CHAPTER 3

GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION
Purpose---- Property has mineral value only when it contains a deposit from which a
product can be won at a profit. Since evaluation necessarily contemplates the processes
of mining and extracting the product, the size, shape, position and the grade of the deposit
are fundamental features that must be determined, at least within reasonable limits, as a
basis. Determination of these features is largely a matter of geology.
Sampling is an allied process.
Mineral deposits 1 range from thin, erratic veins to extensive bedded deposits and
massive bodies such as the copper-porphyries. Processes of genetic concentration may
have been igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic. Some deposits are primary in that they
have retained their original qualities and relationships to adjoining rocks; others have
been altered, either by chemical or mechanical means, to secondary deposits. Structural
relationships 2 range from inclusion in undisturbed series to distortion in tight folding and
dislocation by complicated fault offsets. only after it has been mined. It can seldom be
seen as a whole body.
1. Lindgren, W., Mineral Deposits, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933
2. New house, H.W., Editor, Ore deposits as Related to Structural Features, Princeton
University Press,1943.

In all forms of mining, open pit or underground, there is always a region beyond which
one must visualize continuance or possible interruption of ore. In an open pit, this
projection is downward or sidewise; In an underground operation, it maybe in any
direction.
The object of geologic study as a basis for evaluation of a mineral deposit is to locate
and determine the boundaries of mineral value; or as stated above, to determine the size,
shape, position, and grade of deposit.
SCOPE.In the main, this problem of delineation of ore bodies is a problem in
structural geology aided by sampling, although the complete investigation would be
concerned also with genesis, alterations, mode of occurrence, and mineral association of
deposit.
Since mineral deposits are themselves three-dimensional and since their coordinate
position and depth below the surface is likewise a three-dimensional problem, geologic
field work is planned accordingly. Surface investigations are usually supplemented by
drill-hole data and by underground observations whenever openings for such are
available. Subsurface data are vitally important to proving up the third dimension. While
there are occasions when the entire geologic study must be made from surface indications
alone, it would be poor practice to be limited to surface data if there were underground
openings that could be inspected. To do so would be to ignore the possibility of gaining
additional evidence that might prove or disprove an important point.
Furthermore, surface study is often hindered by lack of rock exposures in the area
under investigation. On the average, there is about one square foot of exposed bedrock
per acre throughout the entire North American continent. Over the glacial pre-Cambrian
Shield of Canada and the Central Plains, large areas contain few exposures.
Geologic study seldom can be confined to the immediate mineral property.
Knowledge of the regional geology is a perquisite to working out the local geology. The
effects of major forces, possibility not expressed locally, may control minor structural
patterns to which the ore deposit is related.
PROSPECT VS MINE.Examination

of prospects is quite different from examination of

mines or mineral-producing property. A prospect is along way from profitable production.
Actual ore reserves are seldom evident and, in fact, sometimes not expected immediately;
geological predictions are more or less speculative. In the usual instance, structures, ore
limits, and other essential geologic feature of a prospect are known somewhere between
zero and a reasonable percent of final knowledge; the balance is inferred subject to
correction with new evidence. In the cases of the prospect, the geologist looks for
favourable geological condition, whereas in the case of mineral producer, he looks for
reserves.
USE OF AVAILABLE DATA.Several

sources of geologic information are usually

available to the examiner even though the property being examined is situated in remote
territory. There are few land areas that are unknown at least as to general geology.
National and State Geological Survey and Mines Department are mapping and
reporting continually on mineral areas and properties. These data, except in unusual
instances, are available to public. Company and private reports on mines or districts are

sometimes available to the geologist. Geology texts frequently contain references or maps
in sufficient detail to be helpful. Maps of adjoining mines, when available, may show
assay results and geologic sections that will be of value in projecting structure and
mineral trends across the property in question. Drilling and geophysical records are an
additional source of information. The examiner should avail him self of all such as data
preparatory to making his own investigation. He can then plan his work more effectively.
FIELD WORK.It is

not within the scope of this book to cover in detail the many
geologic field procedures and the methods of interpretation of data that may be called
upon in the course of a mine examination. These, appropriately, may be found in geology
texts and handbooks in which mineral deposits, structural principles, and field practice 1
are treated at length
CORRELATION WITH OTHER PARTS OF EXAMINATION.Mapping

and sampling are

usually part of the field work of examination mineral property. Each maybe a rather
lengthy undertaking, but is essential to the overall objective of determining location and
grade of material. Insofar as the geology can be interpreted at the time, this knowledge
should be used to guide the mapping and sampling programs. This plan will not only
avoid duplication and unnecessary work, but will make for more effective observation of
critical details.
There is no set procedure for the geological examination of mineral property. Too
many variables are present. An efficient examiner will review constantly the sum of
geologic information on the property and keep revising the field program in order to
obtain the next significant bit of key data.
For an undeveloped property, surface inspection should be in considerable detail before
a sampling program is started. To keep proper record of observations, mapping may have
to go along with the surface study, and some test samples may be needed. But until some
picture is formed of the geology, or until evidence is found to support a theory of
formation of the deposit, any extensive sampling would be haphazard and is
to be avoid.
The task is much simplified when the examination is of an operating mine where plan,
sectional, and assay maps have been kept up to date. Here the structure and formation, in
part at least, are in evidence and the examiner need only check the results already at hand
as background for planning his approach to the forward problem.
TYPE PROGRAM.Examination

of mineral property for purposes of valuation is to be

distinguished from a program of exploration for ore. The one is a survey as of a given
time; the other more often a continuing program allied to development or operation. In a
sense, however, they are similar; each has the delimiting of ore as an objective and
methods of approach frequently are alike.
Choice of method for the field program is often largely a matter of economics. The
program may be determined by the expense warranted for the information that may be
obtained.
1
Lahee, F.H., Field geology, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 4th Ed., 1941
Forrester, J. D., Principle of Field and Mining Geology, John Willey & Sons, 1946
McKinstry, H.E., Mining Geology Prentice-Hill, Inc., 1948.

Test Pitting And Trenching..One traces of mineral or favourable geologic condition have
been found, test pits and trenches are among the simpler, direct methods of prospecting

used to search out mineral values. Trenches are suitable for uncovering ledge under
shallow soil; test pits can be used to penetrate overburden to about 100 ft in dept,
providing large boulders and much water are not encountered. Both are adaptable to hand
methods and, requiring no power equipment, to remote localities.
Simple drive-pipes or auger drills may be used to test relatively soft, shallow deposits.
With suitable topography, light overburden, and a supply of water under head,
Hydraulic king may be advantageous for exposing an area of bedrock to inspection. This
method, however, will usually require too much capital outlay for the average
examination.
Drilling1.Drilling,

preferably core drilling, is an excellent method of determining ore

formations and structures. It greatly augments surface geological knowledge by
correlating structures and checking presumed extensions of ore at depth. In prospecting, it
is fully as important for the geological information which it brings to light as for any ore
which it may discover. Where actual ore is being dealt with, drilling is apt to give
misleading result, since drilling holes have been known just to miss a large body of ore.
When they cut obliquely through a small body, they may give the impression of greater
ore thickness than actually occurs. Results of drilling should be correlated closely with
structural observation to avoid miss leading interpretation.
In core drilling, the sludge obtained from a hole is a value able adjunct. Sludge
samples should be taken at regular intervals in significant sections and retained for
analysis and for comparison with the core. In soft ore-bearing formations and in fracture
zones where much of the core may be lost, sludge samples may be the sole criterion for
judgment of the value of the material.
When churn drilling is used to test a deposit, special attention must be paid to recovery
of the material and interpretation of results. Contamination is apt to occur even in cased
holes, depending upon the formations penetrated. An analysis correction factor,
determined empirically, may be necessary in such an event. Although portable churn and
diamond-drill rigs with self-contained power are available to specification for practically
any examination work, contactors are often employed for the work, thus avoiding capital
outlay for equipment.

Forrester, J. D., Principle of Field and Mining Geology, John Willey & Sons, 1946
Mc Kinstry, H.E., Mining Geology Prentice - Hill, Inc.,1948, Chap. 3.

Instrument Surveys..The dip

needle and magnetometer are among the most useful

instrument for geological work. Each is readily portable and rapid to operate. Choice
depends, usually, upon accuracy desire. The airborne magnetometer maybe employed
advantageously to indicate mayor anomalies which can then be investigated more closely
by ground observations within a limited area. These instruments record only the presence
of magnetic materials, but a knowledge of mineral associations may lead to using them
on allied minerals and marker formations where the mineral under investigation is, itself,
non magnetic. Asbestos, for instance, may be associated with enough magnetic for a
survey of this type to outline the formations.
In respect to radioactive minerals, the Geiger counter is obviously useful. Portable field
models are readily available. An understanding of types of emission is essential to proper
interpretation of readings. Portable ultraviolet lamps are an aid to prospecting for
fluorescent minerals, such as scheelite.
Geophysical methods, 1such as gravitation, seismic, and electrical resistivity, are
usually applied to large-scale exploration, as for petroleum. They may also be useful as
aids to determining the geology of the ordinary mineral deposit. Advanced methods and
instruments for well-logging, likewise, have been most helpful in petroleum work. To
date, they have not been applied extensively to ore deposits.

Lahee, F.H., Field Geology, McGraw-Hill Book C.o., Inc., 1941, Chap. XXII
Heiland, C.A., Geophysical Exploration, Prentice-Hall, 1940.
Jakosky, J. J., Exploration Geophysics, Times-Mirror Press, Los Angeles, Calif., 1940.
Nettleton, L. L., Geophysical Prospecting for Oil McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1940.
Geophysical Prospecting A.I.M.E., 1929, 1932, 1934, 1940, 1945.

LABORATORY STUDIES..Laboratory

work is call for in many mineral investigations. It

may be for the purpose of optical or x-ray identification of minor minerals value in
association with the major ones in deposit; for age determination to correlate series; or to
point out chemical and physical qualities critical to the milling and metallurgy of the
product.
The engineer or geologist examining a property, though he may not be proficient in
these specialized fields, should be aware of the valuable help of such work. Interpretation
of geological features may be verified by studies or tests of this type. Critical problems of
treatment and marketing, solved in the laboratory, may be the determining factor in the
success of the operation.
MAPPING..Measurements

are essential to determining the location and size of a

mineral deposit. Points of reference tie measurements together and are needed for legal
record. Some form of surveying is the procedure by which this is done. Maps are the
usual form of final record.
Most examiners of mineral property will be conversant with surveying techniques. 1
Others will appreciate the need for engineering assistance to conduct this phase of the
work. The geologist or engineer may do his own surveying on a small job or may direct
the work of one or more crews if considerable measurement and mapping are called for.
Surveys requiring special equipment are usually handled on contract basis. Aerial
mapping and airborne magnetic work are in this class, as are also geophysical survey by
gravity, seismic and electrical methods, and electrical or radioactive drill-hole logging.
Aerial mapping and airborne magnetometer surveys usually require ground control, so
will probably call for some surface surveying to give maps of the area that will be fully
satisfactory.
Surface..Surface

maps usually are of two types, property and topographic. The property
map show only land parcels and be plotted on form sheets printed to cover a regular
township with its 36 numbered sections. Or it may be a map drawn to show property
lines, railroads, highways, streams, building, mine dumps, etc., but usually without
topography. The topography map probably will show property lines also and will have on
it the railroads, highways, etc., listed above. In addition, it will show topography
(counters) and geology. Property lines, with tie-in lines to reference points, are usually
Surveyed with transit and tape for record purposes, although for a preliminary report and
as a base for geologic work, stadia measurements will suffice for boundary lines but
should be so noted. The plane table is the usual field instrument for topographic and
geologic work, as it is somewhat more rapid than the transit. Choice of contour interval
will depend on ruggedness of topography and scale will depend on area being worked.
The compass is often used for some of traversing. Solar observations are the usual means
for determining meridian in remote areas. If the area is large, aerial mapping will be
much faster and possibly more economical.
1
Breed, Surveying, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Lahee, F.H., Field Geology, McGraw-Hill Book C.o., Inc., 1941, Chap. XV to XXI,
Inclusive
Forrester, J. D., Principle of Field and Mining Geology, John Willey & Sons, 1946
Mc Kinstry, H.E., Mining Geology Prentice - Hill, Inc.,1948, Chap. 1

Underground ..The brunton

compass, in some situations, may be sufficiently accurate

for the underground survey for examination purposes. In any case, an instrument of this
type is well adapted to making sketch maps of underground openings and for the
mapping of geologic data. Measurements may be tape or pace, as the situation requires.
Side developments and extensions of main underground openings are frequently
measured up by brunton until such as time as more accurate location is needed.
The transit is the usual instrument for underground surveying. Linear measurements
are by tape to hundredths of foot. Angular readings to one minute of accuracy are
customary with readings to one-half minute or even closer for important closures and for
extended main-level developments. Elevations are carried by using the transit as a level
and by vertical angle measurements through either main or auxiliary telescope.
Corrections must be applied by computation for vertical angle measurements made by top
telescope. Bearing (azimuths) are carried underground by transit or plumb wires as the
openings demand.
Both plan maps and sections are usually needed to show underground workings and
ore deposits. Elevation at which plans are drawn will probably coincide with main levels
or sublevels. For a property undeveloped except by drilling and for projection of geologic
inferences, the elevation of such a plan map or sketch will be determined by the data at
hand and the purpose. Position of sectional veins and plane of projections usually depend
on shape and position of the deposit; the footwall is often a controlling factor.
Underground maps show position of openings such as shafts, drifts, (entries), crosscuts,
raises, and stopes and are plotted accurately to scale.
On the background are recorded the geologic data and sampling results. These are
often called assay or geological maps to distinguish them from operating maps for
contract measurement: the geology maps will show rock and ore formations, dips, strikes,
contacts, folds, slips, faults, feature zones, and mineral associations and assays. In vein
structures, width of veins vs. width of mining opening is important, as will be noted
under sampling.
All relevant data are entered on the working maps which are drawn to a scale (often 40
ft per inch suitable for such record. Final maps for reports are more often at scales of 100
to 400 ft. per inch, with formations and geologic features displayed clearly by use of
colors and symbols.
ORIGIN OF ORE BODIES..In

discussing classification of mineral deposits, Lindgren1

states that in exploring and exploiting ore deposits, the miner is almost forced to form an
idea of its origin in order to follow up the ore bodies to the best advantage. Therefore, in
his opinion, a genetic classification according to geological processes is the most
desirable both theoretically and practically. Lindgren classification, as out-lined in the
reference cited, has withstood the test of the time and continues to be authoritative.
Mineral deposits must have been formed by igneous process, alteration, cementation,
deformation, erosion, or sedimentation.
To have an ore or mineral deposit, there must have been a source of the elements that
go to make up the mineral, a process of concentration, and a locus of deposition. The
locus of the position was determined by some combination of environmental factors that
may be classed, broadly, as physical, chemical, and structural. In arriving at a deductive
explanation for the genesis of an ore body, the examiner must consider all of these factors

as an interrelated group. The results of the physical factors, such pressure and
temperature, and the chemical action are evidence from which the original system may be
reconstructed but, of the three, only the structure can be seen in a relatively unchanged
state.
Geology is not yet an exact science and, naturally, there differences of opinion about
the origin of any ore body. Although it may be difficult, in any deposits, for the
investigator to gain much of practical value from ideas on ore genesis, nevertheless,
relationships of ore to rock alteration and to structural features are at times great aids in
locating and following ore bodies.

_________
1. Lindgren, W., Mineral Deposits, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 4th Ed.,1933, p. 204

IMPORTANCE OF STRUCTURE..Structure

refers to the build of the earths crust. Those

structural features which aid in mineral concentration or delimit ore bodies maybe
primary sedimentational structures or deformational. Ore bodies maybe found in
sedimentary beds, may follow favourable horizons such as lime stones, or may be
concentrated in other sedimentary horizons. Deformational features, as fractures, folds,
contacts, and barriers, may be causal determinants of ore deposition. Rock alteration
associated with ore also is often related to structural features.
The examiner should be aware of the importance of thorough study of structure
around and in an ore deposit as basis for his deductions as to the extent and delineation of
the ore. Hypotheses of origin and detailed description of the relations of structural
features to ore bodies maybe found among the references already given.
Deformational structures, notably faults, may be post-ore in age. In this event,
dislocation and displacement of part of an ore body may present a difficult problem to the
investigator. Careful studies of both minor and major geological features in threedimensional relationships are required to solve problems of this kind. Special drilling,
trenching, or mine openings may be needed to give significant information. Methods of
structural analysis applicable to cases of this kind involve descriptive geometry1 or
stereographic projection2.
As noted, three dimensions are involved. Map and sections are mean to an end; they
help the examiner to see the three dimensional picture and by contributing to
understanding of the geometry are a means for making quantitative measurements of
features of importance. While geometry may be all importance in solving post-ore
structural problems, structure has much broader implications on the genetic side.

_________
1
Billings, M.P., Structural Geology, Prentice Hall, Inc.,1942
2
Fisher, D. J., A New Projection Protractor, University of Chicago, Dept. of Geology,
1940