Chapter 8 Summary

Lecture 1 : chapter 8
*what are lipids ?

lipids are organic compound that are insoluble in water but can be dissolved
in organic solvents like alcohol , aceton,
* but why ? Lipids are compounds that consist mostly of nonpolar groups.
They have limited solubility in water, but dissolve freely in organic
solvents.
*they are classified according to chemical structure :
open-chain compounds :
with polar head groups and
nonpolar long tails like fatty acids , triglycerides
sphingolipids , glycolipids ,phosphoacylglycrols
lipid soluble vitamins ,PGs ,LTs ,TXs
cyclic forms:
fused rings
derived from
cholesterol
Lipids types :
Fatty acids : amphipathic compounds because the carboxyl
group is hydrophilic and the hydrocarbon tail is hydrophobic
*the hydrophobic tail
is usually unbranched
Amphipathic :

RCOOH
*fatty acids come from either hydrolysis of TAG or phospholipids of the

membrane
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Saturated fatty acids
Contain only single bonds in straight structure

Like the fat
Unsaturated fatty acids Contain at least on double bond ,
2 conformation : cis >> produces kink
Trans >> straight
Lower melting point(the more double bonds the more
the lower melting point)
Like the oil
Unsaturated fatty acids can be
converted to Saturated fatty
acids by hydrogenation
Nomenclature : we put the number of carbon and then the number of double
bonds
Essenti
al FAs
Triacylglycerols :
Glycerol is a simple compound that contains three hydroxyl groups .
When all three of the alcohol groups form ester(polar) linkages with fatty acids,
the resulting compound is a triacylglycerol; an older name for this type of
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compound is triglyceride.
Ester bond is formed when we lose OH
from one side and H from the other side
to form ROR
Store energy in the adipose tissue ,

each gram produces 9Kcal of energy !
Glycerol used in creams and lotions
Phospholipids :
Result from esterification)forming ester bond) by phosphoric
acid rather than fatty acid on one of the alcohols
*phosphoric acid is triprotic( and thus can form more than one ester
linkage. One molecule of phosphoric acid can form ester bonds both to
glycerol
and to some other alcohol, creating a phosphatidyl ester

Classification of phosphatidyl ester

The classification of a phosphatidyl ester depends on the nature of the substance that
is esterified to the phosphate group (R group )
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these compounds have long, nonpolar, hydrophobic tails and polar, highly
hydrophilic head groups and thus are markedly amphipathic
*the polar head is negatively charge at neutral Ph
*they are important in biological membrane
Waxes :
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Mixture of esters of long chain FAs and alcohols

*The only function is
protective I n plant and
human
Sphingolipids :
Formed form
sphingosine + FA
*no glycerol
Sphingosine is amino
alcohol (alcohol (OH)
+amine(NH3)) .
When only linked to FA at the amino
group >ceramide(the simplest
sphingolipid).
When linked to FA and phospahric acid on the alcohol and the phsopharic
acid esterfied with choline(amino alcohol) >> myelin .
*sphingolipids are important in nervous system and found in both animals and plants
*how to make sphingolipid ?

1- sphingosine (which is alcohol amine) react with FA at the amine
group
2- the type of sphingolipid is determined by the molecule at the
alcohol group
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Glycolipids : a compound in which a carbohydrate is bound to

an alcohol group of the lipid by a glycosidic linkage.
when alcohol (OH) from a lipid (like

sphingosine) binds to
sugar(monosaccharides ) this form
glycolipid
For
example cereamide + sugar(glu or

galactose) > glucocerebroside
*cerebrosides are important for
nerves and brain
*when add complex carbohydrate
moiety (more than 3 sugars) its
called gangliosides
ceramid
e
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Steroids: a group of lipids that have a fused-ring structure of three sixmember rings (A, B, C), and one five-member ring (D)
Six member and five member mean>> number of ribs of the ring ! >>

*all steroids are derived from cholesterol
*cholesterol contains only one hydroxyl group so its highly hydrophobic
and its very important component of cell membrane in animals (not
prokaryotes) and can be deposited in case of atherosclerosis((
Summary for key points

*lipids are water insoluble but can be dissolved because mainly of nonpolar
compounds but can be soluble in organic solvents
* lipids can be open chain or fused rings(steroids )
type
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summary
FA
*Saturated (single bonds,high melting point) ,nonsaturated(double bonds ,

cis ,trans , low melting pint)
*Contain carboxyl group , can make ester bonds with alcohol on glycerol or
sphingosine
*released from degradation of TAG or Phospholipids
TAG
*named as number of carbons : number of double bonds

*Glycerol+3 FA by esterification reaction
*glycerol released for TAG defradation
*important for energy storage
*hydrolyzed by Lipase(inside)>> outside the body by acids or
bases(saponification)
phosphpo Glycerol+2 FA + one phosphate

lipids
* classified according to what binds the phosphate (phosphatidyle esters)
>>phosphatidylX
wax
Long chain alcohol + long chain FA
* protective
Sphingoli Sphingosine+ FA ester on amine group +group on the alcohol
pid
* classified according to what bind the alcohol(H ,sugar , phosphocholine)
Glycolipid Carbohydrate (glu or gala.)+ alcohol by glycosidic link like ceramides
Complex sugers + alcohol >> gangliosides
Steroids 3 sixed rings + one fived ring
All are derived from cholesterol which is found in animal membranes
All have the same structure and differ only by side chains
Examples : sex hormones( testosterone , estradiol , vitamin D3)
Biological membrane
Composed from lipids and proteins which interact with each other to
determine function >isolation of the cell extracellular matrix , regulate
transportation of specific substance , contain important enzymes
component details
*composed of
lipids
phosphoglycerides(phospholipid))amphipathic),glycolipids,cholesterol
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* the lipids arranged in bilayer(held together by non-covalent bonds like van dar
waals and hydrophobic interaction) where :
1-The outer layer toward the external environment(water) so its polar , and
composed of the heads of the phospholipids and mixture of lipids , contain bulky
molecule.
2- the inner layer composed of non-polar tails because its hydrophobic
environment
And mixture of lipids that may differ from the external layer , contains smaller
molecule . and contain cholesterol
The non-polar tails are FAs that may be :
Saturated >> linear arrangement>> more rigid membrane
Unsaturated(cis) >> produce kink >> more fluid membrane
Normally the bilayer is more fluid than rigid
* cholesterol : - is found in the internal layer
-found only in animal cells , not plants , not the prokaryotes(bacteria)
-stabilizes the extended straight chain arrangement of saturated fatty acid by van
der waals interaction >> so no cholesterol = more fluidity
--- plants contain more unsaturated FA ,and bacteria dont contain steroids at all
so their membrane is the most fluid
*as temperature increases ,the membrane more disordered and more fluid
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proteins
*Peripheral proteins (found on the surface of the membrane)

bound to polar head groups of lipid by electrostatic interactions or polar
interactions (or both)
can be removed by raising the ionic strength of the medium (1 M
NaCl)>so this will remove the interaction between the proteins and lipids.
*Integral proteins:
Span the membrane from exterior to interior and are bound tightly to the
membrane
can be removed by harsh treatment with detergents or
sonication(ultrasound)
removal generally denatures without pure removal !
* proteins are found as alpha helical or beta pleated sheet and this minimize
contact of polar residues with the non-polar lipids
, -
*Proteins also can be
anchored or fixed to the
lipid via covalent bonds
From cysteins or free
amino groups to one of
several lipid anchors
*Common anchors
include:
Myristoyl and Palmitoyl
*N-myristoylationcan be via
N-terminal gly residue
Thioester linkage occur at cys residue
Transition temperature is the temperature at which there is cooperative transition of the
fluidity of the membrane , and its higher for more rigid membranes and less for more fluid
membranes.
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Fluid mosaic model : explain how the membrane exists and formed
Mosaic : implies that the two components exist side byside without forming some other
substance of intermediate nature Fluid: lateral motion in lipid bilayers also occurs in
membranes. The proteins float in the lipid bilayer and can move along the plane of the
membrane
Flip flop migration of lipid molecules from one layer to another layer is
limited(occurs occasionally)
Lateral motion within one layer frequently occurs specially in fluidic bilayer
Function of the plasma proteins

1- transport : polar and large molecule need to enter the cell , but
they cant pass through the membrane directly , they use
transporter protein
Active
means against concentration gradient
passive
Needs energy and carrier protein
Primary >uses ATP directly and contains multiple subunits

> ATPase activity and carrier subunit
> like Na-K ATPase
Secondary > uses electrochemical gradient that created by primary active
transport and uses energy
Indirectly , by moving one substance down the
Gradient and the other against the gradient
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More details :
Secondary active transport in bacteria :
Bacteria transport lactose to the cell
against the concentration gradient , so
it needs a substance to be moved
down the gradient which is H+
BUT HOW BACTERIA CREATE THE
GRADIENT OF THE H+ :
Bacteria will pump H+ out the cell

by primary active transport > now
H+ is more outside the cell > it will enter through galactoside permease
down the gradient and create energy thats used by the same transporter to
transport lactose
Passive transport :
No need for energy , down the electrochemical gradient
Two types : 1- simple diffusion : a molecule or ion moves through an
opening Without interaction with other molecules
Small uncharged molecules O2,N2,CO2
The rate of movement is
controlled by conc. Difference across Membrane> the more the difference
the more the rate
2- facilitated diffusion : a molecule or ion is carried across a membrane by
carrier/channel proteinTransport driven by concentration difference.
Interaction occur but no energy required
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Large polar molecules and ions like Glucose movement from blood to RBCs
Blotting the rate of transport by facilitated diffusion against substance
concentration give a hyperbolic relationship
This means a presence of carrier that might get saturated.

But no saturation in simple diffusion with linear relationship
Membrane receptors :
The second function of membrane
proteins
But what is a receptor ??
a receptor is a large protein that's on the surface of the cell or inside the
cytoplasm , and interact with specific active substance that change its
activity and initiates an action within the cell
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Features of receptors :
1- Large proteins
2- Interact with specific substance that has the same shape that fit in the
receptor
3- Receptors action can be
inhibited by poison
(inhibitor)
4- Mostly integral and lose
function when isolated
5- Very few present in cell
membrane
Example of receptors :
Cholesterol is transported in
the blood in with LPL protein
because it's hydrophobic.
LDL protein
contain mainly
cholesterol
LDL-
To enter the cell the protein

receptor
complex
portion of LDL binds to a
receptor on the cell surface ,
and the complex is endocytosed , and the receptor will be recycled.
Receptor is
recycled
*excess cholesterol decrease the number of these receptors and

associated with atherosclerosis or heart diseases
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Lipid soluble vitamins :

vitamin details
Vitamin *derived from b-carotene
A
which is an extensively
unsaturated hydrocarbon (the
precursor of Vit A)
*b-carotens converted in the
liver to vit A(retinol)
*Vitamin A is abundant in
carrots and other vegetables
*the aldehyde form Vit A
( Retinal) play important role in
vision when bound to protein
called opsin to form the visual
pigment called rhodopsin
*the aldehyde is formed by
dehydrogenase and it's found as
cis or trans
*The aldehyde group of retinal
forms an
imine (also called a Schiff base) with the side-chain amino group of a lysine
residue in rod-cell opsin
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Vit. D
*derived from cholesterol(steroid)

* regulates Ca++ and phosphate in the body and it's important for the
bones
*cholesstrol>dehydrochoesterol> then By uvl >cholecalciferol(vit d3 the
modt abundaunt form)>hydorlyxated in the liver on 25-carbon>then
hydorxylated on cabon1 in the kidney >to form the active form
*deficiency leads to rickets in children and infants
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Vit.E
*The most active vitamin E is a tocopherol

Vitamin E is an antioxidant(reducing agent) >means it reacts with oxidizing
agents so it will be oxidized instead of our cells and this will protect us
*React and remove a very reactive and highly dangerous substances
known as free radicals
Free radicals has at least one unpaired electrons which accounts for their
reactivity
In rats Vit E is required for reproduction
and prevention of muscular dystrophy
Vit.K
It's composed of bicycled rings +isoprene units(long unsaturated

hydorocarbbons)
*the rings contain Contain 2
carbonyl groups. (polar part)
* the number of isoprene
units determine the form of
vit.k
* Vitamin K has an important role in blood clotting(Pro-Thrombin
activation
* it adds COO- to glutamate forming carboxyglutamate ,then forms
bidentatetwo teeth ligand which binds Ca++
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Arachidonic acid metabolites :

Arachidonic acid is a polyunsaturated fatty acid contain 20 carbons and 4
double bonds .
The derivative of arachidonic acid is called Eicosinoids (eico means 20)
1- prostaglandins :
Derived from AA , the different types are determined by number and
location of double bond and the presence or
absence of oxygen containing functional group
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*contain five membered ring
Function
Smooth muscle contraction
Control of blood pressure
Induce inflammation
Aggregation of platelets
Inhibited by Aspiri , Cortisone
2-Leukotrienes:
derived from arachidonic acid
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Found in WBC (White Blood Cells, Leukocytes)

Contain 3 conjugated double bonds
Functions :
cause constriction of smooth muscle cells, especially in the lungs (Asthma)
Synthesis stimulated by allergic reactions(pollen)
3-Thromboxanes
contain cyclic ethers
TxA2 induce platelet aggregation and smooth muscle cell contraction
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Chapter 8 Summary

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Lecture 1 : chapter 8

*what are lipids ?

*fatty acids come from either hydrolysis of TAG or phospholipids of the

Email: Info@bsa-edu.com www.facebook.com/BinarySystemAcademy

Saturated fatty acids

Contain only single bonds in straight structure

Email: Info@bsa-edu.com www.facebook.com/BinarySystemAcademy

Store energy in the adipose tissue ,

Classification of phosphatidyl ester

Email: Info@bsa-edu.com www.facebook.com/BinarySystemAcademy

Email: Info@bsa-edu.com www.facebook.com/BinarySystemAcademy

Mixture of esters of long chain FAs and alcohols

*how to make sphingolipid ?

Email: Info@bsa-edu.com www.facebook.com/BinarySystemAcademy

Glycolipids : a compound in which a carbohydrate is bound to

when alcohol (OH) from a lipid (like

example cereamide + sugar(glu or

Email: Info@bsa-edu.com www.facebook.com/BinarySystemAcademy

Summary for key points

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*Saturated (single bonds,high melting point) ,nonsaturated(double bonds ,

*named as number of carbons : number of double bonds

phosphpo Glycerol+2 FA + one phosphate

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*Peripheral proteins (found on the surface of the membrane)

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Function of the plasma proteins

means against concentration gradient

Needs energy and carrier protein

Primary >uses ATP directly and contains multiple subunits

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Bacteria will pump H+ out the cell

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This means a presence of carrier that might get saturated.

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To enter the cell the protein

*excess cholesterol decrease the number of these receptors and

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Lipid soluble vitamins :

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*derived from cholesterol(steroid)

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*The most active vitamin E is a tocopherol

It's composed of bicycled rings +isoprene units(long unsaturated

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Arachidonic acid metabolites :

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*contain five membered ring

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Found in WBC (White Blood Cells, Leukocytes)

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