NAGARAJ,T. S.

& SR~NIVASA
MURTHY, B. R. (1986). GCotechnique 36, No. I, 27-32

A critical reappraisal
T. S. NAGARAJ*

of compression
and B. R. SRINIVASA

RE-EXAMINATION
OF MICROMODEL
Nagaraj
& Srinivasa
Murthy
(1983)
have
shown
that
the unique
d-(R - A) relationship

(Sridharan
& Jayadeva, 1982) derived from the
Gouy-Chapman
diffuse double-layer theory provides the basis to generalize the compressibility
behaviour
of normally
consolidated
saturated
uncemented fine-grained soils. On the basis of the
specific discussions of Bolt (Bolt & Bruggenwert,
1976) in the selection
of physico-chemical
environmental
factors, an electrolyte concentration of n = 0.01 M and a valency of u = 1.5 were
considered. To ensure the generality of the compressibility equation, further investigations
have
been carried out, by considering the variation in
the values of the physico-chemical
environmental
factors. For this the value of n is varied from
0.007 to 0.013 and that of Y is chosen as 1 and 2.
Using the Gouy-Chapman
diffuse double-layer
theory and a method of computation
proposed
by Sridharan & Jayadeva (1982), the d-(R - A)
relationships
have been computed for the three
clays (for properties of the clays see the inset table
of Fig. 1) for the defined combinations
of n and u.
Fig. 1 indicates the spatial shift of all the dlog (R - A) plots.
Wroth (1979), on the basis of results of earlier
investigations
and critical state concepts,
has
indicated that all fine-grained soils equilibrate to
their respective liquid limit under an effective
consolidation
pressure of about 6.3 kPa. Now
assuming R - A at the liquid limit to be 6.3 kPa,
the values of the average half-space distance d, at
the liquid limit can be obtained from Fig. 1 for all
the d-log (R - A) plots.
From the void ratio, specific surface and halfspace distance relationship
(Bolt, 1956; Nagaraj
8~ Jayadeva, 1981) for saturated soils

Larticle montre que la relation entre le rapport

de
Iindice des vides e et de lindice des vides a la limite de
liquidite e,_ et la pression repulsive totale R - A est
dune nature plus g&t&ale et fondamentale
que celle
reliant la distance de semi-espace d g la relation R - A.
Avec la possibilitt
de dew modes de linearisation
de
e/e,_ en fonction de la pression de consolidation
effective
p, deux equations
gtntralisees
dindice de compression
ont tte etablies pour les sols a grains fins normalement
consolidbs et sat&s.
La plupart des equations
empiriques contmes donnant lindice de compression
ont eti:
examintes
de nouveau au point de vue de leur base
theorique et de leur applicabilitt
en les comparant
avec
les equations dindice de compression
geniralisees.
clays;

compressibility;

consolidation;

INTRODUCTION

The compressibility
of soil is often represented by
the compression
index C, which is the slope of
the e-log,,p
plot. To have an independent
method of estimation, many investigators
in the
past have empirically
linked the compression
index with the inferential and/or state parameters
of the soil (Skempton,
1944; Terzaghi & Peck,
1948; Nishida, 1956; Hough, 1957; Oswald, 1980;
Koppula, 1981). Since the state of soil in nature is
varying and complex, a unique C, equation for all
soil states is not tenable. Further the empirical C,
equations which have no scientific basis can be
used only in specific soil states.
In the present investigation
the known empirical compression
index equations have been critically examined to identify their possible scientific
basis. It is attempted
further to define the soil
Discussion
on this Paper closes on 1 July
further details see inside back cover.
* Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.

MURTHY*

state to which these equations can be used. For

this the rationally generated compressibility
equation (Nagaraj & Srinivasa Murthy, 1983), which
is based on the Gouy-Chapman
diffuse doublelayer theory and is applicable to normally consolidated saturated
uncemented
soils, has been
used as the reference for comparison.

It is revealed that the ratio of the void ratio e to the

void ratio at the liquid limit eL versus the net repulsive
pressure R - A relation is more general and fundamental than the half-space distance d versus R - A relation.
With the possibility
of two modes of linearization
of
e/eL versus the effective consolidation
pressure p relation, two generalized compression
index equations
for
normally consolidated
saturated fine-grained
soils have
been derived. Most of the existing empirical compression index equations
have been re-examined
for their
rationale and applicability
by comparing
them with the
generalized compression index equations.

KEYWORDS:
soil properties.

index equations

e/eL = dJd,

1986. For

(1)

Thus the d&(R - A) relationships

of Fig. 1 can be
transformed
into (e/e&R
- A) relationships
by
27

28

NAGARAJ AND SRINIVASA

MURTHY

loo=uz
ti
a,SO?
J?
$SO8
LOL
m
I
20O-

d/d,

10

20

50

100

e/e,

1-21-0.3682 log,,,
(R -A)

200

osmotic repulsive
pressurep: kPa

Fig. 1. Analytical d-log,,

p and (e/e&log,,

normalizing with their respective d, values. Fig. 1

also indicates
this transformed
form of relationship.
It is interesting
to note that the dlog (R - A) plots which are distinctly different for
different combinations
of the physico-chemical
environmental
factors collapse into a very narrow
band in the (e/e&log (R - A) plot. The best-fit
line of all the points in the narrow band can be
linearized
within the working stress range of
25-800 kPa. The equation
of the line can be
written as
e/e, = 1.21 - 0.3682 log,,

(R - A)

(2)

This has a correlation

coefficient of 0.992 and a
standard error of estimate of 0.0225. This implies
that the (e/e,)-@ - A) relationship
is more
general, with eL accounting
for the physicochemical environmental
factors in addition to the
specific surface of the soil.
Sridharan
& Jayadeva (1982) have indicated
that the d-(R - A) relationship
can be linearized
in d-log (R - A) form for ion concentrations
less
than O+JOOl M and in log d-log (R - A) form for
ion concentrations
greater than 0.1 M.
EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION
Nagaraj
& Srinivasa
Murthy
(1983) have
shown that a similar form of equation (2) can be
obtained by normalizing
the e-log p curves of
normally consolidated saturated uncemented finegrained soils with their respective eL values. This

p relationship

aspect is further examined with additional data

for eleven soils. The equation of the best-fit line of
all the points in the working stress range can be
of the form (Fig. 2)
e/e,_ = 1.122 - 0.2343 log,,p

(3)

where p is in kilopascals. The correlation coefftcient of this equation

is 0.962. The possible
reasons for deviations of equation (3) from equation (2) have been discussed elsewhere (Nagaraj &
Srinivasa Murthy, 1983).
Alternatively,
the equation for the best-fit line
can be of the form (Fig. 3)
log (e/eL) = 0.1433 - 0.168 log

(4)

where p is in kilopascals. The correlation

coefftcient of this equation is 0.975. From equations (3)
and (4) it is clear that two compatible modes of
plotting the (e/e&p relationship
are tenable to
about the same degree of correlation. These two
equations define the compressibility
of normally
consolidated saturated uncemented soils.
COMPRESSION INDEX EQUATIONS
The equation for the compression index can be
derived from both equations (3) and (4). By definition
c, = -

de
d(log,,

P)

REAPPRAISAL

OF COMPRESSION

INDEX

SOII

type
clay

2 Whangamarmo
bell

4 Black

Consolidation

pressure

equation

soil

Hvorslev

(1958)

(1937)

97.3

This work

78.0

Sowers

(1964)

69.0

Wahls

& Godoy

59.0

Leonards

& Ramalah

56.4
46 .?

Jennings

& Burland

45.3

This

36.2

Jennings

Hvorslev

d(log p)

(1964)
(19591
(1962)

(1937)

work

de

Cc = - d(log p)

or
de
= 0,2343e,
- d(log PI

& Burland

(1962)

(5)

= 0.39e

Although equations (5) and (6) seem to be different, on substituting

the term for e from equation (4) in equation (6) and rearranging the terms
C, reduces to
c

equation

126 0

p Plots

eL

Differentiating

This work
Newland
& Aliely

(3)

de
- = -0.2343

c,=

159.3
136.0

kPa

Fig. 2. Experimental e-log,, p and (e/e&log,,

Differentiating

clay

coilon

Reference

2L

1 SAiLscu
3 Llttle

29

EQUATIONS

(4)

= 0.39~~ X

10(0~433-0.168

Io~P)

or
0.434 $

= -0.168

d(log p)

C c = 0.543e,

0.2
20

50
Consolldatvx

100

J
500

200
pressure

Fig. 3. Experimental log,, e-log,,p

x 10-1680gP

78.0
69.0
59.0

Sowers (19641
Wahls & Godoy (1964)
Leonards
& Fiamalah
(1959)

8 Silty clay
9 Vienna
clay
10 Red solI

56.4

Jennmgs

46.7
45.3

Hvorslev
(1937)
This work

11

36.2

Jennmgs

Silty

sand

1000

p. kPa

and logI (e/%)-k&~ P Plots

(7)

& Burland

& Burland

(19621

(19621

NAGARAJ AND SRINIVASA MURTHY

30

At p = 150 kPa, the middle value in the logarithmic scale of the pressure range considered, equation (7) reduces to equation (5). This indicates
that the two modes of linearization
of the e-p
relationship
result in two C, equations in which
one is independent
of the effective stress and the
other is dependent on the effective stress.
CRITICAL
EVALUATION
C, EQUATIONS

OF EMPIRICAL

There are several empirical compression

index
equations
derived statistically,
based on experimental results of local soils. In Table 1, these
empirical compression index equations have been
listed with relevant information about their applicability. A comparison
of these empirical equations with either of the equations
(5) or (6)
indicates the possible scientific basis or otherwise
of the empirical equations.
Skemptons equation
Skempton (1944) observed that for samples selected at random from different parts of the world
and for both ordinary and extrasensitive
clays,
Table 1.

where the initial moisture contents were at their

liquid limit, C, can be linked with the liquid limit
by the equation
c, = O.o07(w, - 10)

Terzaghi-Peck equation
Terzaghi and Peck (1948) modified equation (8)
so that it could be applied to the normally loaded
clays of low to moderate sensitivity. The modified
equation is of the form
c, = O.o09(w, - 10)

Observing the e-log p curve of a moderately sensitive clay it is clear that up to the point of breaking of the cementation
bonds represented by the

Reference

Regions
From

c, = 0407(w,

- 10)

Skempton

(1944)

c, = 04309(w, - 10)

Terzaghi &
Peck (1948)

c, = 0.01 W

Koppula

c, = 0~0115w

Bowles (1979)

C,
C,
C,
c,

Nishida (1956)
Nishida (1956)
Nishida (1956)
Bowles (1979)

1,15(e
1,15(e
0.54(e,
0.75(e,

- eo)
- 0.35)
- 0.35)
- 0.50)

(1981)

- 9)

Bowles (1979)

C, = 1.21 + l.O55(e,
- 1.87)

Bowles (1979)

C, = 0,3O(e, - 0.27)

Hough.(1957)

C, = 0.208(e, + 0.0083)
c, = 0.15qe, + 0.0107)
c, = 0.5(.J,/JdZ)12

Bowles (1979)
Bowles (1979)
Oswald (1980)

C, = OW46(w,

and conditions

of applicability
From this work

reference

Remoulded
clays
Normally
consolidated,
moderately
sensitive,
Chicago and
Alberta clays
Organic silt
and clays
All clays
All clays
Natural soils
Soils with low
plasticity
Brazilian
clays
Motley clays
from SBo
Paul0 city
Inorganic
silty sandsilty clay
Chicago clays
All clays
Soil systems
of all complexities and types

Normally
Moderately

consolidated,
sensitive,

S, < 1.5
S, < 5

Normally

consolidated,

S, < 1.5

Normally

consolidated,

S, < 1.5

Normally consolidated,
Normally consolidated,
Normally consolidated,
Moderately
sensitive, S,
Moderately
Highly

S,
S,
S,
<

< 1.5
< 1.5
< 1.5
5

overconsolidated

sensitive, S, > 5

Moderately
overconsolidated
Moderately
overconsolidated
Not applicable to any condition

compression
index; e, , initial or in situ void ratio; wL, liquid limit water content; w, , natural
dry density of soil at which C, is required; y,, unit weight of water; S,, sensitivity of the clay.

c,,

yd ,

(9)

Compression index equations*

Equation

=
=
=
=

(8)

Nagaraj & Srinivasa Murthy (1983) have shown

that equation (5) can be transformed
to the form
of equation
(8). It has been concluded
that
Skemptons equation follows the Gouy-Chapman
diffuse double-layer theory and is applicable only
to normally consolidated
saturated
uncemented
soils.

water content;

REAPPRAISAL

OF COMPRESSION

pseudo-preconsolidation
pressure
the
nonparticulate behaviour results in a low compressibility. On breaking the cementation
bonds, from
this pseudo-equilibrium
state the soil collapses on
to the normally consolidated
state resulting in a
steeper slope than that given by Skemptons
equation. This is correctly reflected in the higher
value of C, in equation (9).
Compression index equations involving
natural water contents
There are empirical C, equations which involve
the natural water content as a parameter. Table 1
indicates
two such equations,
one valid for
Chicago clays (Koppula, 1981) and the other for
organic silt and clay (Bowles, 1979).
For a saturated soil with a specific gravity of
soil solids of 2.62.8, equation (6) can be written
as
c, = 0.01 W

(10)

This clearly indicates that the two equations for

the compression
index in terms of natural water
content are of the same form as equation (6).
These equations are applicable to normally consolidated saturated
uncemented
soil states only
and have the same rational basis as that of equation (6).
Nishidas compression index equation
Nishida (1956), on the basis of stress-strain
considerations
and the slope of the consolidation
curves, developed a C, equation in the form
C, = 1.15(e - ee)

(11)

where e, is the void ratio before the pressure is

applied and e is the void ratio on the virgin curve
where C, is computed. Using equation (3) for normally
consolidated
saturated
conditions
the
change in void ratio, e - e,, can be computed in
terms of the effective stress ratio as
e - e, = -0.2343e,

log

c
(3
P

where p and p are the effective pressures corresponding to the void ratios e and e, respectively.
Then equation (11) can be written as
C, = -0.269e, log

!!
0P

INDEX

is applicable to normally consolidated

uncemented soils.
Nishida has also shown that
C, = O.%(e, - 0.35)

saturated

(13)

where e, is the natural void ratio. Another equation, similar to equation (13) proposed for low
plastic soils is
C, = 0.75(e, - 0.5)

(14)

where e, is the in situ void ratio.

Hough (1957), on the basis of experiments
on
precompressed
soils, has presented a C, equation
in the general form
C, = a(e, - b)

(15)

where a = 0.3 and b = 0.27 for precompressed

soil and e, is the in situ void ratio.
A comparison of equations (13H15) with equation (6) indicates that equation (13) is applicable
to normally consolidated
saturated
uncemented
fine-grained
soils, equation (14) is applicable to
moderately
sensitive soils and equation (15) is
applicable to lightly overconsolidated
soils.
There are a few other forms of C, equations
presented
in Table
1 which are statistically
derived on the basis of test results of some local
soils. Comparing
these equations with equations
(5) and (6), the relative soil states of the local soils
have been identified
(Table 1). Table 1 also
defines their conditions of applicability.
Universal compression index equation
On the basis of a statistical analysis of extensive data, Oswald (1980) has suggested a universal
compression
index equation, with a correlation
coefftcient of 0.9, of the form
C, = O~5(Lv/LJ24

(16)

where yd (g/cm3) is the dry density of the soil at

which C, is required. The only logical basis for
this formulation is the parallel nature of the zero
air voids curve to the e-log p curve. No scientific
basis has been cited for this logical behaviour.
To obtain equation (16) in the form of either
equation (5) or (6), y,, is replaced in terms of the
void ratio. Then equation (16) reduces to the form
1 + e 24
c, = 0.5 G

( >

(12)

For an effective stress ratio of 7.43, equation

(12) reduces to equation (5). This indicates that
equation (11) takes into account the change in
effective stress, similarly to equation
(6). Thus
equation (11) is the combined form of equations
(5) and (6). Further, equation (11) also follows the
Gouy-Chapman
diffuse double-layer
theory and

31

EQUATIONS

and for G = 2.7

C, = 0.461(1 + e)24

(17)

A comparison
of this equation with equation (6)
indicates a wide variation in C, values at the corresponding void ratios. The reason for this varia-

32

NAGARAJ

AND SRINIVASA MURTHY

tion is that in the analysis of the data no

distinction has been made regarding the state of
the soil. Thus it can be said that equation (16)
does not follow the Gouy-Chapman
diffuse
double-layer
theory, and its applicability
cannot
be defined for any particular state.
CONCLUSIONS

A re-examination
of the micromodel
to define
the compressibility
of normally consolidated saturated uncemented fine-grained soils has indicated
that the (e/e,HR
- A) relationship
is more
general and unique than the d4R - A) relationship. The parameter
eL inherently
accounts for
the variation in physico-chemical
environment
in
addition to the specific surface of the soil.
Two compatible compression
index equations,
i.e. C, = 0.2343~~~ and C, = 0,39e, have been
rationally derived and are applicable to normally
consolidated
saturated
uncemented
fine-grained
soils.
The critical reappraisal
of current empirical
compression
index equations has indicated their
possible scientific basis and the soil state to which
they are applicable.
REFERENCES
Bolt, G. H. & Bruggenwert,
M. G. M. (1976). Soil chemistry: A, basic elements. New York: Elsevier.
Bowles, J. W. (1979). Physical and geotechnical properties ofsoils. New York: McGraw Hill.
Hough, B. K. (1957). Basic soil engineering. New York:
Ronald.
Hvorslev, J. M. (1937). Physical properties of remoulded
cohesive soils. Translation
69-5, USAEWES, Vicksburg.
Jennings, J. E. B. & Burland, J. B. (1962). Limitations to

the use of effective stresses in partly saturated soils.

Gtotechnique 12, No. 2, 125-145.
Koppula, S. D. (1981). Statistical estimation of compression index. ASTM Georech. Test. J. 4, No. 2,68-73.
Leonards, G. A. & Ramaiah, B. K. (1959). Time effects
in consolidation
of clays. ASTM Spec. Tech. Publ.
254, 116130.
Nagaraj,
T. S. & Jayadeva,
M. S. (1981), Reexamination
of one-point
methods of liquid limit
determination.
GCotechnique 31, No. 3,4131425.
Naearai. T. S. & Srinivasa Murthv, B. R. (1983). Ration-. ahzation
of Skemptons
compressibility
equation.
GPotechnique 33, No. 4,433443.
Newland, P. L. & Allely, B. H. (1958). A study of the
resulting
from
consolidation
of a
sensitivity
remoulded clay. Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Fdn
Engng, Budapest I, 83-86.
Nishida, Y. (1956). A brief note on the compression
index of soil. J. Soil Mech. Fdns Div. Am. Sot. Cit.
Engrs 82, SM3, I-14.
Oswald,
R. H. (1980). Universal
compression
index
equation. J. Geotech. EmJny Die. Am. Sot. Cir. Engrs
106, 1179-1199.
Skempton, A. W. (1944). Notes on the compressibility
of
clays. Q. J. Geol. Sot. Lond. 100, 119-135.
Sowers, G. F. (1964). Fill settlement
despite vertical
sand drains. Proc. Am. Sot. Cit. Engrs ConJ Design
of Foundations for Control of Settlemenfs, North
Western Unil;ersity, pp. 363-376.
Sridharan,
A. & Jayadeva,
M. S. (1982). Double layer
theory and compressibility
of clays. Ghotechniqur 32,
No. 2, 133-144.
Terzaghi, K. & Peck, R. B. (1948). Soil mechanics in
engineering practice, p. 729. New York: Wiley.
Wahls, H. E. & Godoy, N. S. (1964). Discussion
on
Interpretation
of consolidation
test. Proc. Am. Sot.
Civ. Engrs Conf Design of Foundations for Control of
Settlements, North Western University, pp. 116-l2 1.
Wroth, C. P. (1979). Correlation
of some engineering
properties of soil.lProc. 2nd Inc. Conf: Behaviour of
OfShore Structures, London, pp. 121-132.