRIPTION FORM

SAMAJA KARYADA HEJJEGALU


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SAMAJA KARYADA HEJJEGALU

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Please address correspondence to the Editor


SAMAJAKARYADA HEJJEGALU
NIRATANKA, #244, 3rd Main, Poornachandra Road,
MPM Layout, Mallathahalli, Bangalore-560056.
Ph: 080-23213710 Mob: 9980066890
Email: socialworkfootprints@gmail.com,
Visit: http://socialworkjournal.blogspot.in/

Samaja Karyada Hejjegalu

Vol. V, No-2, April 2015 - 263

MAG(3)NPP/321/2010-2011
MAG(3)NPP/321/2010-2011

: 2230-8830
ISSNISSN
NO NO
: 2230-8830

H.M. Marulasiddaiah Award


for Social Work Students
Commencing from the January 2015 issue of SamajaKaryada Hejjegalu
(Social Work-Foot Prints), a Young Talent Promotion series will be initiated by inviting creative articles from students of social work either in
Kannada or in English. A panel of experts will identify suitable articles for
publication in the magazine in the January, April, July and October issues
in 2015. Two articles each will be considered for publication. From among
the published articles, one article will be adjudged by the panel for award.
The award winning student-writer will receive the H.M. Marulasiddaiah
award, cash prize and Certificate of Merit.
* Articles should be on the different social and human issues around us.
* Articles should not be based on books, etc.
* Articles should be based on the real life situations in the form of case
studies, stories, etc.
* High resolution photograph(s) may be included, if necessary.
* Length of the article may not exceed 1,500 words.
* Article should be typeset in double space.
* Article should be sent by email as soft copy in Word Format (English)
and Nudi soft (Kannada). In addition, two hard copies should be sent
typed on one side of A4 size paper.
* Articles should be checked for spelling and grammar.
* Article Hard Copies should be accompanied by the CV (Bio-data) of the
writer with correct mailing address, email, and mobile number ; a
passport size photograph, and a Demand Draft for Rs. 100 drawn in
favour of Samajakaryada Hejjegalu.

For more details :

Samajakaryada Hejjegalu
No. 244, 3rd Main, Poornachandra Road, MPM Layout, Mallathahalli,
Bangalore - 560 056. Ph : 080-23213710, 8064521470
e-mail : socialworkfootprints@gmail.com, editorsocialwork@gmail.com

264

NGOs in Karnataka
Please send your NGOs details to update in the forthcoming 2nd
edition of 'NGOs in Karnataka-Niratanka Directory (2015)'
1. Name of the Organisation: ..........................................................
2. Year of establishment: ....................
3. Address: ....................................................................................
District: .......................................... Pin code: ...........................
4. Contact No: ............................. Website: .....................................
5. Head of NGO: ...........................................................................
Mobile No: .............................. e-mail: ........................................
Contact person: .......................... Mobile No: ...............................
6. Is the NGO a Society
Trust
Company
7. Is the NGO registered under: 12A 80G 35 AC FCRA
8. Area(s) of Service:
Children
Women
Aged
Youth
Differently abled
Mentally challenged
Rural development
Urban poor development
Microfinance
Other (Specify) ........................
9. Major Activities
Health
Education
Adult education
Vocational training
Residential Care
Old age home
Day care centre for elderly
Counselling
Advocacy/ Campaign
Other (Specify) ...................
10. Have you received grant from any govt agency ? Yes No
11. Kindly suggest other NGOs and their Contact Details to
include in this NGO Directory.....................................................
.........................................................................................................
Niratanka, #244, 3rd Main, Poornachandra Road,
MPM Layout, Mallathahalli, Bangalore-560056.

Contact-080-23213710, 8064521470
http://angokarnataka.blogspot.com/

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