History of Tunnels in India

HISTORY OF TUNNELS IN INDIA
History of Tunnels
in India
Publication No. 307
Editors
V.K. Kanjlia
P.P. Wahi
A.C. Gupta
Central Board of
Irrigation & Power
Tunnelling Association
of India
2008
ISBN 81-7336-314-5
_________________________________
"Reproduction of any part of this publication in any form is permissible subject to proper acknowledgement and
intimation to the publisher. The publisher / author / editors have taken utmost care to avoid errors in the publication.
However, the publisher / author / editors are in no way responsible for the authenticity of data or information given in
the book."
Central Board of Irrigation & Power

Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi 110 021
Phone : 011-2687 5017 / 2687 6567 Fax : 011-2611 6347
E-mail : cbip@cbip.org/cbip@vsnl.com Web : www.cbip.org
TECHNICAL COMMITTEE
CHAIRMAN
CONVENER
Prof. T. Ramamurthy
New Delhi
Mr. V.K. Kanjlia, Secretary General

Tunnelling Association of India
MEMBERS
Mr. Vinod Kumar
Mr. M.S. Rana
Konkan Railway Corporation Ltd.
Konkan Railway Corpn. Ltd.
Mr. P.N. Venkatesh
Dr. Y. Deva
Karnataka Power Corpn. Ltd.
Geological Survey of India
Mr. G.M. Prasad
Mr. M.M. Madan
Tehri Hydro Development Corpn. Ltd.
Mr. R.L. Gupta

Jaypee Ventures Pvt. Ltd.
Mr. A.K. Bajaj

National Highways Authority of India
Mr. B.P. Awasthi

Northern Railways
Mr. S.K. Desai

Patel Engineering Company
Mr. K.K. Gupta
NHPC Ltd.
Dr. Gopal Dhawan

NHPC Ltd.
Mr. M.S. Bisaria

Gammon India Ltd.
Mr. D.P. Lal

IRCON International Ltd.
Dr. V.K. Yadav

Directorate General Border Roads
Larsen & Toubro Limited
Mr. Veer Sen
Mr. S.D. Jeur
Central Public Works Department
Hindustan Construction Co. Ltd.
Mr. H.S. Ahluwalia
Mr. J. Chandrasekhar Iyer
Ministry of Shipping, Road Transport & Highways
Central Water Commission
Mr. P.K. Garg
Mr. Alok Garg
Delhi Metro Rail Corpn. Ltd.
RITES Ltd.
Prof. K.G. Sharma
Dr. R.K. Goel
President, ISRM (India), Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research
Mr. Nripendra Kumar

Central Soil & Materials Res. Station
Mr. P.A. Kapur

Continental Construction Company
Dr. Kishor Kumar

Central Road Research Institute
Mr. R.S. Chauhan

Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam Ltd.
Dr. D.G. Kadkade

President, ISEG, Jaiprakash Associates Ltd.
Mr. S.M. Sabnis

Maharashtra State Road Development Corpn. Ltd.
Mr. Y.N. Apparao

Teesta Urja Ltd.
Mr. Manohar Khuslani

Central Board of Irrigation & Power
Tunnelling Association of India and Central Board of Irrigation & Power acknowledge the contributions
of the following organizations in compilation of the publication on History of Tunnels in India:
1.
Andhra Pradesh Power Generation Corporation Ltd.
2.
Bhakra Beas Management Board
3.
Border Roads Organisation
4.
Brihan Mumbai Municipal Corporation
5.
Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Ltd.
6.
Jaiprakash Associates Limited
7.
Konkan Railway Corporation Ltd.
8.
Maharashtra Jeevan Pradhikaran
9.
Metro Railway Kolkata
10.
Narmada Valley Development Authority
11.
National Highway Authority of India
12.
NHPC Ltd.
13.
North Eastern Electric Power Corporation Ltd.
14.
Northern Railway
15.
NTPC Ltd.
16.
Sardar Sarovar Narmada Nigam Ltd.
17.
Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam Ltd.
18.
Tehri Hydro Development Corporation Ltd.
19.
Water Resources Department, Govt. of Maharashtra
CONTENTS
Page No.
FOREWORD
1. Introduction to Underground Works
2. Hydro Tunnels
3. Railway Tunnels
19
107
a. Railway Tunnels in Hilly Terrain
109
b. Delhi Metro
120
c. Kolkata Metro
125
d. Konkan Railway
127
4. Road and Highway Tunnels
141
5. Water Supply and Irrigation Tunnels
149
6. Ancient Caves and Caverns
173
7. Future Tunneling and Underground Works
183
FOREWORD
Tunnels had their own roles to

play in every civilization and Indian
civilization is no exception. Tunnelling
dates back to prehistoric times.
Primitive people dug cavities or
widened the natural caves as shelter
against weather, wild life and enemies.
Archaeological research establishes
that man even in the stone-age
excavated cavities. Prehistoric tunnels built a few
thousand years ago have been discovered in India. Tunnel
construction in India dates back to Mahabharata period
when Pandavas excavated an escape tunnel. History also
reveals that many kings constructed escape tunnels from
their forts to safer places to be used during emergencies.
Modern tunnel construction in India has its origin
mainly in the nineteenth century when a number of railway
tunnels were constructed for the extension of the railway
network for crossing hill ranges in Western Ghats,
Vindhayas and in the foothills of Himalayas, for connecting
few hill resorts like Shimla. Barring a few tunnels in the
soft rock formations in the Himalayan foothills, most of
the tunnels were excavated in hard rock strata in
Peninsular India.
Construction of tunnels received a big boost after
Independence when large programmes for harnessing of
water resources were undertaken, which involved
construction of tunnels for water conveyance and other
underground works. Tunnels in other sectors such as
railways, roads transport were also taken up. In the last
six decades, about 350 tunnels have been constructed
having a total length of about 660 km in various projects.
The Ministry of Power is according high priority for
the development of hydropower and has envisaged a vision
Power for all by 2012. This enhanced capacity in
hydropower sector is going to play an important role in
fulfilling this vision. It is proposed to add about 16,000 MW
by the end of 11th Plan ending March 2012 and 30,000 MW
by end of 12th Plan ending March 2017. Out of the installed
capacity assessed to be about 150,000 MW, only about
23% of the vast hydro potential has been harnessed. Most
of the hydro potential is concentrated in the hilly states of
Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand and Jammu & Kashmir. Considerable tunneling
activity is involved in the hydropower projects located in
these states. Execution of the tunnelling works is a big
challenge in these areas, due to complex geological setting
and difficult terrain conditions.
About 1200 km of tunneling is planned including
hydro sector in the coming years. Such development of
hydropower sector is opening avenues for construction of
tunnels, underground caverns and other connected
infrastructure on a very large scale.
Growth of road infrastructure is essential for the

growth of road transport industry to facilitate smoother
and faster movement of motor vehicles. India has about
3.3 million kilometres road network which is the second
largest in the world. It includes Expressways, National
Highways, State Highways, Major District Roads and
Rural Roads. The total length of National Highways is
66,600 km. This constitutes only 2 percent of the total
road network but share approximately 40 percent of the
total traffic on roads. The Government of India has
launched a major initiative to upgrade and strengthen
the National Highways through various phases of
National Highways Development Project which would
necessitate construction of tunnels in various reaches.
A national project to link Jammu with Kashmir
Valley by 340 km broad gauge railway line has been
undertaken by the Ministry of Railways involving
construction of about 63 tunnels, out of which 21 have
already been completed in Jammu-Udhampur sector.
On completion of this project, it will be an engineering
marvel and will supplement the transportation needs and
shall also encourage tourism and provide thrust to
industrial development of Jammu & Kashmir.
Delhi, the national capital with the population of
about 16 million ought to have had a Rapid Mass Transit
System (RMTS) network long back as per the prevailing
standards. Though late but its first phase covering 65.10
km has already been completed and the work in phase
II (125 km) having a tunnel length of about 29 km is in
progress. Phase III & IV have been planned for extending
the metro network work.
MRTS are also planned for other cities namely
Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Chennai
etc. All these developments would involve extensive
construction activities of tunnels and underground works.
Thus there is a great opportunity for all agencies in India
and abroad to get themselves actively involved in the
development of tunnel industry in India.
This publication on History of Tunnels in India
gives a glimpse of important features of well known
tunnels executed for various projects in different sectors
such as Hydro, Railway, Road and Highways, Water
Supply and Irrigation and also ancient caves in India.
On behalf of Tunnelling Association of India,
I sincerely thank all the organisations and individuals who
have provided information for compilation in the publication.
I am sure the information provided in this publication
would be of great interest to all the readers.
V.K. Kanjlia
Secretary General
Tunnelling Association of India and
Secretary, Central Board of Irrigation & Power
INTRODUCTION TO
UNDERGROUND WORKS
10
INTRODUCTION TO
UNDERGROUND
WORKS
India is a land of lofty mountains and mighty rivers.
A vast land with such varied relief is inhabited by more
than one billion people. The country consists of three
main physical divisions. They are the great mountains
of the north and northeast, the great plains of northern
India and the great southern plateau of Peninsular India.
The southern plateau is flanked by the narrow coastal
strips which are a part and parcel of the peninsular land
mass. India has diverse geology too.
Ancient Caves
India has a very old history. Indus civilization is
well known. Tunnels had their own roles to play in every
civilization and Indian civilization is no exception.
Tunneling dates back to prehistoric times. Primitive
people dug cavities or widened the natural caves for
shelter against weather, enemies and wild life.
Archaeological research establishes that men even in
the stone age excavated cavities. Pre historic tunnels
built a few thousand years ago have been discovered in
India. Tunnel construction in India dates back to
Mahabharat period when Pandavas excavated escape
tunnel . History also reveals that many kings got
constructed escape tunnels from their forts to safer
places to be used during emergencies. In India, number
of ancient caves are preserved even now and are well
known through out the world. The paintings found in
these caves and the architecture of these caves while
reflecting the history of that period also indicates their
expertise in excavating these caves. While the caves of
Ajanta, Ellora, Elephanta are the tourist attraction, there
are other caves which are equally fascinating and details
of such 18 caves are given in this book.
Tunnels are important components of
transportation networks, water conveyance networks and
communication networks. They could be in rocky
environment or in softer media and could be in various
geometrical shapes depending on the functional utility.
Earlier tunnels were constructed manually. Mans
insatiable passion to achieve more and more progress
and production to meet the ever increasing requirement
of mankind has driven him to design and improve upon
the production of basic tunneling tools into more efficient
and productive ones.
Hydro Tunnels
independence in 1947 when large programmes for
exploitation of water resources were taken up which
involved construction of tunnels for water conveyance
and other underground works. In the last six decades
large number of tunnels have been constructed in

connection with multipurpose and hydroelectric projects
in the Himalayan region. Amongst the important projects,
where tunnels have been built include Chamera, Bairasuil, and Nathpa Jhakri projects in Himachal Pradesh,
Uri Stage-I, Dulhasti and, Salal projects in Jammu and
Kashmir, Dhauliganga project in Uttaranchal. In the NorthEast, important tunnel jobs have been executed at Loktak
and Teesta stage- V Projects. In the Peninsular India
too, there was spurt in tunneling activity connected with
the execution of Koyna, Nagarjunasagar, and Srisailam
projects. Tunnels with bore diameter of as much as 9 m
and length up to over 25 km at Beas - Sutlej Link have
been built in this period.
About 344 hydro-tunnels, small and big, totaling
a length of about 659 km. have already been completed
while 126 tunnels having a length of about 220 km. are
under construction. About 567 tunnels having a total
length of about 1200 km are planned to be executed in
recent future. Details of these projects are indicated in
the chapter on Hydro Tunnels Total lengths of tunnels
in some projects are indicated in the table below.
Name of HE Project
Length of tunnels
including adits (km.)
Teesta Project
22.57
Tehari Project
17.32
Baira Suil Project
16.39
Chamera I Project
10.72
Nathpa Jhakri Project
90.17
Uri Project
19.40
Koyna Project
Kalinadi Project
11.335
17.21
Railway Tunnels
Apart from tunnels for hydroelectric works, another
sector where tunnels have a important role to play is
Railway including Metros. Modern tunnel construction
in India has its origin mainly in the Nineteenth century
when a number of railway tunnels were constructed for
extension of the rail network for crossing hill ranges in
Western Ghats, Vindhayas and in the foothills of
Himalayas for connecting few hill resorts like Shimla.
Some of the Hill trains connecting important hill stations
passing through number of tunnels have historical
importance and some of them have been given World
Heritage Status by UNESCO. The hill train running on
Kalka Shimla section, built during the period 19001903 has to pass through 107 tunnels of varying lengths.
The longest tunnel, the Barog Tunnel is 1146m long.
The expertise and equipments available at that time in
comparison to what we have today clearly reflects the
difficulties which must have been faced at that period to
construct these memorable tunnels.
The new railway line, prestigious and the most
challenging Jammu-Udhampur-Srinagar-Baramulla
11

10.15 m dia Tunnel Junction (Square) for Nathpa Jhakri Project, Himachal Pradesh
12

(340km.) under construction in the Himalayan Mountains
in Jammu and Kashmir state passes through difficult
terrain. The adverse geology enroute has led to increase
in tunnel length because it was not possible to locate
bridges and tunnel portals in slide zones and other
unfavorable locations. The rocks range from loose
conglomerates and severly folded and crushed sandclay- silt stones in Katra- Sangaldan region to slates,
schist and phylites beyond Sangaldan. The line shall cut
across three major thrust zones, the Reasi thrust, the
Muree thrust and the Pir Panjal thrust. The rocks along
the proposed alignment are heavily folded, over thrusted
and faulted at many places making the rocks highly
jointed and crushed.
There are 63 tunnels having a total length of about
120 km. along the alignment, the longest being 6.574
km. Jammu-Udhampur Rail Link (53.4 km) forms a part
of the Jammu-Udhampur-Srinagar Baramulla railway line
connecting Jammu, the summer capital of the J&K State
with Udhampur the district headquarter. Track traverses
the domain of Shiwalik ranges of young Himalayas which
is highly undulating and difficult hilly terrain. Construction
of railway line involved 85.22 lac cum of earthwork and
rock cutting; 21 tunnels with total length of 10.680 kms,
longest tunnel being 2.445 km and 158 bridges with spans
up to 102 m ( in prestressed concrete) and 154 m (in
steel) and pier heights up to 68 m above bed. Indian
Railways, with a rich history in tunneling since 1889 when
first tunnel commenced at Bhor Ghat, have conquered
the mighty and unpredictable Himalayas on JURL
(Jammu-Udhampur Rail Link) with Broad Gauge line.
Upon completion of the entire project, it will be an
engineering marvel and will supplement the
transportation needs and shall also encourage tourism,
and provide thrust to industrial development. Inadequate
knowledge of strata in Himalayas makes tunneling an
extremely complex, arduous, and hazardous and
painfully slow work. Certain problems were also faced
while implementing this project. Besides the details of
these two hilly rail links details of Kangra Valley Railway,
Nilgiri Mountain Railway and Neral- Matheran Toy train
are given in the chapter on Railway Tunnels in Hilly
Terrain.
Another important railway tunnels belong to
Konkan railway. Konkan is a thin strip of land, about 50
to100 km. at its widest 720 km long between the Arabian
Sea and the Western Ghats or the Sahyadri mountain
ranges. Its proximity to the Arabian Sea, especially the
fact that several major and minor sea ports in peninsular
India fall in this region, has endowed Konkan with a rich
history and cultural heritage.
Konkan was also the area where Vasco De Gama
from Portugal landed in 1498, leading a European
onslaught that eventually led to the colonisation of India.
The history of the Konkan Railway goes back
more than 150 years. Ever since 1853, when the railways
began in the sub-continent, the people of the region
were keen to have a railway line for efficient and
dependable transportation of goods and passengers. For
decades, the only means of transport here was the sea,
and this route was severely limited by the fact that it could
not be used during the monsoon. The roads connecting
coastal towns came up only recently. The area, therefore,
remained largely undeveloped, though it was rich in natural
resources.
Only after the Konkan Railway Corporation
Limited (KRCL) came into existence as a public limited
company in July 1990 the work started on this project
and finally commissioned on 26-01-1998.
In the 760 km. long stretch of railway line, there
are 92 tunnels aggregating to a total length of 83.6 km.
and nine tunnels out of these were longer than two km.
It was for the very first time that such massive tunneling
work was attempted for vehicular tunnels in India. Out
of these, 74 km was through hard rock, 8.4 km. through
soft soil, and the balances 1.2 km through cut and cover
construction.
In the field of development of metros, though a
beginning was made long back in the year 1974 when
the work on Kolkata metros started and subsequently
completed in the year 1995, the work on Delhi metro
started only in the year 1995.
.
Metro Railway construction in Kolkata is first
attempt of underground railway construction in India and
also in one of the busiest cities, having poor soil
conditions. For this project, a unique cut and cover
method of construction was used even through the very
busy roads of Kolkata, except in small stretches, where
shield tunneling was adopted. Cut & Cover method of
construction was primarily adopted due to economical
consideration.
Kolkata Metro Railway is successfully running
between Tollygunge & DumDum. Success has further
encouraged for further spread of a stretch of 18.65 km.
between New Das Nagar- Salt Lake City Sec- V , which
is being planned and detailed project report has been
prepared.
Another hall mark is the Delhi Metro. The city of
Delhi with a population of around 16.0 million should
have had an Mass Rapid Transit System (MRTS)
network long back, whereas actually it is still 65.10 kms
at the take-off stage.
Delhi has experienced phenomenal growth in
population in the last few decades. Its population has
increased from 57 lakhs in 1981 to 162 lakhs in 2006
and is poised to reach 190 lakhs by the year 2011. For
want of an efficient mass transport system, the number
of motor vehicles has increased from 5.4 lakhs in 1981
to 51 lakhs in 2007 and is increasing at the rate of 6.21
lakhs per annum. The result is extreme congestion on
Delhi roads, ever slowing speeds, increase in road
accidents, fuel wastage and environmental pollution with
motorized vehicles alone contributing to about two thirds
of the atmospheric pollution.
Government of India ( GOI) and the Government
of National Capital Territory of Delhi (GNCTD) , in equal
partnership, have set up a company named Delhi Metro
Rail Corporation Ltd. in the year 1995 which has already
13

Underground Excavation in Inclined Pressure Shaft (3.1 m dia) for Baspa-II Project in Himachal Pradesh
14

commissioned a 65.10 kms route in Phase-I and is
proceeding ahead with another 125 kms in Phase - II.
Phase II work is to be completed by 2010 before the
Common wealth games. The work is going on war
footing. Phase III and Phase IV covering length of about
112 km and 109 km respectively are also envisaged in
future and these Phases are likely to be completed by
2021 and total network of metro rail in Delhi would be
about 414 km.
Roads & Highway Tunnels

Good and short highways help in efficient
transportation. In this category, Rohtang tunnel is of
relevance. This tunnel is a long cherished dream for the
inhabitants of Lahaul and Spiti, Pangi valley and Kaza
district of Himachal Pradesh and Ladakh region of
Jammu & Kashmir State.
Keeping in view the strategic importance and socio
economic need of region, the responsibility for
developing surface communication network for this part
of Indian Sub-Continent ( J&K State & mountainous region
of Himachal Pradesh) was assigned to Border Road
Organization (BRO) in 1960 by Govt. of India.
The work on 8.8 km long Rohtang Pass
tunnel costing Rs 17 billion, aimed to provide an allweather alternative route to Leh-Ladakh region, besides
Himachals snow-bound tribal district of Lahaul and Spiti,
will commence this year-end. Because of heavy snow
at higher reaches of Rohtang pass during winter, the
road connectivity for Lahaul and Spiti and Leh from
Himachal Pradesh remains disrupted for almost four to
five months. The snowfall is heaviest at the 3980 mhigh Rohtang Pass. This tunnel will be built below the
pass so that it avoids the heavy snow and provides all
weather road, besides reducing the distance by 44
kilometre. The BRO has planned to use latest tunnel
boring machines and engage best companies of the
world for the tunnel work.
Another important highway having number of
tunnels is the National Highway NH-4 which connects
Mumbai earlier known as Bombay with the city of
Bangalore via Poona (Pune). This is a very old road
constructed during British era. The road between
Mumbai & Pune is passing through precipitous mountain
ranges of Sahyadri hills; the famous Khandala Hill station
is around midway enroute.
Due to increase in the traffic every year resulting
in jams, accidents, increase in travel time etc, it was
necessary to build a new and independent expressway.
Government of Maharashtra planned a new
Expressway by-passing the city of Panvel in Raigad
district upto outskirt of Pune city in 1990. In order to
ease out the alignment and reduce the steep gradient
at few locations of the road in the hilly terrain, provision
of the tunnels was unavoidable. Therefore, twin tube
tunnels have been constructed at five locations i.e.
Bhatan, Madap, Khandala, Kamshet I and Kamshet II
and one single tube tunnel at Adoshi for Mumbai bound
traffic. Size of each tunnel is 17.6 m wide, 9.8 high, to
accommodate four lanes of traffic. Cross-sectional area

of each tunnel is varying between 148 m to 157 m,
which is considered to be a very large section,
constructed for the first time in India for any road project.
The length of the tunnels varies between 168 m to
1086 m, totaling to 5762 m.
The tunnels on this expressway have been provided
with modern facilities of ventilation, lighting,
communication system, fire fighting vehicles,
computerized control room etc; and would rank amongst
the best in the world.
Water Supply Tunnels

Water supply tunnels have predominantly been
used in India in the state of Maharashtra that in
Mumbai.Municipal Corporation of Brihan (
MCBM).Mumbai has used tunnels in number of its Water
Supply Schemes. The first such scheme was Vaitarna
Scheme where 7.2 km. long tunnel was driven through
Vaitarna hills to link the Vaitarna and Tanasa lakes in the
year 1952. Since then tunnels have always remained
an undivided part of any water supply scheme of MCBM.
The tunneling system adopted in Mumbais water supply
comprises an inlet and outlet shafts, vertical in nature
with intermediate shafts, if any, as per the requirements.
TBMSs have been used for drilling of tunnels. In fact
MCBM has been the pioneer with regard to adoption of
TBMs for tunnel construction. Since then MCBM has
completed more than 25 km of tunneling for water supply
in Mumbai and about 29 km are under construction today.
The range of diameters of tunnels varies from 2.2m to
3.5 m. The details of these projects and another project
Morbe Dam Project are given in the relevant Chapter.
Though predominantly irrigation channels are
constructed for irrigation purposes, even then some tunnels
have been constructed for irrigation purposes in different
parts of India, totaling a length of about
72 km. Some of the important irrigation tunnels pertain to
the projects- Tawa project, Hemavaty reservoir project,
Malaprabha Irrigation Project and Ghatprabha project.
Details of a recently constructed irrigation tunnel called
Punasa Tunnel diverting water of Narmada river from the
reservoir of Indira Sagar Project are highlighted in this book.
Construction Technology
A review of tunneling methods in India shows that
the conventional drill-&-blast method remains practically
the dominant practice for excavation of tunnel in India..
Construction Equipments
Attempts have been made in the past on some
projects to use Roadheaders and Tunnel Boring
Machines (TBMs) with success in some and failure in
others. A beginning was made using the TBMs for the
construction of a water supply tunnel in Bombay called
the Malabar Hill Tunnel and Dulhasti Project in J&K. and
Parbati Project Stage II in Himachal Pradesh. Road
headers are being used for quite sometime in the mining
sector particularly in the Singareni Collieries Co. Ltd. A
road header was used for the excavation of the Loktak
tunnel in Manipur in late Seventies.
15

Till recently, barring a few cases, the use of steel
ribs with backfilling by tunnel muck or lean concrete was
practically the only method of supporting in India. This
being a passive support system, a considerable damage
is done to the rock mass before the ribs interact with it.
The combination of the drill-&-blast method of excavation
and steel rib support system delays the supporting action,
allows opening of the existing joints, creates new fractures,
permits loosening of the rock mass in the roof, mobilizes
higher tunnel closures and greater rock loads which require
larger excavation and thicker support. All these problems
result in increased cost and completion period.
Lately, there has been considerable increase in
the use of shotcrete as a support system, particularly for
large underground cavities. The use of steel fibre reinforced
shotcrete (SFRS) has also been made at a few projects,
such as, Uri (J & K) and Koyna Project (Maharashtra).
Compared with the great advances made in
methodology for tunnelling all around the globe, it is
obvious that we have still a long way to go to catch up
with modern tunnel construction technologies. With new
tunnelling techniques, extensive developments have taken
place in the field of special excavation equipment hydraulic jumbos, Tunnel Borers, Road Headers,
explosives, methods of ground stabilization, methods for
rock support, special equipment for concrete lining, which
enable realization of tunnel construction at rates hitherto
unimaginable.
Construction industry in India is growing at a faster
pace. About 1200 km of tunnels including adits are
proposed to be constructed for number of projects which
are planned to be taken up in near future. Keeping in
view the execution of large number of projects for
accelerated development of tunnel projects, sufficient and
competent agencies are not available in the country. To
enable more construction companies to enter in the field,
policies and procedures have been simplified by
Government of India. With the change in policies and
procedures, some international reputed companies have
already started operation in India in the recent past and
many more are expected to join shortly.
Geological Investigation
Almost every aspect of a tunneling project, from
its conception to commissioning, is influenced by the
geology of the area. Reliability of the predicted geology,
therefore, plays an important role in the success of the
project. Inadequate geological investigation and poor
anticipation of the nature and the magnitude of problems
catch the tunneling engineers unawares, resulting in
delays and higher cost of construction. Inadequate
investigations could be attributed to financial, technical
and site constraints etc .
The nature of major construction problems which
have been experienced in the past due to inadequate
investigations are:
(i)
16
Buckling of steel ribs requiring rectification under

squeezing ground conditions in lower Himalaya.
(ii)
Roof falls and chimney formations
(iii)
Water inrush (Chhibro-Khodri tunnel)
(iv)
Methane explosion (Giri-Bata tunnel, Loktak

tunnel)
(v)
Running ground conditions
In view of the above, adequate investigations

needs no emphasis. Keeping in mind that huge tunneling
activity is likely to be involved while executing many
proposed hydroelectric, railway, and road projects in
Himalayan region where challenges are more, attempts
are being made to induct modern techniques of
engineering geological investigations in order to unravel
geological complexities and adversities well in advance,
so that geological surprises are minimized during
construction. The other means of investigations such
as satellite image analysis and geophysical methods
need to be explored. Geological investigations and these
methods of investigations could definitely provide
additional information which shall be useful during boring
of tunnels. Besides, numerical modelling for design
considerations and fast tunneling technology using
Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) are being adopted to
reduce time and cost over run and ensure safety and
stability of the structures.
Contractual Practices
For successful and timely completion of a tunnel
project, correct contracting practices are very important.
Essential contracting practices include all operations and
procedures involved from fixing up an agency for
execution of the work, getting a contract agreement
signed and effective follow up and monitoring the
progress of works till completion of the job.
Practically, all the tunneling projects in the country
are executed through contractors only and it has been
experienced that there are invariably time and/or cost
overruns on almost every such project due, among other
things, to deficiencies in the contracting practices which
are generally found to be indifferent to the project needs.
Inadequate finances, delay in decision making,
inadequate geological exploration often lead to
contractual problems
Future of Underground Construction in India

For a fast developing country like India, a need
has been felt to enhance the electrical power, a basic
necessity for any developmental activity. Existing electrical
power being considered insufficient for the requirement
for the country, it is now envisaged to provide Power for
all by 2012 and big plans to achieve this target are on
the anvil. Hydro power addition is expected to play an
important role in this vision. Not only in 11th five year plan
but also in the 12th five year plan ending March 2017,
hydro power development has been emphasized. It is
proposed to add about 16000 MW hydropower by end of
11th plan ending 2012 and 30000 MW by end of 12th plan
ending 2017 and such development have opened avenues
for construction of tunnels, under ground caverns etc. and
other connected infra structure on a much larger scale.

Considerable activities in the field of tunneling are therefore
envisaged for the execution of water resources projects
for irrigation, hydropower generation, building of roads in
mountainous area, subsurface excavation for underground
railway and for mining purposes. With the growing need
to accelerate the tempo of water resources and
hydropower development, new projects are being taken
up, which involve construction of about 1200 km length of
tunnels, practically in every type of strata and sizes varying
from 2.5 m dia to 14 m dia besides underground excavation
of caverns for the power houses. These projects are
planned to be taken-up on priority for completion of some
by end of 2012 and others by end of 2017. It is also
planned to develop 31000 MW in the 13th planning ending
2022 and remaining about 36500 MW by end of 14th plan
ending 2027. These developments would provide ample
scope for tunnel and underground construction in a big
way in times to come.
Details of the other Metros being planned in India

are as follows:
Sl. Name of
No. the city
1
Bangalore
Metros which has wide scope for the construction

of tunnels and underground works have an excellent future
in India in view of the large scale aforementioned works
which are planned.
In addition road tunnels also are to be executed in
future. The work of Rs 17 billion Rohtang Tunnel project,
aimed to provide an all-weather alternative route to LehLadakh region, besides Himachals snow-bound tribal
district of Lahaul and Spiti, will commence this year-end.
Because of heavy snow at higher reaches of Rohtang
pass during winter, the road connectivity for Lahaul and
Spiti and Leh from Himachal Pradesh remains disrupted
for almost four to five months. This tunnel will be built
below the pass so that it avoids the heavy snow and
provides all weather road, besides reducing the distance
by 44 kilometre. Border Road Organisation has geared
up to take up this work. The tunnel is likely to be completed
by 2014. There are other road tunnels , the execution of
which are under active consideration.
Kms
Line-I Mysore Road

Baiyyappanhalli
18.1
Line- II Yeshwantpur
Jaya Nagar Airport Link
14.9
City Airport Terminal

at Police Ground
(NH-7) New
33.65
International
Airport (Phase-I)
2
Hyderabad
Construction of Metro is another field where lot of

activity in tunnel construction and underground works are
envisaged in times to come. After completion of ongoing
tunneling works of about 29 km in phase- II, Delhi Metro
Rail Corporation is planning to take up phase-III and
phase-IV involving extension of metro track by about 113
km. and 109 km. respectively thereby extending the track
to a length of about 414 km. These developments would
also involve construction of tunnels and also underground
stations in a big way.
The success of the Delhi Metro has encouraged
other Indian cities to seriously attempt to introduce Metro
systems. DMRC has already been appointed the Prime
Consultant for Hyderabad and Kochi Metro and is the inhouse consultant for Mumbai Metro. DMRC has also
submitted Detailed Project Reports (DPRs) for Metro
systems in Bangalore, Kolkata (East-West Line),
Mumbai, Ahmedabad and Chennai. DPRs are being
prepared for Pune and Ludhiana. In fact, work has already
begun on the Bangalore and Hyderabad Metros.
Line
Line-I Miyapur
Chaitanya Puri
26.27
Line-II Secunderabad
Falaknuma
13.18
Line-III Tarnaka
Hi tech City
21.74
Airport Link
Begampet Airport Hyderabad
International Airport at
42.35
Shamsabad (Phase-I)
3
Ahmedabad Metro System

Line-I Akshardham
APMC Vasana
32.65
Line-II Ahmedabad
Thaltej
10.90
Regional Rail System
Mumbai
Line-I Barjedi
Ahmedabad Kalol
44.85
Line-II Ahmedabad
Naroda
9.85
Line-I Versova
AndheriGhatkopar
11.07
Line-II Colaba
Bandra Charkop
38.24
Line-III Bandra Kurla 13.18

Mankhurd
5
Kochi
Line-I Alwaye Petta
25.25
Chennai
Line-I Airport
Wahsermen Pet
23.05
Line-II Chennai Fort - St.

Thomas Mount.
23.44
Kolkata
New Das Nagar Salt

Lake-City Sec - V
18.65
Ghaziabad
Dilshad Garden
New Bus depot
9.41
Badarpur
Badarpur - YMCA Chowk 13.87
17

An important rail tunnel work is going on JammuUdhampur- Srinagar- Baramulla sector in the state of
Jammu and Kashmir. The Jammu- Udhampur sector
having 21 tunnels has already been completed while the
work in the remaining sector having 42 tunnels with total
length of 108 km. is in progress. In other sectors also
there is a good future role for underground works.
Tunnels are generally located in difficult
environments- in various types of softer media- and the
alignment may traverse zones of various complexities. It
is important that such engineering projects are properly
conceptualized and planned systematically to ensure
smooth implementation. Since one of the fundamental
measures to ensure fast track construction is the choice
of a safe alignment, careful consideration is required to
18
be given to avoid all types of hazards as far as possible

and these include treacherous soil conditions,
subterranean water streams, strata bearing hazardous
gases such as methane, etc. In addition, it is also to be
ensured that adequate investigations have been done,
proper selection of tunneling equipment has been made,
appropriate contracting practices are available,
environment and forest clearances have been taken,
competent construction agencies are available, social
issues have been taken care of and similar other issues
are duly considered. If these are not properly accounted,
the implementation will not be smooth and many problems
are likely to arise from various affected agencies during
the construction leaving to delay and cost over-runs.
HYDRO TUNNELS
19
20
HYDRO TUNNELS
For a fast developing country like India, a need

has been felt to enhance the power generation, a basic
necessity for any developmental activity. Existing
electrical power is considered insufficient for the
requirement of the country. Significant portion of our
population is deprived of electricity. It is now envisaged
to provide Power for all by 2012 and big plans to
achieve this target are on the anvil. Hydropower addition
is expected to play an important role in this vision. Since
present installed capacity of hydropower plants is only
about 36,000 MW against hydropower potential of about
1,50,000 MW, there is a big scope for exploitation of
balance hydropower potential. Not only in 11th five year
plan but also in the 12th five year plan ending March
2017, hydropower development has been emphasized.
It is proposed to add about 16,000 MW hydropower by
end of 11th plan and 30,000 MW by end of 12th plan.
Such developments have opened avenues for
construction of tunnels, underground caverns and other
connected infra structure on a much larger scale.
independence in 1947 when large programs for
exploitation of water resources were taken up which
involved construction of tunnels for water conveyance
and other underground works. In the last six decades
large number of tunnels have been constructed in
connection with multipurpose and hydroelectric projects
in the Himalayan region. Amongst the important projects,
where tunnels have been built include Chamera, BairaSiul, and Nathpa Jhakri projects in Himachal Pradesh,
Uri Stage-I, Dulhasti and Salal projects in Jammu and
Kashmir, Dhauliganga project in Uttaranchal. In the
North-East, important tunnel jobs have been executed
at Loktak and Teesta Stage-V Projects. In the Peninsular
India too, there was spurt in tunnelling activity connected
with the execution of Koyna, Nagarjunasagar, and
Sirisailam projects.
In India, considerable tunnelling activity is involved
in the hydropower projects located in Himalayan region
and it is bound to be accelerated since, of late, major
thrust has been laid by the Government of India for
harnessing available hydropower potential of the

Himalayan rivers in order to strike a balance between
total demand and supply in the power sector. Himalayan
region occupies a unique position having substantial
hydropower potential. Out of the total 1,50,000 MW
hydropower potential in India, major share lies in the
Himalayan rivers constituting about 73% of the total
potential, that comes to about 1,10,000 MW. Presently
only about 9400 MW hydropower has been developed
in Himalayan sector and a vast potential remains
unutilized. The pace of hydropower development in
Himalayan region is facing many challenges related to
complex geological setup, difficult terrain conditions and
high seismicity. Besides, adverse climatic conditions,
forest and environmental issues and rehabilitation
problems are some more hurdles. In order to achieve
an ideal hydro-thermal mix, serious efforts are being put
by the Government of India to focus on harnessing of
hydropower potential of Himalayan rivers in Uttaranchal,
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and the northeastern states where about 527 hydel projects (413 run
of the river and 114 storage schemes) have been
identified.
Construction of these hydel projects will involve
extensive tunnelling, particularly in the run of the river
schemes where length of power tunnels is in kilometres
like in Nathpa Jhakri Hydel Project in the state of
Himachal Pradesh where the length of the headrace
tunnel is 27.4 km. In the state of Uttaranchal alone about
750 km tunneling will be involved in different hydroelectric
projects already proposed.
Many organizations such as National Hydroelectric
Power Corporation (NHPC) Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam Ltd.
( SJVNL), Tehri Hydro Development Corporation (THDC),
North Eastern Electric Power Corporation (NEEPCO),
Narmada Hydro Development Corporation (NHDC), ,
Uttaranchal Jal Vidyut Nigam, NTPC Ltd., State
Governments, Joint Ventures and some private
organizations are actively involved in development of hydro
power projects in the country which involve both the
construction of tunnels and underground works. About
659 km. of tunnel including HRT,TRT, adits etc. of various
hydroelectric projects have been completed. Of these
completed tunnels, about 347 km. tunnel pertain to
projects owned by state governments, 173km. by central
Government, 123 km. by Joint ventures and 16km. by
Private sector. 220 km. of tunnels are also under
construction in different hydroelectric projects. Following
table gives the lengths of tunnels including adits for
completed and under construction hydroelectric projects.
21

Roof Support of Underground Power House Cavern for Lakhwar Project (Uttaranchal)
22

Sl. Name of the Project
No.
A
Completed
Nagarjuna sagar Project (960 MW)
Length in km

No.
Length in km
34
Pallivasal HEP (67.5 MW)
3.119
6.467
35
Poringalkuthu HE Scheme (32 MW)
1.228
Srisailam Left Bank HE Project

(1670 MW)
4.842
36
Neriamangalam HEP (45 MW)
3.395
37
Lower Sileru (460 MW)
3.206
Sengulam Hydro Electric Project

(48 MW)
1.779
3
4
Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy Sagar

Project
1.771
38
Panniar Hydro Electric Project

(30 MW)
Ranganadi HE Project (405 MW)
10.264
39
Sholayar (54 MW)
Karbi Langpi HE Project (100 MW)
4.43
40
Koyna HEP Stage I,II & III (920 MW)
11.335
Dalaima Small Hydro Electric (4 MW)
1.77
41
Koyna HEP Stage IV (1000 MW)
17.747
Kopili HEP 1st Stage (275 MW)
9.659
42
Tillari Hydro Electric Project (60 MW)
3.968
Sardar Sarovar (Narmada) Project.

(250 MW)
1.74
43
Bhira Hydro Electric Project (300 MW)
8.615
44
Bhandaradara Project ( 44 MW)
10
Sardar Sarovar Narmada Project,

Power House (1200 MW)
1.83
45
Vaitarna HEP (60 MW)
11
Sanjay Vidyut Pariyojna - (120 MW)
46
Ghatghar PSS (250 MW)
12
Shanan Hydel Project (110 MW)
47
Lokatak HE Project (105 MW)
6.766
13
Baira Siul Power Station (180 MW)
48
Umiam Umtu Stage I (36 MW)
2.058
14
Chamera-I (540 MW)
10.72
49
Umiam Umtu Stage II (60 MW)
0.019
15
Chamera-II (300MW)
16.906
50
Umiam Umtu Stage III (18 MW)
3.441
16
Beas Sutlej Link Project

(BSL) Dehar HEP (990 MW)
25.46
51
Umiam Umtu Stage IV (11.2 MW)
7.637
52
3.928
Beas Sutlej Link Project

Pong HEP (396 MW)
5.017
Bansagar Tons Multi-purpose

Project (425 MW)
53
Indira Sagar Project (1000 MW)
54
Doyang Hydro Electric Plant

(75 MW)
10.61
55
Balimela Hydroelectric Project

(360MW)
5.648
56
Upper Kolab Hydro Electric

Project (320MW)
0.392
17
11.099
4.673
16.319
2.93
0.771
.208
3.299
4.44
4.11
18
Nathpa Jhakri HE Project (1500 MW)
90.172
19
Baspa Hydroelectrci Project (300 MW)
7.695
20
Uri Stage - I (480 MW)
19.394
21
Dulhasti (390 MW)
11.495
22
Salal (690 MW)
5.454
23
Subarnarekha Hydel Project (130 MW)
1.706
57
Upper Indravati (600 MW)
24
Maithon Hydel Project (60 MW)
0.0635
58
Bhakra Dam (1325MW)
25
Sharavathy Valley HEP (1006.2 MW)
6.1
59
Rangit Sagar Dam (600 MW)
26
Kali Nadi HEP Stage I (855 MW)
17.21
60
Jawahar Sagar (99 MW)
0.412
27
Varahi HEP (230 MW)
3.05
61
Rana Pratap Sagar (172 MW)
1.467
28
Sabarigiri Hydro Electric Project

(300 MW)
7.708
62
Rangit (60 MW)
5.411
63
Teesta-V (510 MW)
29
Idukki HE Project (780 MW)
9.932
64
Idamalayar Multipurpose Project

(75 MW)
1.598
Kodayar Hydro Electric Project

(100MW)
6.16
30
65
Kakkad Hydro Electric Project

(50 MW)
10.548
Periyar Hydro Electric Project

(40MW)
3.103
31
66
Lower Periyar HEP(180 MW)
17.611
Mettur Hydro Electric Project

(200MW)
0.776
32
33
Kuttiyadi Hydro Electric Project

(125 MW)
67
Kundah Hydro Electric Project

(500MW)
8.165
0.919
13.921
0.805
3.42
22.576
23

No.
Length in km

No.
3.85
68
Sarkarpatti (30MW)
69
Sholayar (95MW)
3.655
Kameng HE Project (600 MW)
18.261
70
Kadamparai Pumped Storage

Project (400MW)
4.147
Subansiri Lower Project (2000 MW)
13.512
Chamera-III (231 MW)
24.788
71
Madras Atomic Power Station
4.78
ParbatiStage-II (800 MW)
44.419
72
Parsons Valley Hydro Power Station

(30MW)
ParbatiStage-III (520 MW)
14.475
73
Pyakara Hydro Power Station

(251.91MW)
Rampur Hydro-electric Project

(412 MW)
19.071
74
Maneri Bhali Hydroelectric Project

(90MW)
Baglihar Project - I (450 MW
10.324
Uri - II (240 MW)
12.039
Chutak HE Project (44 MW)
5.420
10
Myntdu Stage - I (84 MW)
3.316
11
Tons Hydel Project (Tunnel- II)
4.569
12
Sewa-II (120 MW)
14.77
13
Loharinag Pala HEPP (600 MW
22.667
14
Loharinag Pala HEPP (600 MW)
12.801
3.055
11.973
8.467
75
Tehri Hydro Electric Project

(1000MW)
76
Dhauliganga H.E. Project, Stage-I

(280MW)
9.124
77
Vishnu Prayag Hydroelectric Project

(400MW)
22.83
78
Rammam Hydel Project, Stage

II (50 MW)
Sub Total
17.329
3.25
Under Construction
Sub Total
220.432
648.279
As is evident from the above table, 1196 km of

tunnel is planned to be constructed in near future besides
other underground structures and in view of such large
tunnelling works to be under taken, there is a vast scope
for agencies within as well as outside the country, to
demonstrate their capability either in providing services
or equipment.
A review of tunneling methods in India shows that
the conventional drill-&-blast method remains practically
the dominant practice for excavation of tunnels in India.
Attempts have been made in the past on some projects
to use Roadheaders and Tunnel Boring Machines
(TBMs) with success in some and failure in others. A
beginning was made using the TBMs for construction
of a water supply tunnel in Bombay called the Malabar
Hill Tunnel and Dulhasti Project in J&K. and Parbati
Project StageII in H.P. To have good progress in
tunneling, there is need to use mechanized tunneling
methods and latest tunnelling techniques. Till recently,
barring a few cases, the use of steel ribs with backfilling
by tunnel muck or lean concrete was practically the only
method of supporting in India. This being a passive
24
Length in km
support system, a considerable damage is done to the

rock mass before the ribs interact with it. The
combination of the drill-&-blast method of excavation and
steel rib support system delays the supporting action,
allows opening of the existing joints, creates new
fractures, permits loosening of the rock mass in the roof,
mobilizes higher tunnel closures and greater rock loads
which require larger excavation and thicker support. All
these problems result in increased cost and completion
period.
Lately, there has been considerable increase in
the use of shotcrete as a support system, particularly
for large underground cavities. The use of steel fibre
reinforced shotcrete (SFRS) has also been made at a
few projects, such as, Uri (J&K) and Koyna Project
(Maharashtra).
A brief description of the salient features of
important projects along with geological set up,
construction methodology, problems encountered and
remedial measures adopted for tunnels and underground
works are given in the subsequent pages.
TUNNELLING AND
UNDERGROUND
WORKS IN INDIA
Tunnelling dates back to pre-historic time. Primitive
man made cavities or found natural caves for their dwelling.
Tunnel construction in India dates back to Mahabharata
period when Pandvas constructed escape tunnel. History
reveals that many kings got constructed the escape
tunnels from their fort to safer places to be used during
emergencies. The caves of Ajanta, Ellora and Elephanta
are excellent examples of architecture and underground
space development. Earlier tunnels were excavated with
manual methods, today it is state-of-the-art technology.
Major improvement in the methodology of tunnel
excavation has been made world over due to technological
advancement. Today tunnels are being constructed with
modern equipment and methodology.The tunnel
construction involves huge investment and had a direct
impact on the completion schedule and milestones of
the project. Todays trend demand for competency to
forecast the tunnelling condition, more mechanized
approach and utilization of state of the art technology to
achieve faster rate in construction by tackling the pitfalls
effectively. For sustainable development, application of
new technologies and use of sophisticated equipments
are the need of the day to execute the underground
structures in a cost effective manner.
There are three major areas of tunnels and
underground cavern construction;
.
For hydro power, water supply, sewerage and

irrigation
For vehicular traffic and transportation of goods i.e.,

for railways and road tunnels
For defence and nuclear purposes- underground

storage etc.
Modern tunnel construction in India has its origin

in nineteenth century when a number of railway tunnels
were constructed for extension of rail net work in various
part of the country for crossing of hill ranges. The famous
Kalka-Simla railway track passing across 102 tunnels
and Siliguri-Darjeeling rail network are beautiful examples
of tunneling activity in foothill Himalayas. The Konkan
railway is a shining example of tunneling through Western
Ghats in peninsular India. Kolkata metro and Delhi Metro
are the glorious example of advancement of technology
in the field of underground tunneling. The proposed 190
km long Jammu-Udhampur-Katra-Quazigund-Baramulla
railway track passes through very rugged terrain
comprising soft rocks of Shiwaliks, rocks of lesser
Himalayas and many regional thrust, has been partly
completed in challenging geological conditions.
Construction of hydro power tunnels received a big
boost soon after India independence in 1947 when
ambitious plans for harnessing the hydro power potential
were launched which involved construction of tunnels for
conducting water and other underground works. In the
last six decades a number of hydropower projects have
been constructed in Himalayan region as well as in
peninsular region. Apart from tunnels for hydroelectric
projects, few tunnels were constructed for transportation
and water supply works, the notable among them are
Banihal road tunnel across the Pir Panjal range in Jammu
& Kashmir and Mumbai water supply works. The work on
much awaited Rohtang tunnel involving an all weather
passage between snow clad regions of Himachal Pradesh
and Laddakh region of J&K is on the anvil.
25
HYDRO POWER
TUNNELS
Hydro power projects have a very important role to

meet the ever growing demand of energy .An ambitious
programme of 50,000 MW capacity addition has been
launched by Govt.of India targeting to harness the
available hydro power resources and to provide power to
all by 2012. In India, about 73 % of the total power potential
of the country lies in Himalayas. However, hydropower
development in Himalayas is faced with many challenges
related to complex geological set up, difficult terrain
conditions and high seismicity. Some of the common
problems faced during construction are water bearing
zones, stresses due to high cover, squeezing ground
condition etc. These adverse situations can be handled
by adequate investigation prior to construction, planning
suitable construction methodologies depending upon the
nature of rock, designing of adequate support, proper
drainage arrangement and monitoring of deformations, if
any, through instrumentation. Certain pre-construction
measures such as advance probe drilling and pre-grouting
in water bearing strata are very useful in forecasting the
tunneling conditions and making proper arrangements in
advance to tackle the difficult zones. More recently the
Tunnel Seismic profiling (TSP) technique has also been
introduced to predict the sheared and water bearing strata
well in advance.
Advancement in construction methodology has
also given boost for tunneling at a faster pace. Till recently
in India, drill and blast was the conventional method for
tunneling by which the progress was slow. Attempts have
been made to deploy Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) in
some of the projects, though with partial success.
However, the TBM are successful in underground metro
works where the strata are mostly homogeneous.
Advancement has also come in the field of rock support.
Normally, conventional steel support backfilled with
concrete are installed in weak rock. The installation of
ribs is a time taking job and do not support the rock mass
immediately, as a result the ribs often gets deformed and
their rehabilitation is a cumbersome process which may
results in the time and cost overrun. Introduction of pipe
roofing, double wire mesh with fibre reinforced shotcrete
and lattice girders are found to be effective support
measures in some of the projects.
As ideal sites for hydro power projects in Himalayas
has almost exhausted ,the hydropower projects are now
being proposed in more challenging geological conditions
which involves tunneling through soft rocks, projects
bounded by thrust zones or tunnels passing through high
cover or water bearing strata. Nevertheless, hydro power
development in India is growing at a faster pace. Some of
the Hydroelectric Projects involving considerable tunneling
have been commissioned in the recent past.Many
26
Organizations such as Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam Ltd

(SJVNL), Tehri Hydropower Development Corporation
(THDC), NEEPCO, Narmada Hydro Development
Corporation (NHDC),Uttranchal Jal Vidyut Nigam,NTPC
etc are actively involved in development of hydro power
projects in the country. Many projects such as Nathpa
Jhakri (1500 MW), Tehri project (1000 MW), Indra Sagar
Project (1000 MW), Omkareshwar Project (520 MW) have
been commissioned recently. With the participation of
many private sectors the hydro power industry is gaining
momentum.NHPC ,a premier organization in the field of
hydro power development ,alone has carried out more
than 200 km of tunneling for its various projects located
in diverse geological set up in north western, northern
and north east Himalayas notable among them are Uri
Stage-I(480 MW), Dulhasti (390 MW),Salal(690MW)in
J&K, Chamera Stage-I (540 MW),Baira Siul (198
MW),Chamera Stage-II (300 MW) in Himachal Pradesh
,Dhauliganga (280 MW)in Uttrakhand,Teesta Stage-V
(510 MW) and Rangit (60 MW) in Sikkim,Kurichu
(60 MW) In Bhutan and Loktak (105 MW) in Manipur. As
many as 7 projects involving considerable tunneling are
under active construction stage prominent among them
are Uri Stage-II (240 MW),Sewa stage-II (120MW)J&K,
Parbati Stage-II (800 MW) ,Parbati Stage-III
(520 MW),Chamera-III(231 MW) H.P.,Subansiri Lower
(2000 MW) in Arunachal Pradesh. Total tunneling involved
in some of these projects is given in table:
Tunneling Involved in Hydropower Projects of NHPC
Sl.
No
Project
Total Tunneling*
involved (in Km)
1.
Commissioned Project
Uri I (J&K)
22.0
2.
Dul Hasti (J&K)
12.0
3.
Salal Stage-I & II (J&K)
4.
Chamera I (H.P)
12.5
5.
Chamera II (H.P)
16.0
6.
Baira Siul (H.P)
16.5
7.
Dhauliganga (Uttarakhand)
9.0
8.
Loktak Project (Manipur)
7.0
5.5
9.
Rangit (Sikkim)
10.
Teesta V (Sikkim)
23.0
5.5
11.
Kurichu (Bhutan)
0.37
12.
Parbati Stage-II (HP)
58.0
13.
Parbati III (H.P)
15.0
14.
Chamera-III (HP)
20.0
15
Uri II (J&K)
10.0
16.
Sewa II (J&K)
11.5
17
Chutak (J&K)
7.0
18
Subansiri Lower
(Assam/Ar.Pradesh)
Project under construction
11.5

* Tunnels includes Intake tunnels, Desilting
chambers, Silt flushing tunnel, HRT, Feeder tunnels,
various adits to HRT, Surge shaft, Pressure shaft,
Powerhouse cavern, Main Access tunnel, Cable &
Ventilation tunnel and TRT etc
A brief description on the salient features of the

project along with geological set up, construction
methodology, problems and remedial measures adopted,
with special reference to the tunnels and other underground
excavations are given in subsequent chapter :
27
BAIRA SIUL HE PROJECT
Bhaled feeder tunnel
Siul weir and drop shaft
A surface powerhouse having 3 units of 66 MW

each for generating 198 MW power.
The project was commissioned in 1981.
Layout of Project
State
Himachal Pradesh
River
Baira
Owner
NHPC Ltd
Designer
NHPC Ltd
Construction Period
Commissioned in 1981
Total Length, Dia/cross

sectional area& Shape
of HRT
7.63 km 7.5 m, Horseshoe

shaped
Baledh Feeder Tunnel
7.83 km, D-Shape, 2.13 m

dia
The project has a unique layout. The flow of Baira

River is diverted through a power tunnel by constructing
a rock fill dam across the river. The discharge of Bhaled
nala is fed to Baira just upstream of dam through
7.83 km long Bhaled feeder tunnel while the flow of Siul
river is picked with diversion weir and fed into the power
tunnel through two desilting chambers and a drop shaft.
The surface powerhouse housing 3 Francis turbines is
located on the right bank of Siul river.
Geological Condition in HRT & Support System
The Salient features of the project are:
The HRT runs mainly through the phyllitic rocks.

The 7.5 m dia tunnel has been excavated by
conventional drilling and blasting method through
heading and benching. The HRT is supported by rock
bolts and shotcrete as per rock class and ribs have been
installed in highly crushed zones; beside this contact
grouting has also been provided. The tunnel has been
lined by 20 cm thick concrete layer.
A 53 m high earth and rock fill dam on Baira river.
Bhaled Feeder Tunnel
A 7.63 km long HRT
Baira Siul project is located in Chamba district of

Himachal Pradesh. The project utilizes the hydro
potential of Bhaled nala, Siul and Baira river to generate
750 MU power annually.
28
Bhaled feeder tunnel is 7.83 km long, 2.13 m dia,

D-shaped tunnel for conducting water from Bhaled nala
to Baira reservoir. The tunnel runs in moderately jointed
phyllitic rock with schist bands.Terzagiss rockmass
classification has been adopted and the tunnel has been

supported with rock bolts, shotcrete and steel ribs
depending upon the rock class.
Layout of Baira Siul HE project
29
BEAS SUTLEJ LINK

PROJECT - A
TUNNELLING PROJECT
(i)
Pandoh Diversion Tunnel June 1965 to July 1971
(ii)
Pandoh Baggi Tunnel September 1965 to June

1977
(iii)
Sundernagar Sutlej Tunnel January 1967 to June

1977
The water of Beas River was diverted into the

conductor system of Beas Sutlej Link System on 7 July
1977.
State
Himachal Pradesh
River
Beas
Owner
BBMB
General
Construction Period
June 1965 - June 1977
Total Length of Tunnelling
26.421 km including by pass

Tunnel and chute
The Pandoh Baggi Tunnel with 7.62 m finished

diameter has a design capacity of 254 .85 m3 and has
been constructed to carry Beas waters over a distance of
about 13.11 km from Pandoh to Sundernagar Hydel
Channel. At its upstream portal, the tunnel is aligned in
31.14 m upstream and parallel to the axis of Pandoh Dam.
A high creased site intake has been provided to feed the
tunnel from Pandoh reservoir. The tunnel has slope varying
from 0.272 to 0.00149.
The year 1947 witnessed the division of the state

of Punjab and to Indias share came the waters of the
three eastern rivers, the Sutlej, the Beas and the Ravi,
The Indus Water Treaty of 1960 between India and
Pakistan entitled India to the exclusive rights on the waters
of these three rivers. The master plan was drawn to harness
the waters to the best of advantage. The Bhakra Dam,
constructed across Sutlej river, controlled the water of
Sutlej for irrigation and power generation. The Beas was
the next to be tackled, with the Ravi flowing soon after.
The Beas Project, the largest hydro-elecric-cum
tunnelling Project in the country, has two units, the Beas
Satluj Link Project (Unit-1) and the Beas Dam Project
(Unit-II). The Beas Satluj Link (BSL) in Himachal Pradesh
in the North Western lap of Himalayas diverts about
4714x106 m3 (3.82 x 106 acre ft.) of Beas water from Pandoh
to Satluj river near village Dehar through about 40 km (25
miles) long water conductor system. The remaining water
is stored at Pong primarily for irrigating the arid water
lands of Rajasthan through the Rajasthan Canal, in a
planned and regulated manner. Beas waters casacade
on a 320 m (1050 ft) fall to generate power, 660 MW in
first stage and addition of 330 MW in second stage at
Dehar Power Plant on right bank of Satluj before margining
into Satluj waters.
It was financed by Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan
and was managed by the Government of India (Ministry
of Energy) through a construction Board with
representatives from Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and
Himachal Pradesh.
The Beas Sutlej Project has a long water conductor
systems comprising Pandoh Baggi Tunnel (PBT),
Sundernagar Hydel Channel (SHC), Sundernagar
Balancing Reservoir (SBR) and Sundernagar Sutlej Tunnel
(SST), besides Pandoh Dam on river Beas at Pandoh
and Dehar Power Plant on river Sutlej.
Construction Chronology
The work started in June 1965 and completed in
June 1977. The important construction schedule of tunnels
are as under:-
30
Pandoh Baggi Tunnel
Geology
The tunnel was geologically classified into three
categories of reaches viz. normal, poor and very poor rock
reaches. Normal rock reaches were those where the rocks
are and competent, such as hard and layered phyllites.
Poor / very poor rock reaches are those where the rocks
are soft and sheared such as sheared phyllites, tale
schists/granites. Distress reaches fall in the category of
very poor rock reaches.
Identification and Valuation of Geo Technical

Problems
On actual tunnelling, the phyllites, comprising
about 30 percent of total length, had offered good to
satisfactory tunneling conditions, which was thus one
grade better than the satisfactory to fair type as was
anticipated. The granite reach offered good, satisfactory
and poor tunneling conditions in 56, 32 and 12 percent
lengths, respectively, as against 50, 30 & 20 percent (as
was forecasted), thus indicating slightly better conditions
than anticipated. However, in two reaches of sheared and
kaolinised granite encountered, in what were inferred to
be tectonically active faults zones, aggregating about 762
m (2000 ft) in length and approximately to 6 percent of
the total length of the tunnel, sever squeezing pressures
had been encountered. This condition was not visualized
in the earlier geological forecast. Tunnelling through these
two very poor reaches took 31 months as compared to
13 months taken for tunneling through a good rock reach
of equivalent length.
Tunnelling Cycle and Selection of Equipment

Exacavation of PBT was carried out mainly from
three headings. The tunnelling cycle broadly consisted of
(i)
Drilling, blasting and ventilation.
(ii)
Mucking and haulage of rock.

(iii)
Ribbing and concreting the gap between rock and

steel supports.
Probing the Strata

The strata ahead of the tunnel heading was probed
before doing the heading blast, where the geology of the
strata was not exactly known. A 10 m deep probe hole
had to be drilled with CP machine.
Concrete Lining
The concrete lining has been done in the tunnel
(i)
To give adequate protection to the steel rib supports
(ii)
To prevent leakage from the tunnel
(iii)
To reduce hydraulic losses and
(iv)
To withstand such anticipated minor rock loads

likely to be developed subsequently
(v)
To accommodate reinforcement.
The thickness of concrete lining inside the rib was

kept to 254 mm (10 inch). The thickness was increased
to 381 mm (15 inch) in very poor rock reaches. Concrete
of 211 kg/cm2 strength at 28 days was specified to be
used in lining. Overt Concreting and invert concreting was
used.
Grouting
Contact grouting, consolidation grouting and cavity
grouting was done.
Inside View of Pandoh Baggi Tunnel
tunnel comprises a twin rectangular section transitioned

into 8.53 m (28 ft) dia circular section in a length of 22.56
m (74 ft.). To expedite the work of tunnelling two
construction Adits, viz Harabagh Adit and Bharari Adit
were provided. After construction of tunnel, junction of
Bharari Adit was closed with a concrete plug and hollow
concrete plug at Harabagh Adit junction was provided with
a gated opening to provide access for inspection and repair
of tunnel. If so required during closure of tunnel. To
ventilation shafts opening in the Nihari and Bumka Nallah
beds were provided during the construction which were
subsequently closed by the concrete plugs. The tunnel
has been concrete line in its entire length reinforced in a
reaches where the rock is poor or where the rock cover is
inadequate. The total quantity of concrete used in the
lining is 0.53 x 106 m3 (0.69x106 yd3). The construction of
tunnel involved excavation of 1.21 x 106 m3 (1.58 x 106 yd3)
of rock.
For construction facility, execution of Sundernagar
Satluj Tunnel was taken up from High heading (i) Pung
Intake portal Adit junction to downstream (ii) Bharari Adit
Junction to upstream and (iii) Bharari Adit junction to
downstream.
Geology
The alignment of Sundernagar Sutlej Tunnel runs
through an area of complex geology. The various
formations encountered in the area are shails comprising
limestone, dolomites, khaira quartzites, red shafts and
infra shails comprising traps, phyllites and schists with
quartzites. These rock formations, which are also charged
with water, were considered extremely poor tunneling
media, except for lime stones and dolomites.
The tunnel has been geologically classified into
three categories of reaches viz. normal, poor and very
poor rock reaches. Normal rock reaches are those where
the rocks are hard and competent such as layered are
crumbly dolomite and limestone. Poor/ very poor rock
reaches are those where the rocks are soft and sheared
such as sheared to crushed dolomites and limestones.
Alignment
Sundernagar Satluj Tunnel

General
Sunder Satluj Tunnel of 8.53 m (28 ft) dia and 12.35
km (7,67 miles) long is a power tunnel which takes of
from Sundernagar Balancing Reservoir and terminates into
Dehar Surge Shaft from where three penstock headers
fan out. A conventional type semi - circular intake structure
has been provided to feed the tunnel. The tunnel has been
designed to carry 403.52 m3 (14250 ft3) / s of water for
running 6 generating units of Dehar Power Plant. At inlet,
The alignment of this tunnel was tunnelised after

extensive exploration by drilling and drifting. The task in
choice of the final alignment was, (i) to avoid Suketi lake
sediments and Jaunsar phyllites traps, etc. (ii) to keep
the tunnel at safer distance from the krol thrust, (iii) to
avoid crossing of maximum possible faults and availability
of construction adits of reasonable length. Thus for
achieving these objectives, atleast 4 kinks in the alignment
were unavoidable. The final alignment, although
sandwiched between the major fault features i.e., the krol
thrust in the west and the bobri Khad fall in East avoids
crossing of all the strike faults and runs in best available
rock units i.e. limestones and dolomites of the Shafts.
Tunnelling Cycle and Selection of Equipment.

For speedy excavation of tunnels, Adits are
required to open at as many places as possible. In this
31

tunnel, two above referred Adits had been provided and in
all, five headings were available for working. The tunnelling
cycle broadly consisted of :
(a)
Drilling, blasting and ventilation for exhaust of flames

cushions.
(b)
Mucking and haulage of rock.
(c)
Ribbing (Fixing of steel supports) and concreting

the gap between rock and steel supports, called
Initial concreting.
Tunnel Excavation
Since the designed bed level of tunnel at Intake
was much below the existing natural surface level, so as
a preliminary work, a pit of size 152.4 into 152.4 (500x500
ft) and 27.43 m (90 ft) deep was excavated to facilitate
the work of tunnelling excavation. To reach the work site
a suitable ramp at a slope of 1 in 12 was provided. After
the excavation of the pit and meeting ramp are, the initial
construction at the main heading was taken up where no
tunnel excavation was required. For this, portal type ribs
of ISMB 150 x150 mm (6 x 6 in) size were erected on
4.27 (14 ft). The valve plates of 410 mm (16 in) width was
placed on either side under ribs on sides and the top, 900
mm (3 ft) thick concrete was placed. This initial
construction work at the main heading was completed in
June 1969 in a months time.
32
The strata encountered was some what similar to

that of river bed, hence only 1.2 m (5 ft) length of tunnel
was excavated and ribs installed. To proceed further,
blasting holes were drilled at 900 mm (3ft) all around
leaving in clear gap of 600 mm (2ft) from the ribs. Gelatine
60% and half second delay detonator were used for
blasting.
Drilling Equipments
Two types of drilling machines i.e., CP drilling
machines and Atlas Copco machines were used.
Concrete Lining
The concrete lining has been done in the tunnel
(i)
To give adequate protection to the steel rib supports

to prevent leakage from the tunnel
(ii)
To reduce hydraulic losses and
(iii)
To withstand such anticipated minor rock loads

likely to be developed subsequently.
The thickness of concrete lining inside the rib was

kept to 254 mm (10 inch). The thickness was increased
to 381 mm (15 inch) in very poor rock reaches. Concrete
of 211 kg/cm2 strength at 28 days was specified to be
used in lining. Overt concreting and invert concreting was
used.
CHAMERA HE PROJECT
STAGE- I
State
Himachal Pradesh
River
Ravi
Owner
NHPC Ltd
Designer
NHPC Ltd
Contractor/s
SNC/Acres, Canada
Construction Period

sectional area & Shape of
HRT
6.4 km, 9.5 m,

Horseshoe shaped
Underground Powerhouse
112 m x 21.5 m x 37 m
Other Tunnels (Diversion

3.75 km
tunnel, Construction
adits, Surge Shaft,
Pressure shaft, MAT, Cable &
Vent. tunnel, TRT
Chamera H.E.Project located on river Ravi in

Chamba Distt of Himachal Pradesh lies in lesser
Himalayas. The 540 MW project executed by NHPC in
collaboration with SNC/Acres, Canada was
commissioned in April 1994.
The salient features of the project are:
25 m dia, 84 m high surge shaft
8.5 m dia 157 m high pressure shaft
Underground powerhouse of dimensions 112 m

(L) x 24 m (W) x 37m (H) with three units of 180
MW each.
Transformer hall of dimensions 114 m (L) x17 m

(W) x 14 m (H)
A 9.5m dia ,horse shoe shaped, 2.4km long, tail

race tunnel
Head Race Tunnel

Layout
The head race tunnel is constructed on the right
bank of river Ravi.
The 9.5 m dia 6.4 km long HRT passes through a
folded sequence of phyllite, carbonaceous phyllite,
graphitic schist and phyllitic limestone of Dhundiara
Formation. The rocks of Dhundiara formation are
underlain by Shail Thrust which rest on meta volcanics of
Pir Panjal Formation in which the last lap of the power
tunnel was excavated. The maximum cover over the
tunnel is about 800m.
The power tunnel has been excavated in two
stages viz heading and benching. The 6.4 km long tunnel
was initially planned to be excavated through three
construction adits-Adit-1,Adit-II and surge shaft
adit .However, due to slow progress of works and
problematic carbonaceous phyllite zone at Face-3 ,another
adit (Adit-III) was provided on the right bank of Lohadeda
nala.
A 140 m high (from deepest foundation level) high

concrete arch gravity dam.
Problems Encountered and Remedial Measures

Adopted
10.7 m dia, horse shoe shaped Diversion tunnel
A 9.5 m dia, 6.4 km long , horse shoe shaped

head race tunnel
Tunneling through weak rock mass particularly

carbonaceous phyllites associated with heavy water
seepage, formation of cavities due to roof collapse,
crossing of Shail Thrust and interception of river borne
material while passing under Baggi nala crossing were
the major problems which were encountered during
tunnel construction. Remining and
rehabilitation of some portion of the
tunnel,multi drift method in weak
zones, providing steel ribs and
continuous
monitoring
of
deformations by systematic
instrumentation during construction
were some of the techniques used .
The problems faced during tunnel
excavation along with remedial
measures have been briefly
discussed:
Chamera Dam Stage-I
Face-3 of the Power tunnel,

excavated downstream from Adit-1
pierced through a 400 m wide band
of carbonaceous phyllite/graphitic
schist between RD 1150 m to
33
1550 m.The ribs provided as support got deformed over a

period of time .As the deformed ribs could not be
accommodated in the designed section, the entire reach
in carbonaceous phyllite was re-mined and rehabilitated.
Downstream of Adit-III the superincumbent cover
over the tunnel rises continuously and attains a maximum
height of 800 m.Here,phyllites with bands of
carbonaceous phyllites were intercepted at the tunnel
grade leading to squeezing ground conditions. Some of
the worst cavities were formed in this zone.
In Face-4 at RD 4925 a deep cavity of about 8 m
was formed on the left wall due to crushed rock mass of
phyllite associated with profuse seepage of the order of
200-300 l/min. This section was treated by forming a
bulkhead at the face, backfilling the cavity by concrete
and grouting the surrounding rock mass. Heading
excavation from RD 4931 m was also carried out by multi
drifting.
While crossing the 800 m thick Shali thrust zone
poor to fair quality phyllite rocks were encountered. The
tunnel witnessed frequent collapses in this zone. It was
stabilized by extensive grouting and backfilling the cavity
by concrete.
When tunnel face was advancing below Baggi nala,
in a low cover zone, riverine overburden was intercepted
between RD 6329-6363 m. Entire length in RBM was
excavated by multi drift grouted and supported by steel
ribs.
Instrumentation
In view of weak carbonaceous rock which has a
tendency to deform even after supported by steel ribs, a
comprehensive programme of instrumentation was
launched simultaneous with the excavation. Tape
extensometers were installed to measure the deformation
rates. The data obtained were analyzed for augmenting
the support.
34
Underground Power House

The underground power house cavern is 24.5m
wide, 112.5 m long and 31.6 m high. The power house
complex is located in fine grained meta basic rock. The
rock mass is blocky to foliated and is intersected by five
sets of joints. Foliation joints are continuous, slightly
undulating and moderate to closely spaced. Interfolial
shear seams ranging in thickness from 1mm to 10 cm,
filled with clay and rock fragments traverse the rock mass
at 2 m to 4 m interval. The orientation of power house has
been kept normal to the prominent foliation joints to
minimize the adverse effects of these discontinuities over
the excavation of cavern of such large span.
Insitu rock mechanic tests viz. flat jack and plate
load tests and laboratory tests were conducted to
determine the engineering properties of rock mass.
Instrumentation by multiple point bore hole extensometers,
tape convergence meter and load cells were done to
determine the deformation during various stages of cavern
excavation.
The crown of the powerhouse was supported by
6m long; 25 m dia rock bolts at a spacing of 1.5 m c/c
along with 10.5 m long anchors at a spacing of 4.5 m c/c
as secondary support. The walls were supported by 7.5m
long rock bolts.
Cracking in shotcrete due to stress related problems
were noticed in powerhouse cavern particularly in the
downstream wall. A big cavity was also formed in the
transformer cavern/ draft tube, concurrent with the
excavation of the power house. This cavity was stabilized
by grouting however the falling of rockmass could not be
stopped during benching operation of power house cavern.
The power house cavern excavation remained suspended
for some time and the cavity was treated by grouting and
the support in power house cavern was also strengthened
by installing 12 m long bolts. Continuous monitoring of
power house excavation was also done by instrumentation.
Tail Race Tunnel

The 2.4 km long Tail race tunnel passes through
meta volcanics and a sedimentary sequence of shales
and sandstone of Muree Formation separated by Murree
thrust. One of the unique features of the tunnel is its
crossing under Ravi River at a depth of about 40 m below

the river bed. Incidentally, no serious problem was met
throughout the length of TRT.However, crossing of 270 m
thick Ravi shear zone/Murree thrust, tunneling below river
bed and tunnelling under multi level Simbleu terrace were
some of the unique features of tail race excavation.
35
CHAMERA HE PROJECT
STAGE II
State
Himachal Pradesh
River
Ravi
Owner
NHPC Ltd
Designer
NHPC Ltd
Contractor/s
Jaiprakash Industries/
Indo-Canadian Hydro
Consortium
Construction Period

sectional area & Shape
of HRT
7.83 km, 7.5 m Horseshoe

shaped
Cavern
100 m x 22 m x 39.7 m

tunnel, Construction
adits, Surge Shaft,
Pressure shaft, MAT, Cable
& Vent.tunnel,TRT)
8.0 km
Chamera Hydroelectric Project, Stage-II (300 MW)

is a run of river scheme on river Ravi in the upstream of
Chamera-I Hydroelectric Project in Chamba Distt. of
Himachal Pradesh. The project has a capacity to generate
1500 MU of energy in 90% dependable year utilizing a
gross head of 267m. The CCEA clearance for the project
was accorded in May 1999. The project was executed on
turn key basis by Indo-Canadian Hydro Consortium (ICHC)
and got commissioned in 2003 in a record time of 4.5
years.
36
A 40 m high concrete gravity dam across river Ravi
A 303 m long diversion tunnel having segmental

circular section with overt radius of 5.07m and invert
radius of 10.485 m
7.0 m dia ,7.83 km long horse shoe shaped head

race tunnel
17.2 m dia,104.5 m high surge shaft
3.0 m dia,3 nos pressure shaft,209.5 m high
Underground powerhouse 100 m x 22 m x 39.7 m

having 3 units of 100 MW capacity each.
Transformer hall 88 m x14 m x 13 m
A 3.4 m long, 7.0 m dia tail race tunnel.
The Head Race Tunnel

Geological Condition
The Project area lies in lesser Himalayas. In the
project area mainly phyllitic rock with phyllitic quartzite
are exposed. The 7 m dia, 7.83 km long HRT is planned
on the right bank of river Ravi. The HRT construction
was facilitated through three adits having a cumulative
length of 560 m..The hill in which power tunnel is located
is deeply incised by Kalsuin and Jarangla nala besides
many perennial streams, as such, heavy seepages were
anticipated in certain zones, however, the construction
did not relate these nallahs to any zone of principal
geological weakness. The maximum cover of 940 m was
observed for 13% of the tunnel length. Mainly fair rock
class (RMR 40-60) was encountered in 93% of the tunnel
and poor rock in 7% of the tunnel.
Excavation and Support System

The excavation was carried out through
conventional drilling and blasting method. The excavation
was supported by shotcrete (with or without steel fibers),
wire mesh and rock bolts and depending upon the rock

class by steel ribs and backfilled concrete. The tunnel
was concrete lined using 30 cm thick concrete.Contiuous
traveling type shutters of CIFA make were utilized for
continuous lining. This enabled the concreting of entire
tunnel section in one go instead of conventional mode of

concrete lining of overt and invert as separate activity.
The entire concrete of HRT was achieved in 16 months
as against the 23 months, planned for this activity,
37
A View Of Gantry

Adopted
Problem of cavity formation due to sheared rock
with heavy seepage encountered between RD 1301 and
1305 m was rectified by fore poling, installation of steel
support and backfilling with concrete, installation of
concrete lagging and welded beams between the ribs
and grouting through a drift excavated parallel to the
tunnel.
In the reach between Ch 3087 m to 3110 m
measured from u/s end of HRT, overburden material
comprising of boulders, gravels and clay associated with
copious water inflow was intercepted. Steel ribs provided
in this section got deformed. The deformation was
monitored by installing tape extensometers. The
maximum cummulative deformation ranged from 650700 mm above crown and 300 mm below springing level.
In order to enhance the stability, consolidation grouting
of the rockmass was carried out.
38
The powerhouse cavern is 100 m long, 22 m wide
and 39.7 m high. The crown level is at El 926m.The
powerhouse is placed 90 m deep inside the hill with a
maximum cover of 275 m over the cavern. The orientation
of the longer axis of powerhouse cavern is aligned in N30ES 30 W direction and is almost perpendicular to major
discontinuity planes.
The rock types in the powerhouse area are
metasedimentaries comprising of quartzites, interbedded
with phyllitic quartzite and quartzitic phyllites, belonging
to Chamba Formation and intruded by Dhauladhar
granites.
Rock mechanic tests for stress measurement by
hydro fracturing method were conducted inside the cable
tunnel by NIRM, Karnataka. The maximum horizontal
principal stress was found to be in the range of 8.46 to
9.90 MPa and the direction of principal stresses was
N400E.
As such, no major problem was faced during
excavation of power house cavern.
Tail Race Tunnel under construction
39
CHAMERA STAGE III HE

PROJECT
300 MW Chamera-II Hydroelectric Project in Chamba

Distt. of Himachal Pradesh. The estimated annual energy
generation from the Project in a 90% dependable year is
1108.17 MUs and will provide a minimum of 3 hrs/day
peaking power in the power system of the northern region
during lean period. The project will utilize a gross head of
230 m and net rated head of 200 m. The project is in
advance stage of construction.
The Project comprises of:
State
Himachal Pradesh
River
Ravi
Owner
NHPC Ltd
Designer
NHPC Ltd
Construction Period
Under construction

of HRT
15.99 km 6.5 m Horseshoe

shaped
100 m x 18.6 m x 42 m

3.5 km
tunnel, spillway tunnel,
adits, surge shaft, pressure
shaft,C&VT,TRT)
Chamera Hydroelectric Project, Stage-III (231 MW)

is a run of river scheme on river Ravi in the upstream of
Geological Section of HRT
40
Diversion Tunnel 460 m long, horseshoe shaped,

8.2 m dia.
Concrete gravity dam of 68 m height, 78 m length

at top.
HRT of 6.5 m dia. horseshoe shaped & 15.99 km

length.
24 m dia and 110 m high restricted orifice type

Surge shaft
5.2 m dia and 450 m long Pressure Shaft trifurcating

into branches to feed three Francis vertical axis
generating units.
Underground Power House to house three units of

77 MW each
TRT 6.5 m dia, 125 m long, horseshoe shaped.

Rock Support Work in Progress in HRT
middle to early Paleozoic age belonging to Chamba

Formation which are overlain by Manjir Formation which
in turn is overlain by fossiliferrous Salooni Formation of
Permo-carboniferrous age. The country rock is intruded
by younger Dhauladhar granites.
The tunneling is being carried out mainly in phyllitic
quartzite rocks which are strong, foliated rock. Out of
15.9 km about 14 km has been completed. Mostly good
to fair rock has been encountered in the excavated
portion.
Head Race Tunnel

Layout
The 15.9 km long, 6.5 m dia HRT is being
constructed through six nos of construction adits varying
in length from 65 m to 366m .
The project falls within the lesser Himalayan zone
and comprises of unfossiliferrous meta sediments of
The excavation is being done by drill& Blast method

taking full face blast. Most of the tunnel is supported by
rock bolts and shotcrete.
Problems Faced During Construction and their

Solutions
So far HRT excavation is free from any major
problem except between RD 430-482 m where cavities
have been formed due to presence of weak and
puckered phyllite bands. Class IV/V support comprising
of rockbolts, shotcrete and steel ribs has been provided
in this reach.
41
CHUTAK HE PROJECT
the project on 24.08.2006.The project is under construction

by NHPC.
The project envisages construction of:
State
Jammu & Kashmir
River
Suru
Owner
NHPC Ltd
Designer
NHPC Ltd
Contractor/s
M/s HCC Ltd
Construction Period
Under construction
Total Length Dia/cross

of HRT
4.78 km 5.9 m , Horseshoe

shaped
83 m x 15.5 m x 34.5 m
Other Tunnels (Adits,

0.88 m
Pressure shaft, surge shaft,
TRT)
Chutak H.E. Project is located in Kargil district of

Ladakh region of Jammu & Kashmir. It is planned as a
run-of-the-river scheme to harness the hydro potential
of the Suru river (a tributary of Indus). The estimated
annual generation from the project in a 90% dependable
year is 212.93 MUs. The project is being taken on the
request of J&K government and the entire power
generated from the project would be absorbed in the
Ladakh region. CCEA approval has been accorded to
42
47.5 m long Barrage
4.78 km long HRT of 5.9 m dia.
An underground power house comprising 4 units

of 11 MW each to generate 44 MW under a rated
head of 52 m.
50 m long horse-shoe shaped TRT of 5.9 m dia.
HEAD RACE TUNNEL

Layout and Geological Condition
The 5.9 m dia, 4.78 km long HRT is being
constructed to conduct water from the Chutak Barrage to
underground powerhouse site. Three D-shaped
construction adits varying in length from 87 m to 287 m
have been provided to facilitate construction from six faces.
The initial 500 m reach of tunnel alignment is in granitic/
granitoid rock of Tertiary age and the rest is housed in
meta volcanic rocks of Dras volcanics of Upper
Cretaceous age.
Excavation Methodology & Support System

The excavation is being done by conventional drilling
and blasting with full face excavation. The support
elements consist of rock bolts, in good rock and shot
crete and wire mesh in fair rock.steel ribs are proposed in
poor rock condition. The tunnel will be lined by 25-30 cm
PCC lining.So far no major problem have been encountered
in the tunnel except for some classIV and class V reaches
which were duly supported by steel ribs.
DHAULI GANGA HE
PROJECT
State
Uttarakhand
River
Dhauliganga
Owner
NHPC Ltd
Designer
NHPC Ltd
Contractor/s
Lot-1 Kajima-Daewoo
JV (Japan-S.Korea):
Lot-2 SamsungHCCJV(S.Korea-India):
4,4 km
Construction Period
Total Length ,Dia/cross

of HRT
5.4 km, 6.5 m Horseshoe

shaped
103 m x 16.5 m x 38 m
Other Tunnels ( Desilting

chamber,Adits,pressure
shaft, surge shaft,TRT)
2.0 km
The 280 MW Dhauliganga HE Project is located

on river Dhauli, a tributary of Sharda river, near Chirkhila
in Pithoragarh distt of Uttrakhand state.The project is a
run of the river scheme and utilizes a head of 302 m. The
project generates 1134 MU power in 90 % dependable
year. The CCEA clearance for the project was accorded
in 2000 and the project was commissioned in 2005.
56 m high concrete faced rock fill dam near village

Chirkila
2 nos.,300 m long Desilting chambers
5.4 km long,6.5m dia HRT
95 m deep,14 m dia surgeshaft
A View Of Concrete Faced Rock Fill Dam
250 m long,4m dia twin pressureshaft
Underground powerhouse 103 m x 16.5 m x 38 m

having 4 units of 70 MW each at Elagad
6.5 m dia 445 m long Tail race tunnel
The project is located in lesser Himalayas Chiplakot

Formation comprising of mainly biotite gneiss with
subordinate mica schist,talc-mica schist and granite
gneiss. The project lies in active seismic zone-V in the
seismic zoning map of India. The rocks in the project
area are traversed by four to five sets of joints which are
open at places. Slumping of rock mass is also observed.
The topography is extremely rugged with steep rocky
slopes.
Due to the deep overburden in riverbed portion a
concrete faced rock fill dam was first time constructed at
this project which is also the first such dam in the country.
A 70.6 m deep and 1m wide cut off wall using plastic
concrete has been provided in the dam foundation to
increase the seepage path.
The cut-off wall was constructed through bouldery
alluvium to a maximum depth of 70 m. Kajima Daewoo
were the main contractor for Lot-1 works and M/sBauer
Ltd. were associated with them for construction of cut-off
wall. In order to determine the precise rock profile 6
boreholes were drilled before the commencement of cutoff wall works. The excavation was done by Hydro fraise
cutter. The cut of wall was excavated using primary and
secondary panel. The length of primary panel was kept
as 2.8 m.and distance between two primary panels was
kept as 2.2 m. Execution of panels commenced in Jan
2002 and was completed in March 2003. It was seen that
use of grab and chisel was limited to only 15-20 m depth
and it was not possible to achieve desired excavation
depth due to hard nature of the ground, therefore, BC
cutter was used to complete the excavation. A number of
panel experienced difficulties during excavation. At several
occasions there was sudden loss of bentonite slurry. This
was overcome by backfilling the panel with sand/concrete
slurry and re-excavation. The concreting was done using
tremie method. It was observed that concrete volume was
about 50% higher than the theoretical value. Each panel
took 5-6 hours for entire concreting.
Layout of HRT
The 6.5m dia, 5.4 km long water conductor system
lies on the right bank of Dauliganga River. The tunnel
has been excavated from three adits. The minimum and
maximum rock cover over the tunnel was of the order of
80mts. to 1030 m respectively. The tunnel also passes a
major nallah mainly Raungligad under a low rock cover of
80 m. Problems of water seepage and stress condition
were anticipated at the time of investigations. However,
no such problems were encountered during actual
excavation. The tunnel excavation started in May, 2001
and was completed in July 2003.
43

Layout of Dhauliganga Project
Hydro Fraise Cutter
The rocks negotiated during HRT excavation
comprises of biotite gneiss with subordinate mica schist,
talc-mica schist and granite gneiss of Chiplakot Formation.
Generally good to fair rock condition were met in the
tunnel.
Excavation Methodology and Support

The tunnel was excavated in full face by drilling
and blasting. The tunneling was carried out through 3 nos.
of adits. The support elements consist of 3 m long
25 mm dia rock anchors, shotcrete and wiremesh. The
two boom drill jumbos were utilized for tunnel excavation.
Approximately 100 m of tunneling was made per month
and the total tunneling was completed ahead of
schedule. The drilling pattern used was wedge cut, burn
cut and modified burn cut. Smooth blasting techniques
were used for achieving the regular and smooth tunnel
profile with minimum overbreak. On an average a cycle
time of 12 hrs. to 15 hrs. was achieved in general.
Depending on the site requirement shotcreting was also
applied on the face immediately after blast before
mucking operation. All required support was also installed
within the standup time of rockmass. The tunnel was
supported with 3 m long, 25 mm dia. rock anchors,
wiremesh and shotcreting only. Even in the adverse
geological reaches where some cavity formation
occurred the support system was managed by applying
additional layers of wiremesh and shotcrete and no steel
ribs, thus saving considerable time and money. The
tunnel is lined with 30 cm-35 cm thick PCC concrete
lining.
44

Adopted
No significant problem was faced during HRT
excavation from Face-I, III and IV through two nos. of
three arm jumbos and the excavation was completed
well ahead of schedule. The overbreaks were minimized
by adopting controlled blasting, accurate survey and
providing immediate support within the standup time of

the rock. As such no problem was faced during
excavation, however, during excavation from Face-II,
due to increase in tunnel length and high cover, extreme
temperature conditions ranging from 38 to 40 and
humidity of the order of 90% were experienced which were
tackled by blowing cool air through blowers and providing
ice blocks to bring down the temperature.
Underground Tunnels in Dam Complex
Underground Tunnels in Powerhouse Complex
45
The underground powerhouse cavern 103 m x
16.5 m x 39 m having 4 units of 70 MW each and the
transformer cavern 103 m x 12 m x 10 m are housed in
biotite gneiss of Chiplakot Formation. The maximum
superincumbent cover over the powerhouse cavern is 250
m and the powerhouse is oriented in north west-south
east direction..The transformer cavern is aligned parallel
to power house cavern and the spacing between the two
caverns is 23 m.
Rockmechanic tests for deformation modulus and
stress parameters were conducted inside the exploratory
drift.The maximum horizontal stress was found in the
range of 5.58 1.18 MPa to 6.18 1.68 MPa and the
direction of max.horizontal stress was N40E .
The majority of excavation of powerhouse was
done through main access tunnel and ventilation tunnel
joining powerhouse at service bay level and crown
respectively. The excavation started in the month of Feb
2001 and was completed in Jan 2002, one month ahead
Rock Support in Underground Power House
46
of schedule. The entire powerhouse excavation was

completed in 10 stages. The main activity includes
excavation of central gullet, side slashing of central gullet,
casting of crane beams over rock ledge and subsequent
excavation below.
Rock Support in Underground Power House

The crown of the powerhouse cavern was supported
with 6.5 m long , 36 mm dia. rock bolts at 1.5 m c/c
spacing and 200 mm thick shotcrete with 2 layers of
wiremesh while in the walls 7.5 m long , 36 mm dia. rock
anchors at 1.5m c/c spacing and 150 mm thick shotcrete
with wiremesh were provided upto elevation 1039 m below
that 5 m long rock anchors at 1.5m c/c spacing and
150 mm thick shotcrete with wiremesh were provided.
Elaborate instrumentation comprising tape
extensometer, single point / multipoint borehole
extensometer, load cells and peizometers were installed
for monitoring of power through various stages of
construction As such, no stress related problems were
encountered during the excavation.
Excavation Of Underground Powerhouse
47
Excavation in Desilting Chamber
Desilting Chamber Portal
48
A View of Surge Shaft
Excavation of Surge Shaft

A surge shaft of 15 m dia and 95 m depth was
excavated using Raise Boring Machine. Open excavation
of surge shaft slope was done from EL 1400 to 1376 by
way of supporting the slope with the help of 25mm dia,
5 m deep anchors, wiremesh and shotcreting. Big cavities
were found in the dislodged rockmass which were filled
with concrete. Exploratory bore hole was drilled up to
HRT grade to explore the media. The hole indicated
presence of over burden up to EL 1360 and fractured rock
below 1360m. For drilling pilot hole of 11 inches dia with
RBM (Raise Borer Machine). The media from EL 1376 to
1360 was consolidated with the help of cement, slurry
poured through six holes of 16m depth. Frequent jamming
of RBM motor were noticed due to widely open joints.
Finally the use of RBM was abandoned and the shaft
was excavated by drill and blast method with advancement
of 2.5 m at a time. The surface of shaft was supported
with the help of 2.5m deep RCC ring at a time. To reduce
the effect of blast on the RCC ring, advance blast was
taken before concreting. But the muck was removed after
completing concreting and installation of 25 mm dia, 5 m

long anchors in a grid of 1.5 m x 1.5 m. The sinking of
surge shaft full face commenced in March 2003 and was
completed successfully by Nov 2003.
Excavation of Pressure Shafts :

The two nos. 250m deep, 4m dia. vertical pressure
shaft were excavated by raise boring machine. The rock
mass in the pressure shaft area comprises jointed biotite
gneiss with bands of mica schist along with few shears
seams and fractured zones.
Construction methodology of shaft stipulates use
of raise boring machine for excavation of pilot hole and
its reaming to 2.4 m size. The pilot hole after reaming is
then further widened to 5 m/5.5 m dia by conventional
drill and blast method. Initially problem of collapse of pilot
hole, deviation in drilling, vibration of raise boring machine,
particularly in fractured rock, jamming of drill rods etc.,
were experienced. Finally M/s MICON a German
company who were expert in deep drilling were entrusted
with the work of drilling of pilot drill holes.
49
DOYANG HE PROJECT
A 6.0 m dia, 45 m long gooseneck tunnel meeting

the Diversion Tunnel at Ch. 166.0 m was
constructed to convert the Diversion Tunnel into
Depletion Tunnel.
A rock fill dam of 92 m height & 465 m length.
The Spillway with 4 (four) gated bays of 12 m width

each.
The 428 m long, 6 m dia steel lined tunnel with

intermediate gate shaft.
State
Nagaland
River
Doyang
Owner
NEEPCO
A surface RCC Power House of 69.5 m length, 28.25

m breadth
Designer
CWC
A brief description of various tunnels is given below:
Contractors
Gammon India Ltd.
Construction Period
10 Years
Total Length & Size
Diversion Tunnel-633 m, long

and 12.0 m Dia)Main
Tunnel -428 m long and
6 m Dia.
Shape
Circular
Under Ground Power

House,
Surface Power House 69.5 m

x 28.25 m x 45 m
Other Tunneling
Doyang HE Project is located in Wokha district of

Nagaland on the river Doyang, one of the tributaries of
Brahmaputra. The project comprises of 92 m high rockfill Dam with impervious core having live storage capacity
of 370 Mcum and intercepting a catchment area of 2606
sq.km, 428 m long steel lined water conductor system
with a double bifurcation and a surface power house with
the installation of 3 units of 25 MW each operating under
design head of 67 m. Design annual energy for the project
is 227 MU in 90% dependable year.
All the 3 (three) units of the project have been
successfully synchronized with North Eastern Grid in
June/July, 2000.
The salient features of the Project are:
1 no., 12.0 m dia, 633 m long circular shaped

diversion tunnel.
Project Layout
Diversion Tunnel
To facilitate construction of rock-fill dam over Doyang
river, the flow of river was planned to be diverted through a
633 m long and 12 m finished dia diversion tunnel, circular
in shape. The tunnel was designed to cater a flood of
2298 cumecs corresponding to a flood of 1 in 50 years
frequency. The thickness of RCC lining was 700 mm.
Rock types encountered along the tunnel alignment
was basically sandstone, siltstone, mudstone of Miocene
age belonging to Surama group. The rock cover ranges
from 20 m to 80 m throughout the tunnel alignment.
The tunnel was driven with manual drilling & blasting
method in heading and benching. ISMB 250 with M20
backfill concreting was primarily used as support system.
The entire rock mass around the tunnel was consolidated
by grouting through 3m deep holes under a pressure of
7kg/cm2.
The stretch between Ch. 450.0 m to Ch. 560.0 m
comprising of fractured mudstone posed maximum
problem during excavation with formation of occasional
cavities. The problem was minimized with drilling of
drainage holes, putting blank holes in section periphery
during blasting, etc.
Main Tunnel
The 428 m long, 6 m dia steel lined tunnel with
intermediate gate shaft was constructed as Water
Conductor System to carry 150 cumec of water to Power
House. The flow through Water Conductor System is
controlled by penstock gate installed at gate shaft
location. The PCC lining thickness was 300 mm.
The tunnel was excavated with manual drilling and
blasting. In some stretch, full face tunnelling was resorted
to and in some stretches with relatively poor rock, heading
& benching was resorted to.
Rock types encountered along the tunnel alignment
was basically sandstone, siltstone, mudstone. Heavy
seepage along the tunnel was the main impediment in
execution of the tunnel. The excavation in inclined portion
faced problem due to presence of shear zone.
50
DUL HASTI HE
PROJECT
A 7.7/7.4 m dia, 10.57 km long Head Race Tunnel
18.5 m dia surge shaft
7.7 m dia pressure shaft
An underground powerhouse of dimension

96 m x 19.8 m x 39.18 m housing three units of
130 MW each
A 7.4 m dia,307 m long Tailrace tunnel
State
Jammu & Kashmir
River
Chenab
Layout
Owner
NHPC Ltd.
Designer
M/s Coynet Bellier
Contractor/s
M/s DSB(French
Consortium) / Jaiprakash
Associates Limited
Construction Period
TotalLength, Diameter/
cross sectional area,
Shape of HRT
10.57 km,7.4 m/7.7 m

Horseshoe/Circular
shaped
The 10.57 km long HRT was excavated on the left

bank of Chenab river to conduct the water from intake to
underground power house located at Hasti The tunnel
alignment is incised by many deep nalas, prominent
among them are Amne nala, Nagbali nala, Shalamar nala.
Due to topographical constraint no intermediate adits could
be provided and the entire excavation was carried out
through inlet and outlet faces. The maximum cover over
the tunnel was more than 1000 m.
96 m x 19.8 m x 39.18 m
Transformer Cavern
90.63 m x 15.5 m x 27.93 m
Other Tunnels (Desilting

1.65 km
chambers, Surge shaft,
pressure shaft,MAT,TRT etc)
The 390 MW Dulhasti Project is a run of the river

scheme located on river Chenab, in Kishtwar, Distt of
Jammu & Kashmir. The project utilizes a net head of
207.5 m to generate 1928 MU energy in 90 % dependable
year.
A 65 m high concrete gravity dam
240 m long 19 m high desilting chamber
Dul Dam
The upstream section of 2.7 km was made circular

with 7.7m finished dia through Tunnel Boring Machine
(TBM) whereas downstream section of 7.85 km was
excavated as modified horse shoe shaped with finished
dia of 7.46 m through drill & blast (DBM) methodology.
However, due to geological problems TBM got buried at
RD 2.7 km
Geological Conditions
Major part of the tunnel i.e., around 8.5 km lies in
Quartzite-Phyllite sequence of Dul-Dhar ridge and 2 km
in schist /gneisses Formation from the downstream end.
Both the lithological units are separated by a N-S trending
regional fault known as Kishtwar fault. The Kishtwar
Plateau (earlier designated as fossil valley) extending in
an area of 12 sq km is formed along this fault. Later on, it
was termed as graben structure on the basis of subsurface
explorations carried out on Kishtwar Plateau along the
HRT alignment.
The construction of 10.6
km Water conductor system
was the most challenging job.
The tunnel faced many
problems of both geological and
executional nature. The
quartzite and phyllite sequence
of Dul Formation proved to be
problematic tunneling media.
The quartzite occurred as
prominent medium under
confined aquifer condition
whereas phyllites appeared as
subordinate impervious bands
or as intercalations. About
8.7km (i.e., 80%) tunnel lies in
quartzite -phyllite sequence of
Dul formation & 1.9 km (i.e.,
20%) in Mica Schist of
Salkhalas formation.
51

Adopted
Number of geological problems in the form of debris
flow conditions under high hydrostatic head, squeezing
conditions in soft rocks like phyllite and spalling in hard
rocks like quartzite were encountered in quartizite -phyllite
sequence. Generally the shear zones in quartzite created
confined acquifers which were negotiated by the H.R.T.
These problems were tackled either by conventional
treatment such as pressure relief holes, grouting,
52
application of boodex technique, forepoling, ribs & backfill

concrete or taking a detour as per site requirement.
However, some of the shear zones took few months time
to negotiate and fury of these shear zones was such that
in one of the shear zone TBM got buried.
The executional problem were mainly evacuation
of heavy discharge in a very gentle gradient, ventilation
problems due to very long tunnel length with no
intermediate adits and adverse law and order situation
in the area.
KAMENG HE PROJECT
Kameng. The scheme involves construction of a 75.00 m

high Bichom dam across Bichom River and a 24.50 m
high (approx.) Tenga dam across Tenga River. Water from
Bichom reservoir is led to Kimi Power House across Tenga
River, with suitable arrangements to add the Tenga waters
into the HRT during the lean period only. Water conductor
system from Bichom to Kimi Power House will comprise
of approximately 16.314 km long, 6.70 m tunnel. The
project will generate 163 MW of firm power with an annual
energy generation benefit of 3592 MU in a 90% dependable
year.
State
Arunachal Pradesh
River
Kameng
Owner
NEEPCO
Designer
SMEC, Australia
Contractors
Patel Engineering Co.
Construction Period
Under Construction. 26.5 %

work of HRT boring
completed in about
3 years
75 m high, 247.30 m long concrete gravity dam at

Bichom.
24.50 m high, 103 m long concrete gravity dam at

Tenga.
14.50 km long, 6.7 m dia, modified horseshoe

shaped Low Pressure Tunnel.
62 m high, 25 m dia Restricted Orifice type Surge

Shaft .
5.3 dia circular shaped inclined pressure tunnel of

length 601 m bifurcating initially 2 circular tunnels
of 3.75m dia of length 1470 m each and then again
each branch tunnel bifurcating into 2 tunnels of 2.65m
dia circular tunnel of length 52 m.
Semi-underground Power House of size 120 m x

37.3 m.
Total Length & Size
14.5 km, 6.7 m dia
Shape
Modified Horse Shoe

Shaped
Under Ground Power

House,
Semi Under ground

( 120 m X 37.3 m)
Other Tunneling
4.541 km
Kameng HE Project, a run off the river type

development, envisages utilization of flows from Bichom
and Tenga Rivers (both tributaries of river Kameng) over a
gross head of 536 m available in a U bend of the river,
downstream of the confluence of river Bichom with
53
Head Race Tunnel
micro-fine cement, Polyurethane material, etc. Total

time lost due to formation of cavity was 7 months.
A brief description on boring of HRT is given below:

A 14.50 km long, 6.7 m finished dia, modified
horseshoe shaped HRT from intake to Surge Shaft is
under construction to cater design inflow of 140 cumecs.
The PCC lining thickness of tunnel is 300 mm. The work
was started in 2005 and until June 2008, 26.5% work of
HRT boring has been completed.
Flow of Slush Into the Tunnel Face
The HRT passes through a geologically complex

and tectonically disturbed area, forming part of lesser
Himalayan range and dissected by a number of major
thrusts, faults, shears and abundant well developed crisscrossing joint systems. The rock types occurring in the
area belong to the older meta-sedimentaries of Precambrian age in the northern part, Gondwana sediments
in the central part and the south-eastern part.
Pre-cambrian rocks include chlorite-sericite schist,
gneiss, granite gneiss, quartzite, slate and phyllite. A
major thrust results in the younger Gondwana formation
rocks being placed beneath the older meta-sedimentaries.
The material in the thrust zones are expected to be
sheared and crushed rock. One characteristic rock type
in the thrust zones is a pebble slate whereby the rock is
essentially a breccia but the rock fragments are rounded
due to large transposition of the materials involved.
Deformation is more intense at the Tenga river end than
at the Kameng river end, but folding including large
overturned folds is expected across the section of the
HRT between Tenga dam and the Power House site.
2.
On 29.December.2007 blow out at Ch. 616 m of

Face-II occurred with coming down of huge water
and rock fragments/debris and filled up to a length
of 220 m. The incident occurred due to encountering
of major fault/shear zone in tunnel alignment.
Remedial measures adopted are use of 100 mm
dia M.S perforated pipe forepole, micro fine cement
grout, cement grout and polyurethane grout, etc.
Total time lost due to blow out is 6 months.
The tunnels is being excavated using full face or

heading and bench method with excavation carried out
by mechanical methods with Drill Jumbo/ Rock
Boomer. The support consists principally of Shotcrete (50/
100/ 150 mm) with wire mesh, individual or pattern rockbolts and structural steel supports with ISMB 200,
precast RCC lagging and as and where required forepoling with MS pipes.
The Project has been affected due to very difficult
and unforeseen geological conditions faced from time to
time during construction of tunnel. Some of the problems
faced in excavation of HRT are discussed below:
1.
54
On 12.July. 2007, a cavity of about 8.0 m long was

formed on right side of crown at ch. 422.60 m of
Face-II. The cavity was formed in shear zone
encountered within banded quartzite. The loose
muck coming out from the cavity comprises angular
to medium and course quartz and kaolin clay of
about equal proportion. The slush is derived from
degradation of the Quartzite/Quartzofeldspathic
Gneiss to intensely fractured zone and degradation
of feldspars into Kaolin clay. The problem was
tackled with providing of 10-12m long, 80 mm100 mm dia MS Pipes as forepole, grouting with
Site Inspection By NEEPCO Personnel

Chemical Grouting Works In Progress At Face-ii
shoe shape. The support consists principally of Shotcrete

(50/100/ 150mm) with wire mesh, individual or pattern rockbolts and structural steel supports with ISMB 200 with
precast RCC lagging. Boring work for HPT is in progress.
The HPT is located in rocks of Gondowana
Supergroup represented by alternate bands of medium to
coarse grained grey sand stone, carbonaceous shale/
carbonaceous siltstone with occasional presence of minor
coal partings and quartz vein. Because of closeness to
the Main Boundary Fault, the area has suffered poly phase
deformation and due to which the rocks are highly
fragmented.
3.
Heavy ingress of water was encountered on 17th

Feb.2007 at Face-VI at Ch.333.0 m. Water volume
increased to 6000-6500 liter/min and boring activity
had to be suspended. Tunnel in this stretch is in
close proximity with Tenga river(200-250 m away).
Highly folded rock strata also encouraged water
entrapment and subsequent release on boring. The
problem was partly solved by inserting drainage
pipes in heading, cement grouting, providing of cutoff in tunnel crown to discontinue seepage paths
along the crown, etc. The progress in the face has
been benignly on lower side due to seepage
problem.
Total excavation of HPT as on date is around 350

m. Major problem faced so far is formation of chimney in
horizontal portion of HPT just upstream of Valve House.
The shear zone encountered on left side of tunnel section
triggered cavity in left side crown extending approximately
upto 12.0 m. The problem was tackled with providing of
long forepoles with structural steel, back-fill concreting,
grouting, etc.
Heavy Seepage at Face VI
High Pressure Tunnel

5.3 m dia circular shaped fully steel lined pressure
tunnel of length 601m bifurcating initially 2 circular tunnels
of 3.75 m dia and then again each branch tunnel bifurcating
into 2 tunnels of 2.65 m dia circular tunnel. Boring shape
for all pressure tunnel is of 5.30 m dia modified horse
55
KOL DAM HE PROJECT
A 163 m high (from deepest foundation level) earth

and rockfill dam.
Crest length of dam 500 m, crest width 14 m.
Two 14 m dia ,horse shoe shaped Diversion tunnels
A Spillway with 6 bays equipped with radial gates

of size 17.1 m x 17.74 m.
State
Himachal Pradesh
4 penstocks each of 6.45 m dia. total 1718 m long.
River
Satluj
Owner
NTPC Ltd
Decanting chamber with 14 chambers of 12.5 m

width.
Designer
M/s EDF
Contractor/s
CCL
Surface powerhouse of dimensions 170 m (L)x44

m (W)x 53 m (H) with four units of 200 MW each.
Construction Period
Started in 2004
Problem Encountered during Construction

of Diversion Tunnel
2 tunnels, dia 14m each,

Length T-1: 901m,
934m. Horseshoe T-2:
shaped.
Surface Powerhouse
170 m x 44 m x 53 m
Two nos diversion tunnel of 14 m dia each were

constructed in record time, considering the size of such
huge tunnel. DBM (NATM) method were applied and
excavation done in heading and benching method. With
proper planning and methodology applied the excavation
of Diversion Tunnels were smooth.
Koldam H.E.Project is located on river Satluj in

Bilaspur Distt of Himachal Pradesh about 6 km u/s of
Dehar power plant. The project with a installed capacity
of 800 MW is being executed by NTPC.
56
KOYNA HE PROJECTStage I, II, III & IV
& II works were completed in 1966. The Stage III

development was completed in 1976. The Koyna Stage
IV project ( 4 x 250 MW ) was taken up in 1990, which
has been commissioned in year 1999-2000.
The main Component of the Project are
State
Maharashtra
River
Koyna
Owner
Govt. of Maharashtra
1.
103 m high rubble concrete dam across Koyna

river
2.
Underground water conductor system leading to

underground power generating stations of Stage I
to Stage IV
3.
i)
Designer
Contractors
M/s Patel Engineering

Co. Ltd. Mumbai
M/s Patil Engineering Co.
M/s H.P. Co. Ltd.
M/s Hindustan
Construction Co. Ltd.
Koyna Stage I HRT-3.749 km, Approach

Tunnel-0.914 km, Penstock Tunnel, Ventilation
Tunnel, Emergency value Tunnel
ii) Koyna Stage II Four Pressure Shaft with

cross sectional area 12.26 sq m
iii) Koyna Stage III- HRT-4.496 km, Power House
approach tunnel, Cable Tunnel & TRT Tunnel
Construction Period
Year of Start of Stage I,

1956 Year of Completion of
Stage IV, 1999-2000
iv) Koyna Stage IV- HRT-4.25 km, Surge Shaft and

Link Tunnel
Total Length of tunnels
About 40 km
v)
Shape
Circular D-Shoe, semi

circular with vertical sides
and Horse shoe
Size/Cross Sectional
Area of Tunnel, Under
Ground Power House,
Desilting Chamber,
Other Tunnelling
The entire water

construction system and
power house of all the
stage in Koyna H.P.P. are
located underground to
minimise the design of
water conductor system
The Koyna HE Project across Koyna River is

situated in Sahyadri mountain ranges (western ghat region)
in Satara & Ratnagiri districts in Maharashtra State. The
Project is conceived in four stages so far. At present the
total installed capacity of Koyna stage I to IV & dam foot
power house (right bank) is 1960 MW.
The Salient Features of the Project

The project was initiated in late fifties. The Stage I
The machine hall cavern is of size 144 m x 23

m x 50 m in Koyna Stage IV Project
Geology
The project has unique geographical as well as
geological features viz abundant rainfall, presence of
Sahydari hill ranges with westerly natural fall of 500 m,
presence of good quality compact basalt rock making it
one of the ideal sites for an underground hydro-power
project. The underground excavation of the project were
carried out by conventional drilling and blasting through
Deccan traf formation consisting maily of compact
bassalts, amygdoloidal basalts and volcanic bveccia.
Tunnels
The total length of all the tunnels and caverns driven
for Koyna H.E.P. is to the tune of 40 km. Koyna
H.E.Project is the first & only project in India as well as in
Asian region where the technique of underwater lake
piercing is successfully used in Koyna stage IV for
admission of lake water in the water conductor system.
57
KURICHU HE PROJECT
A 55 m high concrete gravity dam on river Kurichu.
A dam toe powerhouse housing three units of 20

MW capacity each.
Division Tunnel
State/Country
Mongar/Bhutan
River
Kurichu
Owner
Royal Govt. of Bhutan
Designer
NHPC Ltd
Contractor/s
M/s Asian Tech Ltd.
Construction Period
Comissioned in 2002

sectional area Shape of
Diversion tunnel
377m, 8.0 m, Horseshoe

shaped
The construction of 377 m long diversion tunnel

was a challenging task as the tunnel passes through a
low cover zone in weak phyllite and schist rock with
intermittent hard quartzite bands.
Layout & Geological Condition.

The 377 m long, 8 m dia horse shoe shaped was
planned on the leftbank with inlet about 90 m upstream
of dam axis to divert river water during dam construction.
The maximum cover over the tunnel was of the order of
40m.The tunnel was housed in moderately to closely
jointed phyllite and quartzite with subordinate quartzitic
phyllite bands of Shumar formation.

The Kurichu H.E.Project is located in Eastern
Bhutan on Kurichu river, a tributary of Manas river which
ultimately meets with mighty Brahmaputra river after
entering into Indian territory. The project was executed
by NHPC on turnkey basis and was successfully
commissioned in 2002.The project layout is compact.
The main components of the project are as follows:
A view of Kurichu Dam
The construction of the diversion tunnel was taken

up from two faces.In view of large dia and generally poor
to fair rock condition the tunnel was excavated by drilling
and blasting through heading and benching.Multiple drifting
was adopted in extremely poor zones.

Adopted
From inlet side the excavation was done through
multidrift method for about a length of 6m and was
supported by rock bolts wiremesh and shotcrete, however,
due to adverse geological condition comprising of shear
zones of varied thickness within the bed rock, the support
did not sustained and the inlet portion got collapsed. The
same was restored by installing ribs. In general the
rockmass between RD 0-50m in highly weathered and
closely jointed rock.Frequent collapses occurred between
RD 17-32m,Rd 42-52mRd 110-200m.These zones fall in
poor rock category conforming to Class IV rock and were
supported by steel ribs
58
Rock Collapse and its treatment at Outlet Portal Diversion Tunnel
59
LOHARINAG PALA HE
PROJECT
State
River
Owner
Consultant
Contractor/s
Construction Period
of HRT
Underground
Powerhouse
Uttarakhand
Bhagirathi
NTPC Limited
Central Water
Commision
M/s Patel Engg.
Under construction
13.5 km, 6 m dia, Horse
shoe shape
155 m x 22 m x 47m
General
Loharinag Pala HE Project is located on river
Bhagirathi, a tributary of river Ganga in the state of
Uttarakhand. The project lies between latitude 30o30 N
to 31o30 N and longitude 78o30 E to 79o30 E. The Project
Site is about 200 km upstream from Rishikesh on National
Highway No. 108 serving Gangotri. Main components of
the project are located on the right bank of the river and
have access from the NH. The 600 MW project is being
executed by NTPC.
60
The Salient Features of the project are:
A 13 m high barrage with 5 bays of 13 m each.
Diversion channel 430 m long
Desilting chambers14 m x 16 m x 250 m, 03 Nos.
A 6 m dia,13.5 km long , horse shoe shaped head

race tunnel
14 m dia, 135 m high surge shaft
Pressure shaft 2 Nos., 4 m dia and penstocks 4

Nos. 2.83 m dia
Underground Powerhouse of dimensions 155 m x

22 m x 47m with 4 units of 150 MW each.
Transformer hall of dimensions 144 m x 18 m x

27m
A 6 m dia, horse shoe shaped, 0.5 km. long tail

race tunnel
Head Race Tunnel

Layout
The head race tunnel is proposed to be constructed
on the right bank of river Bhagirathi. It crosses major
drainage courses, viz. Kanaudiya, Gunaga, Mamlapani,
Kutmari Khala and Helgu Gads. These cross drainages
necessitated hill ward shifting of head race tunnel. Kinks
in the tunnel alignment have been provided to ensure
sufficient sound rock cover above tunnel grade and
convenient sites of intermediate adit for speedy
excavation. The headrace tunnel has a vertical cover of
400 m to 700 m.
Head Race Tunnel
Instrumentation
Geology
Instrumentation and monitoring for underground

works includes the following:
The 6 m dia, 13.5 km long HRT passes through a

rough and rugged terrain with ranges aligned in N-S
direction with high peaks arising upto approx.3000 m. It
will encounter the central crystalline group of rocks
comprising quartz feldspathic gneisses with metabasics
and schist layers. The rock type is generally striking
WNW-ESE to NW-SE and dipping 40 to 60 degrees
towards NNE/NE.
Load cells
Measuring tape
Tape convergence points
Single and multiple point borehole extensometers
Pore pressure meters (piezometers)
Readout units
Construction
Total pressure cells
The power tunnel is planned to be excavated through

three construction adits- Dabrani adit, Gunga adit and
Helgu adit by full face Drill & Blast Method.
Field and laboratory tests.
Micro seismic surveying
61
LOKTAK HE PROJECT
State
Manipur
River
Manipur/Loktak lake
Owner
NHPC Ltd
Designer
NHPC Ltd
Contractor/s
M/s Gammon India Ltd
Construction Period

sectional area, Shape
of HRT
6.62 km, 3.8 m, Horseshoe

shapedSlope 1:200
Adits and shafts
0.4 km
Loktak Project located in Manipur is an excellent

example of advance technology and human grit to
complete the project in very fragile geological conditions.
The main features of the project are:
A 10.7 m high barrage with 5 bays of 10m width

each on river Manipur at Ithai.
A 2.27 km long Open channel and a 1.2 km long

cut and cover section to conduct the water from
Loktak lake to water conductor system
A 3.8 m finished dia,horse shoe shaped, 6.62 km

long HRT
Surge shaft 9.15m dia and 60m deep
Three nos,2.28 m dia, 1.346 km long surface

Penstocks supported on 12 anchor blocks and 68
nos saddles.
A surface powerhouse housing three francis turbine

of 135 MW capacity each.
Ithai Barrage
The Water Conductor System

Layout & Geological Condition
The water from Loktak Lake is carried through a
3.5 km long open channel including a 1.2 km long cut
and cover section to the 6.62 km long, 3.8 m dia horse
shoe shaped head race tunnel. Two construction shaft
and one adit were provided for tunnel construction. At
the end of HRT a 9 m dia, 60 m deep surge shaft and
valve house has been provided to regulate the flow. From
surge shaft the water is conducted through 3 nos.,
2.28 m dia,1.3 km long surface penstocks to the Loktak
Powerhouse. The water then is discharged back to
Leimatek River.
The rock type exposed in the area consist of grey
coloured sandstone which is massive or moderately to
closely jointed with bands of dark grey coloured, closely
jointed splintery shale of Barail Formation. The rock
exhibits a folded sequence. The shale bands are
carbonaceous at places.
The construction of project was replete with many
technical and geological problems. Tunneling through
very weak rock comprising of splintery shale and
fractured sandstone in a synclinorium structure was a
challenging task. Added to this problem was presence
of highly inflammable methane gas in underground
excavation and instability of the hill slopes hoisting the
penstocks. During tunnel construction about 30 lives
were lost due to methane gas explosion and the work
remained suspended for 3 years. NHPC took over the
construction work in 1977.In view of the poor tunneling
condition NATM technique (New Austrian Tunneling
Methodology) using Alpine Miner was used. Improved
ventilation system and flame proof equipments were
deployed. Even after adopting these techniques,
problems of roof collapse due to excessive rock load,
buckling and bulging of steel support, flowing ground
condition, squeezing and swelling of strata were faced
.The same were tackled by concreting, shotcreting, rock
bolting and providing steel support.
The Project got commissioned in May
1983.However, barely two months after the
commissioning the project faced a major set back. A
portion of the HRT collapsed due to heavy rains and
massive landslides. The same was rectified by
constructing a 157m long
bypass tunnel with extra
reinforcement and fabricated
steel lining. Extensive cement
and epoxy grouting was
carried out in a stretch of
1200m to consolidate the
loose rock mass around the
tunnel.
The project finally
commissioned in Aug
1984.Inclinometer studies
are being carried out using inhouse expertise to monitor
the hill movement hoisting
the Bye pass tunnel area.
62
A View Of Penstocks
63
NAGARJUNA SAGAR
LEFT CANAL HE
PROJECT
State
Andhra Pradesh
River
Krishna
Owner
APGENCO
Designer
CWC
Contractor/s
M/s Patel Engineering Co.

Ltd.
Construction Period
Commissioned on
04-10-1992.
Approach Tunnel (Head

Race Tunnel)Total Length,
Dia. & Shape
375 m, 9.50 m dia.Horse

shoe shaped
Power House
78 m x 20.25 m
Tail Race Tunnel
824 m, 9.50 m dia.Horse

shoe shaped.
Surge shaft (TRT)
21.80 m, 14 m dia.
Nagarjunasagar Left Canal Power house is located

on left flank of river Krishna in Nalgonda Dist. of Andhra
Pradesh.
375 m long HRT shape of horse shoe dia. 9.50 m

and 118 m long head Race Channel
824 m long TRT and 32 m long Tail Race channel
2 Nos. of Penstock 27.10 m long and 5.582 m dia.
2 Nos. of Unit each 30MW and size of Power House

78 m X 20.25 m
Layout
The Nagarjunasagar Left canal with a capacity of
425 cumecs takes off from the Nagarjunasagar Reservoir
64
on the left flank of river Krishna and joins the tunnel of

9.75 m dia of horse shoe type and of length 2.286 Km. A
Head regulator is provided across the Left canal at about
1.24 km from the reservoir (i.e., 518 m upstream of face
of the tunnel). The above canal is owned by I & CAD
department, govt. of Andhra Pradesh.
The Head race takes off from the left canal towards
right at about 860 m (i.e., 380 m upstream of Left canal
head regulator) with a Head race channel of 118 m length
and a head race tunnel of 375 m length followed by surge
pool, power house and Tail race. Tail race joins the left
canal at 220 m downstream of head regulator (i.e., 298 m
upstream of face of Left canal tunnel). The maximum and
minimum cover over the tunnel is about 29 m and 14.5 m
respectively.
Granite intruded by dykes of Dolerite and traversed
by veins of Aplite are the rock types encountered in the
area.
The procedure adopted for the excavation of tunnel
consists of 3 stages viz. heading in one stage consists of
3.25 m followed by benching in two stages of 3.50m and
3.25 m respectively. The finished diameter of tunnels as
per the design is 9.50 m with the lining thickness of 250
mm with Plain concrete of M20 grade. Rock bolting was
done at some locations where stratified and jointed rock
was met with.

Adopted
One of the problems faced in the construction of
Nagarjunasagar left canal power station was the rock slip
at the exit of power house tail race tunnel i.e., where it
joins the right flank of Nagarjunasagar left main canal.
Two more slips also occurred on the right flank apart from
the above said rock slip. The outlet portal of the tunnel
was strengthened and the transition made smooth so that
there is no turbulence in the flow of the water where the
water coming from the machine joins the canal besides
clearing the earth and debris obstructing the channel.
NATHPA JHAKRI HE
PROJECT
State
Himachal Pradesh
River
Satluj
Owner
Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam

Ltd- SJVNL (formerly
Nathpa Jhakri Power
Corporation Ltd- NJPC)
Designer
SJVNL
Contractor/s
M/s. CFJV, a joint
venture of continental
construction (India) and
Foundation (Canada).
M/s. NJJV, a joint venture
of the Hindustan
Construction Co. (India)
and Impregilo (Italy).
A View Of Nathpa Dam
There is an underground valve chamber, 79.52 m x

9.50 m x 22.34 m high where three butterfly valves
are provided .
3 no. pressure shafts, 4.9 m dia.circular steel lined

with lengths varying from 571 m to 622 m.
The machine hall cavern is 222 m x 20 m x 49 m

high
Construction Period
1993-2003
Total Length of HRT, Dia/

Cross Sectional Area
27.40 km, 10.15 m Dia./

80.95 sqm
The Transformer hall cavern is 196 m x 17.5 m x

27.4 m high.
Tail race tunnel 10.15 m dia. and 982 m long.
Shape
Circular
Desilting Chamber
4 Nos, each 525 m X 16.3

m X 27.5 m high
The power generated is fed into the grid through

400 kV D/C transmission lines.
Type of Turbine- Vertical Axis Francis Turbine.
Number & Capacity of Generating Units - 6250

MW
Under Ground Power

House
Machine Hall
Transformer Hall
222 m X 20 m X 49 m high
196 m X 17.5 m X 27.4 m high
Size, Length of TRT
982 m, 10.15 m Circular
Nathpa Jhakri Hydroelectric Power Station (1500

MW) is today the largest Hydro Power Station under
operation in India and is located on river Satluj in
Himachal Pradesh, much upstream of Bhakra Dam
(1325 MW), a project completed in the sixties, and Kol
Dam (800 MW), under construction by NTPC. It is a
run-of-the-river scheme with all components, except the
Dam and Pothead yard, located underground. The
scheme utilizes a gross head of 428 m and has an annual
generation capacity of 6951 MU in a 90% dependable
year with 95% machine availability.
The main components of the project are:
8.1 m D-shaped, 738 m long diversion tunnel
62.5 m high concrete gravity dam
Four desilting chambers each 525 m long, 16.3 m

wide and 27.5 m high.
The head race tunnel (HRT) is 27.4 Km long and of

10.15 m diameter.
The surge shaft at the end of HRT is 21.6 m/10.2

m in diameter and 301 m deep.
Diversion Tunnel
738 m long and 8.1 m D-shaped (excavated section)
tunnel has been constructed on the right bank of river
Satluj with a bell mouth entrance.The excavation of
diversion tunnel was started from downstream end at a
uniform slope of 1:57 in the month of January 1994. The
whole tunnel length except 6 m rock plug near Intake /
mouth of the diversion tunnel was excavated from
downstream end and the same was completed by January
1995.
Desilting Chambers
Four parallel egg shaped desilting chambers of size
525 m x 16.3 m x 27.5 m with circular and curved walls
and hopper shaped bottom have been provided. These
chambers are supported with rock bolts and Steel Fibre
Reinforced Lining. The SFRS acts as final lining. Additional
supports in the form of 60 T cable anchors have been
provided in 3 rows along both side walls of chambers to
support concrete gantry beams. Mobile gantries can be
moved along the beams during construction and operation
stage to facilitate working at various levels.
65
Nathpa Jhakri H.E. Project - Layout Plan
Desilting Complex Layout
Desilting Chamber
for 10.15 m diameter concrete lined section and 7.137 m/

sec for 8.5 m diameter steel lined section. The minimum
invert slope provided in the HRT is of the order of 1 in
500.61 and maximum is 1 in 61.37 and the slope between
stations zero to 16104.38 m is 1 in 275.34. Near surge
shaft, the HRT is horizontal for a length of about 68 m.
The covers on the HRT vary from 90 m to about 1480 m
along its length except at Manglad creek, where it is as
low as 9 m. Under static conditions, the internal water
pressure varies from 33 m at the inlet end to 216 m at
outlet end of HRT. The internal water pressure varies from
37 m to 310 m at inlet and outlet ends of HRT under
maximum upsurge conditions corresponding to closure
of all the six units simultaneously.
The Head Race Tunnel (HRT) of the Project is a

high pressure tunnel of 10.15 m finished diameter circular.
Its length is 27.395 km between the junction point of outlet
tunnels from Desilting chambers and the surge shaft. The
HRT is concrete lined throughout except for the two
reaches under the Manglad and Daj creeks (where rock
covers are inadequate) where it is steel lined. 710 m long
steel liner at Manglad and 375.56 m long at Daj creek
both of diameter 8.5 m with U/S and D/S transitions of
15 m and 30 m respectively has been provided. The tunnel
has been designed for a discharge of 405 cumecs. The
maximum velocity of water in the tunnel is 5.005 m/sec
66

Seven construction adits, 7.5 m D-shaped have
been provided along the alignment of HRT to facilitate the
construction. The length of the adits (excluding sixth face,
which takes off from valve chamber adit) varies from 647
m to 1375 m. The length of the HRT between the adits
varies from 2300 m to 6475 m. Keeping in view the length
of the tunnel, provision of access in the adit plugs has
been provided at three locations i.e., Nathpa, Wadhal &
Manglad. This will facilitate the future inspection of the
HRT after emptying, when essential.
The Project in respect of geology can be divided
into two parts, the Eastern part and the Western part.
The Eastern Part of the project includes Dam,
Desilting Chambers and the Head Race Tunnel (16 km).
The rocks are predominately gneisses with acidic
(granite, pegmatite and quartz veins) and basic
(amphibolites) intrusives. The Western part comprises
the remaining part of Head Race Tunnel (about 11.4 km),
Surge Shaft and Power House Complex. The rock types
encountered in this part are predominantly quartz mica
schist with gneissic bands at places and quartzites.
These are intruded by basic and acid intrusions. The
acid intrusions are less in this area as compared to the
Eastern part and consist of quartz veins only, where as,
basic intrusion consists of amphibolite. The schist
encountered are of different composition and have been
identified as quartz biotite schist, biotite schist, chlorite
schist and muscovite schist. At places the schist has
developed gneissic texture.
Problems Faced during Construction and their

Solution
The Head Race Tunnel, 27.4 km long having 10.15m
diameter is one of the longest hydropower tunnels in the
world designed for a discharge of 405 cumecs. Since the
Project is located in Himalayan region, which presents
fragile geological conditions, many challenges were faced
in the design and construction of the tunnel. Some of the
major problems faced were:
Problems posed by low cover reaches: HRT of
NJHEP is a pressurized tunnel having internal pressure
ranges from 33 m to 310 m with rock cover along its
alignment as low as 9m (with 5 m over burden) and
maximum cover of 1400 m. Where shallow rock covers
encountered the tunnel has been provided with steel liner
designed for internal and external pressure. In normal
cover reaches, PCC lining has been provided. In shear
zone reaches and where very poor rock conditions were
encountered RCC lining has been provided
Steel Liner at Manglad

In view of large size (10.15 m finished dia) of the
tunnel it was excavated by heading and benching
method. The rock has been classified into six classes
depending upon the tunnelling conditions encountered
and supports required during excavation. The
recommended rock support system provided during
excavation has been adjusted to the actual rock
conditions encountered. For rock classes both the Qsystem and RMR systems have been used with
adjustments as per the local conditions.
Rock support during excavation comprised of 50100 mm shotcrete and 4 m long, 25 mm dia. rock bolts
spaced at 1.5 m x 1.5 m c/c in crown portion for class I,
II & III rock. For class IV & V rock, steel ribs ISHB 150 x
150 at a spacing of 0.75 m to 1.0 m c/c were used
besides rock bolts 4.0 m to 4.5 m long at spacing of 1.5
m x 1.0 m to 1.0 m x 1.5 m c/c. For class VI rock, ISHB
225 x 225 at a spacing of 0.5 m c/c and rock bolts 4.5 m
to 6.0 m long at spacing of 1.5 m c/c were provided.
The final concrete lining has been provided only
after the rock has stabilised so that by and large no rock
loads are directly transferred to the lining.
Challenge posed by high temperature and hot water

ingress: High temperature of water/rock was encountered
in a length of about 3500 m reach of the tunnel and at
some locations hot water with temperature 38oC-53oC and
in large quantity up to 60 lit/sec. suddenly appeared. The
construction methodology has been changed and extra
measures were provided to carry out further advance.
Concrete mix design was reviewed to make lining safe
against corrosive action on concrete and reinforcement.
Special precautions have been taken during initial filling
of the HRT in high temperature zone.
Construction of tunnel through wide shear: A long
stretch of about 380 m wide shear zone/extremely poor
rock ground conditions were encountered which could
not be tackled by conventional means. This reach was
constructed by adopting special methodology i.e.,
DRESS, which was found most appropriate for
excavating this area. DRESS(Drainage-ReinforcementExcavation-Support Solution)adopted in NJHEP involved
67

pre-drainage of ground ahead of face, face improvement
by grouting and stabilization of ground ahead of tunnel
face with steel pipe umbrella arch, followed by
excavation in small steps by mechanical means and
support application there after. This methodology has
been found to be extremely effective as well as
reasonably fast for tunnelling in extremely poor
conditions.
Special Equipment used-Hydraulic Crawler Drill

Pacchiosi Type P 1500 Taf Model S/N 0639
Hot Water Ingress In HRT
Tunnel excavation during benching and overt concreting
Face Collapse at the Heading
Power House Complex

Power House and its appurtenant works comprise
of complex underground openings in the for m of two
main caverns i.e., machine hall Cavern (222 m x 20 m x
49 m ) and transformer hall cavern (196 m x 18 m x
27.50 m ) along with number of tunnels and construction
adits. The power house cavern is supported with rock
bolts and shotcrete and no steel sets have been
used.These two underground halls are interconnected
by means of an elevator shaft and also six number Dshaped Bus-Duct galleries connect the turbine floor of
machine hall with transformer hall
68

Machine Hall Cavern
A view of components D/s of Surge haft
Transformer Hall Cavern
69
PARBATI HE PROJECT,
STAGE II POWER
TUNNEL
with river Beas. The water after desilting will be conducted

through Head Race Tunnel on the left bank of the river to
a surface power house located on the right bank of Sainj
river which is a tributary of river Beas. The project has
longest head race tunnel of 31.5 km in India. Total
tunneling involved in this project is around 58km in length.
The project is under active construction stage.
State
Himachal Pradesh
River
Parbati
Owner
NHPC Ltd
Designer
NHPC Ltd
Contractor/s
M/s Patel-SEW, Gammons

India Ltd, M/s HJV
Construction Period
Under construction

sectional area Shape
of HRT
31.5 km, 6.0 m, Horseshoe

shaped for DBM/Circular
for TBMSlope 1 in 470
OtherTunnels (Diversion
26.5 km
tunnel,adits,desilting
chambers, feeder tunnels,
surge shaft, pressure shafts)
Parbati Stage-II is an inter-basin Project, on river

Parbati, between Parbati and Sainj Valley in Himachal
Pradesh. A gross head of 863 m will be utilized for
generating 3108.66 MU of energy in a 90% dependable
year. The total installed capacity of the project is 800
MW.
The Project envisages diversion of water of river
Parbati at Pulga about 49 km upstream of its confluence
Layout Plan of Parbati Stage-II & Stage-III Project
70
7.5 m dia, 270 m long diversion tunnel.
91 m high concrete gravity dam
3 nos. desilting chamber 14 m x 16 m x 225 m to

remove particle size 0.20 mm and above
31.50 km long, 6.0 m dia Head Race Tunnel.
Diversion of Jigrai, Hurla, Pancha, Manihar and Jiwa

Nallah for augmentation of waters in HRT through
feeder tunnels & drop shafts.
Underground-restricted orifice type surge shaft 130

m high & 17 m dia.
Two nos. underground pressure shafts 3.5 m dia

and 1546 m length each, bifurcating into 2.50 m
dia. and 146 m length each branches upto power
house.
A surface power house with 4 Pelton Turbine

generating units each of 200 MW .
Head Race Tunnel

Layout
The intake structures for HRT are proposed on the
left bank of river Parbati.The 31.05 km long HRT crosses
many perennial nalas viz. Jigrai, Hurla, Pancha, Manihar

and Jewa nala. The water of these nalas is proposed to
be utilized for power generation by making small weirs
feeder tunnels and dropping it into HRT through drop
shafts.
Five nos. construction adits varying in length from
350m to 600m have been provided for tunnel
construction.
The rocks of Banjar Formation comprising meta
basics with chlorite schist, Bandal granite, and Manikaran
quartzite and Jutogh Formation consisting of
carbonaceous phyllite, biotite schist and schistose
quartzite are the main rock type encountered in HRT.
The tunnel also cut across two thrusts namely Jutogh
thrust and the Manikaran thrust. The tunnel over a stretch
of 7 km passes through high rock cover of more than
1000 m.
The TBM section of the tunnel will be excavated
mostly through granite/gneissose granite(RD 1935415700m followed by quartzite (RD 15700-10300 m)
Bands of biotite schist, talc chlorite schist or metabasics
are expected along the entire length of TBM drive. The
granites are hard & massive while quartzites are medium

strong to strong. The schist bands varying in thickness
from one metre to ten meter were soft in nature with
altered clay fillings. As per RMR classification majority of
HRT was expected to fall in Class II and III rock, with
subordinate patches of Class I (V.Good) and Class IV
(Poor) rock. In general dry to dripping condition with
moderate inflow of water in some localized reaches,
particularly in quartzites and talc chlorite schist were
expected. Overall in the TBM portion Manikaran quartzite
was expected in 60 % of the reach and rest 40 % granite
gneiss. Formation of roof wedges, water inflow in quartzite/
chlorite bands and squeezing in weak schist bands were
foreseen in tunnel excavation.

The 31.05 m long Head Race Tunnel is the most
critical activity of the project .5 nos intermediate adits
have been provided to facilitate construction. A 9.05 km
portion between Face-3 and Face -4 is being excavated
through Tunnel Boring machine while rest of the tunnels
is being excavated through conventional drilling and
blasting method.
Geological X-section of Head Race Tunnel
HRT Construction By TBM
71
BORING OF HRT BY TBM

The excavated dia of TBM bored tunnel has been
kept as 6.8 m. The TBM used for HRT excavation is OPEN
TYPE TBM (ATLAS COPCO JARVA MK 27 Machine). The
designed length of TBM stretch is 9050 m out of which
4057 m has been excavated so far. The overburden of rock
cover ranges from 200 m to 1350m. From start up to RD
3480 m Bandal Granites/Gneisses including bands of talc
Chlorite schists have been encountered and from RD 3480
m, Manikaran Quartzites have been intercepted which
contain some intercalated bands of talc chlorite schists.
The stretch of Bandal Granite offered mainly good
to fair rock conditions with dry to damp ground water
conditions. The most frequent problems were related to
the release of blocks of rock in hard and competent rock
mass, due to wedge failure as encountered in some
stretches. In the talc chlorite schist bands the main
problems faced were large scale slippages primarily along
the foliation planes and buckling or unraveling of weak,
closely foliated rock mass. Due to this the conventional
rock support system of rock bolting & shotcrete was
further supplemented with steel channels and wire mesh
in the crown in class-II & III and by adoption of ring beams
in class IV &V.
The rate of progress with TBM was as below:Average progress per day
Best progress in a day
Best progress in a week
Best progress in a month
4.60 m/day
32.5m/day
163 m/week
525 m/month
From above it can be concluded that the TBM

used is in fact High performance TBM which can give
excellent performance in competent rock mass.
However, the performance of TBM had not been found
good in poor or frequently changing rock conditions.
High stress condition was faced in the reaches of
high cover zones resulting in roof collapse and cavity
formation, heavy ingress of silt laden water in TBM reach
etc are some of the major problems faced by the project.
Advance probe holes,Pre-grouting, forepoling and bye
passing the problematic water charged zone by driving
parallel tunnel are being adopted during tunnel
construction.
Use of Tunnel Seismic Profiling (TSP) besides
advance probe drilling to forecast the tunneling media,
particularly in sheared and water charged zones is also
being done.
Open Mode TBM Assembled Out Side Adit-ii
Problems Faced during Construction and

Remedial Measures Adopted
Within initial 550 m long stretch in Manikaran
quartizite, low to moderately jointed rock mass and
generally dry to damp ground conditions have been
encountered. The high quartz content lead to high
abrasivity and in combination with low amount of jointing
to high cutter consumption. The UCS of quartzite ranges
from 80 to 180 MPa. On some occasions the phenomenon
of rock burst and popping was also observed to appear
after the face had advanced 10 m to 15 m. The
phenomenon of detachment and spalling was also noticed.
The vertical cover of excavated strech of quartzite is in
the range from 700 m to 1000 m.
In November 06 there was heavy ingress of water
with immense quantity of silt and sand from a routine
probe hole drilled, which flushed into the tunnel and almost
buried the TBM. The ingress of water was initially of the
order of 8000 Ipm but decreased later to about 2500 lpm.
The content of silt and sand decreased by January 07.
The work of silt removal was carried out during Dec06 to
March07 by making special arrangements after which
TBM was finally repaired and refurbished. Since then
efforts are being made to treat the cavity/water ingress
zone, for which a specialized International agency has
been identified.
The treatment work which shall comprise of probe
drilling and extensive grouting is likely to start shortly
only after which the work of boring of HRT shall resume.
72
Breakthrough in Inclined Pressure Shaft by TBM
Inclined Pressure Shafts

The twin pressure shaft each having a length of
1546 m are inclined at 30. The shaft will have an internal
dia of 3.5 m after placing of steel liner. The pressure shafts
run in meta basics which are traversed intermittently by
weak chlorite schist. While the metabasics are feebly
foliated with some massive bands, the chlorite schists
are thinly layered with a low compressive strength.
Problems of water inflow and squeezing ground in chloritic
schist and wedge failure in meta basics were anticipated.
Five drill holes were drilled at various elevations for the
investigation of inclined pressure shaft. It was revealed
from the holes that moderately foliated to massive meta
volcanics will be intercepted in the upper portion while
the lower portion is occupied by closely foliated and jointed
rock mass. Folding, faulting, major shear zones were not
expected along the tunnel alignment, however, dripping
to moderate flow conditions were anticipated along the
inclined shaft. Rock cover over the inclined shafts varies
from 70-250 m. The alignment of the shaft makes an acute
angle with respect to foliation; however, weak bands of
chlorite schist bands are parallel to foliation which is
considered unfavorable.
In view to combat roof and side over break, water
inflow, support applications, rock mass consolidation,
human risk and prolonged time schedule, it was proposed
to use Double shield TBM with pre cast segmental lining
as immediate support in place of originally envisaged
Single Shield TBM with conventional support. This was
the first time in the country that TBM was used for inclined
pressure shaft excavation The type of machine used was
Mitsubishi make double shield machine with following
main features:(a) Machine Type
- Telescopic Double
Shielded TBM.
(b) Boring diameter
- 4.88m
(c) Cutter head
- Flat design with

17" disc cutter
(d) Numbers of discutters
- 32 no
(e) Maximum thrust per cutter - 250 KN

(f) Cutter Head Speed
- 0 to 9 RPM
(g) Gripper Force
- 30000 KN
(h) Maximum Penetration rate - 8 mts/Hr.
The extended mechanization of support handling

and installation procedures for maximum speed and
safety.
The protection of lining erection area granted by

tail shield enabling safe tunneling even in adverse
ground conditions.
The adjustable radial shield-to-rock clearance to

accommodate possible convergence and prevent
the risk of shield jamming;
The complete system comprise of three major
parts:
(1)
Tunnel Boring Machine
The main components of TBM are as following:(a)
Cutter Head - The cutter head has a flat shape

with four muck buckets fitted with 17" disc cutters
for excavation
9)
Telescopic Shield - It is an intermediate, partially

floating shield and covers the gap between the two
main shields when the main thrust cylinders are
extended.
(c)
Tail Shield - It is a semi flexible protection shield

covering the support erection area.
(2)
Back Up System - The back up system trailing

behind the TBM is specially arranged to fit to the
shaft excavation requirements.
(3)
Material and Transport system - A specially

designed cable transport system (funicular rail way)
was used to assure transport of all construction
material and personal between the bottom of the
shaft and TBM.
Advance probe drilling was also done to identify

weaker rock zones. The average progress achieved in
Pressure Shaft I was 128 m per month whereas in
Pressure Shaft II the work was completed in 6 months.
The average progress achieved was 257 m per month
and maximum achieved was 388 m per month.
Inclined Pressure Shaft Excavated with Double Shieldtbm
The main features of TBM are as under:
The capability to excavate hard rock formations,

which require high cutter thrust for fast penetration,
taking advantage of the gripper to provide thrust
reaction;
The capability of simultaneous excavation and lining

erection in order to achieve the best overall advance
rate;
The adjustable cutter head speed which can be

adapted to the different geological conditions that
will be encountered along the tunnel drive;
73
Diversion Tunnel
River diversion is done through a 7.5m dia, 270m
long diversion tunnel excavated on the right bank to
facilitate the dam construction. The right bank consists
of a fossil valley which extends from Tos nala-Parbati
river confluence in the upstream to downstream of the
dam axis. The fossil valley has been treated with a positive
74
concrete membrane on the entire upslope and curtain

grouting below the membrane to prevent any seepage
through fossil valley. The diversion tunnel negotiates
through schistose quartzite with bands of biotite gneiss.
The construction was done from both upstream and
downstream faces through drilling and blasting full face.
The support consist of 4m long rock bolts and 10 cm
shotcrete
PARBATI HE PROJECT
STAGE-III
7.875 km long, 7.25 m Dia Horse Shoe Shape HRT
a 20m dia 133m high surge shaft and 2 nos

pressure shafts 4.5m dia circular
Underground Powerhouse with 4 Nos. Francis

Turbine Generating units each of 130 MW operating
under a rated head of 326 m.
2.7 km long, 8.1m dia Horse Shoe shape TRT
The project is under active construction stage
State
Himachal Pradesh
River
Sainj
Head Race Tunnel
Owner
NHPC Ltd
Layout
Designer
NHPC Ltd
Contractor/s
M/s Patel-L&T, M/s JaggerGammons J.V
Construction Period
Under construction

of HRT
7.875 km,7.25 m,
Horseshoe shaped 1 in
179 slope
Under Ground Powerhouse
122.9 m x 23.2 m x 41.7 m
The HRT alignment is proposed on the left bank of

Sainj river. Three intermediate adits of 150m, 710m and
250m respectively have been provided to facilitate
construction of 7.8 km long HRT.The rock cover over
the tunnel is of the order of 700-800m. The tunnel
negotiate two major cross drainage namely Daugi nala
and Kanun nala where the cover is of the order of 80100m.
Transformer Cavern
98.2 m x 18 m x 25 m

tunnel, adits, desilting
chambers, SFT, surge
shaft, pressure shafts, Cable
& ventilation tunnel,TRT)
6.5km
Metavolcanics, Slates, phyllite, quartzite, Dolomitic

limestone with slates and quartzite are the main rock
type encountered in the tunnel. The tunnel is under
construction.
The Parbati Stage-III project is proposed on river

Sainj, a tributary of River Beas, in Kullu Distt of Himachal
Pradesh. It is a run off the river scheme utilizing tail water
discharge of Parbati Stage-II project and Sainj river. The
installed capacity of the project is 520 MW. The main
components of the Project are:
The 7.25 m dia,7.8 km long HRT is excavated by

conventional drilling and blasting method in full face. The
rock support includes Rock bolts, wiremesh and
shotcrete in Class II & III, Steel ribs in Class-IV&V
two nos Diversion Tunnels 393 m and 440 m in

length.
43 m high Rockfill Dam,
Problem of cavity formation and seepage was

intercepted in Face-2 which was rectified by pipe roofing
and providing rib support.
2 nos 300m long desilting chambers
Problems Faced during Construction and their

Solutions
Adit-2 To HRT
75
RAMPUR HE PROJECT
State
Himachal Pradesh
River
Satluj
Owner
Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam

Ltd. (SJVN)
Contractor (s)
M/s Patel Engineering Ltd

and M/s Gammon India
Ltd.
Construction Period
Under Construction
Total Length
HRT-15.08 km , TRT- 54 m
Diameter/Shape
HRT-10.50 m /Circular,
10.5 m/ Horse Shoe
Other Tunnelling (Desiling

Chamber, Surge Shaft,
Adits, Pressure Shaft)
4.5 km
The Rampur HE Project 412 MW is a tailrace

development of 1500 MW Nathpa Jhakri Hydroelectric.
Both Jhakri and Rampur power stations are to be
operated in tandem as at Jhakri tail race pond very little
storage is available. The latter will be the master station
while the former the slave. A small reservoir in the shape
of Pond of the Tailrace Outfall of NJHEP (tail pool) links
the two projects. The intake of the RHEP, which has
been constructed as a part of the TRT Outfall, will draw
76
desilted water from the tail pool. Water leaving NJHEP

will automatically enter Rampur Intake whenever the TRT
Outfall gates of Nathpa Jhakri are closed. It will utilize
the entire flow released by the latter which then flow
through HRT on the same bank. The project with an
installed capacity of 412 MW (6X68.67 MW) will generate
2077.84 MU of electrical energy in a 90% dependable
year and 2230.31 MU in an average year. The power
will be evacuated to Northern Grid by loop in and loop
out through 400 KV Jhakri-Nalagarh double circuit lines.
Power Grid Corporation (India) Ltd. has been entrusted
with the planning and design of power excavation
arrangement.
The head race tunnel, 15.08 km long will cross

over to the right bank by means of a cut & cover
section, 43.2 m constructed in the river bed.
An open to sky, throttled surge shaft, 38 m dia,

140 m deep lies at the end of the HRT.
Surface Butterfly Valve House of size 69 m x 11.5

m x 23 m.
Three no pressure shafts of 5.40 m diameter which

bifurcate into 3.80 m diameter branches.
A surface Power House of size 138 m x 23.5 m x

48 m high. The tail water is let out in to six draft
tube tunnels leading into a collection gallery.
54 m long tailrace tunnel of 10.5 m dia, horse shoe

shaped .The tailrace tunnel empties in to open
gated TRT Outfall structure. Beyond this, an exit
channel leads the water to the River.
The Project is under active construction stage and

the layout is shown in Fig.
Head Race Tunnel

The head race tunnel is the most critical activity
of the project. It is 15.08 km long including 484 m long
tunnel on left bank and 43.2 m long cut and cover section
meant for crossing the river to right bank. HRT length of
50.61 m has already been constructed along with intake
structure in the tail pool of NJHPS. The tunnel has a
finished dia of 10.50 m and is concrete lined with
thickness varying from 40 to 50 cm depending on the
rock class. The cover along the tunnel varies from about
180 m to 1100 m. In general, the tunnel has less than
600 m of cover except in a small stretch of 350 m length
where it is up to 1100 m. To ensure sufficient cover above
the tunnel underneath two khads, the tunnel has been
provided with two bends, one at Kuni Khad and the other
at Kasholi Khad.
For construction convenience the excavated
section of the head race tunnel has been kept as horse
shoe with bottom width of 6.5 m. The excavated dia of
the tunnel, depending on rock class varies from 11.30
m to 11.70 m. The excavation of the tunnel is being/to
be carried out through five construction adits on right
bank, each 7.5 m D-shaped with lengths varying from
489 m to 831 m (earlier 1100 m). The length of the tunnel
between the adits varies from 2905 m to 3000 m.
Maximum tunnel length falls between Kuni & Goshai
adits. While excavating Goshai adit construction has
been hampered because of weak geology resulted in
delaying the overall schedule of tunnel construction.
Accordingly, the tunnel alignment has been modified to
shorten this adit. Also a new adit near Kasholi khad has
now been introduced to meet up the construction
schedule of the tunnel. On the left bank 484 m length of
the tunnel excavation has to be carried out through 335
m long 10.15 m horse shoe shape Construction adit cum
spill tunnel.
Geology
The HRT is expected to encounter: Quartz-mica
schist, quartzite, amphibolite and phylite. These rocks
are folded, moderately to closely jointed and have
fractured and sheared zones/seams at places. There
are two regional thrusts, Jhakri Thrust (near Barauni
khad) and Kulu Thrust between Goshai adit junction and
Surge shaft. The Jhakri Thrust is at the contact of Quartzmica schist and Quartzite (of Rampur Group) and will
be encountered in the tunnel. In the vicinity of this thrust
(at the confluence of Kazo khad), a hot water spring
(31o C) is present. The Jhakri thrust zone is expected to
be sheared and fractured where medium to heavy in
flow of ground water conditions may be encountered.
In general about 10-20% of tunnel length is
expected to pass through very good and good rock
mass,35-45% each in fair and poor/very poor rock
masses. About 5-10% rock mass encountered can be
expected to fall in the extremely poor rock class, i.e.,
shear zones comprising crushed/fractured rock material
along with clay gauge having very low strength which is
easily crushable with hands and squeezing in nature.
Rampur Intake
77

Goshai Adit Portal
Kunni Adit Portal
Tunnel Excavation & Rock Support
of 0.75 to 1.0 m c/c has been provided besides rock bolts

4.0m to 4.5 m long @ spacing of 1.0 m x 1.5 m c/c.
Rock support during excavation has been/is being

provided on the basis of rock class encountered.
Generally, 50-100 mm thick shotcrete and 4 m long, 25
mm dia rock bolts spaced at 1.5 x 1.5 m c/c in crown
portion for class I, II & III rock has been provided. For
Class IV & V rock, steel ribs ISHB 150 x 150 at a spacing
Typical x-section for Lattice Girder
78
Alternative Support with Lattice Girder

The rock support system being provided in
underground works for poor and very poor rock
conditions has been reviewed due to unsatisfactory rate
of progress, particularly in Goshai adit and Kuni

downstream face of HRT. It has been recommended by
the Tunnel Expert that the support based upon NATM
should be tried instead of steel sets in poor and very
poor rock conditions to improve the progress rate.
In order to improve tunnel cycle time and expedite
the rate of progress keeping in view the 54 months
completion schedule of RHEP an alternative has been
given to the contractor in Rock class IV and V . In these
rock classes the installation of steel sets, with steel
lagging/ pre-cast concrete lagging, followed by back
filling concrete activities had been giving a very long cycle
time. The alternative is comprising of lattice girders
embedded in shotcrete. Due to their light weight they
provide major reduction in erection time and thus safety.
Its structural compound when fully embedded in the
shotcrete is reliable than the steel arches in soft ground.
NATM principles are being followed at the locations
mentioned above.
The NATM represents the state of art in modern
tunneling. Its concept makes NATM more economical
than conventional means of tunnelling. The NATM is
most appropriate support system for tunnelling in soft
ground, i.e., rock class IV and below. The installation of
reinforced lattice girder with wire mesh, shotcrete and
Drilling for Forepoles
rock bolting provides a uniform load bearing structure in

soft rocks.
After introduction of lattice girders rate of excavation
has improved as compared to support system with steel
sets.
Status of Tunnel Construction

The construction of two adits to HRT namely Kuni
and Goshai were started much before the award of the
tunnel construction to the main contractors which were
awarded in March, 2007. By this time excavation of Kuni
adit had been completed and excavation of Goshai adit
was stopped at RD 219 m due to weak geology. The
balance work of the Goshai adit was taken over by the
main contractor as per the contract provisions. Two
construction faces, i.e., Kuni upstream and Kuni
downstream were available for the excavation of the tunnel
at the time of award of the contract.
Till date about 5.3 km of tunneling works including
2.7 km in construction adits and 2.6 km in HRT, spill
tunnel and diversion tunnel has been completed.
Profile after installation of Lattice & wiremesh & before final
shotcreting
Tunnel profile in Goshai adit after installation of lattice girder
79
RANGANADI HE
PROJECT
State
Arunachal Pradesh
River
Dikrong
Owner
NEEPCO
constructing a concrete gravity dam along Ranganadi River

near Yazali and the pondage so created is diverted to
Dikrong River through a tunnel.Thus, the project comprises
of 67 m high concrete gravity Dam having effective storage
capacity of 5.70 Mcum and intercepting a catchment area
of 1894 sq.km, 10.27 km long,6.80 m dia Tunnel and a
surface power house with the installation of 3 units of 135
MW each operating under design head of 300 m. Design
annual energy for the project is 1509 MU in 90%
dependable year. Both Ranganadi River and Dikrong River
are tributaries of River Brahmaputra. The Project is situated
approximately 600 km away from Guwahati, gateway of
North East India.
Designer
CWC
Contractors
Gammon India Ltd.

Asian Tech
Construction Period
12 Years
1 no., 6.75 m dia, 264 m long circular shaped

diversion tunnel.
Total Length & Size
HRT 9.20 km,

PT-800m, (800 m X 5.8
m dia, Diversion Tunnel264 m long and 6.75 m
dia.
67 m high, 340 m long concrete gravity dam.
9.20 km long, 6.8 m dia, modified horseshoe

shaped Low Pressure Tunnel.
95 m high, 16 m dia Restricted Orifice type Surge

Shaft with Upper Expansion Chamber of 25 m dia
and Lower Expansion Chamber of 50 m long, 6.0
m dia.
5.8 dia circular shaped inclined pressure tunnel of

length 800 m bifurcating initially 2 circular tunnels
of 4.75 m dia and then again 1 branch tunnel
bifurcating into 2 tunnels of 3.35 m dia circular
tunnel.
Semi-underground Power House of size 52 m x

26.5 m.
Shape
Modified Horse Shoe

Shaped
Under Ground Power

House,
Semi Under ground

52 m X 26.5 m1.26 km
Ranganadi HE Project is situated in Lower

Subansiri District, Arunachal Pradesh. The Project has
been developed with creation of a pondage by
Project Layout
A brief description of various tunnels is given below:
Diversion Tunnel
One Diversion Tunnel of 6.75 m
finished dia, 264 m long was
constructed on left bank of Ranagandi
River to divert non-monsoon peak
discharge of 340 cumecs. The tunnel
gradient was 1:200. The RCC lining
thickness of tunnel was 300 mm. The
work was started in 1989 and completed
in 1992. The work suffered a lot
because of collapse of intake portal hill
and resultant damages in a portion of
tunnel near the inlet.
Principal rock type encountered
in Diversion Tunnel was quartzofeldspathic and thinly foliated granite
gneiss punctuated by veins and shears.
Stability problem in inlet portal was
faced due to proximity of probable wide
and deep buried channel. The rock falls
under Bomdila Group (Pre-cambrian).
The excavation was done by drill
& blast method with drilling done
manually. In some sections, full face
80

tunnelling was adopted and in certain stretches with poor/
very poor rock condition, heading & benching was adopted.
The tunnel all along was supported with ISMB 250 with
M15 grade of concreting as backfilling. In collapsed portion
near inlet, additional steel supports, channel fore poling,
etc. were provided.
Head Race Tunnel

A 9.20 km long, 6.8 m finished dia, modified
horseshoe shaped HRT from intake to Surge Shaft was
constructed to cater design inflow of 160 cumecs. The
PCC lining thickness of tunnel was 300 mm. The work
was started in 1989 and could be completed in 1999.
The tunnel passes through metasedimentaries,
carbonaceous rocks (with volcanics/metabasics) and
immatired sandstone. Metasedimentary comprising
mainly of mica schist, granite gneiss and a few basic
intrusive belonging to Bomdila Group of rock (Meta
basics) of Precambrian age, constitute the oldest rock.
Thrusted over it is the Bomdila Group (Gondowana) of
rocks represented by carbonaceous shale, sandstone,
slaty shales with coal bands. Siwalik Group, composed
of sandstone, shale is separated from Bichom Group by
Main Boundary Fault. All the Group contacts viz. BomdilaBichom, Bichom-Siwalik are tectonic in nature and trend
NE-SW in general with high to sub-vertical dips. The
Project has been affected due to very difficult and
unforeseen geological conditions faced from time to time
during construction of tunnel, approach road to various
works front and also due to adverse monsoon. Death
occurred to 50 labours of the contractors including a
Resident Geologist and one NEEPCO engineer due to
adverse geological conditioned faced during construction
of HRT of the project.
The tunnel boring was done by two-boom Drill
Jumboo Machine. Approximately, 55% of tunnel length
was supported with ISMB 250 with backfill concrete, initial
shotcreting, etc. Rest of the tunnel was supported with
rock bolt and shotcrete with deployment of Roboarm
articulated Shotcrete machine and Rockbolter Machine.
Sliding of flowing debris mixed with rolling boulders
in inlet portal location caused serious problem.
Pulverized mica schist was the main constituent of debris.
This was tackled by shifting the location and by

constructing pilot tunnel.
Methane gas exploded in Adit-I (subsequently
converted into main tunnel) in Gondowana zone injuring
workmen and supervisors. The stretch was passing
through highly crushed carbonaceous materials during
the time. Precautionary measures like installation of
flame proof illumination system, frequent blowing of fresh
air, checking of methane concentration with
methanometer, etc. were adopted in the zone to avoid
further accident.
Chimney formed in Adit-III between Ch. 67 m and
Ch. 71 m with heavy flow of loose rock. This was tackled
with providing of additional support, forepole, etc. Further,
the junction of Adit-III with HRT collapsed necessitating
detouring of HRT to avoid the collapsed portion.
A huge landslide occurred from above the Adit-II
portal stretching to a height of over 80.0 m covering the
mouth of Adit completely. The portal was subsequently
extended by 10.0. Further, the hill slope was stabilized
with rock bolt, shotcrete and emergency exit was
provided near portal to evacuate manpower in case of
any accident.
In initial portion of HRT in granite schist portion of
rock, severe tunnel convergence was detected with the
supports found squeezed, buckled, twisted. In some
stretches, 2nd layer of supports were required to be
installed.
High Pressure Tunnel

5.8 dia circular shaped fully steel lined pressure
tunnel of length 800 m bifurcating initially 2 circular
tunnels of 4.75 m dia and then again 1 branch tunnel
bifurcating into 2 tunnels of 3.35 m dia circular tunnel.
530 m length of tunnel was inclined with 300 inclination
with horizontal.
The tunnel was driven through soft Siwalik
Sandstone (Tertiary). Heavy ingress of water in the geosyncline encountered near Surge Shaft caused serious
problem in tunnel excavation. This was tackled with minor
modification of alignment and by providing with another
construction Adit.
81
RANGIT HE PROJECT
A 6.0m dia and 360m long diversion tunnel
Two desilting chambers of size 125m x13.6m

x12.5m
4.5m dia,3.0 km long HRT
60m deep,9.0m dia Surge shaft and pressure shaft
Surface powerhouse having 3 units of 20 MW each
Tail race channel
State
Sikkim
River
Rangit
Owner
NHPC Ltd
Designer
NHPC Ltd
Head Race Tunnel
Contractor/s
M/sGammons India Ltd
Layout
Construction Period

sectional area &Shape
of HRT
3.0 km,4.5m
Horseshoe shapedSlope
1:147
OtherTunnels(Diversion
tunnel,Desilting chambers,
GOC,SFT,Surgeshaft,
Pressure shaft,Adits to HRT
& pressure shaft)
2.4 km
The 4.5m finished dia, 3.0 km long HRT has been

excavated on the left bank of Rangit river. The HRT
alignment from upstream to surge shaft is straight. The
rock cover over the tunnel alignment varies from 60m to
700m. No intermediate adit was provided
Rangit H.E.Project is a run off the river scheme

located on river Rangit in Legship town of Sikkim.
The project comprises of following structures:
A 52m high concrete gravity dam
Rangit Dam Upstream View
82
The project was commissioned by NHPC in 1999.
The project area is mainly occupied by phyllites,
phyllitic quartzite and quartzitic phyllite rock of Daling
formation. Entire HRT has been laid in alternative sequence
of phyllitic quartzites, quartzitic phyllites, quartzites and
bands of phyllites. The rock mass is slightly folded at
places and jointed. At places, interfolial and other shear
seams/zones filled with clay and rock fragments are also
seen
Excavation and Support system

The excavation was done by conventional drilling
and blasting method through heading and benching. In
view of small diameter of the tunnel the mucking was
done through rail mounted trolleys. Rock bolts wiremesh
and shotcrete were the support elements in good to fair
rock whereas in poor rock steel ribs were provided. In
general 60% tunnel length has been supported with
shotcrete & rock anchors of 3-4m length and approx.
40% tunnel length has been provided steel arch support.
The tunnel is lined with 22.5 cm thick concrete.
Problems encountered and Remedial Measures

adopted
The downstream portion of the HRT crosses many
drainages. Flowing water condition were met in these
areas. The tunnel also passes through high cover zones
where stress related problems viz. mild squeezing of
rock mass was faced. Cavity formation due to wedge
failures and shear zones of variable thickness were also
encountered in few reaches. Fore poling, grouting and
rib support were provided in problematic reaches.
83
SALAL HE PROJECT
STAGE-I & II
A 113m high concrete dam
A 198m long,9.14m dia Diversion tunnel
Six penstock of 5.25m dia to feed six francis

turbines of dam toe surface powerhouse.
Two 11m dia, 2.46 Km long tail race tunnels
State
Jammu & Kashmir
River
Chenab
Owner
NHPC Ltd
Designer
NHPC Ltd
Contractor/s
M/s Gammons India Ltd
Construction Period
Stage-I Commissioned in
1987
Stage-II Commissioned in
1990

sectional area ,Shape of
TRT
2.46 km for stage-I

2.46 km for stage-II
11 m, Horseshoe shaped
Salal Stage-I & Stage-II project is located on Chenab

river in Jammu & Kashmir .Each Project is of 345 MW
capacity and utilizes the natural drop available in river
Chenab around Dhyangarh loop, utilizing a net head of
54.5 m to generate 2800 MU of energy annually.
A 118m high rock fill dam
A view of Salal Dam
84
The project area lies in lesser Himalayas and is

occupied by rocks of Reasi Formation of Precambrian
age comprising of dolomite, calc dolomite, stromatolitic
dolomite, argillaceous dolomite/limestone and shales.
The project area falls in Seismic zone-IV of
seismic zoning map of India.
The construction of tail race tunnels were the most
critical activity.

adopted
Problem of cross shear zones of variable thickness,
bedding shear zones, profuse water seepage, cavity
formation were encountered during tunnelling in Tail Race
tunnel, which were tackled by adopting heading and
benching, multiple drifting in highly sheared zones, fore
poling, grouting and providing of rib support. Equipments
used were jack hammers mounted on portal jumbos and
later on Hydraulic drilling jumbos were also used. Mucking
was done with shovel/loader and low profile dumpers in
combination. At places, in comparatively good rock only
rock bolting and shotcreting were done.
SARDAR SAROVAR HE
PROJECT
June 2006 and 5 units of 50 MW in Canal head power

house during the period Aug. 2004 to Dec. 2004,
aggregating total install capacity of 1450 MW. Electricity
amounting to about 11,300 Million units have been
generated so far.
The Machine Hall of underground River bed Power
house of Sardar Sarovar Project is approached by 8.50 m
(W) x 9.0 m (H) x 860 m (L) D shaped access Tunnel. The
entrance portal of access tunnel is fixed at EL 70.0 m.
State
Gujarat
River
Narmada
Ow n er
Sardar Sarovar Narmada

Nigam Ltd.
Designer
Central Water
Commission
Construction Period
Access Tunnel-1988-1991
Draft Tube Tunnel-1990-1999
Tail Race Tunnel-1990-1994
Machine Hall-1987- 2002
Total Length & Shape
Access Tunnel 860 m,

D shaped Draft tube Tunnel
6 Nos, 975 m, 11.0 m (dia)
Tail race Tunnel 3 Nos,
296 m, 12.5 m (horse shoe)
Under Ground Power

House, Machine Hall
211.20 m x 23.0 m x 56.0

m (H)
The Sardar Sarovar H E Project is constructed at

Kevadiya Colony across river Narmada. The Sardar Sarovar
Dam is 1210 m long concrete gravity dam. So far 6.577
million cub m concrete has been poured of the 6.820
million cub m required for completion of the dam. Even
though the dam has been raised to crest level only, 6
Nos. turbines each of 200 MW have been commissioned
in River Bed power house during the period Feb. 2005 to
The work was executed between 1988 to 1991 as

per the methodology of NATM (New Austrian Tunnelling
Method). The rock encountered during the execution are
Basalt, Agglomerate and Dolerite type.
The top floor level of machine hall is at EL 20.50 m.
The EL of crown of power house is 45.0 m. The height of
power house is 56.6 m above deepest level of (-) 11.60 m.
Total length of Machine hall is 211.20 m (L) X 23.0 m (W) x
56.0 m (H). The work has executed between July 1987 to
March 2002 as per the methodology of NATM (New Austrian
Tunnelling Method). The rocks encountered during the
execution are Basalt, Agglomerate and Dolerite type.
The draft tube tunnels at the Power House end are
16.0 m (w) x 5.0 m (h) elliptical shape tunnel which
converge to 10.0 m dia circular tunnel. The total length of
six draft tube tunnel in 975.0 m. The excavated dia of
tunnel is 11.00 m and centre to centre distance between
tunnels is 25.0 m. The work was executed between 1990
to 1999 as per the methodology of NATM (New Austrian
Tunnelling Method). The rocks encountered during the
From the collection pool, three tail race tunnels
(Exit tunnel) of 12.50 m (horse shoe shape) and total
length of 296 m off take and connect to tail pool and tail
race channel. The work was executed between 1990 to
1994 as per the methodology of NATM (New Austrian
Tunnelling method). The rocks encountered during the
Machine Hall
85
SEWA-II HE PROJECT
State
Jammu & Kashmir
River
Sewa,a tributary of river

Ravi
Owner
NHPC Ltd
Designer
NHPC Ltd
Contractor/s
M/s Gammons India Ltd
Construction Period
Under Construction

sectional area &Shape
of HRT
10.02 km, 3.3 m

Horseshoe shaped
Other Tunnels
(Diversion tunnel,Desilting
basin,Adits,Surge shaft,)
1.6 km
SewaII HE Project is a run of river scheme located

in Kathua district of J&K. It utilizes the flow of river Sewa,
a tributary of river Ravi. The project will generate 638.19
MU annually in a 90% dependable year. The project is
having installed capacity of 120 MW. The project has been
sanctioned by Govt. of India (CCEA clearance) on
09.09.2003. The project is under active construction stage.
The project components are:
6.0 m dia, 289 m long Diversion tunnel,
53 m high concrete gravity dam located on river

Sewa near Ghatti village,
Layout Plan of Sewa HE project (Stage-II)
86
Intake structure leading to 2 Nos. 3.0 m dia Dshaped intake tunnels,
Two Nos. underground Desilting chambers,
3.3 m dia. horse shoe shaped and 10.02 km long

Head race tunnel,
9 m dia & 111 m high underground restricted orifice

type Surge shaft,
One horizontal pressure shaft of 2.4 m dia. 350 m

length followed by a surface penstock 2.4 m dia.
circular 880 m long terminating into 2.4 m diameter
175 m deep vertical shaft and finally 622 m long
underground horizontal pressure shaft which
bifurcates twice into 3 Nos. penstocks of 1.35 m
diameter each upto power house,
Surf ace Power house at village Mashka

accommodating 3 units of 40 MW each with vertical
Pelton Turbine to operate under net head of 560 m
Three Nos. Tail race channels of about 28 m, 39 m

& 50 m length respectively.
Head Race Tunnel

Layout
The 3.3 m dia, 10 km long HRT is under
construction to carry the water from dam to surface
powerhouse site. The topography around the tunnel
alignment is very rugged. The tunnel passes through many
cross drainages which are deeply incised. Cover over
the tunnel ranges from 50 m to 650 m.Four D-shaped
construction adits varying in length from 123 m to 368 m
have been provided to facilitate construction from eight
faces simultaneously.
In the upstream part of HRT, high grade
metamorphic rock comprising of augen/ granitic gneiss
rock of Dalhousie granite of Pre-Cambrian age are
present whereas in the downstream highly tectonised
sequence of Tanawal Formation comprising of
carbonaceous phyllite, slate, phyllitic assembelage,
limestone and quartzite is intercepted. The contact
between Dalhousie granite and Tanawal group is sharp
and thrusted and is known as Jutogh Thrust. While granitic
gneiss were considered as good tunnelling media, the
folded and faulted sequence of Tanawal schist posed
problems during construction.

Due to small dia (3.3m) of the tunnel, the
excavation was planned for full face by conventional
drilling and blasting. The tunnel in good to fair rock was
supported by rock bolts and shotcrete with or without
wiremesh whereas in poor rock steel ribs with or without
concrete lagging were also provided in addition to above
support. The concrete lining of tunnel is under progress.

Adopted
The tunneling between Face-II and Face-III was
problematic due to sheared and fractured nature of rock.
The rock fall was frequent in this stretch and many time
resulted in chimney formation. Heavy water inflow further
added to the problems. Due to low cover zone the tunnel
also got day lighted in one of the nala.The alignment
between Face-II and III was resurveyed and detoured
to avoid low cover zones. The tunnel from Face-IV
proceeded well in good to fair gneiss rock up to RD 775m;

however after that a major shear zone associated with
copious ground water inflow was encountered. The same
was treated by grouting, fore poling and rib erection.Even
after providing heavy supports the inflow of water mixed
with slush continued. At this stage it was decided to detour the tunnel. In the detoured portion also, part of the
above shear zone was encountered which was
successfully treated.
Weak carbonaceous phyllite were encountered
in Face V up to RD 50 m while in Face VI at RD 71 m
conforming to class IV rock mass condition and were
supported with closely spaced steel ribs. In Face V, the
Jutogh thrust was encountered at RD 493m .This zone
experienced huge cavity formation in slates along the
contact of Gneiss and slate. In Face V heavy seepage
was encountered with a maximum discharge of 7800
lpm. Dewatering pumps were installed to drain out the
water.
In Face VII a 10 m wide carbonaceous phyllite
zone was negotiated between RD 731 and 741 m. this
caused overbreaks and cavity formation in crown portion.
Damp to wet ground conditions further deteriorated the
tunneling. Rib support was provided at 0.5m c/c spacing
and was backfilled with concrete. Frequent carbonaceous
phyllite zones were encountered resulting in cavity
formation. Effective grouting, forepoling and rib erection
was implemented to tackle such zones.
As on date nearly 9.9 out of 10.08 km of tunneling
has been achieved in HRT. The rock class encountered
in the tunnel is mainly class II and class III with only 7%
class IV rock.
87
Erection of Steel Support In HRT
Concrete Lining In Progress in HRT
88
SRISAILAM LEFT BANK

HE PROJECT
Highest capacity of station with pump turbine

installation in India (900MW ).
Surge cavern is the highest cavern in India (77m)
Power house cavern is the longest cavern in India

(236.7 m) span also 25.70 m.
Diameter of Head Race Tunnel and Tail Race Tunnel

is maximum in India (15 m Dia Horse shoe).
Diameter of steel liners for Pressure shaft is

maximum in India ( 12 m dia.)
State
Andhra Pradesh
River
Krishna
Owner
Andhra Pradesh Power

Generation Corporation
Limited.
Largest concrete Y junction (15 m X 12m X12 m)

in India.
Gas insulated switchgear is provided.
400 kV X LPE cables are provided each 1 km long

without any joint.
10 km long tunnels, 25 lakh cubic meters of rock

excavation, 6.00 lakh cubic meters of concreting,
37,000 tons of reinforcement, 2.1 lakh tons of
cement and 7000 tons of steel plates are used for
steel liners of pressure shafts and penstocks.
Designer
CWC
Major Contractors
M/s Patel Engineering Ltd

& M/s. PES Engineers Ltd
Commissioned on
First Unit Commissioned in

April 2001
Total Length, Dia/ Shape
a) Diameter of the tunnel :

15 m Horse shoe
b) Length of the tunnel:
347 m
236.2m x 25.7 m x 55 m
high
Other Tunnels
Pressure shafts
(a) Number of tunnels : 2
(b) Diameter of each tunnel
: 12 m circular
(c) Total length of the
tunnel: 377 m
Penstock tunnels
(a) Number of tunnels: 6
Nos.
b) Diameter of each tunnel:
6 m circular
c) Total length of tunnels:
600 m
Tail Race Tunnel
a) Diameter of each tunnel
:15 m horse shoe
b) Length of tunnel
:2297 m
Srisailam Left Bank Hydro Electric Scheme is

located on River Krishna in Mahaboobnagar District of
Andhra Pradesh State. The 900 MW project is executed
by APGENCO with the technical assistance of CW C.
The first underground Hydro Power Project in

Southern India with the magnitude of 6x150MW.
The First Unit was commissioned in April 2001 and
the Sixth Unit was commissioned in September
2003.
Unique power station with two large reservoirs viz.

Srisailam Reservoir (308.00 TMC) and
Nagarjunasagar (400 TMC).
Highest capacity of single pump turbine in

India.(150 MW)
Tunnels
Heavy seepage to a maximum of 180 lps was

encountered due to near vicinity of the reservoir.
Curtain grouting near intake structure was done to
close the gaps between the bedded rocks and to
fill the loose pockets with cement slurry / Cement
mortar/ Slurry made by Cement mixed with Fly
Ash to minimize the seepage from reservoir to Head
Race Tunnel.
Roof collapses were occurred due to bad geological

formations like loose pockets, bedded rock etc.
For negotiating the same heavy rock supporting
system made up of ISMB class beams and props
was provided.
The TRT is met with Fault Zone and due to which

chimney formation was also taken place and this
was effectively tackled by concreting.
Power House, Transformer and Surge Caverns

The Power House cavern, Transformer cavern and
Surge Cavern are all large under ground excavations in
the hill on the Left Bank of Srisailam Dam. For all these
caverns, first crown portion excavation was taken up
through adit tunnels, excavation of the portion below the
crown and upto the Permanent Access Tunnel (PAT) was
taken up using PAT. The portions below the PAT was done
through U-adit tunnels.
Power House Cavern : The Power House cavern is

excavated to house butterfly valves, 6 x 150 MW
reversible pump turbine Units, Governors, Power
House control room, Service bay for handling Power
house equipment, EOT cranes an d other
miscellaneous equipment required to run the units.
Transformer Cavern: The transformer cavern is

provided to house 6 Nos. of 440 kV step up
transformers and its auxiliaries.
Surge cavern: The surge cavern houses 12 Nos.

of Draft Tube gates and Rope Drum Hoists for lifting
these gates.
89
SUBANSIRI LOWER HE
PROJECT
State
Assam/Arunachal Pradesh
River
Subansiri
Owner
NHPC Ltd
Designer
NHPC Ltd
Contractor/s
M/s Soma Construction Ltd

for
Divers ion
tunnels
M/s L & T for power house
complex works
Construction Period
Diversion completed in
2007

sectional area &Shape of
Diversion Tunnels
5 nos ranging in length

from 491m to 668m,9.5m,
Horseshoe shaped
Other Tunnels(HRT,
Pressure shafts,Adits)
9.5km
Subansiri Lower HE Project with envisaged capacity

of 2000 MW is located on river Subansiri, a major tributary
of Brahmaputra river, on the border of Assam and Arunachal
Pradesh.. The dam site is located near Gerukamukh. The
left bank of the dam is in the state of Assam whereas the
right bank of dam & powerhouse is in Arunachal Pradesh.
The project alone will generate 7421.59 GWh annually in
a 90% dependable year. The project is under active
construction. It is ,so far, the biggest hydropower project
under construction in the country.
Layout Plan Subansiri Lower Project
90
The Project comprises of the following components:
5 nos. 9.5 m dia. horseshoe shaped Diversion

Tunnels.
116 m high concrete gravity Dam.
Reservoir Gross Storage is 1365 m cum.
8 nos. Head Race Tunnels of 9.5m dia, horseshoe

shape of length varying from 630 m to 1130 m
length.
Surface Power House to accommodate 8 units of

Francis turbines of 250 MW capacity each. Gross
head of 91 m will be utilized.
Tail Race Channel of 35 m length and 206 m width
River diversion was achieved in Dec 2007. Other

excavation works such as dam slope stripping, HRT
intake excavation, HRT, Pressure shafts, Powerhouse
excavation etc., are in full swing.
Layout of Diversion Tunnels

5 Number Diversion tunnels of 9.5 m dia, horse
shoe shaped, ranging in length from 491 m to 688 m
are planned on the left bank of Subansiri river. The outlets
of the tunnels open in Deo nala which joins the main
river a little downstream of dam site. The rock column
between the diversion tunnels ranges from 25m to 30m.
The rock is medium to fine grained soft sandstone
of Siwalik age having typical salt and pepper texture.
The main characteristic feature of this rock is presence
of concretionary nodules and lenses of carbonaceous
material. These nodules are also of sandstone, but
harder than the main rock mass. Weathering is very

commonly observed in this rock and sometimes it
penetrates to a greater depth (4-5m). Apart from this,
sometimes weathering is also seen below the fresh rock
along joint planes which is a peculiar feature in this
rockmass. As regards engineering properties of rock it
exhibits low slake durability index, low unconfined
compressive strength, low elastic modulus and high
Poissons ratio as per test results data. The rockmass is
dissected by mainly four sets of joints i.e. S1 S2, S3 &
S4. S1 is bedding joint dipping steeply towards
downstream whereas S2 & S3 is having hill dipping
component with moderate to steep dips and S4 is dipping
upstream with moderate to steep dips.
Excavation Methodology and Support System
Due to monolithic nature and poor lithification,

bedding plane is not well developed. On the left bank,
where diversion tunnels are housed, massive to
moderately jointed sandstone is exposed all along the
river edge. Few shear zones parallel to bedding planes
are existing at places. The slope of the left bank is
governed by S2 joints dipping 45 -55 in south westerly
direction .The sub surface investigations indicated 4 to
5m zone of weathered rock due to high precipitation rate
and soft nature of rock.
As such, no major problem was faced during tunnel

construction, however, both the banks of Deo nala posed
severe slope instability problem during portal development,
due to highly weathered and sheared nature of rock and
steep cut slopes proposed, thus hampering the works
adversely. These problems were resolved by making the
slope gentler and adopting elaborate slope stability
measures such as use of cable anchors, wiremesh, rock
bolts and shotcrete.
Keeping in view the large dia of the tunnels,

generally fair rock condition, soft nature of rock and just
adequate rock pillar between the diversion tunnels, blasting
was not preferred and the excavation was carried out
through heading and benching by road header. The tunnels
were supported with 5m long rock anchors, wiremesh and
shotcrete(15cm to 20 cm).Steel ribs were provided at the
junctions and in poor stretches.
Problem Faced during Construction and

Remedial Measures Adopted
Underground Works in Progress
91
Outlet Portals of Diversion Tunnel
Close view of Outlet Portal
92
SVP-BHABA HE PROJECT
2.14 m, 1423 m long underground pressure shaft.
71 x 20.5 x 34 m power house.
4 m D-shaped 221.21m long tail race tunnel
3 vertical shaft impulse turbines with synchronous

generator of 40 MW capacity each.
Geology
One of the three transformers below the Switchyard
State
Himachal Pradesh
River
Wangar (Bhaba) Khad, a

tributary of Satluj river
Owner
HPSEB
Designer
HPSEB
Contractor/s
Gammon India Limited
Construction period
6 years

sectional area and shape
of HRT
5.5 km, 2.5 m dia.

D-shaped
Other Tunnels
2 km
Construction adits, Surge
Shaft, pressure shaft, MAT,
Cable & Vent. Tunnel, TRT
SVP-Bhaba HEP is located on Wangar (Bhaba)

Khad, a tributary of river Satluj in district Kinnaur of
Himachal Pradesh, lies in Central Himalayas. The 120
MW project executed by HPSEB was commissioned in
May, 1989.
The diversion weir comprises of two parts- a gated

part set one metre lower than the intake, and an
ungated part set one metre above intake. 4 Nos. 6
m each gated under-sluices have also been
provided to create a still pond in front of the Intake.
A 50 m x 25 m x 6 m surface desilting tank.
357 m long counterfort of varying height to provide

a storage reservoir with a live storage of 0.194 Mcum
2.5 m D-shaped 54 m open cut and 5512.64 m

underground long head race tunnel.
4.5 m dia, 92 m high surge shaft.
Head Race Tunnel passes through the gneisses

and schists which trend in E-W N 60o E direction and
tunnel cut these rock formations at an angle of 600 to 75o .
A number of thin sericite schist layers varying from 1 m
to 5 m occurred within the gneisses and these caused
flowing conditions under hydrostatic pressures at few
locations. Rock cover of more than 1400 m at many
places led to high temperatures inside the tunnel as well
rock dilations. Though no hot spring was encountered in
the tunnel few hot water springs existed around the project
area.
Head Race Tunnel

bank of Wangar (Bhaba) khad in tribal area of Himachal
Pradesh. The 2.5 m D-shaped, 5566.64 m long HRT
passes through a folded sequence of gneisses and schist.
The power tunnel has been excavated in single stage viz.
full face method. Since the power tunnel was running
across the hill, no intermediate adit could be provided
93

infrastructure and requisite work force. Tunnel
excavation in more than 2/3rd length was done from
the outlet end. The service lines laid initially had
to be replaced by lines of higher capacity, or
additional lines had to be laid to meet the
requirements.

adopted
SVP Bhaba being the first Hydroelectric Project
taken up for execution in the Central Himalayan gneisses,
the stress field was not established at the time of taking
up of construction of HRT. During execution of the works,
the following problems were faced:
(i)
Flowing and losse strata was encountered in about

20 locations.
(ii)
Very heavy seepage of water requiring deployment

of batteries of pumps at various locations and other
arrangements, as against the normal requirement
of one pump of 10 HP at every 400 m as envisaged
earlier. Further at intake end, wet conditions were
encountered due to heavy seepage of ground water
which meant added haulage effort, and to handle
surcharged material which was heavier. The water
being at very low temperature about 4oC also made
the working from the inlet face very difficult.
(iii)
At inlet side, excessive seepage necessitated

laying of a number of pipelines for dewatering the
work area. Too many pipe lines in the small sized
tunnel hampered the regular pace of excavation
and mucking and the same took considerable time.
(iv)
Due to difficult geological strata encountered on

inlet face, the progress of tunnelling from that face
was meager, even with full mobilization of
94
(v)
At two locations at Ch.1072 and 1468, the

tunneling activities came to a grinding halt due to
encountering of flowing and highly water surcharged
strata. No progress of tunnelling could be achieved
for months on end, and finally the alignment of the
tunnel had to be charged in October 1985 and again
in December, 1986.
(vi)
In February 1984, the colony provided for the

workmen at outlet side was destroyed by an active
glacier leading to disruption in normal works.
(vii)
At intake end no rock face was available for locating

inlet portal. The initial reach of 54 m was made by
open excavation and about 70 m in overburden by
providing ribs at a spacing of less than 30 cm c/c
and struts at the bottom. Backfilling and other
activities for supporting overburden mass were
carried out simultaneously.
(viii)
Alignment of this tunnel had to be changed twice,

to skirt zones of excessive flow of water and
crushed materials.
TAPOVAN VISHNUGAD
HE PROJECT
Transformer hall of dimensions 147m (L)x18m (W)x

26m (H)
A 7m dia ,horse shoe shaped, 439m long, tail

race tunnel
Head Race Tunnel

Layout
State
Uttarakhand
River
Alaknanda
Owner
NTPC Ltd
Designer
CWC
Contractor/s
L&T AM JV
Construction Period
Nov 2006 to Mar 2011

of HRT
11.6 km, 5.64 m, Circular/

Horseshoe shaped
Tapovan Vishnugad HE Project , located on river

Alaknanda in Chamoli Distt of Uttarakhand lies in Western
Himalayas. The 520 MW project is being executed by
NTPC.
A 24.5 m high Barrage
70x140 m long Desilting Basin
11.6 km, 5.64 m Dia, Circular/Horseshoe shaped

head race tunnel
13.5m dia, 153.84m high surge shaft
3.6m dia 580m long pressure shaft
Underground powerhouse of dimensions 158m

(L)x22m (W)x 46m (H) with three units of 130 MW
each.

bank of river.
Geology
The 5.64 m dia 11.6 km long HRT passes through
Tapovan and Joshimath geological formations. Tapovan
formation is encountered in the initial reaches of Head
race tunnel from 0 to 3000m chainage. It consists of
metabasics with bands of quartz mica schist and augen
gneisses. The lithology from chainage 3000 m to 7900 m
is augen gneisses with quartz mica schist and quartzite
bands of Tapovan Formation. From chainage 7900 m to
9100 m lithology comprise of Coarse Garnet Mica
Gneisses, Garnet-Kyanite Gneisses of Joshimath
formation. Again from chainage 9100 to 11602 m Tapovan
Formation is encountered having coarse grained gneiss
with quartz mica schist bands, augen gneiss and quartzite
bands.
Head race Tunnel is passing through rock media
having 50 to 100 m rock cover in the intake area to a
maximum of 1270 m in the region where Auli is located.
Based on the surface and subsurface geological
information, about 80% of the Head Race Tunnel is
expected to be driven in very good to fair (i.e. Q-value >or
= 4) conditions. The remaining 20% tunnel excavation
may encounter poor to very poor conditions.
95

working face to the dump area, conveyor system
has been envisaged.
Construction
The tunnel is being excavated by two means viz
Tunnel Boring Machine and Roadheader. The 6.4 km long
tunnel has been planned to be excavated through four
construction adits.
HRT from RD 11385 to RD 11602 will be executed

by DBM from Adit to Surge Shaft Bottom.
The Excavation and all the associated works of

the HRT are scheduled to be completed in 52
months from the date of award of work .
Following construction scheme was decided upon:
96
From intake to RD 100, HRT will be excavated by

DBM from Desilting basin side.
From RD 100 to RD 3227 HRT, will be excavated
from two working faces, one through Intake Adit
(Adit-3) i.e., starting from RD 230 towards
downstream direction using Road header. Another
Road header will start excavating from Chormi Adit
(Adit-2) and proceed towards intake. Excavation
from RD 100 to RD 230 will also be done from Intake
adit using Road Header.
RD 3227 to RD 11385 will be excavated by TBM.
TBM will start working from TBM Adit (Adit-1) and
will excavate towards upstream i.e. Intake. After
completion of work, TBM will come out from Chormi
Adit. For transportation of excavated muck from
Instrumentation
Instrumentation and monitoring for underground
works includes the following:
Load cells
Measuring tape
Tape convergence points
Single and multiple point borehole extensometers
Pore pressure meters (piezometers)
Readout units
Total pressure cells
Field and laboratory tests.
Micro seismic surveying
TEESTA (Stage-V) HE
PROJECT
for peaking during the lean season to generate 2573 MUs

of energy in a 90% dependable year utilizing a gross head
of 216.73m.The total installed capacity of project is 510
MW.
The dam site is located near Dickchu village where
as the underground powerhouse is located in Balutar
village in East Sikkim.The nearest rail head is New
Jalpaiguri in West Bengal which is about190 km from
the project. The nearest airport is Bagdogra.
State
Sikkim
River
Teesta
Owner
NHPC Ltd
The project construction was taken up by NHPC

in 2001 and the project was commissioned in 2008 in a
record period of 7 years.
Designer
NHPC Ltd
Contractor/s
Jaiprakash Industries/
M/sGammons India
2 nos., 12.2 m dia., 610 m & 473 m long horseshoe

shaped diversion tunnels.
Construction Period
95 m high, 180 m long concrete gravity dam.

sectional area ,Shape
of HRT
17.106 km, 9.5m Modified

Horseshoe shaped1 in
106.89 slope
3 nos., 20m x 17.68m x 296m long (including

transitions) desilting chambers.
118 m x 23 m x 47.5 m
17.86 km long, 9.5 m dia, horseshoe shaped HRT.
Other Tunnels
(Diversion tunnel, Desilting
chamber, Adits, pressure
shaft, surge shaft, TRT)
4.8 km
92 m high & 30 m dia (internal) semi-underground

surge shaft.
3 nos., 4.7 m dia and 175 m high each vertical

underground pressure shafts.
Underground power house of size 22m wide x 117m

long x 47m high to accommodate 3 nos. vertical
axis Francis turbines of 170 MW each.
3 nos 6 m dia & 165 m long each tail race tunnels.
Teesta H.E Project, Stage-V, is one of the six

hydropower schemes identified on river Teesta in East
Sikkim District for the cascade development of Teesta
Basin. It is a run of the river scheme with diurnal storage
Layout Plan of Teesta Stage-V
97

A View Of Teesta Dam
A brief description on the various tunnels and

underground structures of the project is given as under:

A 9.5 m dia ,horse shoe shaped, 17.86 km long
head race tunnel carries the water from intake structures
to underground powerhouse.
Layout
The entire HRT alignment is on the left bank of
Teesta river. Earlier a straight alignment for the project
was proposed, however, considering the length of HRT
and to avoid high cover zones, four kinks were provided
to facilitate construction through five no of adits. As such
10 working faces were available simultaneously to carry
out the tunnel construction .The present alignment
ensures sufficient vertical and lateral cover over the
tunnel. Minimum rock cover below nalas is 110m
whereas maximum cover is of the order of 800 m.
Systematic geological mapping of the tunnel
alignment was carried out on 1: 5000 scale. The tunnel
cut across many deep nalas; prominent among them
are Tumin khola, Rangchang khola, Papang khola,
Elaichi khola etc which were considered as problematic
zones during tunnel construction. Extensive overburden,
thick forest cover and unapproachable rock exposure
were major constraints to decipher the exact
geotechnical condition at the tunnel grade. Entire HRT
has been laid in alternate sequence of phyllite quartzite,
quartzitic phyllite, and quartzite with bands of phyllites
of Daling Group. The rock mass of the area is foliated
and jointed. Prominent folding in rock mass and warping
has been observed at many places. This has resulted in
formation of anticline and syncline structures of varying
98
magnitude. The general trend of foliation is NNW-SSE

with moderate dip towards NE direction, however, wide
variation and diversity in orientation in foliation of rock
mass is noticed due to folding. At places, interfolial shear
zones filled with clay and rock fragments are also seen.

In view of large size (9.5m finished dia) the tunnel
was excavated by heading and benching method. In
problematic zones multidrift method has also been
adopted. The support has been designed according to
Rock class. In general 70% tunnel length has been
supported with shotcrete & rock anchors of 4m to 5m
length with wire mesh where ever necessary, whereas
30% tunnel length has been provided steel arch support
in heading section. The HRT has been lined with 300mm
thick concrete.

adopted

Geotechnical conditions at the tunnel grade were
same as anticipated from the surface data. However,
many problematic zones were negotiated during tunnel
construction. These problematic zones were represented
by thinly foliated to highly jointed rock mass containing
shear zones of variable dimensions, often associated
with dripping to flowing water condition. Flowing ground,
squeezing ground conditions, cavity formation, rock
bursting and roof collapse were faced during execution
of the project.Multidrifting method and installing segmental
ribs in heading area backfilled with concrete, fore poling,
channel bracing between the ribs, consolidation grouting
and special techniques like pipe roofing as prestrengthening measure were adopted to treat the
problematic zones. Long drainage holes were provided to
channelize the excessive water seepage.
Diversion Tunnels
Principal rock types negotiated during tunnelling
are phyllitic quartzite, Quartzitic phyllite, phyllite & bands
of Quartzite. Steep rocky escarpments were present both
at Inlet & Outlet portals. Few persistent bands of schist
are present around outlet

In view of the large dia of the tunnel the excavation
was achieved through heading and benching by drill and
blast method. The tunnel was supported by 25mm dia,
6m long rock bolts at 2m centre to centre staggered and
100mm thick shotcrete with or without wire mesh. Steel
ribs were provided at 1m spacing in poor rock mass. In
general 82% length of tunnels support with rock bolts &
shotcrete where as 18% steel ribs supports were installed.
Two no of horse shoe shaped diversion tunnels

of 12.2m finished dia and varying in length from 473m
to 610m have been constructed on right bank of river
Teesta, to divert the river water during construction of
dam. An invert gradient of 1 in 304.99 & 1 in 236.416
respectively were provided. The rock column between
the two tunnels were 30m.. The diversion tunnels are
capable of discharging 3251 cumecs of water.

Adopted
Steel Support With Channel Bracing In Weak Phyllite Rock
Twisting Of Steel Ribs Due To Deformation
A cavity was formed at the outlet portal of Diversion

tunnel -1 due to loose rock fall on account of wedge failure.
A link tunnel was provided between the two tunnels to
expedite the works. The outlet portal was also stabilized
subsequently by steel ribs, rock bolts and shotcrete.
99
TEHRI HE PROJECT
STAGE-I
on river Bhagirathi. There are two stage of Tehri H E Project.

The 1st stage (1000 MW) of Tehri Power Project has been
commissioned on 09.July.2007 and the construction work
of the IInd Stage are in progress.
A view of Right bank shaft spillway intakes
State
Uttarakhand
River
Bhagirathi
Owner
Tehri Hydro Development

Corporation Ltd. (THDC)
Designer
Contractors
CWC
Hydro Project
Institute, Moscow
M/S Jaiprakash
Associates for Main
Dam & spillways
M/s Karam Chand
Thaper & Poros Ltd.
For power house
Construction Period
10 Years
Total Length/ Dia.
HRT- 2 Nos., Length -1634

m / 8.5 m TRT- 2 Nos., 862 m
& 748 m
Shape
Circular
Other Tunneling
7.89 km
The Salient features of the project are
A 260.5 m high rock fill Dam
Two ungated and two gated shaft spillways
General Description
Tehri dam, a 260.5 m high earth & rock filled dam,

is located in latitude 300 23 N and longitude 780 29 E in
district Tehri Garhwal in the state of Uttarakhand, India
2 Nos. 11 m dia., 1774 m and 1778 m Long

Diversion tunnels
2 Nos. Head Race Tunnels, 8.5 m dia., 1634 m

long
100
Under ground power house (197 m X 22 m X Height

varying from 47.2 m to 63.7 m)
2 Nos. , 9 m Dia. Tail Race Tunnels 862 m and 748 m
Left Bank & Right Bank Shaft Spillways:

The left bank shaft spillways are two number gated
shaft spillways connected to existing tunnels T-1 and T-2
on the left bank. The crest of the control structure is
located at El. 815 m.
In the first phase, a pilot shaft of 4.0 m dia was
excavated by installing a raise climber mechanism.
Subsequent to the excavation of pilot shafts, the widening
of entire shaft section to its full dimension was taken up
by adopting a procedure of bench blasting from top to
bottom progressing downwards metre-by-metre. The
excavated muck was disposed off manually through
already excavated pilot and further through De-aeration
tunnel by deploying excavator & dumpers.
Stabilisation Measures adopted:
Immediate rock bolting (L-5m; 25mm; @ 1.5m

c/c) followed by wire mesh/chain link shotcreting
in two layers (50:50) was provided as the main
stabilisation measure.
The areas of wedge failures were controlled by

additional rock bolting and some times by steel
ribs support.
Perforated drainage pipes of 6m lengths were

provided in the water seepage/dripping zones.
Geological Features encountered during

Excavation
The shafts has pierced through different bands of
PQM and PQT and the mapped reach exposed alternate
bands of jointed PQM and PQT, predominantly jointed.
One major L-shear (clay gauge 8-13 cm thick), which

transforms into minor shear at El 710 m, was recorded in
T-2 shaft. Nine numbers of minor L-shear (clay gauge 2-8
cm thick) and four minor L-shears (clay gauge <2cm thick)
were recorded in mapped section of T-2 shaft.
The right bank shaft spillway comprise of two
number vertical shafts of 12.0 m diameter, connected to
the existing diversion tunnels T-3 and T-4 at an eccentricity
of 6m at lower level through a swirling device mechanism,
which imparts a swirling motion to the flow in the tunnels
for energy dissipation.
The excavation of shaft spillways (excavated dia
14 m) was taken up by excavating a pilot shaft of 3.0 m
dia by installing a raise climber mechanism. Subsequent
to the excavation of pilot shaft, the widening of entire shaft
section to its full dimension was taken up by adopting a
procedure of bench blasting from top to bottom
progressing downwards metre-by-metre. The excavated
muck was disposed off manually and mechanized
mucking through Adits / Diversion tunnels at lower
elevation.
Stabilization Measures Adopted

The stabilization measures were adopted by
providing rock bolting, chainlink fabric and shortcreting.
Apart from above steel ribs of 300 x 140 mm at various
locations/levels were erected to act as additional support
arrangement.
In shaft spillways, tape extensometers were
installed to monitor the extent and rate of convergence, if
any, taking place in the cavity during the excavation and
during the time gap between the excavation and lining.
Geological Features & Problems Encountered

during Excavation
View of Left Bank Shaft Spillways
The shafts were excavated through a sequence of

PQT, PQM and puckered/ sheared PQT rock. In the upper
reaches the rock mass was comparatively better (Q values
6-8) whereas at lower levels poor rock mass with Q values
as low as 1.33 was intersected. Due to the poor geological
conditions encountered during excavation of the shafts
vertical load of the rock column (exceeding 150m) led to
problem of wall convergence along the longest axis of the
cavity which was manifested in the form of bending,
buckling and uplifting of the ribs noticed at different levels.
The rock mass encountered was fair to poor.
Intermediate Level Outlet

Intermediate Level Outlet (ILO) of 8.5 m dia has
been provided at El. 700 m on right bank in order to operate
the same during initial and regulated filling of reservoir
and also for emergency releases from the reservoir. This
tunnel has been connected to the shaft spillway (T-3) .
101
Excavation and Stabilisation Measures Adopted
Head Race Tunnels (Circular Dia 8.5 M)
Intermediate level outlet was excavated from the

rocky spur existing in the downstream of the coffer dam
axis roughly parallel to the hill slope. The excavation of
ILO was started after establishing inlet portal. The
excavation for tunnel was then taken up by heading and
bench blast method. The stabilization measures were
adopted using rock-bolting and shotcreting followed by
steel ribs erections at poor reaches simultaneously with
the excavation.
In total the HRTs are four in nos. Two for the Ist
Stage, HPP, 1000 MW and another two for IInd Stage,
PSP 1000 MW. The total length excavated is around
3500 m. The excavation is taken up by conventional
heading & benching method including rock support with
rockbolting, shotcreting with wiremesh and steel rib
supports as and where required. The concrete lining is
completed in two stages i e., Overt & Invert lining method.
The excavation for ILO gate shaft was taken up

from the horizontal tunnel of ILO. A pilot shaft first driven
and subsequently widened to its full section along with
stabilization measures (rock bolting & shotcreting). The
mucking of gate shaft excavation was done through ILO .
Geological Features Encountered during

Excavation
The tunnel has pierced through PQM rocks upto
left invert RD 58 m, PQT rocks from RD 58 m to 97 m,
PQM from RD 97 m to 128 m and PQT from 128 m to
268 m RD. Three minor shears (clay <2cm thick)
transforming to minor shear with clay gouge 2-5 cm have
been observed. Three shears with clay gouge 2-10 cm
and three major shears (clay gauge >10 cm thick) were
also recorded during excavation for the structure.
Construction of Intake structure & HRT
102
Tail Race Tunnels (Trts)

In Tehri HPP two TRTs namely TRT-1 and 2, each
of 9m finished diameter located at a distance of 40 m
apart are constructed underground on the left bank of river
Bhagirathi. The length of TRT-1 and 2 are 862 m & 748 m
respectively. Each TRT is serving two power generating
units.
The excavation of the TRTs was takenup through
two faces. The excavation was done by heading and
benching method. First almost the whole TRTs were
excavated in heading and then benching was done. At
the outlet of the TRT area the hill slope was quite unstable
and vulnerable, so idea of excavation of TRTs from outlet
side was dropped and excavation started from inside only.
In the d/s portion of the tunnel the rock was weak and
highly weathered resulting in continuous steel rib supports

in the outer part. Excluding the the week zone area, rest
of the tunnels were supported with 25 mm dia and 3.5 m
long resin type rock bolts @ 1.6 m c/c and 50 mm thick
shotcreting over it. At the junctions, 25 mm x 5 m long
rock bolts @ 1m c/c were provided.
During excavation of d/s part of TRT-1, when it was
nearing completion and only 30 m away from its outlet,
the crown of the tunnel suddenly collapsed between CH428 and 432, when the work of rib erection was under
progress. Despite going ahead carefully during excavation,
the tunnel got day lighted and a cavity/ chimney of nearly
15 m was formed from El-607 (crown of the tunnel at that
point) to El-622 (open to sky). A careful approach was
adopted to tackle this problem. After removing the whole
loose muck, the steel rib supports were erected and
backfill concreting was done from the top of the opening
from outside. During concreting some scrap material of
steel such as tor bars of different diameters, pieces of
I-sections, channels, angles, etc were also embedded,
as suggested by experts, in order to form reinforced
concrete so that the load of concrete could be borne by
the inner surface of the cavity and less load got transferred
on the steel supports below.
The 60 cm thick concrete lining has been provided
in both the TRTs, except last approx. 80 m reach where
100 cm thick reinforced concrete lining was done. In the
area where steel rib supports were provided, RCC lining
was done.
The lining of the transition part of TRTs was an
interesting and difficult work, especially their formwork. It
required careful designing as well as fabrication and
making of the formwork of asymmetrical junction/
convergence was really a challenging as well as
interesting task.
The concrete lining has been done in two parts
namely overt lining and invert lining. The overt lining was
done in the parts of 12 m length, the progress of which
was 48 to 60 m per month. After overt lining, the benching
was done and then the invert lining. The same procedure
was followed throughout the TRTs.
Concrete lining of TRT-1 under progress
View of TRTs at outlet area
103
URI- II HE PROJECT
The Project comprises of the following components:
Diversion tunnel 8.8 m dia & 340 m long,
Concrete gravity dam 52 m high
HRT of 8.4 m dia. & 4.23 km length,
Restricted orifice type surge shaft of 30 m diameter,
An underground powerhouse to accommodate 4

vertical Francis turbine units of 60 MW capacity
each and
State
Jammu & Kashmir
River
Jhelum
Owner
NHPC Ltd
TRT of 8.4 m dia & 3.614 km length.
Designer
NHPC Ltd
Contractor/s
M/s HCC Ltd
The Project shall generate 1123.76 MU of energy

in a 90% dependable year.
Construction Period
Under Construction

of HRT
4.23 km8.4m diameter

Horseshoe shaped
Under ground Powerhouse
133 m x 15 m x 41 m
Other Tunnels(Adits,
desilting chamber, , surge
shaft, pressure shafts,TRT)
5.5 km
Uri-II HE Project has been envisaged as a run of the

river scheme on river Jhelum. The proposed site is located
in Uri Tehsil of Baramulla District in the state of J&K. The
project is planned immediately down stream of existing
Uri-I Project, commissioned by NHPC in May 1997.
URI-II GENERAL LAYOUT
104
Total length of HRT is 4.2 km long whereas TRT is

3.6km long. The work of HRT was started in April, 06 from
3 Adits. The project is under advance construction stage
and is likely to be completed by 2009.
The tunneling media in Uri-II HE project consist of
intercalated bands of sandstone, siltstone and shale rock
belonging to Murree Formation. The tunnelling is being
done by drill and blast method and dividing the face into
heading and benching No major collapses have been
occurred during excavation of underground works. However
at places tunnel is driven through Class IV and V rock
and supported by steel ribs as per rock class support.
HEAD RACE TUNNEL

Layout and Geological Condition
The 8.4 m dia and 4.23 km long HRT is proposed
on the left bank of Jhelum River to convey water from
the dam to the underground powerhouse. Three
construction adits varying in size from 90 m to 378 m
have been provided to facilitate the tunnel construction.
The tunnelling media in Uri-II HE project consist of
intercalated bands of sandstone, siltstone and shale rock
belonging to Murree Formation. No major collapses have
been occurred during excavation of underground works.
However at places tunnel is driven through Class IV and

V rock and supported by steel ribs as per rock class
support.

The excavation is being done by conventional drilling
and blasting. The support elements consist of rock bolts,
in good rock and shotcrete and wire mesh in fair rock,
steel ribs are proposed in poor rock condition. The tunnel
will be lined by 25-30 cm PCC lining. So far no major
problem have been encountered in the tunnel except for
some Class IV and Class V reaches which were duly
supported by steel ribs.
Rib Erection In Diversion Tunnel Eading
Rib Erection In HRT
105
106
RAILWAY TUNNELS
107
108
RAILWAY TUNNELS IN
HILLY TERRAIN
The Hill Railways of India are numerous, widely

scattered and varying in character. India is a sub
continent larger than the whole of Europe. It is bounded
on the North by the great mountain ranges, the
Himalayas. The spurs of the Himalayas are hundreds,
and in some instances thousands, of miles long. There
are, besides, notable detached ranges such as the
Nilgiris in Southern India, and the Western Ghats along
the West Coast. Further the tropical climates of the other
parts of the country drives the people to the coolness of
the Hills in the hot weather. Hence the Hill stations of
India are some of the most popular Tourist spots of the
country where Indian and Foreign tourists flock both in
summers to avoid the heat of the plains in winter to enjoy
the snow fall. Darjeeling, Mussourie, Srinagar, Matheran
and Ooty are very popular tourist spots and are very
important for the growth of tourism in India. Hence there
is a great need for Railways to carry them to the Hills.
Occasionally, the trade of the country has also to be
transported over the Mountain ranges. Therefore these
Hill stations have a network of Railways which have
become important aspect of the tourism of these places.
means laying of several hundred kilometers of tracks

depending upon the contours. One way to make steep
grade track is to reduce the gauge thereby reducing the
required tractive efforts. Railways in Darjeeling and Nilgiri
are examples of it. Gradient upto 1 in 16 has been
provided in Nilgiri Railways along with provision of some
rack and pinion arrangements. But these also have
certain limitations. Keeping in view of these, the other
alternative to reach destination with shortest path is
providing tunnels. Tunnels directly reduce the length of
alignment to reach upto desired altitude as it avoids first
elevating to saddle following contours and then come
down to other side of the Hills.
Trains cannot usually go up steep gradients, this
meant that when the navies were building the railways
they either had to go around hills following the contours
or they had to dig cuttings so the railway would stay
relatively flat as it went over high ground. When the
ground became too steep or high for a cutting to be dug
successfully, tunnels were built.
The Hill terrain of India covers picturesque routes
and halt at some of the highest Railway Stations in the
country. Several Railways were built in these Hilly
Terrains of India. Collectively these are known as the
mountain railways of India. Some of these are the
Darjeeling Himalayan Railways, The Kalka-Simla
Railways, Pathankot to Kangra, Mettupalayam to Ooty
and Neral to Matheran. In the northern state of Jammu
& Kashmir, railway line has been commissioned from
Jammu to Udhampur. In Udhampur-Srinagar-Baramulla
section Rail Link is under construction.
A brief of these tunnels is as follows
A View of Snow Fall Summer Hill Station
Sl.
no.
No. of Tunnels
JammuSrinagarBaramulla
63
2.
Kalka Shimla
Rly.
107
(a) Koti Tunnel
(b) Barog Tunnel
(c) Tara devi
Tunnel
(d) Inverarm
(e) Dharampur
Tunnel
3.
Mountain railways have some unique features.

Some of them are steep gradients, especially designed
bridges and so on. One of the unique features of these
railways is the provision of tunnels. To reach upto the
destination, generally a maximum ruling gradient of 1
in100 is provided for broad gauge. Going by the present
mechanical technology, grades steeper than these
require extra efforts by means of pusher engines. To
reach upto desire altitude to the opposite side of hills
Rail section
Kangra valley
Railway
2
(a) Dhundni
Tunnel
(b) Daulatpur
Tunnel
Nilgiri Mountain
16
Rail
a) Kallar-Coonoor 13
b) Coonoor- Ooty 3
Neral Matheran
Toy Train
Total Length in
(m)
120,000
695
1146
493
346
122
403
76
327
Longest
Tunnel
282
Known as
Kiss Tunnel
109
Jammu Udhampur Srinagar - Baramulla Rail

Link
To provide an alternative and reliable transportation

system to Jammu & Kashmir (J & K), the Government
of India planned a 345 km long railway line joining Jammu
with Baramulla in the Kashmir valley. This project is
perhaps the most difficult new railway project undertaken
on the Indian subcontinent. Out of 345 km long track,
120 km of track will be laid in tunnels. The longest tunnel
shall be about 11 km long.
Geology
State
Jammu & Kashmir
Railway Link
Jammu - Baramulla
Railway Route & Length

of Track
Jammu Udhampur 54.85 km

Udhampur Katra 25.00 km
Katra Quazi Gund 142.00 km
Quazi GundSrinagarBaramulla 120.00 km
Tunnels and its total

Length
Jammu Udhampur Nos. 21Length 10.68 kmKatra

Quazi Gund Nos.
42Length 108 km
Shape of Tunnel
Elliptical shape has been

chosen for tunnels shorter
than 3000 m and horse shoe
shape for tunnel larger than
3000 m. Addition of circular
cross section is being
considered for long tunnels
in region of weak rocks.
Tunnelling through the Himalayas is an extremely

arduous and hazardous task. For this, a geophysical
survey with seismic profile and field and laboratory testing
of soils and rocks was carried out. Further, the geological
profile was confirmed through core drilling. At many
locations, geotechnical investigation revealed the
following: the strata comprises pebbles, cobbles and
boulders ( up to 2 3 m ) embedded in silt and sandy
matrix; complete loss of return water indicated pervious
nature of strata; and seismic velocity indicated that there
is no firm bedrock. Owing to weak geology, it was
decided to provide permanent steel support all along
the length of the tunnel alongwith the provision of 300mm-thick concrete lining.
Key factors determining the method of tunneling
are the size and shape of tunnels, equipment available,
conditions of geological formations and extent of support
needed. So far on the Jammu-Udhampur-Katra section,
the use of a tunnel boring machine (TBM) was not
preferred owing to the high initial cost of the equipment,
small lengths of tunnels, long commissioning and
decommissioning time of
TBMs, the requirement of Dshaped cross-section for
railway tunnels and nonavailability of indigenous
technology. Thus, the
conventional method of
tunneling by drill and blast
has been used. At locations
where soft ground was
encountered, the heading
and benching method/multidrift method using single or
double ribs along with fore
polling and grouting was
adopted. In the latter
reaches, road headers too
have been preferred for
tunnelling as a means to
increase progress.
Jammu Udhampur
Section
Jammu - Udhampur
rail track section was
dedicated to Nation on April
13, 2005.
Jammu Udhampur
Track brought in new age
the entire generation of
110

Kashmiris. With 21 tunnels, over 36 major and 122 minor
bridges on a track that is little over 53 km. long, the one
and half hour journey from Jammu ( El. 340.3m) to
Udhampur (Ei. 660 m) is a delight. The track runs though
almost 10.68 km of tunnels, the largest of which is 2.445
km and smallest of 20 m. On the track there is Gambhir
Bridge, which is 77 m. high higher even then the Quatab
Minar.
Of the 21 tunnels, one tunnel (T-1) in post siwalik
boulder conglomerate, three upper Siwalik, four & half
in middle Siwalik, eleven & half in lower Siwalik and one
in muree rock have been excavated.
Udhampur Katra- Quazigund Section

The length of the rail track from Udhampur to Katra
is 25 km. Between Katra Quazigund section (142 km),
there are 42 Nos tunnels with total lengths of tunnels
107.96 km (76%). In this section 118 Nos of bridge with
total lengths of 14.22 km (10.00%) and the length of
longest bridge is 1355 m on Chenab River which is
worlds highest single largest arch span railway bridge.
Thus only 14 % of the line shall be in formations, Even
in formation, there shall be high cuttings requiring special
measures for safety of train operation. Road header
technology for accelerated underground construction has
therefore been incorporated specially for long tunnels
(>5.0 m) being in view the nature of geological setting
existing in project area.
Technical Data: Single tracked, one tube; Length:

10,960 m, Cross section radius: 4.14 m excavation cross
section: 70 m2, Access tunnel: approx. 800 m, Access
shaft: 50 m deep; Cross passage; NATM
Project Description: Indian Railway have
embarked upon this important project of connecting
Udhampur-Quazigund-Srinagar-Baramulla with the
Broad Gauge rail link Jammu Kashmir Railway Line.
Under the first phase of the project implementation, the
Kashmir Valley portion of the project (QuazigundSrinagar-Baramulla) has been taken up and is under
final stages of construction. The Udhampur to Quazigund
section is the more difficult portion and has been taken
up under the second phase and is presently in the early
stage of construction. The 10,960 m long tunnel through
the mighty Pir Panjal range of the Himalayas is the
longest tunnel and one of the key structures of the new
railway line. It is located between the proposed railway
stations Banihal in the south and Quazigund in the north
and the gateway to the Kashmir valley.
Main Tunnel
Project: PIR Panjal Railway Tunnel T80
The main tunnel is a single track railway tunnel

for operation of passenger and freight trains and runs
almost parallel to north south direction. On the left side
of the track, looking towards increasing chainage, is a
motorable path of 3 m width which will be used for
emergency and maintenance. This road is directly
accessible from both portals and the access tunnel.
The tunnel is a mountain tunnel with an average elevation
of approximately 1750 m and a maximal overburden of
approximately 1100 m.
Type of Project: Railway tunnel
Alignment
Location: Jammu & Kashmir, India
The alignment of the new railway tunnel crosses

the National Highway No 1, which is the only road
connection between Banihal and Quazigund. The
crossing is near the south portal of the existing twin single
lane highway tunnels
which extend in direction
from southwest to
northeast. The elevation
of these tunnels is more
than 450 m higher at
about 2200 m and their
length is approximately
2500 m. The vertical
alignment of the tunnel
has been designed to
suite heavy haul trains to
pass through and at the
same time to facilitate
the
construction
activities as well.
Details of Some Ongoing Project of Railway

Tunnels
Access Tunnel
For
an
intermediate driving
access an approx. 800
m long access tunnel
with a downward
111

gradient of 10% has been
constructed, intersecting the
main tunnel at approx. 2.75 km
from the south portal. The
access tunnel is used to
shorten construction period of
the main tunnel. During
operation, the access tunnel
shall be used for emergency,
maintenance, entrance & exit
and also for additional
ventilation.
Access Shaft and Cross

Passage
Another intermediate
access is provided by a 55 m
deep access shaft and an
approximate 35 m long cross
passage. With a second start
of the main tunnel drive from
the cross passage, driving of
the main tunnel towards south
became independent from the
app. 600 m long soft ground
portion at the north portal and
the effect of delays in this
section to the overall program
were avoided.
Geological & Geotechnical

Conditions
The tunnel alignment
traverses through the
mountainous Pir Panjal
Range, which is part of the
young Himayalas. The
Geology of the Pir Panjal
mountain range includes a
mixture of very hard and soft
to moderatly hard rock strata
(Cambro-Trias). Hard rock
types include andesite / basalt
(Panjal Traps), quartzite,
silicified limestone and
agglomerates while the soft to
moderately hard rock types
include shale, limestone,
agglomeratic shale and tuff.
The portal areas are situated
in fluvio-glacial sediments (soft
ground) which cover at both
portals a length of more than
500 m. The basic tectonic
setting of Pir Panjal range in
the area of tunnel alignment is
dominated by a folding
structure leading to different
dipping directions on both
sides of the range. Contacts
between rock units are often
112
faulted. Folding is also

common especially in
central areas. Bedding of
rock is striking sub
perpendicular to Pir Panjal
tunnel axis.
Variable
water
conditions are being faced.
Joint aquifer, which will
provide continuous water
inflow to the tunnel, is
expected in the hard rock
types and with minor amount
in the shale. High water
inflow is expected in the fault
zones, of which some could
be mapped and are
predictable. Extreme water
inflow may occur in caustic
lime stone on northern side
of the tunnel where cavities
could not be predicted and
water encounter could be at
any place. Particular
problems are expected for
the shale section at the
highest overburden of 1100
m where heavily squeezing
rock and large deformations
might occur.
Tunnel Cross Section

In accordance with
NATM design two separate
tunnel linings will be installed
(primary or outer lining and
secondary or inner lining).
Thickness and layout of the
outer and the inner lining
depend on the geotechnical
conditions. As such the
dimensions of the theoretical
excavation section are
developed
from
the
minimum clearance of the
tunnel cross section, the
dimensions of the primary
and secondary lining and the
space requirements for
drainage
and
E&M
installation. Enlargements
are provided for five
electrical niches for medium
voltage
substations,
maintenance niches at every
250 m and trolley refuge
niches at every 100 m.
Geotechnical Design
The geotechnical
design uses a rock

classification system of the Austrian Standard. The result
is the development of a rock mass model (geo-technical
masterplan): Step 1: Determination of Rock Mass Types;
Step 2: Establishment of the Rock Mass Behaviour
Types; Step 3: Excavation sequence and support is
determined and described in different Rock Class Types;
Step 4: Based on the results of steps 1 3 the alignment
is divided into sections with similar excavation and
support requirements and the respective rock class is
allocated. The estimated distribution provides the basis
for the cost and time estimate.
Tunnel Drainage & Waterproofing

The drainage system includes two side drainage
pipes which can be omitted at dry tunnel sections, and a
main collector, which runs all along the tunnel. Seepage
water collected in the side drainage pipes and surface
water from spill off or from dripping seepage water or
similar and collected throughout the tunnel in shallow
ditches, will be conveyed at regular distance to the main
collector. An areal waterproofing system is installed
between the primary (outer) and secondary lining (inner)

in the tunnel roof and the tunnel sidewalls. This will be
the case where water ingress over large areas occurs
e.g. at Karst sections and heavily faulted and/or thinly
bedded rock sections with seepage water. In addition
continuous water proofing will be installed along the soft
ground sections at the tunnel portals.
Construction Method
All tunnel construction will be carried out in
accordance with the principles of the New Austrian
Tunneling Method (NATM) using a cyclic sequence of
excavation with subsequent installation of a primary
support (outer lining) followed by the delayed installation
of a secondary lining (inner lining). Tunnel excavation is
generally being carried out by means of drill & blast or
by road header. For the soft ground sections at both
portals (total length approx. 1 km), tunnel excavators or
hydraulic breakers were used. A subdivision of the tunnel
cross-section into top heading and bench will be used in
unfavourable geotechnical conditions.
113
Kalka Simla Railway
Also known as Shivalik Deluxe Express, KSR was

started in 1903, this railway connects Kalka, near
Chandigarh in Punjab, with Shimla, one of the best
known hill stations of India. Initially the route served as
means of transport for the high officials, as Shimla was
the summer capital of British India. Enroute, 107 tunnels,
969 bridges, 919 curves and twenty railway stations are
crossed by the train. Presently the route is one of the
tourist attractions of the state, and probably the best way
to experience the amazing natural beauty of the region.
Kalka Simla Railway mastered the art of tunnelling
as all the 107 tunnels were built in a record time of three
years from 1900 to 1903 and included many shapes and
designs.
The procedures and techniques adopted for
tunnelling in those days are briefly summarized as
follows:
(a)
Each tunnel requires its own particular treatment.
(b)
The advisability of running a top or a bottom heading

has to be first considered. A top heading has proved
to be better and a safer course excepting in very
long tunnels.
Kalka-Shimla Section
(c)
Heading being the expensive item in a tunnel, it is

advisable to keep the smallest convenient
dimensions compatible with fast working. Heading
of 7 feet (2.1 m) high and 5 feet (1.5 m) width worked
well in most cases.
(d)
In driving heading - get the timbering in at once

and hand pack all intersectices tightly with stones
as the roof timbers are put in place.
(e)
Headings have been timbered with sleepers of

sections 10"x 5" (25 cm x 12.5 cm) and afterwards
these sleepers were used for laying the track.
(f)
The heading having been driven, before starting the

OPENING OUT, to have a good supply of planks
6 x 8" x 2" (180 cm x 20 cm x 5 cm) and crown
bars of 18 feet (5.5 m) length and 1-3" (38 cm)
diameter or so.
(g)
Fit the crown bars well so that all the weight of

heading planks is taken by the crown bars.
(h)
Centering is then erected as in ordinary open arch;

centering ribs in should be as light as possible.
(i)
The arch is then turned, concrete rammed in at

the back of the haunch width of the opening.
(j)
The arch having been turned, the remainder of the

tunnel is very simple. Side walling and inverting
follows.
(k)
The large mirrors used for lighting tunnels have

effected a great saving in expenses. A mirror 4 feet
x 2 feet (1.2 m x 0.6 m) will, 500 feet (150 m)
inside the tunnel, render it as light as a day for 9
months out of 12 from sunrise to sunset.
(l)
For artificial lighting the use of acetylene gas made

from calcium carbide is very satisfactory and nearly
as cheap as castor oil or candles.
Important Tunnels of KSR

All tunnels of Kalka Simla Railway are fully lined
as they pass through shale for most part. A few of the
important tunnels are:
Koti Tunnel (No. 10):

Koti Tunnel, 2276 feet (695 m)long was built at a
cost of Rs.3.83 lakhs (Rs. 0.38 million) , work started in
1900 and was completed in October 1903. The tunnel
passes through clay.
Barog Tunnel (No.33):

Barog Tunnel, 3752 feet (1146 m) long, is the
longest tunnel on Kalka Simla Railway time,. Its
construction started in July 1900, and completed in
September 1903, at a cost of Rs.8.40 lakhs (Rs. 0.84
million) The tunnel passes through fissured sand stone.
Rail motor car no. 14 (wga, 1933) emerging out
from 3752 feet (1146 m) long tunnel and being received
at Barog Station
114

As temporary arches were built, they were firmly
timbered in some five or six places up the old arch to
prevent the side pressure forcing them up and splitting
the arch, spaces left between this timbering to allow
heavy logs to be placed in position and span the portions
and form a temporary roof for the men to work under in
safety.
At the same time that this work was in progress,
a new heading was being run above the top old arch 6'
x 6' (1.8 m x 1.8 m), working from both ends and joining
in the centre. This was cut at an average rate of 13 lineal
feet (3.9 m), per day from each face or a total of 26
running feet(7.8 m) per day.
Taradevi Tunnel (No.91):

Taradevi tunnel, 1615 feet (493 m) long was built
at a cost of Rs.3.04 lakhs (Rs. 0.30 million) work started
May 1901 and was completed in September 1902. The
tunnel passes through schist type of ground.
Inverarm Tunnel (No. 103):

Inverarm Tunnel, 1135 feet (346 m)long, was built
at a cost of Rs. 1.96 lakhs (Rs. 0.196 million); work
started in February 1902 and was completed in
September 1903. The tunnel passes through shale
stone. In 1949, a cracked portion of the tunnel, 65 feet
(19.8 m) long, was rebuilt
Dharmpur Tunnel No.2: Length400ft. (122 m)

The fill through which this tunnel passes is entirely
composed of disintegrating shale, of a very rotten and
slippery nature. The adjoining hill, in continuation of this,
required constant attention owing to the subsidence
nature of the hill. It was the worst hillside on the whole
road between Kalka and Simla.
With the commencement of the rains in June,
1902 the side walls of the completed tunnel in three
places showed evident signs of bulging, and were at
once heavily timbered up, in the hope of preventing
further settlement, but as the rains progressed, and the
hill got thoroughly saturated, the bulging gradually
increased in length throughout the whole tunnel.
Heavy timbering was erected, all through the
tunnel and though this did not prevent further
subsistence, it prevented total collapse.
At the end of September 1902, material and men
were collected for starting the entire rebuilding of the
tunnel, and early in October the first start was made, by
building temporary arches 7 6" (2.25 m) length leaving
intermediate spaces of 7' 6" (2.25 m) length only
supported by timbering. This took some time, as great
care had to be exercised to prevent the roof coming in,
while the arches were being erected. Some days were
spent in cutting the first set of timbering and extra
propping of the tunnel in the portions where no rings
were being built.
On completion of cutting the heading and building

the first set of temporary arches, it was found that the
side pressure was so great that the temporary arches
would not stand the compressive weight, so a further
set of temporary arches were built inside the previous
ones, with a 12 feet (3.6 m) radius leaving only just
sufficient room for a trolley loaded with material to pass
The rebuilding of spaces was then taken in hand,
the side walls below springing of arch dismantled and
the floor of the tunnel dug down to allow an invert to be
built. The bottom portion excavated for invert was very
wet throughout, so some 6" to 9" (15 cm to 22.5 cm) of
Portland cement concrete were first put in, well rammed
to the exact curvature of invert, being done to template.
A 2 ft (0.6 m) invert ring was then put in, of all through
stones and all dressed to template as in the ashlar arch,
sidewalls, built up in brick, 3 (0.9 m)thick to springing
level and side drain built for each 76"(2.25 m)
Whilst the building of these portions was in hand
below, another gang of men with an experienced mistry
in charge, were working above the old arch, opening out
on both sides of the heading and by the time those building
the new final ring below had built up to springing the gang
above had completed their temporary wooden roof,
allowing the old arch to be dismanteled, centering erected,
and the new arch turned. As soon as the new arch was
turned, the haunches were concreted, and stone tightly
hand-packed, from both sides in towards the middle
leaving only a passage of some 3 feet (0.9 m) or less
where the old heading was.
In building these latter portions, the order of building
was reversed, the arch being first taken in hand, opening
out was started, the longitudinal crown bars resting on
the hand-packed stone surmounting the new final rings
and forming the temporary roof across rings.
The old arch of tunnel was dismantled, and also
the top portion of temporary arches, sufficiently low to
allow centering to rest upon it, and new arch to be turned.
Short length sleeper pieces were used as a bed from
which to spring the arch, and the first three courses of
brick masonry from springing were built in Portland cement
mortar to avoid all fear of cracking or distortion at the time
of underpinning.
115

As these arches were turned, concreting, and stone
packing on the top were carried on as mentioned above,
but the gangway previously left was now filled up solid
with stone filling, working from the centre of the hill out to
both faces, all timbering possible being withdrawn final
filling up of the gangway proceeded.
As the arches were completed, the floor of the
tunnel was excavated and the invert put in, after which
one side of temporary ring and old side wall was
dismantled, and a new side-wall 3 (0.9 m) thick run up
sharp, underpinning the new arch on one side, and on
this being done the opposite side wall was similarly built,
making both portions now continuous lengths of
masonry.
The portals gave little trouble to build, being well
Typical Sectional Profile Of Ksr Tunnels
116
outside the slope of the hill, but even there a good deal of
side pressure was experienced.
The actual time occupied in rebuilding the tunnel
was just eight months, and, upto the very last, excessive
side pressure was encountered, and in places a very heavy
top pressure was observed. The last length of arching
turned, required no less than 17 crown bars to support
the roof, and these were all the time creaking and groaning,
very disturbing to men unaccustomed to similar work.
The greatest care had to be exercised throughout;
rendering progress slow, but the tunnel was eventually
completed without a single accident to life or limb.
Typical sectional profile of KSR Tunnels is as
follows
Kangra Valley Railway

(KVR)
constructed, in rough terrain and hostile weather, was

opened for traffic on April 1, 1929.
Avoiding detailed engineering surveys, proved
financial catastrophe, the actual cost of construction shot
up to Rs.296 lakhs (Rs. 29.6 Million) from the estimate
of Rs.134 lakhs (Rs.13.4 million).
Dhundni and Daulatpur Tunnels of KVR:Between Bathu Khud

and Kangra station are the two
tunnels of KVR. At mile 53 (85
km) , is the Dhundni tunnel,
250 feet (76 m) long, and 4
miles (6.4 km) further is the
Daulatpur tunnel,
1075
feet(327 m) in length,
This train connects Pathankot with Joginder Nagar

in Kangra, Himachal Pradesh. It is also known as the
Kangra Toy Train. The route was inaugurated in 1929.
The Kangra toy train is a wonderful ride, offering splendid
scenic views of the surroundings as the train meanders
its way through the breathtaking landscape. The train
passes numerous bridges built over gushing streams,
as the peaks of the Dhauladhar mountain range look
on.
The proposal for a rail link was revived in 1925,
when the Punjab Government investigated the Uhl
hydroelectric scheme and proposed to include a meter
gauge tramway from Mukerian to Shanan, to transport
heavy plant and machinery to the headwork. The Railway
Board, after investigations, found it desirable to construct
a 2-6" (76 cm) narrow gauge line from Pathankot to
Shanan. The Governor of Punjab cut the first sod on
May 2, 1926, and the hundred mile (160 km) line
Daulatpur Tunnel at the

time of its construction in
1927
Daulatpur Tunnel was

built at a cost of Rs.5.17 lakh
(Rs. 0.517 million), work
commenced in May. 1926
and was completed in March,
1928. The tunnel passes
through hard conglomerate
and hard sand stone with
fissures.
117
NILGIRI MOUNTAIN RAIL
Also known as NMR, it is a meter-gauge, singletrack Railway. This train covers a distance of 46
kilometers in about 5 hours and connects Mettupalayam
and Ooty (Udagamandalam) in the state of Tamil Nadu.
The route is the steepest in Asia, and a system known
as the rack and pinion system is used to counter the
slope. The engine pushes the train upward from below
in this system as opposed to drawing the coaches from
the front. The Railway can be divided into three sections
as follows:(i)
The first section, some 7 km. from Mettupalaiyam

to Kallar (elevation 405 m or 1329 feet), is across
the central plain of Tamil Nadu.
(ii)
The second is the rack section of the line from just

beyond Kallar to slightly short of Coonoor (elevation
1712 meters or 5617 feet), which climbs a total of
1330 m or 4363 feet in 19 kms. or 12 miles. On
this rack section the average grade is 1 in 15 and
the ruling grade is 1 in 12. There are 208 curves
and 13 tunnels on this section, as well as a half
tunnel, where the Railway formation has been cut
into the sheer cliff wall, and hence is enclosed by
rock on three sides. There are also 27 viaducts,
most of composite steel and stone construction,
featuring steel girder spans, typically of 60 feet
(18.3 m)
(iii)
The third section is 18 km. long. The Railway

continues to climb across the Nilgiris, till it reaches
its summit just before the terminus of
118
Udagamandalam at an elevation of 2203 m (7228

feet). The ruling gradient between Coonoor and
Udagamandalam is very steep 1 in 23. There are
also three tunnels in this section including the longest
on the line, some 282 m (925 feet) in length.
There are 16 tunnels in the section. Tunnel No. 5
is called a half tunnel, where the rock on top hangs
precariously. Out of this 10 tunnels are unlined as they
are cut through solid rocks. There are 250 bridges, of
which 32 are major bridges
NERAL MATHERAN TOY

TRAIN
covers a distance of 20 kilometres (12.67 miles),

connecting Neral to Matheran in the Western Ghats hills
near Karjat and Mumbai.
The railway is a 2 ft (610 mm) narrow gauge railway,
with tight curves and 1 in 20 (5%) grades.
The railways comes under the Central Railways
and is being promoted as a future World Heritage Site.
Matheran Hill Railway is a heritage railway in

Maharashtra, India. It was built between 1901 and 1907
at the cost of Rs.16 lakhs (Rs. 1.6 million). The railway
Perhaps the best part of trip to Matheran is the

ride on the toy train, through the Western Ghats, through
One Kiss Tunnel and myriad interesting little points along
the railway tracks.
119
DELHI METRO
To rectify this situation the Government of India

(GOI) and the Government of National Capital
Territory of Delhi (GNCTD) , in equal partnership, have
set up a company named Delhi Metro Rail Corporation
Ltd. in the year 1995 under the Companies Act ,1956
which has already commissioned a 65.10 km route in
Phase-I and is proceeding ahead with another 125
km in Phase II.
PHASE I NETWORK
State
Delhi
Design & Excavating

Agency for the Project
Delhi Metro Rail

Corporation
Total Length
Phase I- 65.1 km
including 13.17 km Tunnel
Phase II- 125 km
including 29 km Tunnel
Construction Period
Started from 01-10-1998.

Phase I- Fully
operational by 11-11-2006
As cities grow in size, the number of vehicular

trips on road system goes up. This necessitates a
pragmatic policy shift to discourage private modes and
encourage public transport once the level of traffic
along any travel corridor in one direction exceeds
20,000 persons per hour. Introduction of a rail based
Mass Rapid Transit System (MRTS) is called for. In
developing countries including India, because of
paucity of funds planning and implementation of rail
based MRTS has been lagging far behind the
requirements.
The city of Delhi with a population of around 16.2
million should have had an MRTS network long back,
whereas actually it is still 65.10 km at the take-off stage.
Delhi has experienced phenomenal growth in
population in the last few decades. Its population has
increased from 57 lakh in 1981 to 162 lakh in 2006 and
is poised to reach 190 lakh by the year 2011. For want
of an efficient mass transport system, the number of
motor vehicles has increased from 5.4 lakhs in 1981 to
51 lakhs in 2007 and is increasing at the rate of 6.21
lakhs per annum. The number of motor vehicles in Delhi
is now more than that of Mumbai, Calcutta, Chennai put
together. The result is extreme congestion on Delhi
roads, ever slowing speeds, increase in road accidents
fuel wastage and environmental pollution with motorized
vehicles alone contributing to about two thirds of the
atmospheric pollution.
Today the traffic on roads of Delhi is a
heterogeneous mix of cycles, scooters, buses, cars and
rickshaws, jostling with each other. This has resulted in
a chaotic situation so much so that due to road accidents,
the average number of persons killed per day has
increased to 5 and of those injured to 13. The position is
expected to deteriorate further in the years to come.
120
Phase I of Delhi Metro Rail project consists of the

following three lines:
Line
Length
(km)
No. of
Stations
Line No.1- Shahdara-Tri 22.06

Nagar-Rithala
18
Line No.2- Vishwa

Vidyalaya-Central
Secretariat
10.84
10
Line No.3- Indraprastha- 32.10

Barakhamba RoadDwarka Sub City
31
Total of Phase I
59
65.10
PHASE II NETWORK
Phase II of the Delhi Metro Project consist of the following
lines:
Line
Length
(km)
No. of
Stations
Shahdara Dilshad
Garden
3.09
Indraprastha Noida Sector

32 City Centre
15.07
11
Yamuna Bank Anand Vihar

ISBT
6.17
Vishwavidyalaya Jahangir
Puri
6.36
Inderlok Kirti Nagar Mundka
18.46
15
Central Secretariat
Sushant Lok
27.45
19
Dwarka Sector 9 to Dwarka

Sector 21
2.76
New Delhi AirportSector 21 Dwarka
23
Anand Vihar KB Vaishali
2.57
Central Secretariat
Badarpur
20.04
15
Total of Phase II
125.17
82
Phase I Fully Operational

The first section of the Delhi Metro was opened
to the public on 25 December 2002. Over the next four
years, newer sections were regularly opened. The last
section of Phase I was opened on 11 November 2006
and today this phase is fully operational. Even though
the whole scope of the work was changed from the
original proposal, DMRC was able to complete Phase
I in seven years and nine months as against the
projected ten-year period. The project was also
completed within the estimated cost of EUR 1.59 billion,
which includes infrastructure, equipment and rolling
stock costs. Today, the Metro network spreads across
65.1 km in New Delhi and connects some of its most
populated areas. Of this, 47.43 km are elevated (mostly
along central median strips), 13.17 km are underground
and 4.5 km are at grade. It is the largest urban
intervention in the transportation sector in India since
Independence and has completely changed the way
the city travels.
was devised to achieve the desired rate of progress

without compromising the standards of safety in
construction and quality of execution.
Construction Methodology
Methods for construction of the underground
stations depend to a large extent on the geological profile
of the area. Two types of state-of-the-art Tunnel Boring
Machines were used for boring tunnels after conducting
geological studies of the earth. These were the Rock
TBMs for boring through Quartzite rock sections
encountered at places like Chawri Bazar, Central
Secretariat and Old Secretariat and EPBM (Earth
Pressure Balance Machines) for boring through softer soil.
Technological Difficulties
Construction of the Metro was not an easy task
and several technological difficulties were encountered.
Tunnelling below the historic Old Delhi area posed a
major challenge, as the buildings there have weak
foundations. It was therefore decided to construct the
tunnel at a depth of more than 20 m Tunnelling difficulties
were also encountered in some sections due to hard
rock. Special cutter heads were procured for Tunnel
Boring Machines (TBM) to tackle this problem.
High Tech Underground Marvel

The construction of stations had to be managed
in very limited areas above ground. Line-2 involved,
apart from tunnels, construction of 10 underground
stations. Therefore, a suitable construction methodology
Cut-and-cover Method
All stations except Chawri Bazar were constructed
with this method. It simply implies cutting open the ground
along the length of the station to the required depth,
construction of the underground station and covering it
back to bury the station below the ground.
121
New Austrian Tunnelling Method

Since the Chawri Bazar station is located in a
heavily built up area, there was no space available on
ground for cutting open the ground along the length of
the station. So, the station was constructed by
underground mining using the New Austrian Tunnelling
Method. Two vertical shafts were constructed in the
available small spaces, which were then connected by
underground mining and excavation.
Dewatering
To improve the safety of men, machine and public,
the excavation had to be kept dry.
This was achieved by installing a series of bore
wells that drew out underground water.
It ensured that the water table was always at least
one metre below the excavation. A large part of this water
was recharged back into the ground at some distance
away from excavation and the remaining was used for
site related work.
Waterproofing
Special waterproofing has been done in Metro
Stations to prevent seepage of underground water. For
this, bituminous membranes were provided all around
concrete structures (except outside permanent
diaphragm walls) to act as a physical barrier between
the subsoil water and the concrete structure.
Monitoring of Ground Movements

Excavations may cause settlements in adjoining
areas. Delhi Metro has installed instruments at locations
122
to monitor settlements, loads, cracks, tilts, water levels,

etc. The data from these instruments are measured
regularly and remedial measures are taken accordingly.
Site Management
The construction of Metro stations was undertaken
in densely populated urban areas and thus very little space
was available for construction activity. So proactive, firm
yet flexible planning with a long term view was ensured
so that all site activities functioned smoothly without one
coming in the way of another.
Backfilling & Landscaping

After construction of underground stations, wellgraded soil was backfilled over the roof slab. The ground
surface was not only restored to its original state but
also provided with pre-designed landscaping to offer a
better vista.
Special Features of the Underground Metro

(i)
All underground Metro stations are air conditioned.
(ii)
Extremely Modern Train Operations and Signalling

System with Automatic Train Operations (ATO)
introduced for the first time in India.
(iii)
Lifts and escalators at all stations. The carrying

capacity of the lifts has been increased to 13
persons in the Underground Section.
(iv)
Close Circuit Television coverage of Underground

Stations to ensure safety and security of
commuters.
(v) Mobile connectivity while travelling inside the train

and at stations.
CONSTRUCTION OF PHASE II PROGRESSING

SWIFTLY
Construction of Phase II of the project is currently
underway. This phase consists of 125 km, of which 92
km will be elevated, 29 km underground and 4 km at
grade. This includes a 23 km high-speed line from the
city centre to the international airport. This distance will
be covered in 15 minutes and the stations will have
check-in facilities. Phase II of the Delhi Metro is very
ambitious because the entire project has to be completed
before the Commonwealth Games in October 2010. This
means that while Phase I was completed in seven years
and nine months, Phase II has to be constructed in just
three and a half years. Phases III and IV are planned to
be taken up after 2010. It is envisaged that the Delhi Metro

will spread across 413 km by 2021, making it one of the
biggest Metro systems in the world.
Use of Tunnel Boring Machines (TBMs)

About 14 TBMs/Earth Pressure Balancing
Machines are being used for the Phase-II Metro
construction on the Central Secretariat-Jangpura-Saket
section and High Speed Airport Lines. These machines
will help in smooth and quiet construction with the
concrete tunnel lining being made in casting yards.
Future Plans
Phase-III
After the completion of Phase II of Delhi Metro
Project by 2010, work on Phase III covering 112.17 km is
123
likely to be taken up. Some of the corridors that are likely

to be included in Phase III are Mukundpur- Sarai
Kalenkhan ISBT, CS-Gokulpuri border-Nawada, RithalaBarwala, Airport Link Sushant Lok-T junction Sector 47&
48, Bahadurgarh Extn. and Ghaziabad Extn. to Bus depot.
These corridors are tentative and subject to change.
Phase IV
This would be the final phase of Delhi Metro. By
adding another 108.50 km, it would completely link Delhi
and the National Capital Region (NCR) with a total
network of around 413 km construction of Phase III and
Phase IV would also involve excavation of more tunnels
and under ground works.
Today, the Delhi Metro project is a model of how
124
urban transport systems can be successfully built in

crowded cities. Visitors from the US, the UK, Japan, South
East Asia and South Asia have toured the system to
understand DMRC technologies and project management
techniques. Delhi Metro has also attracted the attention
of other countries such as Ireland, Pakistan, Sri Lanka,
Bangladesh and Vietnam. DMRC recently received its
first international consultancy assignment for a Special
Assistance on Project Implementation (SAPI) study for
the Jakarta Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) System in
Indonesia. Perhaps the greatest achievement of DMRC
is that it has given Indians the confidence to believe in
themselves and trust that they can efficiently build the
most challenging and technically complex projects
involving construction of tunnels and underground works.
KOLKATA METRO
conditions. For this project, a unique cut and cover

method of construction was used even through the very
busy roads of Kolkata, except in small stretches, where
shield tunnelling was adopted. Cut and Cover method of
construction was primarily adopted due to economical
consideration.
The salient features of construction are :
State
West Bengal
Rail Link
North South Corridor

Dum Dum to Tollygunge
Owner
Kolkata Metro Railway
Designer
Metro Railway with

Consultant of Russia
Contractors
HCC
Construction Period
1974 to 1995
Length of Railway Line
16.45 km
Kolkata is a 300 year old city and the growth of

city has been in an unplanned manner. The road surface
of Kolkata is 6.2% of the urbanized area, which is not
only much below the national average but also
considerably lower in relation to that of modern city, which
is nearly 30%.
In view of the extremely congested condition of
the road network, having mixed traffic consisting of
trams, buses, cars, hand pulling rickshaws, pulling carts
and large number of pedestrians, a need was felt to have
METRO RAIL.
Metro Railway construction in Kolkata is the first
attempt of underground railway construction in India and
also in one of the busiest cities, having poor soil
Planning - Road kept open to traffic by providing

steel H-piles at certain intervals and temporary
road decking of 7 m wide.
Construction - Retaining walls were constructed

to retain earth on both sides of trench without
causing any disturbance to the nearby foundations
of buildings. Three possible systems of (RCC
Diaphragm wall, sheet pile wall and H piles with
steel or timber laggings) for retaining wall were
provided, expensive mechanization was done for
concreting works of RCC Boxes.
The challenges of Diversion of services, Dewatering

and water proofing were faced.
The Geology faced - Normal Kolkata deposit i e.,

grey silty clay, clayey silt and sandy silt, fine to
medium sand is from ground level up 10.45 m from
Tollygunge to Dum Dum and river channel deposit
i e., fine grey sand at Tollygunge, Belgachia, Dum
Dum and Maidan.
Spread of Metro
Kolkata Metro Railway is successfully running
between Tollygunge and Dum Dum. Success has further
encouraged for further spread of a stretch of 18.65 km
between New Das Nagar- Salt Lake City Sec- V , which
is being planned and DPR has been prepared.
Cut and Cover Construction
125
A Typical Hard Rock Tunnel
126
KONKAN RAILWAY
A Dream Route
THE KONKAN RAILWAY
Konkan is a thin strip of land, about 50 to100 km
at its widest 720 km long between the Arabian Sea and
the Western Ghats or the Sahyadri mountain ranges.
States
Owner
Designer and executing
agency for the project
No. of tunnels
Total length
Size and shape
Longest tunnel
Project duration
Project commissioning
Konkan Region of India
Maharashtra, Goa &

Karnataka
Konkan Railway
Corporation Ltd.
Konkan Railway
Corporation Limited
92
84.79 km
Mostly D type Width = 4.92m
Height = 7.29
including drains
Karbude 6506 m
7 years 3 months
26.1.1998
Its proximity to the Arabian Sea, especially the

fact that several major and minor sea ports in peninsular
India fall in this region, has endowed Konkan with a rich
history and cultural heritage.
Konkan was also the area where Vasco Da Gama
from Portugal landed in 1498, leading a European
onslaught that eventually led to the colonisation of India.
Agriculture and industry flourish side by side in
the Konkan, and it is a treasure-trove for tourists too.
Now, the spectacular and rugged landscape will never
be the same again. Konkan Railway has changed it
forever.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The history of the Konkan Railway goes back more
than 150 years. Ever since 1853, when the railways began
in the sub-continent, the people of the region were keen
to have a railway line for efficient and dependable
transportation of goods and
passengers. For decades, the only
means of transport here was the sea,
and this route was severely limited by
the fact that it could not be used during
the monsoon. The roads connecting
coastal towns came up only recently.
The area, therefore, remained largely
undeveloped, though it was rich in
natural resources.
Proposals for a railway line in
the Konkan to connect Bombay were
investigated from time to time and the
first such proposal was examined in
1894.
Not much progress was
achieved till 1978. A beginning,
however, was made, when Apta-Pen
section was opened to traffic in
February 1983 and Pen-Roha section
in May 1986.
To expedite the execution of
760 km long Konkan railway line,
Konkan Railway Corporation Limited
(KRCL) was incorporated as a public
limited company in July 1990 who
commissioned the project on
26 January 1998.
127

Konkan Railway Line Project
128

work was attempted for vehicular tunnels in India. Out
of these, 74 km was through hard rock, 8.4 km through
soft soil, and the balances 1.2 km through cut and cover
construction. A list of tunnels and a list of long and
critical tunnel on Konkan Railway alignment are as
follows:
The Tunnels
In the 760 km long stretch of railway line, there
were 92 tunnels aggregating to a total length of 83.6 km
and nine tunnels out of these were longer than two km.
It was for the very first time that such massive tunnelling
LIST OF TUNNELS
No. of Tunnel/Name
Length (m)
Max. Over
Burden
Type of Rock
Length of
Lining (m)
T-1/DASGAON
294
18.25
HARD ROCK
4.5
T-2/BIJGHAR
434
41.92
HARD ROCK
UNLINED
T-3/KARANJADI
188
24.87
BASALT
UNLINED
T-4/UNDERI
176
46.36
BASALT
30
T-5/ SHIRSAVANE
906
38.56
BASALT
55
T-6/ NATHUWADI
4389
380
HARD ROCK
90
320
3.17
BASALT
23
T-7/ DIWANKHAWATI
T-8/BHOSTE
310
50
BASALT
T-9/ALSURE
558
24
BASALT
19
1005
62
BASALT
24
T-10/NILIK
T-11/KONDIWALI
253
55
BASALT
38
1020
57
BASALT
24
T-13/KOTAWALI
399
74
BASALT
98
T-14/SONGAON
254
24
BASALT
80 (17 CUT
& COVER
T-12/ASHTI
T-15/DHAMAN DEVI
680
97
BASALT
21
T-16/CHIPLUN
2033
132
HARD ROCK
88
T-17/SARWADE
3429
244
BASALT
232
T-18/AGAVE
894
38
BASALT
87
1050
65
BASALT
60
471
82
BASALT
24
1972
134
BASALT
30
T-22/DHAMANI I
570 IN
CLUDING 29
M CUT &
COVER
49
FISSURED ROCK
27
T-23/DHAMANI II
362 INCLUDING
CUT & COVER
97M
34
FISSURED ROCK
107
1208 INCLUDING
CUT & COVER
3.15 M
63
BASALT
89
T-19/KHERSHET
T-20/ARAVALI
T-21/SHINDE AMBRI
T-24/AMBED
T-25/KOND AMBED
110
23
BASALT
79
T-26/BHIRKOND
1291
81
BASALT
124
T-27/PARCHURI
2628
136
BASALT
98
T-28/VELEVADI
894
46
BASALT SOIL
139
T-29/UKSHI
104
43
BASALT
10
T-30/BANACHI WADI
605
110
BASALT
14
T-31/UKSHI I
240
54
BASALT
UNLINED
T-32/UKSHI II
672
45
BASALT
10
T-33/RANPAT
866
114
BASALT
44
129

No. of Tunnel/Name
T-34/LAJUL
Length (m)
Max. Over
Burden
Type of Rock
Length of
Lining (m)
943
116
BASALT
338
6506
116
BASALT SOIL
450
T-36/KHEDSHI I
584
40
LATERITE/ SOIL
625
T-36A/KHEDSHI II
618
208 CUT &

COVER 361M
THROUGH 50
17
LATERITE/ SOIL
BALAST
130
1110
57
LATERITE/ SOIL
BALAST
319
4077 CUT
& COVER
119M
116
LATERITE/ SOIL
BALAST
193
T-40/KONDAV I
758
69
LATERITE/ SOIL
BALAST
140.5
T-41/NIVASAR I
492 CUT &

COVER
150 M
31
LATERITE/ SOIL
BALAST
160.5
T-42/NIVASAR II
455
45
LATERITE/ SOIL
BALAST
241.6
1267
119
LATERITE/ SOIL
BALAST
298
T-44/ANJANARI
335
46
SOIL/ LATERITE
BASALT
57
T-45/GHATIWALE
683
28
LATERITE/ SOIL
BALAST
51
T-46/TALAWADE
345
20
BALAST
T-47/ADAVALI I
655
12
BALAST
T-48/ADVALI II
295
11
BALAST
T-35/KARBUDE
T-37/POMENDI
T-38/BANEWADI
T-39/TIKE
T-43/MATH
T-49/BERDEWADI
BASALT
4000
83
BALAST
53
T-50/ MANDAVKARVADI
300
15
BALAST
T-51/WAGANGAON
215
11
BALAST
T-52/WHEL
569
50
BALAST
T-53/SHIRAVALI
1734
45
BALAST
48
T-54/K.TIWARE I
289
24
BALAST
26
T-55/K.TIWAREII
307
20
BALAST
T-56/TIWARE
1095
63
BALAST
25
T-57/BAREWADI I
700
28
BALAST
T-58/BAREWADI II
309
28
BALAST
T-59/SAUNDAL
420
45
BALAST
38
T-60/MALEWADI
332
52
BALAST
10
T-61/ADAWALI
301
39
BALAST
10
T-62/LADWADI
271
27
BALAST
30
T-63/ROGEWADI
140
21
BALAST
T-64/GOPALWADI
1208
74
BALAST
10
T-65/BERLE
394
30
KANJIM/
BALAST
T-66/SHERPE
315
30
SOFT ROCK
KANJIM
T-67/PERNEM
130
1561
120
SOFT SOIL/
ROCK
1381

No. of Tunnel/Name
Length (m)
Max. Over
Burden
Type of Rock
Length of
Lining (m)
T-68/OLD GOA
544
50
SOFT SOIL
544
T-69/VERNA
805
38
SOFT SOIL
805
T-70/SARZORA I
238
25
HARD ROCK
80
T-71/SARZORA II
655
45
HARD ROCK
65
T-72/PADI
1917
50
SOIL/ROCK
139078S
HOTCRETED
T-73/BARCEM
3343
270
HARD ROCK
99149S
HOTCRETED
T-74NAGARCEM I
126
40
HARD ROCK
51.520S
HOTCRETED
T-75/NAGARCEM II
280
50
HARD ROCK
4520S
HOTCRETED
T-79/LOLIEM
836
61
LATERITE
GRANITE
432
T-80/MUDGERI
835
30
SOIL/ROCK
455
T-81/KARWAR
2950
276
GNEISS
197
T-82/HARWADA I
79
15
GRANITE
79
T-83HARWADA II
360
30
GRANITE
53
T-84/ANKOLA
531
72
GRANITE
77
T-85/MRZAN
680
35
GRANITE
125
T-85A/MIRZAN
250
SOIL
250 CUT
& COVER
T-86/RAMTHERTH
650
SOIL
650 CUT
& COVER
T-87/HONNAVAR
306
36
SOIL
306SHIELD
T-88/HONNAVAR
1225
33
SOIL
1225
197
30
SOIL
197
T-89/MANKI
T-90/BHATKAL
864
51
SOIL/ROCK
751
T-91/BYNDOOR
1962
67
GRANITE/ CLAY
376
Total: 84796.50
15020.60
Long & Critical Tunnels on Konkan Railway Alignment

Hard Rock Tunnels
Name of Tunnel
Length
(m)
Cost of Tunnel
(Rs. crore)
NATUWADI
4389
7.14
CHIPLUN
2033
3.84
SAWARDE
3404
6.27
PARCHURI
2628
7.10
KARBUDE
6506
12.66
TIKE
4077
6.02
BERDEWADI
4000
5.70
BARCEM
3343
5.53
KARWAR
2950
4.79
PERNEM
1561
6.49
OLD GOA
544
2.80
CRITICAL SOFT SOIL TUNNELS
PADI
1917
5.04
BHATKAL
863
1.45
BYNDOOR
1962
6.04
131

The North Portal of Karwar Tunnel
cohesive strata using an open drive sampler, with an area

ratio not exceeding 20 per cent. Disturbed samples were
collected at frequent intervals during boring, in order to
give a continuous record of the strata encountered. Careful
observation was made of the ground water during boring
and depth of ground water table was recorded on borehole
logs when encountered.
Another method of geophysical investigation which
was adopted was the Electrical Resistivity method to
quickly and economically obtain details about the location,
depth and resistivity of subsurface formations.
On the Konkan Railway, soil investigations were
done for all tunnels and a fairly accurate nature of the
strata involved was obtained prior to commencing work.
But in soft strata, the behaviour of soil, when mixed with
varying quantities of water, could not be known or judged
and this was the reason for unforeseen problems. In some
cases, such as in the Byndoor Tunnel there was an
underground stream of water and when opened, the mud
virtually started flowing along with the stream and tunnel
excavation progress became impossible.
Although, in most cases, the nature of strata was
revealed in these investigations, in some cases the
variation of soil in a cross-section was so much as to
make it difficult for excavation. Also in the Pernem tunnel,
the boring had been terminated much above the formation
as good hard rock was encountered. But during actual
excavation, the hard rock vanished and soft soil strata
was encountered for 20m and similar changes took place
later along the length of tunnel delaying the completion of
tunnel considerably. This was the last tunnel to be
completed.
Tunnel Sections
Geology
Geologically, the entire West Coast strip from
Roha to Mangalore falls in two distinct zones. The first
zone extends from Roha to Kankavali and the other zone
extends from Kankavali upto Mangalore. In the first zone
geological formation consists of dark coloured volcanic
lava flows and laterites. These are dominantly basaltic
in composition. Tunnelling through this zone was
comparatively easier except where jointed and columnar
basalt was found. The second zone from Kankavali to
Mangalore belongs to Archean and Cuddapah series of
geological formations, which are older than the Deccan
trap. The formation consists of phyllites, quartzites,
hematites, and a variety of schists with proportions of
garnet staurolite and kyanite. There are also laterite
deposits, which are, however, more ferruginous than
bauxitic. In some tunnels in Goa and in Karnataka, the
tunnelling media was extremely soft and innumerable
difficulties were encountered making such tunnelling very
expensive and time-consuming.
Soil Investigation
Rotary coring in NX size and water flush method
were used for drilling in the rock. Undisturbed core
samples with a diameter of 90mm were collected in
132
Based on the geo-technical investigation reports

and geological studies it was decided to evolve tunnel
cross-sections and support arrangements for the
following strata conditions:
(i)
Hard and moderately hard rock not requiring

support. These types of strata did not require lining.
(ii)
Jointed rock with widely spaced joints and soft

homogenous rock requiring shotcreting. These
strata were provided with shotcreting.
(iii)
Fractured highly jointed rock or soft rock. This strata

required light support with concrete lining.
(iv)
Laterite as well as other soft strata at the entrance

of tunnels. This strata required medium supports
with concrete lining.
(v)
Soft soil with high water table, running ground and

squeezing conditions. Strata required central drift
with heavy supports and lining with optimal profile.
Each tunnel cross-section provides side drains on

either side as well as for footpaths. The latter are useful for
inspecting staff as well as passengers whenever the need
arises for their evacuation from the train in case of
emergencies. The tunnels are being provided with trolley refuges
at every 100 m and man-refuges at the rate of one between
two adjacent trolley refuges.

The methods of excavation of tunnels vary and
depend on the type of rock described above. In hard
rock or jointed rock with widely spaced joints and soft
homogeneous rock, often full-face method is followed.
To begin with approach cuts are completed and the
excavation taken up to portals i.e. where the depth of
cutting is usually equal to height of tunnel plus the width.
This is necessary so that the roof is stable due to arch
action. In hard rock, tunnelling is mostly done by
attempting the full face. By the conventional method,
the cycle time varied from 24 hours to 30 hours. By
employing drilling jumbos and special loaders, the cycle
time could be brought down to 12 hours or less. In fact
at Nathuwadi tunnel it was brought down to four hours
and 25 minutes, which is a record.
Equipment
1.
2.
3.
In view of extensive tunnelling on the project, it was

considered necessary to engage tunnelling
machinery such as drilling jumbos and loaders.
Nine such sets were imported from Sweden and
were supplied by ATLAS COPCO. Devices such
as telescopic booms and roll over mechanisms have
extended the reach and accessibility of drills
resulting in precisely drilled holes, which in turn,
ensure a clean profile with very few undercuts or
overbreaks.
Since the drilling jumbo operates on electric power
(440 V), a sub-station of 250 KVA was erected and
a standby diesel generator of 250 KVA installed. A
cable to draw this power from the sub-station to
the point of operation was necessary. Similarly
water storage tanks of 40,000 litres to meet the
requirement of 30,000 litres per cycle were installed.
The drilling boom requires 100 KVA of power. The
jumbo has an additional boom-carrying bucket
where a man can sit and inspect the tunnel roof
and also use it for charging the drilled holes.
For muck removal, nine sets of electro hydraulic
digging arm loaders from M/s. Hagglunds, Sweden
were imported. These have two sets of gathering
arms and two sets of digging arms, which are
carried on the lifting arm. These arms simulate the
human arms in the way they dig into muck and
shovel it on top of the chain conveyor, which drops
it into the road mounted vehicles.
The drilling jumbos were available for work in late

August 1992. The first set was supplied at Nathuwadi
tunnel. The jumbo was equipped with two drills of 45
mm diameter.
The imported drilling jumbos and Hagg-loaders
were to be handed over to contractors free of hire
charges on the condition that a minimum of 150m of
tunnelling per month was to be completed by them. Due
to higher explosive consumption and other arrangements
required, the contractors were reluctant to avail of these
machines. A number of concessions were given such as
cables from sub-station to the machine, and the matter
resolved. In one case, however, that of the Phalkewadi
Electro Hydraulic Loader Haggloader Consists of a Chassis, A

Conveyor Frame and an ARM System
side of Nathuwadi tunnel, work was done departmentally

after the contractor refused to do the work.
The imported tunnelling machinery worked
satisfactorily except for Hagg-loaders which broke down
often and required heavy maintenance and spare parts.The
tyres of the loader were covered with a steel chain to
protect from its being pierced by stones. Breakage of the
chain and wear and tear of arms were common and
frequent. With these machines tunnelling cost increased.
Due to hard basalt, drill bits wore out faster and did not
give even 25 per cent of the anticipated output. The
machinery was deployed in 12 faces of 10 tunnels, namely
Nathuwadi (two faces), Sawarde one face, Karbude (two
faces) Tike (one face), Barcem, Karwar and Byndoor (All
one face).
Ventilation inside the tunnel was most important
and good ventilation not only saved time by pushing blast
gases out in shorter time but also provided a good
environment for workers and improved their output. The
ventilation consists of providing 600-900mm diameter ducts
made of plain galvanised iron sheets (22 SWG), fitted
with angle rings and using rubber rings to make it leak
proof. Blowers with a 25-HP, 1440-RPM were provided at
250m intervals, with one blower at the portal in the duct
line for effective ventilation to clear fumes within 30 minutes
of blast.
Tunneling in Soft Soil

Soft soil tunnelling had many hazards. Due to poor
quality of soil and inadequate stand-up time, the arch
roof collapsed before it could be supported. Sometimes
extensive forepoling in umbrella pattern was done with
angle iron or with rods or pipes help in supporting the
roof temporarily till proper supports could be provided.
133

Hydraulic drilling jumbo for ATLAS COPCO ready to go into operation on rock tunnel face.
Roof collapses were quite frequent and had to be tackled

by extensive umbrella forepoling to support the roof. This
was very tedious, time-consuming and lowered the morale
of the workers. The cavity once formed at top enlarged
itself making further progress difficult.
The cavities were filled up by rock spalls or
concreting it by boring through overburden with a 100 mm
hole using a mixture of stone chips, sand, bentonite,
cement. This was a costly proposal. Alternately a mixture
of cement, clay and fine sand in the ratio of 1:8:8 was
used to grout the top portion.Sometimes due to flow of
water the soil become fluid and flowed making further
excavation almost impossible. Grouting with cement
slurry sometimes helped getting over the situation. Very
often, due to the non-cohesive nature of the soil, the soil
mass above the arch rib separated from the main body
of the hill and exerted extremely heavy load on ISMB
supports resulting in their twisting, bending, settling and
generally getting out of shape. The entire work had to
be rectified and redone, sometimes many times over.
Soft soil tunnelling on Konkan Railway became
extremely critical due to its poor progress.
In the soft soil tunnel under the Honnavar hill it
was decided to go in for shield tunnelling. These tunnels
were in the Karwar Zone. There were two tunnels, 1200m
and 300m long respectively, with a 50m long valley in
between. Immediately to the south of the tunnel portal
the Sharavati bridge started. The shield, normally of
circular section, was driven ahead in the soil and provided
support, after which the section was excavated. As the
shield moved ahead, the rear portion of the tunnel was
supported permanently, usually by pre-cast or cast-insitu concrete segments. These tunnels at Honnavar are
134
Labour busy in excavating at a heading in a soft

soil tunnel.
Completed shield tunnel at Honnawar

the only tunnels on Konkan Railway where shield tunnelling
was employed and also given up. Different types of shields
are adopted for different types of soil and the one adopted
for Honnavar is called the Blade Shield. The inside
diameter is 7.2m, the larger diameter is provided to cater
to future electric traction.
The progress of tunnelling by shield driving was
found to be extremely slow. For driving the shield on
north for a length of 237.5m it took 38 months. On the
south, for 180m it took 15 months. This was not
acceptable and as such the method was given up. The
balance of tunnel was completed by conventional
method and also opening of two more faces through a
shaft 10m in diameter and 20m deep.
The soft soil tunnelling was the most difficult and
The shield for Honnawar Tunnel with arrangements for jacking.
time consuming activity on the Konkan Railway. The

problems it threw up kept the engineers on their toes all
the time and resulted in slippages of targets laid down
for commissioning. Where the soil was saturated and
full of water, the mud-flow did not even permit normal
excavation process, leave alone erection of supports.
Situation was worse in the rainy season or where
perennial water flow occured from the pockets. The
methodology to treat these pockets with sodium silicate/
cement grout did not succeed, as the grout did not enter
the mud. Electro-osmosis with insertion of anode and
cathode did not eliminate the water as there was
continuous flow of water and it never permitted the earth
mass to stiffen. Trial with liquid nitrogen circulation to
freeze the mass of fluid soil was contemplated but given
up due to risks involved to workers. Finally only
conventional methods were used and the problem
stretches were crossed with extensive forepoling on the
periphery as well as the face. Sometimes a small central
drift with heavy structural steel was provided to cross
the bad stretch and reach better face.
It was also realised that a number of hazards and
cavities resulted from abrupt work suspensions, unsafe
practices, inadequate supports, improper technical
support and bad equipment. If for a moment the
excavated portion was left without a support, as it
happened often, the roof fall resulted in a cavity, which
increased in size and volume making further progress
slow and difficult.
135
Tunnelling in Soft Rock or Loose Rocky Soil

In this type of soil the tunnelling was similar to soft
soil but hazards were less. The rock when it is jointed or
columnar, with loose spalls, is not stable and has no stand
up time. In this type of soft rock the tunnelling was done
in two stages, heading supported by ISMB ribs, and then
by benching. Such soft rocky soil was encountered in a
number of tunnels and the progress of the works was
considerably slower.
larger air quantity in the tunnel tube imparting to it so

much energy that the necessary flow velocity through the
tunnel can be maintained.
Safety Measures
Konkan Railway has some of the longest tunnels

in the country. Konkan Railway has nine tunnels more
than 2.2 km and the longest was 6.5-km long at Karbude
followed by 4.4-km long tunnel at Nathuwadi.
Various other operational aspects, including safety

measures, were taken into consideration while designing
the ventilation system. The design of the system covered
operations in an emergency, including trains stalling,
derailment inside the tunnel or a major repair work for
longer period inside the tunnel. Associated other safety
aspects such as evacuation of passengers in case of an
emergency, preventive methods (inspections) to avoid
derailment of trains and to meet the incidence of fire inside
the tunnels have also been considered.
Need for Forced Ventilation
Control Room
For the operation of diesel-hauled trains through

long tunnels, it is necessary to ensure that the
accumulation of diesel smoke does not occur beyond
an acceptable limit. In small tunnels, the piston effect
developed due to the passage of trains is found quite
adequate to flush out the diesel smoke. This action
largely depends on the speed and length of trains, and
cross section and the type of lining of the tunnels.
A control room for the operation of the fans and

watching the movement of the train inside the tunnel was
planned. The operator can watch the movement of the
train inside the tunnel on the control panel through visual
display by track circuiting arrangement. The exact location
of the train inside the tunnel is clearly visible on the mimic
panel of the control board enabling the operator to take
required action. The system is designed to work
automatically.
Ventilation in Long Tunnels
After detailed studies for ventilation, following

guidelines were formulated:
(i)
Unlined tunnels up to approximately two km length

and lined/shotcreted tunnels up to three km to be
allowed without any ventilation arrangements such
as shafts/ forced ventilation.
(ii)
In all other tunnels, it is necessary to provide either

shafts to reduce the length of tunnel segments or
a forced ventilation arrangement.
Instrumentation
Pollution and visibility detectors, temperature
indicators and alarms formed the backbone of the system
installed to monitor the environmental condition inside the
tunnel. Two independent communication systems were
provided inside the tunnel to enable the driver/guard to
contact the control room operator/central control in case
of emergencies.
Lighting Arrangement
On the basis of the above guidelines, it was

decided to provide shafts/adits in five out of nine long
tunnels on the Konkan Railway. The 6.5-km long Karbude
tunnel was provided with three shafts. Even though each
segment length is less than two kilometres, it was
considered necessary for passengers safety to provide
forced ventilation system by installing three centrifugal
fans with 150 KW capacity each, near the middle shaft of
the Karbude tunnel. Mechanical dampers and air curtains
were also proposed to control the direction of the airflow
inside the tunnel.
To facilitate evacuation of stranded passengers

during emergencies, adequate lighting arrangements with
70 W high-pressure sodium vapour lamps fitted in the
luminaries were proposed. Footpaths (900mm wide) inside
the tunnel were to be provided on both sides to assist the
stranded passengers to come out in grave emergencies.
To meet fire-related emergencies, high-capacity fire
extinguishers were provided in the trolley refuges inside
the tunnels. First aid medical facilities are provided in the
control room.
In three other long tunnels viz. Nathuwadi

(4.425km) near Mahad, Barcem (3.39 km) in Goa, and
Karwar (2.96 km), it was decided to provide forced
ventilation system with jet fans. In long tunnels where it
was not possible to provide a shaft in the middle for
providing ventilation system by installing centrifugal fans,
it became necessary to suspend jet fans from the ceiling
of the tunnel to have longitudinal ventilation arrangement.
The Jet fans deliver relatively small quantity of air, which
is supplied in the desired direction at high velocity. The
high momentum of the air jets is transmitted to the much
To ensure uninterrupted power supply for the

ventilation and lighting system of the tunnels, power was
arranged from two independent sources. The power
supply system is controlled through remote-control
operations provided on a console. DG sets with 310/
250kVA capacity were also provided as an additional
stand-by arrangement. The control room for each tunnel
is manned round-the-clock. A separate DG set having
15 kVA capacity was provided for meeting the tunnel
lighting power supply requirement in case of complete
power supply failure.
136
Power Supply
Nathuwadi Tunnel
This 4389 m long tunnel is under the Kashedi
mountain range, rising up to 450 m above sea level.
The over-burden over the formation was around 350 m
and there was no scope for a shaft or adit. The work could
be done only through two faces. Drilling jumbos were
introduced in August 1992 and on the north face it was
operated departmentally. Although the rock was good hard
basalt, there were a number of difficulties, such as jointed
rock, heavy seepage from the face and sides, faults and
fractures. In this tunnel notable innovations were made to
improve the progress. These were 900 mm air duct line of
plain G.I. sheets (22 SWG) along with 25 HP, 1440 rpm
blowers at 250m intervals for ventilation; use of 100mm
diameter GI pipe line for supply of water to jumbos; 100
mm diameter GI pipe for dewatering; keeping a good road
bed so as to reduce the mucking time; installing step-up
transformers inside to maintain voltage at the correct level;
installation of telephones at various work spots, as also
wireless communications between working face and
Dy.CEs office, CEs office and Belapur; and use of slurry
type explosives. With all these measures, working was
very well organised and cycle time reduced considerably.
A minimum cycle time of four hours and 25 minutes with
3.9 m pull was achieved, giving an output of 180 m a
month on the north face.
Sawarde Tunnel
This tunnel is 3429 m long and its north portal is
at km 139.777. The tunnel had generally good strata in
fine grain basaltic rock. The contract for tunnelling was
given to M/s. Patel Engineering but as their performance
was not satisfactory, M/s. Larsen & Toubro was awarded
work on one face. A shaft was also provided at 1852 m
from the North face to make good progress, which was

lagging behind. The tunnel had problems in excavation
at the North face. About 25 m from the portal, the tunnel
section encountered a 2.5 m-3 m thick highly crushed
and shear zone with steep dip in SW direction. Thin clay
filled joints existed in adjoining the shear zones, which
were in amygdaloidal basaltic rock. As the rock cover at
the crown was insufficient, the roof collapsed and there
was skylighting. Even with temporary supports the roof
could not be stabilised. At one stage it was proposed to
provide steel cables anchored in good rock along the
crown to pre-stress and stabilise the crushed rock over
the roof as this was highly jointed in both directions. Later
a simple expedient of casting a 0.5m thick slab over the
steel joists, placed across the tunnel section above the
roof level was thought of. The concrete for slab was
poured from top. This slab acted as a strut (pre-stress)
and stabilised the crushed rock in the weak zone and
tunnelling could be done by heading and benching with
temporary supports.
Parchure Tunnel
The north portal of the tunnel is at km. 179.672
and is 2628 m long. While the tunnel was generally in
good massive basalt rock, a number of fracture zones
were met with, where water was gushing out in large
quantities. This made the excavation difficult and time
consuming. In fact parallel to the coastline, runs a line
connecting about a dozen hot water springs, which are
known as deep-seated fractures. Such fracture zones or
weak zones were found at number of locations in the
tunnel. There were three intersecting fracture zones leaving
large massive basalt blocks intact in between them. The
massive basalt was with broad columnar joints. The
Nathuwadi Tunnel 4450m long, with a train emerging from the South face
137

polygonal vertical to sub-vertical joints did not show any
preferred orientation. The joints were curviplanar indicating
cooling cracks. On the eastern side near the springing
level a number of water sprouts were noticed over a 10 m2
area, where water jetted out with force. These sprouts lay
on the east of a north-south trending vertical joints which
did not appear to be a columnar face. It entered the tunnel
from the east and exited from the west at about 10m.
Such weak zones along the tunnel created conditions for
water flowing and made tunnel excavation difficult. An
attempt to cement grout in these weak zones in advance
did not prove to be of much help. Therefore wherever water
was flowing some holes were left uncharged and this
allowed water to flow. Boulders were also packed behind
supports both at roof and sides to allow water to flow and
reduce pressure on RCC lagging. Water was guided away
from the face. There were four such weak zones each
about 30-70 m wide and these locations were fully
supported while tunnelling and later lined.
Pernem Tunnel
This is a 1560 m long tunnel. Work started in
January 1992 on the north face and soon after on the
south face. On both sides laterite soil was encountered
and the tunnelling was by heading and benching. The
excavation became difficult as soil was mixed with water
and face became unstable number of times. From the
north side rock was struck after 234 m. Since it was
stratified it had to be supported at CH: 371 i.e. after 137
m another patch of soil 29 m was encountered. This was
followed by 60 m of good hard rock and 20 m of soft rock
requiring support. Again 87 m of good rock followed by 20
m of soft rock and then 74 m of soil were met with. This
was followed by 39 m of hard rock and 13 m of soft rock.
The soil reappeared for 27 m followed by 22 m of soft
rock. This was followed by 200 m of good hard rock. On
the south side the soil was perhaps the worst that could
be expected. For 558m there was nothing but soil highly
saturated with water and working was most difficult and
time- consuming. A number of collapses, took place in
the tunnel. In the rainy season of 1992, both the north
and south faces collapsed each taking about three months
for rectification. Again in the monsoon of 1993 further
collapses took place, which took four months to rectify. A
16m long heading collapsed on north in February 1993,
which took three months to rectify. In monsoons of 1994,
a collapse on the north face took six months to rectify. In
1995, two collapses took place on north face first in April
at CH: 214 to 216 which took one month and the other at
CH: 370 in October 95 which took 45 days. On the south
side also collapses took place at CH: 259-264, CH: 270
to 277 in 1995 and at CH: 262 to 282 in February 1996.
On the north face major collapses took place again in
August 1997 and October 1997 which caused a setback
of about four months. Due to frequent change of strata,
the strategy had to be altered every time soil or rock
requiring support was met. This tunnel took the longest
time.
138
In January 1996 while executing heading and

bending in parallel with a gap of about 60 m, a collapse
took place during bending. 13 workmen at the heading
had miraculous escape, but one workman while jumping
from heading to benching was trapped in the falling debris
from tunnel roof just at the step of heading and benching
(about 5.0 m). The victim remain buried for about 14 days
till the heading was rectified by extensive forepoling,
grouting from inside the tunnel as well as through vertical
drill holes from the surface on top. There was no way to
recover the dead body of the deceased till the roof was
repaired and fall of the loose soil was stopped.
After making the heading through, bench muck was
removed and dead body was retrieved.
Old Goa Tunnel

This 544 m long tunnel was entirely in soft clayey
soil. The contractor had dug 3 m benching and 83m
heading on the north by end of March 1993 when the
work was suspended. The work was resumed in November
1993 but the contractor was unwilling to continue with
the work. Another contractor quoted high rates and did
only benching where heading had been done. After he
gave up, the work was taken up departmentally. On the
south side, there was a huge outcrop of hard basalt rock
beyond the tunnel. This had to be excavated by controlled
blasting. On the top of the tunnel, at 150m to the west of
centre line there is an old church, called Lady of Mount
church built in 16th century, presently in dilapidated
condition. This is a state-protected monument. The
agitationists for realignment had raised the issue of safety
of this monument with the High Level Committee of Justice
Oza. But being 150 m away there was no danger of
vibrations due to train running affecting this monument. In
any case HLC had recommended that tunnel alignment
be moved five metres away to the east to give it extra
protection. While excavating for the south face the clayey
soil in water-saturated condition was unstable and could
not be restrained from collapsing. A false tunnel was
extended on south by 44 m so as to enter the face with a
heading. The first 146 m of heading went without problems
but thereafter the work got stuck, and for almost six
months. The supports were settling down by more than a
metre, getting twisted, distorted and going out of shape.
The load on the supports was so heavy that it was
impossible for the steel ribs to withstand it. Use of ISMB
200, central drift and benching, provided relief. Benching
helped in lowering the water table. On the north side also
similar problems arose.
A number of innovations were adopted to work on
heading and benching simultaneously. The slushy soil
with unlimited quantities of water flowing made the task
of tunnelling extremely difficult and time consuming.
Collapses and settlement were quite frequent. The position
improved only in December 1996 and the tunnel could be
completed in March 1997.
Verna Tunnel
This 805 m long tunnel is through phyllitic clay,
weathered schist with soil bands and about 40 m of hard
dolorite. Problems occured in the clay with two such
collapses affecting the roof and ground over hill surface.
These were tackled by extensive grouting. Tunnelling
through schist was easier and through dolorite was ideal.
Padi Tunnel
The work on this 1917 m long tunnel was started
on both faces. On the north the soil encountered was
weathered rock followed by lateritic soil. On the south
there was jointed and basaltic rock with water flowing
through joints. The contractor had suggested an adit at
the centre to tackle the tunnel through two more additional
faces. In fact, adit struck the tunnel alignment at a place
where rock towards south and soil towards north had a
junction. Subsequently, the south rocky portion was
allotted to another contractor who had just completed
Barcem tunnel and the work on North was taken up
departmentally. Work proceeded smoothly but in the adit
towards the north the soil was soft and saturated with
water resulting in frequent collapses and subsidence. After
about 134 m of heading from adit towards the north the
work was at a standstill for more than six months. From
the adit towards south M/s. Bhageeratha completed the
rocky portion well in time. Fortunately the last 100 m
from north side the soil was good laterite and the work
could be done from June 1996 to September 1996, even
during the rainy season. Once the heading was through
the rest of the work was done fast and the tunnel was
ready by February 1997.
Mudgere Tunnel
This 835 m long tunnel is on the border of Goa
and Karnataka. On the north side there were problems
of collapses, jointed rock, water gushing out, as also
roof collapses resulting in chimney formation and huge
craters at top in two places. On the south side the
tunnelling was through rock but as the work proceeded
towards the north the rock cover diminished and at about
650 m from south portal the cover was hardly a metre.
This got punctured and the top collapsed to form a
chimney with huge crater on top. This was tackled with
forepoling and temporary support and provided with
lining.
Honnavar Tunnel
Tunnel 5 and 5A are located near Honnavar.
These two tunnels are 1225 m and 306 m long with a
50m long valley separating them. From the south end of
tunnel 5 the north abutment of Sharavati Bridge is only
50m away. The maximum over burden was 32m and
the top was inhabited, and as such an open cut could
not be made.
As the nature of soil was soft and clayey it was
decided to go in for a shield type tunnelling from both
sides. One German Engineer was the designer of these
two shields S-1 & S-2. These shields after developing
requisite infrastructure started operation in April 1992. The
progress with the sield S-1 was very slow due to the strata
being mixed with hard laterite and lithomargic clay. When
the blades could not pierce through the hard laterite the
flow of loose clay used to take place. Hence large cavaties
took place which had to be injected with cement and and
clay mixed in the form of slurry from the top. In January
1993, shield S-2 had also commenced but desired
progress was not available here also.
As the progress achieved from shield tunnelling
was not satisfactory, first a shaft was provided to work on
two additional faces and later two faces were developed
from south end of tunnel 5A and north end of tunnel 5. As
the progress of providing shield was not satisfactory, this
was given up and conventional soft soil tunnelling was
resorted to. A shaft was also provided to work on two
additional faces. The work was done in good time.
Bhatkal Tunnel
The 864 m tunnel is located on the outskirts of
Bhatkal town. The hill through which the tunnel passes is
capped with hard laterite. The maximum overburden over
the top of the tunnel was 50 m. Cut and cover was provided
for 30 m at the northern and southern ends of the tunnel
due to inadequate rock cover. The rocky portion of the
tunnel was tackled by excavating over full face by
conventional drill and blast method. The rock being fissured
and stratified was fully lined. In the soft soil portion the
material was lithomargic clay. Tunnelling in this soil had
a number of problems. A shaft 6m x 8m was sunk at a
distance of 231m from northern end of the tunnel since
tunnelling from northern portion became almost impossible
due to frequent collapses. Two additional faces were
available and mucking was done with the help of a 35tonne crane positioned near the shaft at the top. Cavities
formed at certain locations above the arch ribs were filled
from inside the tunnel with lean concrete using
compressed air. Larger cavities were filled with concrete
poured through bores from the top. During monsoons,
the weight on ribs at certain location was so much that
ribs were bent and twisted. Spacing of ribs was reduced
from 50 cm to 25 cm and section of ISMB raised from
150 to 200. Arch ribs were laced at these locations to
give extra strength and rigidity. Besides, reinforced
concrete beam was provided at wall beam level to take
horizontal thrust and thereby prevent wall beams from
bending inside. Temporary horizontal struts connecting
wall beams were provided at locations where excessive
horizontal thrust was observed after 99 m of tunnelling,
90 m from north face, between the north face and the
shaft was done by cut and cover. The entire section was
excavated to formation level and sides and arch were built
in RCC. During the rainy season of 1996 some of the
excavated material was dumped on the arch ring and this
caused uneven loading. The entire arch ring along with
the sides collapsed and this portion had to be redone.
Thereafter, to prevent such damages, the arch ring was
loaded uniformly for eight-metre depth of excavated soil.
139
Byndoor Tunnel
This tunnel is located at Byndoor in Udupi district
of Karnataka. It is the first tunnel in the south and is
1962 m long. Over the hill, through which the tunnel
passes, runs the National Highway 17 to Cochin. The
major part of tunnel 1580 m is hard granite rock. A drilling
jumbo was deployed for drilling and Haggloader for
mucking. An average cycle time of 16 hours was achieved
with a pull of 3.5 m. The balance of 382 m of tunnelling
was through lithomargic clay, saturated with water, very
near the liquid limit. About 130m near the south portal
were tackled by normal heading and benching, overcoming
number of problems like collapses, settlement of supports,
bending and twisting of arch ribs. These problems were
overcome by grouting the clayey soil, umbrella forepoling
with angles. Eighty metres of soft soil tunnelling near the
north portal was done as cut and cover. The balance 172
m tunnelling through soft soil was the most difficult and
took the maximum time. At one time it was thought that
provision of a shaft would help. A 10 m x 8 m rectangular
shaft was sunk, but it did not sink straight and had to be
plugged above the top of tunnel and abandoned. The soil
was so atrocious and fluid that rectification had to be
done more than four times due to displacement, twisting
140
and bending of steel supports. However, by sinking the

shaft, extensive drainage of saturated soil in the soft soil
valley had taken place. For this shaft only, the most
difficult and critical soft soil tunnelling could be completed
in lithomargic clay.
Soil collapse from the top resulted in sinking of the
national highway and the same had to be diverted. The
methods adopted to overcome these problems were
umbrella forepoling with angles, pipes, grouting, pipe
pushing, dewatering with vacuum pump, piling on both
sides of tunnel and electro osmosis. As a last resort it
was proposed to go in for jet grouting but due to exhorbitant
costs it was given up. Finally perseverance paid off and
the shaft sunk from the top proved to be a boon in disguise.
The tunnel was made through, by almost inch-by-inch
excavation but without any special technology.
Successful Completion
The Konkan Railway Project despite all odds has
been completed in record period of seven years and is
now in operation for last ten years. This is first railway
project in the History of Indian Railways which has been
successfully built on BOT concept and being run efficiently
to serve the debts.
ROAD AND HIGHWAY TUNNELS
141
142
MUMBAI PUNE
EX- PRESSWAY A First
Expressway of India
Salient Features of Tunnels
State
Maharashtra (India)
Owner
Maharashtra State Road

Development Corporation
(MSRDC) Mumbai, India
Design and Executing

Agency for Tunnels
Konkan Railway
Corporation Ltd.
Construction Period
28 months, commissioned
on 01-05-2000
No. of tunnels
11 } 10 tunnels bored
} 1 existing tunnel
widened
Total Length.
5960 m } 2781 m Right

tube
} 3179 m Left tube
Width of tunnel
17.6 m
Cross sectional area
Vary from 148 to 157 m
Ventilation
Two tunnels Bhatan &

Kamshet I are ventilated
with Jet Fans
List of tunnels
Sl.No. Name
Left tube (m)
Right tube (m)
1.
Bhatan
1046
1085
2.
Madap
295
351
3.
Adhosi
200
4.
Khandala
314.35
(Existing
tunnel
widened)
402.315
5.
Kamshet I
935.15
972.77
6.
Kamshet II
191
168
The National Highway NH-4 connects Mumbai

earlier known as Bombay with the city of Bangalore via
Poona (Pune). This is a very old road constructed during
British era. The road between Mumbai & Pune is passing
through precipitous mountain ranges of Sahyadri hills;
the famous Khandala Hill station is around midway
enroute.
Due to increase in the traffic every year resulting
in jams, accidents, increase in travel time etc, it was
necessary to build a new and independent expressway.
Government of Maharashtra planned a new

Expressway by-passing the city of Panvel in Raigad
district upto outskirt of Pune city in 1990. M/s. RITES
and Scott Wilson Kirkpatrick of UK were appointed as
Consultant to carry out feasibility studies for the new
expressway to be operated on toll basis. RITES
submitted their report in 1994 with the estimated cost of
project at Rs.1146 crores. This work was entrusted to
Maharashtra State Road Transportation Corporation
Limited (MSRDC) by Govt. of Maharashtra for its
execution.
After elaborate planning, MSRDC successfully
completed this prestigious infrastructural development
project, on behalf of the Government of Maharashtra in
May 2000. The scope of work envisaged construction
of 94 km long six lane dual carriageway road, three
lanes each with a provision to add fourth lane in future.
The alignment covers the distance between Kon and
Dehu Road and passes through hilly region of the
Sahyadri hills. This expressway has enabled motorists
to cover the distance of 160 km between Mumbai and
Pune in about 2 hrs. which earlier used to take 5 to 6
hrs.
In order to ease out the alignment and reduce the
steep gradient at few locations of the road in the hilly
terrain, provision of the tunnels was unavoidable.
Therefore, twin tube tunnels have been constructed at
five locations i.e., Bhatan, Madap, Khandala, Kamshet I
and Kamshet II and one single tube tunnel at Adoshi for
Mumbai bound traffic. Size of each tunnel is 17.6 m
wide, 9.8 high, to accommodate four lanes of traffic.
Cross-sectional area of each tunnel is varying between
148 m to 157 m, which is considered to be a very large
section, constructed for the first time in India for any
road project. The length of the tunnels varies between
168 m to 1086 m, totalling to 5960 m.
The tunnels on this expressway have been
provided with modern facilities of ventilation, lighting,
communication system, fire fighting vehicles,
computerized control room etc; and would rank amongst
the best in the world.
Execution of Tunnels
The work of tunnelling was enstrusted to Konkan
Railway Corporation Ltd. (KRCL) by MSRDC since KRCL
had attained expertise in it during execution of 760 km
long Konkan Railway project between Roha & Mangalore
till 1997 and had imported lot of tunnelling equipment.
As the railway project was towards completion, lot of
equipment & trained manpower was surplus with KRCL.
143

Layout of Mumbai-Pune Express Highway
Excavation of Bhatan Tunnel in central gullet
Madap Tunnel - (17.6 mx9.5 m) to accommodate

four lanes of road
144

Konkan Railway meticulously planned the work
of tunnels as it was mostly hard rock tunnelling of very
large size. The long tunnels of Bhatan etc. were
entrusted to two different agencies from two ends with
no limits to advance till break through which developed
competition among the executing agencies. The work
started in July 1998 and was executed in most
expeditious manner maintaining very good quality. The
other special tunnelling equipment, not supplied by
Konkan Railway were arranged by contractors

themselves. The material like cement, steel, explosives,
admixtures for shotcrete/concrete were supplied by
KRCL to contractors free of cost, to maintain consistency
in quality.
The project is timely completed and operational
since May 2000.
Tunnel Profile for Shotcreted Section
145

Twin Tube Bhatan Tunnels
Twin Tube Bhatan Tunnel
146
ROHTANG TUNNEL
State
Himachal Pradesh
Owner
Border Roads Organization
Designer
SMEC Pvt. Ltd., Australia
Proposed Construction
Period
5 year
Proposed Project Length

& shape of Tunnel
8.802 km, Horse shoe

shaped. finished
10.0 m at carriage way
level including footpaths.
Project Construction
Methodology
Drill & Blast with NATM
Rohtang tunnel is a long cherished dream for the

inhabitants of Lahaul and Spiti, Pangi valley and Kaza
district of Himachal Pradesh and Ladakh region of Jammu
& Kashmir State.The problems and disadvantages faced
by Indian troops deployed along the line of control in
Ladakh region of Jammu & Kashmir state with the existing
means of communication to the region also strengthened
the demand for construction of a tunnel across Rohtang
Pass, owing to its very strategic advantages.
Keeping in view the strategic importance and socio
economic need of region (Leh, Lahaul & Spiti, Kaza and
Pangi valley), the responsibility for developing surface
communication network for this part of Indian Sub- Continent
(Jammu & Kashmir State and mountainous region of
Himachal Pradesh) was assigned to Border Roads
organization (BRO) in 1960 by Government of India.
The preliminary feasibility study report was prepared
during 1984-87 by BRO in association with Geological
The Survey of India (GSI) and Snow & Avalauche Study
Establishment (SASE) of Defence Research and
Development Organization (DRDO). On perusal of the
preliminary feasibility report, the high power committee
ordered to conduct a detailed feasibility study for
construction of a tunnel across Rohtang Pass.
Accordingly BRO engaged M/s RITES as
consultant for detailed feasibility study in two phases in
May 1990. Report for both the phases were finalized by
December 1996.
It was decided to get the detailed feasibility study
report examined and revalidated by M/s Konkan Railway
Corporation Ltd. (KRCL) in association with the Geological
Survey of India (GSI) and Snow and Avalanche Study
Establishment (SASE) of Defence Research and
Development Organisation (DRDO), with particular
reference to the requirement of avalanche control
structures along the approach roads to tunnel and
proposed alternative route to Leh (Ladakh) via DarchaPadam -Nimu Road.
After detailed deliberations on various issues

involved, the revalidated detailed feasibility report was
finally accepted in December 2002.
The project finally got the Government Sanction in
September 2005 for a total financial outlay of Rs 1410.37
crores out of which Rs. 943.32 crore was for construction
of the tunnel, Rs. 180.20 crore was sanctioned for
construction of the approach roads to tunnel, including
cost of construction of avalanche control structures and
bridges thereon and Rs. 286.85 crore was catered for
construction of alternative route to Leh (Ladakh) via
Darcha-Padam-Nimu having a length of 292 km. The time
frame for completion of the project was stipulated as March
2014.
The present distance between Leh and Manali is
474 km. The Construction of Rohtang Tunnel with
alternative route to Leh (Ladakh) via Darcha-Padam-Nimu
(292 km) will reduce the distance to 427 km, thereby
shorting the length by 47 km.
The Engineering features of proposed Rohtang
tunnel are:
Length -8.802 km
Shape- Horse Shoe
Horizontal Alignment of Tunnel - The alignment

follows straight line with bearing 430 730" upto
chainage 604.4 m from South Portal (Manali side).
Thereafter the alignment follows a curved route of
250 m radius up to chainage 828.80 m. From
chainage 828.80 m to North Portal (Darcha Side)
the alignment follows a straight line.
Aetitude of Portals - South Portal Rl 3055 m

North Portal Rl 3080 m
Gradient - Up to chainage 5259.40 m from South

Portal + 1.5% & thereafter descends
up to
North Portal at (-) 1.5%
Geology - Himalayan
Execution Plan
The broad planning of execution of the project as
planned at present is as follows
(i)
The alternate road alignment (Darcha-Padam-Nimu)

is to be executed by BRO (Rs. 256.85 crore).
(ii)
The pavement works for approach roads to the

tunnel is to be executed by BRO and construction
of avalanche control structures and bridges through
contract (Rs. 180.20 crore) by SASE of DRDO.
(iii)
M/s Snowing Mountain Engineering Consultancy

(SMEC) Pvt. Ltd. Australia has been selected as
Design Consultant.
(iv)
Construction of tunnel (civil works) including

lighting, ventilation, safety and communication
systems for the same through contract.
147
JAWAHAR TUNNEL
BANIHAL TUNNEL
Salient Features of the tunnel are:
Completed
State
Jammu & Kashmir
Status
In Use
Owner
Border Roads Organisation
Function
Road Tunnel
Length
Two tunnels each having

length of 2825 m
Shape
Horse shoe
Jawahar Tunnel, one of longest tunnel road in Asia,

links Jammu & Kashmir Valley. This architectural marvel,
built at Banihal at a height of 2194 m above sea level, has
two tunnels each having a length of 2825 m. This metal
road tunnel is built through the heart of a mountain. The
tunnel makes it possible to stay in touch with Srinagar
even during winter.
The tunnel which cuts through the gigantic Peer
Panjal mountain range has been operational since
December 1956 and was built by German Engineers.
The approximate cost of construction was Rs. 2.52
crore. With the passage of time challenges are being faced
with respect to leakage of water and rock falls. M/s RITES
submitted a report containing proposal for remedial
measures amounting to Rs. 15.08 crore. Consequently
improvement and revamping works of lighting, ventilation
system, automation with computer and fire safety system
etc. have been done during the year 2001-2002. Polymer
grouting was done in the leakage/seepage reaches in the
year 2006-2007 to stop leakages.
148
1961
Status
In Use
Location
J&K
Function
Road Tunnel
Length
2576 m
WATER SUPPLY AND IRRIGATION

TUNNELS
149
150
WATER SUPPLY AND

IRRIGATION TUNNELS
the noise levels caused by conventional technologies, that

the organization came across the technology of using
Tunnel Boring Machines for construction of tunnels. Since
then, MCBM has completed more than 25 kms. of
tunneling for water supply in Mumbai and about 29 kms.
of tunnels are under construction today. The range of
diameters of tunnels varies from 2.2 mt to 3.5 mt.
Methodology of Construction:
WATER SUPPLY TUNNEL
Municipal Corporation of Brihan Mumbai has been
making concerted efforts to meet the ever-growing water
demand of Mumbai. Since the partition of country in
1947, large scale industrial expansion in terms of oil
refineries, chemical plants etc. resulted in huge influx of
population in Mumbai. Further, in 1950, merging of
western and eastern suburbs increased the water
demand tremendously. This was the time when the
engineering excellence of independent India got
introduced in the form of Vaitarna Scheme. Under the
scheme, a 7.2 km. long tunnel was driven through
Vaitarna hills to link the Vaitarna and Tansa lakes by
MCBM. Since then, tunnels have always remained an
undivided part of any water supply scheme executed by
MCBM till to date.
Though, the newer and newer water supply
schemes are developed with sources located at about
80 to 100 km. away from Mumbai, the conveyance of
water through the northern end of Mumbai to southern
part has always been a nightmarish experience.
Thereafter, due to the phenomenal growth in the
population, consequential traffic congestion in the City
and awareness of the increasing corrosivity of soils have
put severe restrictions on laying of either above ground
or underground pipelines. Further, due to the all-round
development in Mumbai, the demand for maintaining
high pressures in the distribution system has also
increased. Under the circumstances, there has been no
other alternative with MCBM than to go for tunnels as
the only feasible alternative for the distribution feeder
mains. As a matter of fact, MCBM has evolved the policy
of replacement of old dilapidated distribution feeders by
tunnels, since they are found to be free of maintenance.
Concept of Tunnel System:

The tunneling system adopted in Mumbais Water
Supply comprises an inlet and outlet shafts, vertical in
nature with intermediate shafts, if any, as per the
requirements of the distribution system. These shafts
are generally not less than 60 mts. in depth and are
connected by means of tunnel bored by Tunnel Boring
Machines (TBM). In fact, MCBM has been the pioneer
in India with regard to adoption of Tunnel Boring
Machines for tunnel construction. Keeping in line with
famous adage that the necessity is the mother of
invention, MCBM in 1981-1982, embarked in search of
a technology for construction of tunnels due to severe
restrictions in terms of ground vibrations, consequential
uneven settlement of ground and the difficulty of reducing
Under any typical tunneling contract, initially, the

shafts generally of about 8 to 11 mts. in diameter are
sunk either by well sinking or by open excavation. Further
downwards the invert level of the shaft is reached by
resorting to controlled blasting. At the invert level of the
shaft, the tail and assembly tunnels are constructed so
as to provide adequate space for assembling of TBM,
positioning of transformers, pumps and creating working
space for handling of muck, transportation of concrete
for lining etc.
The Tunnel Boring Machine is then lowered, in
parts, into the shaft where the same is assembled along
with the entire back up system comprising probe drilling
equipment, grouting and shotcreting equipments, rock
bolting tools, tunnel support installation mechanisms etc.
On completion of the tunnel boring operation, the TBM
is extracted from the outlet shafts, again in parts and
the work of providing reinforced concrete lining to the
tunnel is taken up. However, before commencing the
work of lining, geological mapping of the entire tunnel is
carried out and the data is logged carefully. The water
supply tunnels in MCBM are generally provided with
reinforced concrete lining designed to withstand partially,
the internal pressures created by the pressurized water
system.
Support System
(I) Shafts
The shafts constructed in water supply tunnels in
MCBM are basically serving two purposes.
(i)
The shafts provide construction facility during

construction of tunnel.
(ii)
Connectivity of the tunnel with the surface pipeline

in the distribution system.
As such the shafts remain open till completion of

the construction of tunnel including lining. Therefore, the
shafts are provided with permanent R.C. lining. However,
during construction of the shafts, following support
techniques are adopted.
(i) Conventional shotcreting with or without wire mesh.
(ii) Rock bolting.
II) Tunnels:
Mumbai forms one of the important parts of
Deccan Trap. As a result, the geological formations
mainly consist of basaltic lava flows. Further, these lava
flows are found interspersed with intercalations of various
volcanic products such as black shale, volcanic ash,
marine clay etc. At some places, the rock formations
151

are typically Deccan Trap basalt with infillings of either
zeolite or quartzite or plagioclase or calcite as secondary
minerals.
In view therefore, the support system adopted
consists of (i)
Shotcreting
(ii)
Rock bolting
(iii)
Providing liners in the form of steel arches above

springing level.
Further, Mumbai being developed as an island

city (previously comprising of 7 independent islands) by
resorting to reclamation of some part of Mumbai, the
rocks at certain locations are found to be extremely
disintegrated, thereby giving rise to enormous seepages
being encountered during construction of tunnels. Under
the circumstances, various types of groutings are
inducted such as cement sand grout, micro fine cement
152
grout, polyurethane grouts or even resorting to steel liners

with concrete back packing.
However, the most noteworthy part has been that
on completion of R.C. lining, it is experienced that no
contamination whatsoever has been observed in water
supply tunnels constructed in the last 25 years. The usage
of tunnels as part of distribution system has given an
added advantage that the pressures in the distribution
system have improved, due to which MCBM had to install
pressure reducing valves at the outlet shafts of distribution
tunnels.
Irrigation Tunnels
Some of the important irrigation tunnels pertain to
projects - Tawa project, Hemavaty reservior project,
Malaprabha project, Ghatprabha project, Punasa Tunnel
- Indira sagar project & Canal Tunnel of Srisailam project.
Special details of some of water Supply and
Irrigation Tunnels already completed and under
construction are given as the following pages :
EXISTING MODAK SAGAR BELL NALLAH TUNNEL PROJECT

(a)
(i)
State
Maharashtra.
(ii)
Owner
Municipal Corporation of Brihan Mumbai.
(iii)
Designer
(iv)
Contractors
Hindustan Construction Co.Ltd.
(v)
Total length
6.66 km
(vi)
Shape
Horse shoe type with curved base.
(vi)
Size/cross sectional area
Finished diameter 3.07 m
(b)
Date of commissioning
(c)
Layout including slope of tunnel
The intake tower of 42 m depth is located offshore Modaksagar

lake and connected with approach bridge with the bank. The
intake has four draw off levels, each having four gated
openings. The horse shoe size tunnel starts from intake and
connects wier near Bell Nallah. The bifurcating chamber of
8.50 m. diameter and 45 m depth has been provided as the
main tunnel near Bell Nallah with two branch tunnels one to
feed to Tansa lake and the other to convey the Vaitarna water
to Mumbai area independly at Tansa lake. The general slope
of tunnel is 1:1000.
(d)
Geological conditions / Geology
Modaksagar Dam is situated on the West side of Continental

Divide. This entire area falls under Deccan Trap Formations.
A great variety of rocks with diverse engineering
characteristics, occur in the Deccan Traps. In the Deccan Traps
two main types of basalts occur viz.
(a) Compact Basalts
(b) Amygdaloidal Basalts.
1956-57
Compact basalts do not contain any gas cavities. In

amygdaloidal basalts gas cavities are filled up with secondary
minerals.
(e)
(f)
Lining
The intake tower is RCC lined and the tunnel is internal cement
concrete lined of thickness varying from 150 mm. to 300 mm.
depending upon the quality of the rock. Reinforcement has
been used wherever necessary.
Concrete and Support system
The tunnel is cement concrete lined as explained earlier. The

tunnel was also grouted with cement under pressure of 7.2
kg/cm2 behind the lining to fill up any crevices and gaps caused
due to shrinkage of concrete particularly at crown portion.
Tunnelling/ excavation equipment
The shafts and tunnel was constructed by conventional drill

and blast method.
153
MULUND - KANDIVALI TUNNEL PROJECT

(a)
(i)
State
Maharashtra.
(ii)
Owner
MCBM
(iii)
Contractors
M/s. Patel Engineering Ltd.
(iv)
Construction period:
48 months (Forty-eight months)
(v)
Total length
(vi)
Shape
Horse shoe type
(vii)
2.5 m horse shoe.
(i)
30th April 1968.
(ii)
Construction period like 2002-2004
1963-1968.
(c)
The tunnel starts at the foot of Bhandup Treatment Works

and carries water to the extended Western Suburbs fed
through Malad and Borivali Reservoir. Slope provided to the
tunnel is 1:1000
(d)
The tunnel was driven through sound basalt, but in the event
the rock encountered was highly weathered and jointed,
fissured.
(e)
Linining
RCC
Tunnel was provided with lining of thickness 300 mm
6 km
(b)
(i)
Support System
(ii)
Steel
M.S. liners in the forms of segment were provided as

permanent support if situation so warrants
(iii)
Rock bolting
Tunnel was provided with Rock Bolts.
(iv)
Shotcreting
Tunnel was provided with shotcrete of thickness 100 mm.
Drill and blast
Tunnel was constructed by Drill & Blast method.
Problems faced during construction

and their solutions
During construction difficulty was experienced with rock

falls and with ground water. The over break was about
15-20%. To tackle the problem concrete lining was provided
throughout, reinforced over much of the length. In addition,
permanent steel supports were provided over about 6% of
the total length.
(f)
(i)
(g)
154
155
INTEL TUNNEL TO BHANDUP TREATMENT PLANT PROJECT
(a)
(i)
State
Maharashtra.
(ii)
Owner
MCBM
(iii)
Designer
M/s. TCE Consulting Engineers Limited.
(iv)
Contractors
M/s. H.C.C. Ltd.
(v)
(vi)
Total length
(vii)
Shape
Modified horse shoe shape
(viii)
5 m (horse shoe) Cross Sectional area : 14.95 m2

( approximately).
(i)
01.04.1979.
(ii)
Construction period like 2002-2004.
1975 1979.
(c)
The tunnel is provided with only one shaft at the treatment

plant through which water will be conveyed to the inlet bay of
the treatment plant. The depth of the shaft is 30 m.
(d)
Tunnel passes through Grayish Amygdaloidal Basalt rock.
(e)
Linining
RCC
Drill and blast
46 months
983 m
(b)
(i)
(f)
(i)
156
The tunnel is provided with 300 mm thick RCC lining of grade

M15.
Tunnel was constructed by Drill and Blast method.
MAHALAKSHMI - MALABAR HILL TUNNEL PROJECT
(a)
(i)
State
Maharashtra.
(ii)
Owner
MCBM
(iii)
Designer
M/s. Creative Consultants Pvt.Ltd.
(iv)
Contractors
M/s. Gammon India Ltd.
(v)
84 months (eighty-four months)
(vi)
Total length
(vii)
Shape
Circular.
(viii)
2.9 m finished. Cross sectional area = 6.6 m2
(i)
1989.
(ii)
1982-1989.
(c)
The tunnel starts at Mahalakshmi Race Course and is

terminated at the foot of Malabar Hill Reservoir, in order to
strengthen the inlet system of Malabar Hill Reservoir. Slope
provided to the tunnel is 1:1000
(d)
The tunnel was driven through Amygdaloidal Basalt with

Pockets of tuffaceous breccia.
(e)
Lining
RCC
Tunnel is provided with 300 mm thick R.C.C. lining.
4 km.
(b)
(i)
Support System
(i)
Rock bolting
Tunnel was provided with rock bolts.
(ii)
Shotcreting
Tunnel was provided with shotcrete of thickness 50 mm with

or without steel mesh.
TBM
TBM was deployed for the construction of tunnel.

and their solutions
Initially the tunnel was designed without R.C.C. lining with

only shotcreating of 100 mm with wire mesh. However,
on deducing the E-value of the rocks, in situ, the
necessity of providing 300 mm R.C.C. lining was
realized and the same was provided.
f)
(i)
g)
157
BHANDUP - MALAD HILL - CHARKOP TUNNEL PROJECT
(a)
(i)
State
Maharashtra.
(ii)
Owner
Municipal Corporation of Brihanmumbai.
(iii)
Designer
Tata Consulting Engineers Ltd.
(iv)
Contractors
Hindustan Construction Co.Ltd.
(v)
Construction period
72 months for entire tunnel, 48 months for Bhandup-Malad

Hill Reservoir section
(vi)
Total length
11.95 km
(vii)
Shape
Circular
(viii)
The finished internal diameter of shafts at Bhandup Complex,

Liberty Garden and Charkop is 8 m and that of Malad Hill
Reservoir is 10 m.The finished diameter of the tunnel is 3 m
and bore diameter is 3.6 m.
(b)
(c)
(i)
09.02.2006
(ii)
Construction period
08-08-2000 to 09-02-2006
Four no.of shafts are constructed, with drilling and blasting

method, at Bhandup Complex, Malad Hill Reservoir, Liberty
Garden and Charkop. The depth of shafts varies from 46 m.
to 72 m.
The circular shaped tunnel is constructed to connect these
four shafts by two separate tunnel boring machines. The tunnel
runs from Bhandup Complex towards vent shaft located 2.5
km away with upward slope of 1:500 and then further dips
down towards Malad Hill Reservoir with slope of 1:500. The
tunnel dips down sharply with slope of 1:50 towards Liberty
Garden and finally meet Charkop shaft with downward slope
of 1:500. In plan, the alignment of tunnel from Bhandup
Complex to Liberty Garden via. Malad Hill Reservoir is straight
then the tunnel turns towards Charkop from Liberty Garden
shaft at an angle of 1240 approximately.
d)
The region falls in the Deccan Trap area, and the main rock
types are basalts, trachytes, volcanic breccias and tuffs of
different types. Shales occur as intercalations in other rocks
or as independent beds. Vertical and steeply inclined fractures
along which no movement has taken place are known to be
occurring in the region and have also been met with in some
drill holes.
(e)
Lining
The shafts are 400 mm.thick RCC lined (cast in situ) of

concrete grade M20. The tunnel is lined with 300 mm. thick
RCC of concrete grade
M25. In some areas, with weak
geological stratas, 16 mm thick mild steel liners are provided.

These steel liners are lined internally with 12 mm thick cement
mortar.
158

Support System
For supporting rock mass, whenever necessary 3 m to 5 m

long bolts are used. These supporting bolts are (i) resin
grouted, (ii)cement grouted with thixotropic grout. Mild steel
liners are also provided as explained in point (e) lining.In
addition to above, wherever necessary, permanent steel
supports and / or 50 mm thick shotcreting with steel fabric is
also provided.
(f)
Tunnelling / excavation equipment.
The tunnel was bored using two nos. of full face rock tunnel
boring machines (TBM) of 3.6 m diameter. Two TBMs
commenced the boring simultaneously from two ends viz.
Bhandup Complex and Malad Hill Reservoir, towards vent
shaft. 2.7 km away from Bhandup Complex. After boring B
M tunnel, two TBMs were dismantled, taken out, refurbished
and installed in Charkop and Liberty Garden shafts and
commence boring towards Libery Garden and Malad Hill
Reservoir respectively.
(g)

and their solutions
(i) The tunnel passes below Sanjay Gandhi National Park.

Therefore, many restrictions from view point of noise,
ground vibrations and restricted working hours etc.
were imposed by Forest Deptt.
(2) At Charkop shaft, enormous seepage amounting to 12000
lit/ min. was encountered where all the conventional methods
of grouting failed and hampered the progress of work for 6
months.
159
RUPAREL COLLEGE - MAHALAKSHMI RACE COURSE TUNNEL PROJECT

(a)
(i)
State
Maharashtra.
(ii)
Owner
MCBM
(iii)
Designer
M/s. TCE Consulting Engineers Ltd.
(iv)
Contractors
M/s. H.C.C.Ltd.
(v)
60 months (sixty months)
(vi)
Total length
(vii)
Shape
Circular
(viii)
3 m finished cross sectional area was 7.07 m2.
(i)
September 2000.
(ii)
1995-2000.
(c)
This tunnel is backward extension of Mahalakshmi

Malabar Hill Tunnel. The inlet shaft is near Ruparel
College, Dadar and terminates in Mahalakshmi shaft.
Slope provided to the tunnel is 1:1000
(d)
The tunnel passes through compact Basalt with occasional

presence of Volcanic ash and shales.
(e)
Lining
RCC
5 km
(b)
(i)
Support System
(i)
Steel
M.S. liners in the form of segment were provided as permanent

support, if situation warrants.
(ii)
Rock bolting
Tunnel was supported by rock bolts.
(iii)
Shotcreting
Tunnel was provided with shotcrete of thickness 50 mm with

or without fabric.
Tunneling/ excavation equipment
TBM
TBM was deployed for the excavation of tunnel.

and their solutions
Heavy seepages were encountered at

about 1.5 km from Ruparel College end. In-spite of
pressure grouting seepage could not be stopped, the
work was held up for a period of about 2 months owing
to seepages. However, polyurethane grouts had to be
used for the first time in the history of tunneling by
MCBM.
(f)
(i)
(g)
160
BASSEIN CREEK TUNNEL PROJECT

(a)
(i)
State
Maharashtra.
(ii)
Owner
(iii)
Designer
M/s. Tata Consulting Engineers Ltd.
(iv)
Contractors
Gopaldas Vasudev and Co.
(v)
10 Years.
(vi)
Total length
(vii)
Shape
Circular.
(viii)
Finished diameter 3.5 m.
(i)
1991.
(ii)
Construction period
1981 - 1991
(c)
Tunnel spans across bassein creek and has been designed

to carry treated water flow to the tune of 1300 MLD. Both the
terminal shafts are located on shores of bassein creeks on
either ends.
(d)
Geology of the area is dominated by Amygdoloidal Bassalt in

Amygdoloidal Bassalt gas cavities are filled up with secondary
minerals.
(e)
Lining
The tunnel is provided with steel liners lined internally with 12

mm thick cement mortar.

long bolts are used. These supporting bolts will be of two types
viz. resingrouted, cement grouted with thixotropic grout. In
addition to above, 50 mm thick shotcrete with steel fabric is
also provided.
The tunnel is excavated using drilled and blast method.
702 m.
(b)
(f)
161
KINGS CIRCLE - SEWREE TUNNEL PROJECT
(a)
(i)
State
Maharashtra.
(ii)
Owner
MCBM
(iii)
96 months (Ninety-six Months)
(iv)
Total length
(v)
Shape
Circular.
(vi)
3 m finished cross sectional area - 7.07 m2
(i)
September 1997.
(ii)
1989-1997.
(c)
Being part of inlet system of Golanji and Bhandarwada service

Reservoir, the tunnel starts from Kings Circle and terminates
at Sewree. Slope provided to the tunnel is 1:1000
(d)
The tunnel passes through no.of fractures zone, crush zone,

shear zones & zones of deeply decomposed were delt with
during tuning.
(e)
Lining
RCC
3.8 km.
(b)
(i)
Support System
(iii)
Steel
M.S. liners in the form of segment were provided as permanent

support if situation warrants.
(iv)
Rock bolting
Tunnel was supported by rock bolts.
(v)
Shotcreting
Tunnel was provided with shotcrete treatment of 100 mm

thickness.
TBM
TMB was deployed for the construction.

and their solutions
Heavy seepages were encountered .

The TBM was stuck due to caving in of rock at about
1km from inlet shaft at Kings circle. The Cutterhead got
badly damaged and had to be got refurbished from the
original manufacturer by losing about 1 year production
time
f)
(i)
g)
162
MALABAR HILL - CROSS MAIDAN TUNNEL PROJECT
(a)
(i)
State
Maharashtra.
(ii)
Owner
MCBM
(iii)
Designer
(iv)
Contractors
M/s. Patel Pratibha JV.
(v)
39 months (Thirty-Nine Months)
(vi)
Total length
(vii)
Shape
Circular (Assembly and tall tunnels are horse shoe shape)
(viii)
Finished dia. 2.2 m cross sectional area = 3.80 m2
(i)
04.10.10 (Proposed)
(ii)
Construction period like
2007 to 2010.
(c)
Proposed tunnel starts from Malabar Hill (Kilachand garden),

which is about 4 km. from C.S.T. It will replace age old
distribution pipelines, supplying water to A, B, C Wards i.e.,
Malabar Hill, Colaba, Cuff Parade, Nariman Point, Navy Nagar,
Fort, Kalbadevi, Dhobitalav area which are in the city. Three
No. of shafts will be constructed at (i) Kilachand Garden 68
m deep. (ii) S.K.Patil Udyan 79 m deep. (iii) Cross Maidan
69 m deep. Slope to be provided to the tunnel is 1:1000.
(d)
From the Geotechnical investigation it is observed that the

tunnel will be passing through grey, Breccia with intercalation
of black shale. The rock is soft and becomes more soft in
contact with water. In-situ packer permeability test indicates
permeability varying between 8 lugeous and 22 lugeous. This
means the tunneling medium is not only soft weak, broken
into small pieces, but is highly permeable also. Rock Mass
Rating (RMR) value of rock in the tunnel portion is expected
to vary between 20 and 44. This indicates that rock mass
falls under Class III or IV and it can be classified as fair to
poor.
(e)
Lining
RCC
R.C.C. lining of thickness 300 mm of grade M25 will be

provided.
3.575 km.
(b)
(i)
Support system
(i)
Steel
M.S.Liner in the form of segment may be used as permanent

support if the situation so warrants.
(ii)
Rock bolting
Following three types of bolts shall be provided.

(a) Resin grouted bolts.
(b) Cement grouted bolts with thixotropic grout.
(c) Mechanical bolts such as swellex especially in wet
locations.
(iii)
Shotcrete
Shotcrete of thickness of 50 mm with or without steel fabric

will be provided for support.
TBM
TBM of size 2.8 m diameter will be deployed for the tunnel

construction.
(g)

and their solutions
Under construction presently.
(h)
Instrumentation.
Following instrument will be provided.

(i) Pore water pressure measuring system.
(f)
(i)
163
MODAKSAGAR - BELL NALLAH TUNNEL PROJECT
(a)
(i)
State
Maharashtra.
(ii)
Owner
(iii)
Designer
Mott MacDonald Consortium
(iv)
Contractors
Pratibha Ostustetin Joint Venture
(v)
48 months
(vi)
Total length
(vii)
Shape
Main tunnel Circular, Inlet tunnels from intake to lake 3

Nos. horse shoe type at various levels.
(viii)
Main tunnel = 3.5 m finished dia. (Circular) 4.1 m bore dia.Inlet

tunnels Cross Sectional area = 4.04 m2 each(horse shoe)
(i)
05.07.2011 proposed
(ii)
Construction period
06-07-2007 to 05-07-2011 proposed
(c)
The intake tower is located near the pondage of Lower Vaitarna

(Modaksagar) Dam and will be connected to lake through 3
nos. of horse shoe tunnels at 3 different levels viz. The shape
of intake is hexagonal with each side of 7 m. The depth of
shaft will be approximately 100 m. The main tunnel will be
constructed from intake shaft to Bell Nallah. There already
exists a shaft at Bell Nallah and which will be depended to 20
m with diameter of 7 m. The tunnel is sloping downwards from
B.N.to M.S. at slope 1:1000.
(d)
Modaksagar Dam is situated on the West side of Continental

Divide. This entire area falls under Deccan Trap Formations.
A great variety of rocks with diverse engineering
characteristics, occur in the Deccan Traps. Two main types of
basalts occurring at site are.
7.5 km
(b)
(a) Compact Basalts

(b) Amygdaloidal Basalts.Compact basalts do not
contain any gas cavities. In amygdaloidal basalts
gas cavities are filled up with secondary minerals.
(e)
Lining
The main tunnel will be RCC lined (cast in situ) of 300 m

thickness. The grade of concrete will be M25. The intake shaft
will be M25 grade RCC lined (cast in situ) of 800 mm. thickness.
All intake tunnels will be M25 grade RCC lined (cast in situ) of
300 mm thickness. In low cover areas and weak geological
stratas, 16 mm thick mild steel liners will be provided. These
steel liners will be lined internally with 12 mm thick cement
mortar.

long bolts will be used. These supporting bolts will be of three
types viz. resingrouted, cement grouted with thixotropic grout,
mechanical bolts such as Swellex especially in wet locations.
Mild steel liners are also provided as explained in point (e)
lining.In addition to above, wherever necessary, permanent
steel supports and / or 50 mm thick shotcreting with steel fabric
is also provided.
(f)
The main tunnel will be excavated by 4.1 m dia. full face rock
tunnel boring machine (TBM). All these intake tunnels will be
excavated using drilling and controlled blasting method.
(g)

and their solutions
Under construction.
164
MAROSHI - RUPAREL COLLEGE TUNNEL PROJECT
(a)
(i)
State
Maharashtra.
(ii)
Owner
(iii)
Designer
M/s. TCE Consulting Engineers Ltd.
(iv)
Contractors
Patel Pratibha Joint Venture
(v)
56 Months for full tunnel37 Months for Maroshi-Vakola tunnel

section.
(vi)
Total length
(vii)
Shape
Circular.
(viii)
tunnel - 3 m finished dia.meter, 3.6 m bore diameter.

shaft 9 m finished diameter.
(i)
9.5.2012 proposed
(ii)
Construction period
10-09-2007 to 09-05-2012 (Proposed)
(c)
The tunnel will be excavated, at approximately 54m to 70 m

depth from ground level, between three shafts to be
constructed at Mahim, Vakola and Maroshi with depths of 54
m, 64 m and 70 m respectively. The finished dia of shafts will
be 9 m. In addition to above, 3 shafts, one vent shaft will be
provided in between Maroshi & Vakola tunnel section at exact
midpoint of two shafts i.e. 2.75 km from either shafts. The
tunnel of 3 m finished dia. will be constructed to connect these
three shafts and finally it will meet shaft (already existed) at
Ruparel College. The tunnel will be sloping upwards, towards
Ruparel College shaft with slope of 1:600. The tunnel shall
carry all Tansa & Vaitarna water from Maroshi located at 5
km. from Bhandup treatment works. The tunnel on completion
will feed Worli and Malabar service reservoir and the district
zones in Santacruz, Khar, Bandra, Dadar etc.
(d)
Number of fracture zones, shear zones, crushed zones and

zones of deeply to completely decomposed rock masses are
likely to be dealt with during tunnelling. In such zones, rock
masses of class IV and class V will have to be negotiated
with. At places rock masses of class VI i.e. rock with flowing
conditions are also likely to be met with. Therefore, suitable
protective measures against such rock masses will have to
be planned.
Lining
All shafts will be lined (cast in situ) with M25 R.C.C. of grade
thickness 500 mm. The tunnel will be RCC lined (cast in situ)
of M20 grade concrete of thickness 300 mm. In some areas
with weak geological stratas, 16 mm thick mild steel liners will
be provided. These steel liners will be lined internally with 12
mm thick cement mortar.

long bolts will be used. These supporting bolts will be of three
types viz. resingrouted, cement grouted with thixotropic grout,
mechanical bolts such as Swellex especially in wet locations.
Mild steel liners are also provided as explained in point (e)
lining.In addition to above, permanent steel supports and / or
50 mm thick shotcrete with steel fabric is also provided.
11.85 kms.
(b)
(e)
165

(f)
Boring of tunnel will be done with the help of 2 nos. of modern

full face rock tunnel boring machines (TBM) of 3.6
diameter.TBM-1 will bore tunnel from Vakola to vent shaft,
simultaneously TBM-2 will bore from Maroshi to vent shaft.After
boring Maroshi Vakola Section both TBMs. will be
dismantled, taken out, refurbished and then installed in Vakola
and Mahim shafts then TBM-1 will bore tunnel from Vakola
towards Mahim, simultaneously TBM-2 will start boring tunnel
from Mahim shaft towards Ruparel College shaft (existing).
(g)
Problems faced during construction .

and their solutions
Under construction.
166
VERAVALI - YARI ROAD TUNNEL PROJECT
(a)
(i)
State
Maharashtra.
(ii)
Owner
MCBM
(iii)
Designer
(iv)
Contractors
M/s. Patel Engineering Ltd.
(v)
50 months (Fifty months)
(vi)
Total length
(vii)
Shape
Circular ( Assembly and tail tunnels are horse shoe shape)
(viii)
Size 2.2 m finished dia. Cross sectional area 3.8 m2
(i)
06.12.2010 (proposed)
(ii)
2006 to 2010 (proposed).
(c)
Veravali Service Reservoir is located at about 35 km from

C.S.T. & supplies water to part of Western Suburbs of Mumbai.
The tunnel will carry water from above service reservoir to
water supply zones located at 4.5 km. and 6.1 km. from
Veravali Reservoir. Hence the terminal shafts are located at
(i) Veravali Reservoir 85 m. deep. (ii) Adarsh Nagar 50 m.
deep. (iii) Yari Road. 50 m deep. Slope to be provided to the
tunnel is 1:500.
(d)
Tunnel falls in the Deccan Trap area and the main rock types
are basalts, trachytes, volcanic breccia and tuffs of different
types. Black shale occur as intercalations in other rocks or as
independent beds. Vertical or steeply inclined tractures along
which no movement has taken places are known to be
occurring in the region. At certain locations, Laterite formations
have also been observed.
(e)
Lining
RCC
Concrete backpacking of thickness 375mm of grade M -20

will be provided behind steel liners of plate thickness. 13 mm.
6.1 km
(b)
(i)
Support System
(i)
Steel
M.S.liners in the form of segment may be provided as

permanent support if situation so warrants.
(ii)
Rock bolting
Following two types of bolts shall be provided.

(i) Grouted perfo bolts.
(ii) Wedge type slotted rock bolts.
(iii)
Shotcrete
Shotcrete of thickness 50 mm with or without steel fabric will

be provided.
TBM
TBM of size 3.0 m diameter will be deployed for the

construction.

and their solutions
Under construction presently.
(f)
(i)
(g)
167
168
INDIRA SAGAR PROJECT

- PUNASA TUNNEL
(An Irrigation Tunnel)
State
Madhya Pradesh
River
Narmada
Owner
Narmada Valley
Development Authority
Designer
CWC
Contractors
Asian Tech. ( ABAN

Construction )
Construction Period
1997-2003
Total Length & Size
3675 m, 8.25 m dia
Shape
Circular
a canal head powerhouse of 15MW (3x5) and two irrigation

sluices (3x5 m) and Jack/Lift well of Punasa Lift Scheme.
The discharge actually designed to pass was 185
cumecs, 160 cumecs for ISP and 25 cumecs for Punasa
Lift up to branch tunnel but in the meanwhile the position
of Punasa Lift was shifted to upstream of control structure.
As such the tunnel was required to pass only 160 cumecs.
The construction of Punasa tunnel started in full
swing 1997 and completed in 2003. Initially the lining
proposed was 0.6 m RCC but later on it was reduced to
0.35 m owing to good quality of rock met during
construction. The initial support system consisted of
100mm thick shotcrete (plain and reinforced selectively).
The spot rock bolting of 25 mm diameter and 3m length
wedged type work provided. The steel supports were
needed in selective reaches and only 5% of the total length
needed steel supports where the lining provided was
reinforced.
In addition to this the following tunnels have been
constructed in Head works of Indira Sagar Project
The Punasa facilities of Indira Sagar Project

consisted of 3233 m long approach channel and 3675m
long 8.25 m dia lined tunnel and about 2451 m long exit
channel ending at RD 9360m which is 0 RD of ISP main
canal. The approach channel is within reservoir area and
is excavated with varying slopes depending upon strata
met with 1:1 at beginning to near vertical near tunnel portal.
The tunnel is entirely in hard rock and lined and regulation
gates are situated at Control Structure about 200 m u/s
of tunnel portal. The exit channel is in deep cut and the
water prism is met with good hard rock in majority of
reach. The Control Structure is typical of its kind. It houses
Indira Sagar & Omkareshwar Project Complex
169

Location
Length of
Tunnel
(M)
Type of
Flow
Finished
Diameter
Type of
Lining
Designed
Discharge
Diversion Tunnel
390
Pressurized/
Open
8.75
100 mm
thick
shotcrete
500 cumecs
Penstock 1 to 8
115
Pressurized
8.00
Steel lined
275 cumecs
Indira Sagar Project Canals

Amba Tunnel
2030
Open
8.25
Horseshoe
35 cm
thick
concrete
116.90 cumecs
Ahirkheda Tunnel
1975
Open
7.00
Horseshoe
35 cm
thick
concrete
77 cumecs
ISP Main Canal-Completed Control Structure ART.D 3045 M
170
MORBE DAM PROJECT
long delay detonator with coil circuit shape arrangement

was adopted for blasting. 450 cfm capacity compressor
used for drilling & ventilation purpose. Daily 1.5 m length
tunnel excavation was achieved with above arrangement.
As good sound rock was available, providing
permanent supports, rock bolting etc. was not required.
For smooth discharge of water and for avoiding weathering
of rock , P.C.C. lining 300 mm thick in M 20 is done.
State
Maharashtra
River
Dhavari
Construction Period
Started in Year 1999
Length of Tunnel
460 m
Morbe Dam Project is constructed across river

Dhavari near Village Morbe Tal.Khalapur Dist. Raigad. The
construction work started in year 1999. The specific
purpose of Project is rural and urban water supply.
The Salient features of the Tunnel and Dam
Earth Dam length 3300 m, height 53 meters
Head regulator Tunnel - D shape tunnel 460 m

long, 2.5 m clear size, 10 cumecs discharge
Upstream Control - Dry well with E.G. gate Wet

well with service gate 2 meter @ RL 52.00 & 72.00
connected to Tunnel with bell-mouth and transition
structure.
Down stream structure -Tunnel section connected

directly to M. S. pipe line with suitable bell-mouth
and transition with R.C.C. lining.
Geology
The rock met out was of Amigdaloidal Basalt with
uneven joints. Under ground excavation carried out with
Horizontal drilling 8 ft in central and 5 ft @ exterior end. A
171
172
ANCIENT CAVES AND CAVERNS
173
174
ANCIENT CAVES AND

CAVERNS
The Paleolithic man was the first resident of caves.

Thus from very prehistory mankind started living in man
made and natural caves. These caves protected them
from vagaries of weather. And while the cave man dwelt
in those caves he started painting and drawings. The
picture show the work of art of pre historic man.
A journey through ancient wonders of India

Prehistory
The prehistoric period in the history of humankind
can roughly be calculated from 200000 BC to about 35002500 BC, when the first civilizations began to take shape.
The history of India is no exception to the abovementioned fact. The first modern human beings or the
Homo sapiens set their foot on the Indian subcontinent
anywhere between 200000 BC and 40000 BC and they
soon spread throughout a large part of the subcontinent,
including peninsular India. They continuously flooded the
Indian subcontinent in wave after wave of migration from
what is present-day Iran. These primitive people moved
in groups of few families and mainly lived on hunting and
gathering. While the males in the group spent most of
their time in hunting, fishing, and gathering food like fruits,
roots, and berries, the females gathered food, looked after
the children and the dwellings where they lived.
Underground structures are not a modern
development, as living beings first dwellings were caves
right from Stone Age.
Stone Age
The age when the prehistoric man began to use
stones for utilitarian purpose is termed as the Stone Age.
The Stone Age is divided into three broad divisionsPaleolithic Age or the Old Stone Age (from unknown till
8000 BC), Mesolithic Age or the Middle Stone Age (8000
BC-4000 BC) and the Neolithic Age or the New Stone
Age (4000 BC-2500 BC) on the basis of the specialization
of the stone tools, which were made during that time.
Ajanta Caves
Location
The caves are in a wooded and rugged horseshoeshaped ravine about 3 km from the village of Ajintha. It
is situated in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra State
in India (106 km away from the city of Aurangabad). Along
the bottom of the ravine runs the river Waghur, a mountain
stream. There are 29 caves excavated in the south side
of the precipitous scarp made by the cutting of the ravine.
They vary from 35 to 110 ft. (10.5 m to 33.5 m) in elevation
above the bed of the stream.
History
Ajanta is one of the worlds greatest historical
monuments recognised by UNESCO.These caves were
discovered in AD 1819 and were built up in the earlier
2nd century BC-AD. Most of the paintings in Ajanta are
right from 2nd century BC-AD and some of them about
the fifth century AD and continued for the next two
centuries. All paintings show heavy religious influence
and centre around Buddha, Bodhisattvas, incidents from
the life of Buddha and the Jatakas.
Most of them were finished, a few were half
finished, a pathway, scooped out from stone, runs as a
crescent by the caves for pedestrians.
The Ajanta cave temples are of two different kinds,
some of them are Chaitya halls, for group worship as in
Bhaja, Karla, and Kanheri. In the Chaitya hall caves
(8,9,10,12 & 13), there are symbolic stupas. These
represent the grave mounds over the relics of the
175
Badami Caves
Location
Buddha.The second kind of cave in Ajanta is the Vihara
cave. This has cells for monks to live in their excavation
exhibits a great variety, some with simple facade, others
ornate; some have a porch and others do not.
The paintings and sculptures of Ajanta are
considered masterpieces of Buddhist religious art.
Badami caves lie in the state of Karnataka in India.

It is located near the red sandstone ridge in the northern
part of the city.
History
These caves were built during the regime of the Chalukya
Empire around the 6th century. They were discovered
Badami Caves
Some of the famous caves of Ajanta

Caves 1,2,16 and 17 have the best preserved
paintings and required days, not hours to appreciate.
176

by the Pulekeshin I, the great Chalukya ruler. These caves
present the perfect blend of the architectural design of
the north India Nagara style and the south India Nagara.
There are total of four Badami caves. Out of which three
are the Brahminical caves and one is the Jain cave. Cave
I is dedicated to Lord Shiva, Cave II and III to Lord Vishnu
and Cave IV to the Jain saints.
Bhimbetka Caves
Location
The Bhimbetka Caves are located about 45 km
from Bhopal, in the state of Madhya Pradesh. There are
838 caves, which are spread in the total area of 1850
hectares. Out of these, 15 of the most exotic caves have
been opened for the tourists. Bhimbetka caves are oldest
one among the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Bhimbetka Caves
Ellora Caves
Location
Located about 30 km from Aurangabad, these
caves are known for the genius of their sculptors.
History
Ellora first appears to the visitors as an irregular
ridge of rock rising vertically from the ground. The cave
complex is multicultural, as the caves here provide a
mix of Buddhist, Hindu and Jain religions.
The Cave Temples of Ellora

34 cave temples of Ellora can be divided into three
groups and roughly three periods: Buddhist, Hindu and
Jain. The Buddhist caves came first, about 200 BC 600 AD followed by the Hindu 500 - 900 AD and Jain
800 - 1000 AD.
The first three caves, all dating to the seventh

century are lofty, pillared halls. Cave number 4, a vihara
is two storeyed,
Cave 11 was known for a long time as Do Tal (Two
stories) to distinguish it from the next cave which was
called Teen Tal (three stories).
The ultiate culmination of rock-cut architecture in
terms of sheer mastery of technique and dazzling
conception is Cave 16, better known as the Kailasa
temple.
Pataleshwar Cave Temple

History
The name Bhimbetka caves is on the name of
Bhima, the hero of great Hindu epic called Mahabharata.
The name Bhim-bet-ka means Bhim sat down. These
caves were found by the famous Indian archaeologist, Dr.
V.S. Wakankar of the Vikram University, Ujjain, in the
year 1958. It took more the 17 years to fully excavate
these caves. More than 600 rock shelters, belonging to
the Neolithic age were recently discovered in the rocky
terrain of the Vindhyan range. The paintings in the caves
are mainly executed in red and white with the little bite
use of green and yellow. According to the sources and as
the paintings depict, these caves must have been used
as shelter by the large number of people in the pre historic
times around 300 BC. The oldest painting in the
Bhimbetka cave is more than 12,000 years old.
Location
Pataleshwar is the rock cut cave temple, located
in the heart of the city of Pune in Maharashtra India.
History
Pataleshwar cave temple was carved out in the
8th century.
Pataleshwar cave temple provides the perfect
example of rock cut architecture. It has been hewn out
from the single rock. The cave temple also houses the
museum, which is listed in the Guinness Book of
Records. The main attraction of the museum is the grain
of rice that has around 5,000 characters inscribed on it.
177

Rataleshwar Cave Temple
the Shilhara Kings

belonging to the 9th
and the 12th century. It
is believed that the
prince of Chalukya
dynasty Pulkesin II,
raised the huge shrine
of the Lord Shiva in
order to celebrate his
victory. While some of
the historians also
suggest that the caves
were built by the
Kalchuri
King
Krishnaraja in 6th
century AD. The
region was known as
the Gharapuri or the
Places of caves in the
ancient times. These
caves were termed as
the Elephanta caves by the Portuguese, who found here
the large elephant stone.
Elephanta Caves
Khandagiri Caves
Location
Location
The Elephanta caves are located on the small

Elephanta Island in the Arabian Sea, 10 km from the
gateway of India. This ultimate location is half an hour
boat ride from the Mumbai harbour. The Elephanta caves
have already been listed in the UNESCO World Heritage
Site in the year 1987.
Khandagiri caves are located at the distance of

6 km from Bhubaneshwar. The caves of Khandagiri are
located at a height of 118 feet (36 m). It is situated on
the hill rock slope facing the Udayagiri caves. Khandagiri
means the broken hill and the Udayagiri means hill of
the sunrise.
History
History
These rock cut old caves temples covering an area

of about 5600 m2 on the Elephanta island dates back to
Khandagiri houses the total of 15 caves. Each cave

of Khandagiri is beautifully designed with the paintings
Elephanta Caves
Khandagiri Caves
178

and motifs. The caves of Khandagiri can be reached either
by climbing the flight of steps leading from the road, up
from the main entrance of the Udayagiri caves or by cutting
directly across from the Hathi Gumpha, via the steps that
drop down from the cave 17. Akshya Ganga, Gupta Ganga,
Shyam Kund and Radha kund are some of the most
famous caves of the Khandagiri. The most interesting
among them all is the 24 Tirthankaras Cave, which
contains the carvings of the twenty four Apostles of Jainism
on the monolithic stones.
Undavalli Caves
Nellitheertha Cave
Location
Nellitheertha Cave is located in Nellitheertha, in
the state of Karnataka in India. The cave of Nellitheertha
is about 200 m long. The cave has the huge entrance
but one needs to reach the interior of the cave on knees
only.
Nellitheertha Caves
History
These four stories caves are said to be found in
the 7th century. They are associated with the
Vishnukundin Kings of AD 420 620. These exotic caves
of Undavalli were dedicated to the Anantapadmanabha
and Narisimhaswami.
Bagh Caves
Location
Bagh Caves are situated at a distance of 97 km
from Dhar in Madhya Pradesh, India.
History
History
The cave temple of Nellitheertha dates back to
year 1487.
These are renowned for mural paintings by master

painters of ancient India. The use of the word cave is a
bit of a misnomer, since these are not natural, but instead
examples of Indian rock-cut architecture. The Bagh
Caves, like those at Ajanta, were excavated by master
craftmen on perpendicular rock face of a hill on the far
bank of a seasonal stream, the Baghani. Buddhism is
the inspiration, of the nine caves, out of which only five
have survived. All of them are viharas or monasteries:
a small chamber, usually at the back, forms the chaitya,
the prayer hall.
Undavalli Caves
Location
Undavalli Caves lies in the Undavalli village in the
Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh. From the city of
Vijayawada the caves are located at a distance of 8 km
and 32 km from Guntur. These caves are located at the
top of the high hills facing the Krishna River.
Gupteswar Caves
Location
Gupteswar is a famous cave shrine dedicated to
Lord Shiva. It is located near Jeypore, India, at the top
of a limestone hill which is about 500 metres above sea
level.
179
History
Formation
Surrounded by a dense forest of sal trees and

flanked by Kolab river, a 2 m high lingam stands in the
cave. The shrine is called Gupteswar which means
the Hidden God. It is so named because it was lying
hidden in the cave for a very long period. There are also
several other caves nearby. Inside the second cave there
is a large stalactite. People worship it as the udder of
God Kamadhenu (the divine cow) and wait under it with
outstretched palms to collect drops of water which fall
only at long intervals.
Belum caves was formed due to erosion in

limestone deposit in the area by Chitravati River, millions
of years ago. This limestone caves was formed due to
action of carbonic acid or weakly acidic groundwater
formed due to reaction between limestone and water. The
carbonic acid dissolved minerals in the limestone rocks
in the area. The presence of river Chitravati in area for a
long period of time enable a vast labyrinth of underground
cave to form. Now Chitravati River flows almost 30 km
south of Belum. Belum Caves are located on a flat
agricultural field in Belum Village. There are 3 well like
cavities in plain agricultural fields. The central cavity is
the main entrance to the caves. However, the locals report
hundreds of cavities in the area. The walls of the cave
are very smooth as a result of erosion by river.
Bedse Caves
Location
Bedse Caves also known as Bedsa Caves are
situated in Maval taluka, Pune District, Maharashtra,
India.
History
The caves can be traced back up to 1st century
B.C. There are two main caves. The main cave which is
the Chaitya (prayer hall) has a beautiful Stupa. Both the
caves have some carvings also.
Belum Caves
Location
Belum Caves is located at Belum Village in
Kolimigundla Mandal of Kurnool District in State of
Andhra Pradesh, India. Kolimigundla is situated 3 km
from Belum Caves.
Entrance to Belum Caves
History
Belum Caves is the second largest cave in Indian
sub continent and the longest caves in plains of Indian
Subcontinent. Belum Caves derives its name from
Bilum Sanskrit word for caves. Belum Caves has a
length of 3229 m, making it the second largest natural
caves in Indian Subcontinent. Belum Caves have long
passages, spacious chambers, fresh water galleries and
siphons. The caves reach its deepest point 120 feet (36.6
m) from entrance level) at the point known as
Patalganaga.
Detailed exploration of the caves was carried out
in 1982 and 1983.
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) also found
remnants of vessels, etc. of pre-Buddhist era and has dated
the remnants of vessels found in the caves to 4500 BC.
Bhaja Caves
Location
Bhaja Caves, near the Karla Caves, are a group
of 18 rock-cut caves dating back to 200 BC located near
Development of Caves
180

Section of Belum Caves
The caves get their name from a formation inside

the caves that looks like the human brain, which in the
local language, Telugu, is known as borra. The river
Gosthani flows right beside the caves. The landscape
around the cave is wild and mountainous. The geology
is complicated and the limestone where the cave is
located is surrounded by mica. Several mines in this
mica are prospected for precious stones like rubies.
Edakkal Caves
Petroglyphs dating back to about 6000 BC
Location
Lonavala, a hill station, and Karli in the western state of

Maharashtra between the cities of Mumbai and Pune.
History
Viharas make up ten caves, and one is a chaitya,
stylistically similar to the Karla Caves. There is also group
of 14 stupas, five inside and nine outside the caves. One
of the caves has some fine sculptures. Near the last
cave is a waterfall which, during the monsoon season,
has water that falls into a small pool at the bottom.
Edakkal Caves are two natural caves located

1000 metres high on Ambukutty Mala 25 km from
Kalpetta in the Wayanad district of Kerala in Indias
Western Ghats.
History
They lie on an ancient trade route connecting the
high mountains of Mysore to the Malabar coast ports.
Inside the caves are pictorical writings believed to be
from neolithic man, evidence of the presence of a
prehistoric civilisation existing in this region. Such Stone
Age carvings are very rare and these are the only known
examples in southern India.
The chaitrya has unique reliefs of Indian

mythology. Other caves have a nave and aisle, with an
apse containing a solid stupa and the aisle circling round
the apse, providing the circumambulation path
Borra Caves
Location
The Borra Caves are located in the Anatagiri Hills
of Eastern Ghats, near Vishakapatnam, Andhra Pradesh
State in India.
History
They are at a height of about 800 to 1300 metres
above Mean Sea Level and are famous for millions of
years old stalactite and stalagmite formations. They were
discovered by William King George, the British geologist
in the year 1807.
Stone age writing
Interior of Borra Cave
181

These are not technically caves but rather a cleft
or rift approximately 96 feet (29 m) by 22 feet (6.6 m) a
30 foot (9 m) deep fissure caused by a piece of rock
splitting away from the main body. On one side of the
cleft a rock weighing several tons has fallen over the
fissure forming a roof. The carvings are of human and
animal figures, as well as of tools used by humans and
symbols, suggesting they were created by a highly
civilised prehistoric people.
The petroglyphs inside the cave are of at least
three distinct types. The oldest may date back over 8000
years ago. Evidence indicates that the Edakkal caves
had been inhabited at several different times in history.
The caves were accidentally discovered by Fred Fawcett
in 1890 who immediately understood their
anthropological and historical importance. He
subsequently wrote an article about them, attracting the
attention of scholars.
Ghorawadi caves
Location
The Ghorawadi caves, also known as
Ghorawdeshwar, are located near Dehu Road, around
40 km from Pune on the PuneMumbai NH4 highway.
History
Archaeologists surmise the caves were carved
around the 3rd and 4th century. There are nine rooms
for meditation adjoining the GRIHA.
As one climbs a little further, there are more caves,
which have deities and carvings on the walls.
182
Barabar Caves
Location
The Barabar caves, which is a group of small
caves on the Barabar hills located at a distance of 20
km from Gaya in Bihar, comprises numerous temples
constructed from black granite stones.
History
Built for the first time during Ashokas reign with
contributions in the later period also, these caves look
like wood from a distance.
The Barabar caves consist of mainly three types
1.
Nagarjuna caves
2.
Cave of five Pandavas
3.
Hut Caves
The Nagarjuna caves, large in size, depict the

Jataka tales. An excellent work of architecture, these
caves includes bow shaped arches at the entrance,
circular halls and mini caves, all polished from inside.
The Sudama cave, a two chambered structure
with polished interiors, is the perfect example of this type
of cave. Towards the north of the Sudama cave lies Karan
Choper or Supriya cave, which is a single chambered
structure with a vaulted roof and small gate.
The Barabar caves, generally found in the shape
of a cottage or hut, open on one side with other three
sides walled with stone. With their interiors smooth and
soothing, these caves also served as retreats for the
Jain and Buddhist monks. Among the Buddhist caves,
the Lomas Rishi cave is the finest example of the world
famous Indian Buddhist Chaitya arch sty
FUTURE TUNNELING AND

UNDERGROUND WORKS
183
184
FUTURE TUNNELING
AND UNDERGROUND
WORKS
Subansiri Middle (1600 MW)
12.235
Dibang (3000MW)
8.904
Niare (800 MW)
8.785
Naba (1000 MW)
24.12
Hutong (3000 MW)
27.84
Kalai (2600 MW)
25.3
Hirong (500 MW)
9.12
Demwe (3000 MW)
18.6
Tato II (700 MW)
10.8
Dibbin (100 MW)
4.43
Indeed in the Asian region, construction of

underground works for hydro power development, road
and rail links have been taken up on a large scale. In
India alone, in the next two decades, about 50000 MW
of hydro power is planned to be developed involving over
1200 km of tunneling for conveying water and number
of large size Cavern to accommodate desilting
chambers, generating units & transformers. The
mountainous/Hilly regions are adopting Tunnels for
connectivity, where as mega cities and major towns are
adopting underground routes to over come congestions
and improve transportation. It is a sector which is
expected to attract considerably large investment in the
coming two decades. With the comparatively easier sites
already exploited, the future development involves
projects located in complex geotechnical and
topographical conditions posing challenges for
investigation, design, planning and construction. An even
greater challenge is to accelerate this construction with
improving sustainability and maintaining quality and
safety
Mithumdon (100 MW)
9.15
Emira II (390 MW)
5.58
Etabue (165 MW)
12.463
The Future Scenario
Emini (500 MW)
12.75
Hydro Power Projects
Elango (150 MW)
8.215
With the growing need to accelerate the tempo of

water resources and hydropower development, new
projects are being taken up. These projects are planned
to be taken-up on priority for completion within next ten
to fifteen years. Name of the Projects along with length
of tunnels which are proposed to be taken up for
construction are indicated in Table below
Agoline (375 MW)
5.815
Papu (200 MW)
6.547
Phanchung (60 MW)
4.851
Underground works in Infrastructural development

Power, roads and railway are very vital for prosperity
& growth of a Nation. Underground works are key
corridors for connectivity, transportation, Water
Conveyance and communication.
Name of Project
Length in km
Utung (110 MW)
2.67
Attunili (500 MW)
9.38
Pakke (110 MW)
3.34
Ringong (150 MW)
3.32
Nalu (360 MW)
8.7
Chanda (110 MW)
2.247
Duimukh (150 MW)
4.47
Naying (1000 MW)
34.94
Tarang-Warang (30 MW)

Tenga (600 MW)
Ashupani (30 MW)
Etalin (4000 MW)
Amulin (420 MW)

Dengser (552 MW)
Kurung (320 MW)
1.12
3.6
10.15
24.325
11.785
20.81
9.5
Pare HE Project (110 MW)
3.483
Sebu (80 MW)
5.909
Oju-I (700 MW)
8.895
Mirak (141 MW)
6.584
Bhareli-I (1120 MW)
16.40
Simang (90 MW)
Talong (300 MW)

Kepak-Leyak (160 MW)
12.034
2.7
Kotri (150 MW)

Devsari Hydroelectric Project (252MW)
6.9
2.04
4.626
Badao-C (120 MW)
2.665
Khab II (186 MW)
12.161
Dikrong Power House (110 MW)
6.385
Khab - I (450 MW)
10.226
11.432
Tawang I (750 MW)
16.179
Gondhla
Tawang II (750 MW)
19.226
Jhangi Thopan II
7.0
185

Tidong - I (60 MW)
7.286
Mawput (21MW)
2.587
Chhatru (108 MW)
8.703
Selim (170MW)
4.965
Gharopa (114 MW)
8.672
Rangmaw (65MW)
Bardang (114 MW)
9.474
Twang
2.515
Yangnyu(80 MW)
4.137
Jhangi Thopan (480 MW)
4.0
3.06
Bajoli Holi (180 MW)
15.81
Tizu (150 MW)
5.648
Yang Thang Khab (261 MW)
10.87
Baljori (178 MW)
5.789
7.53
Naraj (287 MW)
1.127
Tropal Power I
Luhri Hydroelectric Project (776 MW)
89.996
Teesta-IV (495MW)
Bursar (1020 MW)
17.05
Lachen (210 MW)
Pakal Dul (1000 MW)
21.57
Ringpi (70 MW)
Ratle (690 MW)
12.065
Kawer (520 MW)
17.05
Bichlari (35 MW)
8.76
18.435
5.816
17.6
Rangyong (80 MW)
18.95
Dhikchu (96 MW)
19.975
Rongini Chu (96 MW)
17.79
10.05
Barinium (240 MW)
2.5
Panan (280 MW)
Shuas (230 MW)
.85
Talem (75 MW)
6.05
Kiru (600 MW)
2.0
Rukel (33 MW)
5.81
Lingza (120 MW)
4.69
Shamnot (370 MW)
17.66
Takmaching (30 MW)
Teesta I (420 MW)
10.525
Khalsi (60 MW)
0.9
Dhauliganga Intermediate (210 MW)
6.81
Kanyanche (45 MW)
0.9
Vyasi (120MW)
3.07
Dumkhar (45 MW)
0.9
KotlibhelStage-IA (195MW)
1.616
Koel Karo Hydro Electric Project (171 MW)
2.426
KotlibhelStage-IB (320MW)
3.983
Kali Stage III (300 MW)
18.79
KotlibhelStage-II (530MW)
3.36
5.65
Garba Tawaghat (630MW)
14.29
Gundia HEP (400 MW)
11.41
Karmoli Lumti Tulli (55MW)
1.925
Aghanashini HEP (600 MW)
17.53
Chhunger Chal (240MW)
4.222
Gangavalli (400 MW)
Puyakutty Hydro Electric Project

Karapara Kuriar Kutty (66 MW)
Lokatak Down Streem (66 MW)
2.80
6.6
15.865
Debaram (190 MW)
11.543
Nongham (50MW)
Nongkolait (120MW)
Umjaut (69MW)
15
4.005
6.52
2.9
Umangi (54MW)
6.772
Mawblei (140MW)
7.585
Sushen (65MW)
1.492
Boinu
34.982
Mawhli
11.82
Umduna (57MW)
7.945
186
1195.869 say 1196 kms
14.186
Khongnem Chakha II (67 MW)
Nunglieban (105 MW)
Sub Total
It is also planned to develop 31000 MW in the 13th

plan ending 2022 and remaining about 36500 MW by end
of 14th plan ending 2027. All these developments would
provide scope for tunnel construction in a big way.
Metro and Rail net work

Metro network
Delhi Metro
Delhi Metro rail Corporation Ltd. has already
commissioned a 65.10 km route in phase I and is
proceeding ahead with another 125 km in phase II.
Phase-III
After the completion of Phase II of Delhi Metro
Project by 2010, work on Phase III covering 112.17 kms
is likely to be taken up. Some of the corridors that are
likely to be included in Phase III are Mukundpur- Sarai
Kalenkhan ISBT, CS-Gokulpuri border-Nawada, RithalaBarwala, Airport Link Sushanlok-T junction Sector

47&48, Bahadurgarh Extn. and Ghaziabad Extn. to Bus
depot. These corridors are tentative and subject to
change.
Phase-IV
This would be the final phase of Delhi Metro. By
adding another 108.50 kms, it would completely link Delhi
& the National Capital Region (NCR) with a total network
of around 414 kms. Both these phases would also involve
construction of tunnels and underground stations. After
completion Delhi Metro Rail work shall be amongst one
of the longest Metro network in the world
Spread Of Metro Culture To Other Indian Cities

The success of the Delhi Metro has encouraged
other Indian cities to seriously attempt to introduce Metro
systems. Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC) has
already been appointed the Prime Consultant for
Hyderabad and Kochi Metro and is the in-house
S.
No.
1
Name of
the city
Bangalore
consultant for Mumbai Metro. DMRC has also submitted

Detailed Project Reports (DPRs) for Metro systems in
Bangalore, Kolkata (East-West Line), Mumbai,
Ahmedabad and Chennai. DPRs are being prepared for
Pune and Ludhiana. In fact, work has already begun on
the Bangalore and Hyderabad Metros.
Details of the other Metros being planned in India
are as follows:
Rail Network
For Jammu-Udhampur- Srinagar Baramulla Rail
Link, between Katra-Quazigund section (142 km), there
are 42 nos. of tunnels with total length of 107.96 km are
to be executed in short span of next five years.
Road Tunnels
Under programmes for development of
infrastructure, road links to remote regions of the country
are also planned to be strengthened and improved.
Line
Kms
Line-I Mysore Road Baiyyappanhalli
18.1 Kms
Line- II Yeshwantpur Jaya Nagar
14.9 Kms
Airport Link
City Airport Terminal at Police Ground
(NH-7) New International Airport (Phase-I) 33.65 Kms
2
Hyderabad
Line-I Miyapur Chaitanya Puri
26.27 Kms
Line-II Secunderabad Falaknuma
13.18 Kms
Line-III Tarnaka Hi tech City
21.74 Kms
Airport Link
Begampet Airport - Hyderabad
International Airport at Shamsabad (Phase-I) 42.35 Kms
3
Ahmedabad
Metro System
Line-I Akshardham APMC Vasana
32.65 Kms
Line-II Ahmedabad Thaltej
10.90 Kms
Regional Rail System
Mumbai
Line-I Barjedi Ahmedabad Kalol
44.85 Kms
Line-II Ahmedabad Naroda
9.85 Kms
Line-I Versova AndheriGhatkopar
11.07 Kms
Line-II Colaba Bandra Charkop
38.24 Kms
Line-III Bandra Kurla Mankhurd
13.18 Kms
Kochi
Line-I Alwaye Petta
25.253 Kms
Chennai
Line-I Airport Wahsermen Pet
23.05 Kms
Line-II Chennai Fort - St. Thomas Mount.
23.44 Kms
Kolkata
New Das Nagar Salt Lake-City Sec - V
18.65 Kms
Ghaziabad
Dilshad Garden New Bus depot
9.41 Kms
Badarpur - YMCA Chowk
13.875 Kms
Badarpur
187

National Highways Authority of India and Border Road
Organization (BRO) are preparing plans for development
of road tunnels.
involved in the tunneling.

5.
Rohtang Tunnel Project

The work on Rs. 17 billion Rohtang Tunnel project,
aimed to provide an all-weather alternative route to LehLadakh region, besides Himachals snow-bound tribal
district of Lahaul and Spiti, will commence this year-end.
The 8.8 km-long tunnel located through the Pir Panjal
mountain range in the higher Himalayas is likely to be
completed in 2014.
Three Tunnels to ease Aizwal Traffic

Mizoram will build three tunnels in Aizwal next year
to ease traffic congestions in the mountainous capital
city. The work on the three tunnels is likely to begin shortly
and to be completed in 30 months.
Some Aspects Governing Future Implementation
Various aspects which would influence future of
underground engineering from planning to construction
are indicated below to ensure smooth implementations.
1.
Conceptual planning & project preparation- A proper

conceptual decision during the planning stage of a
tunnel construction is a condition for successful
implementation and subsequent functioning of
construction.
2.
Engineering & Design: Proper engineering is

required for systematic implementation and to
ensure required utility for the tunnels.
3.
Technology and Mechanized Tunneling To further

accelerate the progress of works, latest technology
to be introduced for execution of the works. The
tunneling rates achieved in India using the
conventional method of excavation are no where
near the high advance rates achieved using
machine tunneling in the developed countries, the
key, therefore, lies in careful adoption of machine
tunneling, wherever possible. Now-a -days high
efficiency high tech equipments are available in the
market. In respect to drilling economy, computer
guided hydraulic drill rigs would be used to the
extent possible. In excavations, tyre mounted
diesel equipment can be accommodated provided
their width and height is planned in advance . The
low profile dumpers need to be planned instead of
dux dumpers & high profile dumpers. For drilling,
drill jumbos with two or three booms plus basket
can be used for greater depth and parallel activities.
Bolte type of machines and arms robots machines
for rock bolting and shotcreting are also to be
considered. Advantages of TBM are always to be
kept in mind. Works can be expedited in small
dia. tunnels by using Hogg loader and conveyer
mounted trolleys. Use of modern methods and
equipment with quick decision is ultimate key to
achieve fast rate of progress.
4.
188
Construction Methodology: it is essential to choose

the correct methodology for various parameters
Modes of implementation and Construction

Agencies : Tunneling work is mostly done by
contractors. During excavation, if circumstances
change and conditions met with are not favorable,
then the perspective of both owner & Contractor
should be taken care of in interest of work. Mere,
provision for equitable & fair conditions in contract
document do not automatically set everything in
track. It has been experienced that it is project
management during execution, close monitoring
and control of work both by owners and contractors
which yield satisfactory results.
Suggested Policy
The following two-fold policy is of relevance for
improving the tunnelling rates.
Long-term Policy
1.
Identify major tunnelling projects to be taken up on

priority basis in the next decade.
2.
Identify the tunnels where adoption of machine

tunnelling is likely to be viable.
3.
Standardise the size of tunnels for optimizing the

use of tunnelling machines. A number of smaller
tunnels can be preferred over a large tunnel.
4.
Identify the level of machine excavation techniques

and the machine types suitable for working
conditions of the country.
5.
Import tunnelling machines from the developed

countries with a package including spares, training
and transfer of technology for indigenous
production.
6.
Create a production base for tunnelling machines

in the country.
7.
Use controlled blasting technique instead of

conventional blasting method where machine
excavation is not possible.
8.
Use shotcrete and rock bolt support instead of the

steel-rib support system, wherever possible.
9.
Adopt purposeful tunnel instrumentation

programmes.
10.
Adopt air-borne surveys and geophysical

techniques for faster, quicker and reliable geological
investigation.
11.
Incorporate modern management systems to

enforce time and cost schedule.
12.
provide adequate ventilation system wherever

required.
Specific Project Based Policy

The project-based remedial measures are
necessary to plan tunnelling operations in case of a
specific tunnel for timely execution of a project. Following
could be considered

1.
Collect reasonably reliable geological information

with increased use of air-borne surveys and
geophysical techniques.
2.
Prepare an assessment of the expected ground

behavior with the help of a geotechnical expert.
This should include :
(i)
Prediction of ground conditions-elastic or

squeezing.
(ii) Prediction of tunnel closures, support

pressures, stand-up time, unsupported span
etc. for different rock mass units along all
possible tunnel layouts,
(iii) Selection of a suitable method of excavation
and support system including size of
excavation.
(iv) Design of a tunnel instrumentation programme.
3.
Prepare tentative tunnel designs along all possible

alignments on the basis of the advice of the
geotechnical expert.
4.
Prepare time and cost estimates along all possible

tunnel alignments and select a time and cost
effective alignment.
5.
Undertake detailed geological investigations along

selected tunnel alignment.
6.
Perform necessary laboratory and field tests.
7.
Prepare a detailed assessment of expected ground

behaviour with the help of a geotechnical expert
(as detailed in point 2).
8.
Prepare detailed design on the basis of the

geotechnical assessment.
9.
Instrument the tunnel under the guidance of a

geotechnical expert and modify the design as and
when warranted in order to optimize the time and
cost factors.
10.
Keep a strict management and financial control on

time and cost schedules
Human Resources Development

A large number of experienced persons are
present in India who have tackled the most difficult of
tunnelling problems during their long association with
the tunnelling projects. There has, however, been no
organized effort to use their expertise for training. As a
result, it is often seen that many times an engineer, when
posted on a tunnelling project site, learn about various

practical aspects of tunnelling from scratch. This, coupled
with limited theoretical exposure to tunnelling during their
engineering degree curriculum, affects their decision
making capabilities in difficult situations and slows down
the progress of the work. The solution lies in bringing
the experienced tunnelling engineers together for training
the young engineers and other supporting staff in various
practical aspects of tunnelling.
Training of workmen and technicians is very
important while using advanced type of plant and
machinery or construction techniques. Intensive training
has to be imparted on the basics involved in all aspects,
which alone would encourage wide spread use of new
technology.
Keeping in view, the new requirement of the
manpower, Govt. of India, State Govt. and the industry
have taken many initiatives. Developers and construction
agencies are also required to play an important role in
training the required manpower.
The underground construction has to gain
momentum as the developmental requirements are
increasing. It is necessary that we develop necessary
expertise in design as well as construction of underground
works. Specialized agencies are coming up in private
sector, for taking up specialized activities of construction
projects. With limited resources at the Governments
disposal and specialization of private sector in various
fields of construction technology, contracting out the jobs
to specialized agencies, has become most economical,
efficient and viable option.
In view of huge tunnelling activity involved while
executing many proposed hydroelectric projects in
Himalayan region, it would be prudent to induct modern
techniques of engineering geological investigations, to
unravel geological complexities and adversities well in
advance, so that geological surprises are minimised during
construction. Besides, numerical modelling for design
considerations and fast tunnelling technology using Tunnel
Boring Machine (TBM) must be adopted to reduce time
and cost over run and ensure safety and stability of the
structures. At last, in future no user industry can flourish
without having an easy and quick access to cost effective
and good quality equipments, therefore, there is a need
for creating an equipments manufacturing base in the
country.
189
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HISTORY OF TUNNELS IN INDIA