What Happens When You Heat Water at Normal Atmospheric Pressure

What happens when you heat water at normal atmospheric pressure?
There are three stages.
As you go on heating the water, the temperature of water increases till it reaches 100
deg C. This is the Sensible Heat addition.
Further heating does not increase the temperature; instead small bubbles of steam
start to form. The temperature remains constant at 100 deg C till all the water
becomes steam. The water absorbs the heat without temperature change for
conversion to steam. At atmospheric pressure the Latent Heat of vapourisation is 2256
kJ/kg.
Further heating called superheating will increase the temperature of the steam. How
high one can go depends on the withstanding capacity of the vessel.
What happens when the water is at a higher pressure, say, at 100 bar? Then the boiling takes
place at 311 deg C and the latent heat of vaporisation is 1318 kJ/kg.
If the water pressure is 200 bar then the boiling takes place at 366 deg C and the latent heat
of vaporisation is 584 kJ/kg.
As the pressure increases the boiling temperature increases and the latent heat of
vaporisation decreases.
A further increase in pressure and temperature leads us to a point at which the latent heat of
vaporisation is zero, or there is no boiling. Water directly becomes steam. This is the Critical
Pressure and the Critical Temperature. For steam this occurs at 374 deg C and 220.6 bar.
Conventional steam power plants operate at a steam pressures in the range of 170 bar. These
are Subcritical power plants. The new generation of power plants operate at pressures higher
than the critical pressure. These are Supercritical power plants. The operating pressures are
in the range of 230 to 265 bar.
The efficiency of the Rankine cycle depends on the pressure at which it operates. Higher
pressure and temperature increase the efficiency of the thermal cycle and power plant. This
is the reason for operating at higher steam pressures.
How are Supercritical Boilers different from Subcritical Boilers?
Modern thermal power plants operate at very high pressures greater than the Critical
pressure of steam. This article explains how Super Critical power plants are different from
the normal power plants.
Supercritical power plants were in service from the late fifties. But the technology did not
really take off due to problems of reliability especially from the metallurgical aspect.
The single most important factor that determines the use of higher and higher pressure and
temperatures are the availability of materials to withstand these conditions. Increases in
operating pressure and temperatures have to go hand in hand with developments in
metallurgy.
With more than 600 units in service the reliability issue seems to be resolved. Supercritical
units are the standard for future power plants in many countries including China.
What are the key differences between the subcritical units and the Supercritical units?
Efficiency
The main advantage and the reason for a higher pressure operation is the increase in the
thermodynamic efficiency of the Rankine cycle.
Large Subcritical thermal power plants with 170 bar and 540 / 540 C (SH / RH) operate at
an efficiency of 38 %. Supercritical units operating at 250 bar and 600/615 C can have
efficiencies in the range of 42 %.
Ultra supercritical units at 300 bar and 615 / 630 C will still increase the efficiency up to 44
%.
Increase in efficiency directly lead to reductions in unit cost of power and CO2 emissions.
Operational Flexibility
Most of the Supercritical units use the once through technology. This is ideal for sliding
pressure operation which has much more flexibility in load changes and controlling the
power grid.
However this also requires more sensitive and quick responding control systems.
Evaporation End Point
In subcritical units the drum acts as a fixed evaporation end point. The furnace water walls
act as the evaporator. Not so in the case of a supercritical unit. The evaporation end point
can occur in various levels of the furnace depending on the boiler load. The percentage of
Superheat in supercritical units is higher than subcritical units. Because of this the furnace
tubes act more as superheaters than waterwalls. This necessitates the use of higher grade of
materials like alloy steels in the furnace.
Heat transfer Area
Higher steam temperatures in supercritical units results in a lesser differential temperature
for heat transfer. Because of this heat transfer areas required are higher than subcritical
units.
Higher Superheat steam temperatures entering the HP turbine also mean higher reheater
inlet temperatures which again results in a higher heat transfer areas.
Water chemistry
In supercritical units the water entering the boiler has to be of extremely high levels of
purity. Supercritical boilers do not have a steam drum that separates the steam and the
water. If the entering water quality is not good, carry over of impurities can result in turbine
blade deposits.
Materials
Supercritical power plants use special high grade materials for the boiler tubes. The turbine
blades are also of improved design and materials. In fact, the very increase in higher
pressure and temperatue designs are dependendent on the development of newer and newer
alloys and tube materials.
The aim of the industry is to achieve power plant efficiencies in the range of 50 %.
What is Boiler Hydrostatic Test?
The boiler in a modern Thermal Power Plant produces steam at very high pressures and
temperatures. One of the most important yet simple test that ensures the integrity of the
boiler is the Hydrostatic Test. What is it? How is it done?
A string of catastrophic failures marked the starting era of the steam engine. The boiler
explosion in the Grover Shoe Factory in Brockton, Massachusetts on March 10, 1905
triggered the implementation of the boiler safety rules. Today, stringent regulations control
the boiler design, materials, manufacture and operation. These are mandatory as per law all
over the world.
In a large Thermal Power Plant there are about Ten Thousand tons of steel tubes, pipes,
drums and other vessels that contain the high pressure steam. More than Sixty Thousand
weld joints make the Boiler an integrated vessel to produce steam. Design calculations,
metallurgical inspections and manufacturing inspections assure the integrity of every part
and every weld joint. Hydrostatic test is the last of the test to ensure completion , compliance
and safety before the boiler produces steam.
The test consists of filling the Boiler with water and pressurising the water to at least one and
half times the maximum operating pressure for a short time. Every part is subject to more
than the maximum stress it will normally encounter. This is an endurance test; any weak link
fails during the test.
Why water?
Why do we use water as the media for a hydrostatic test ? Water is the most easily available
liquid. There are no environmental or toxic issues. There is another important reason. It is
the compressibility or rather the incompressibility of water. Water is almost incompressible.
For carrying out the hydrostatic test in large power plant boiler we require around 600 cubic
metre of water. Since water is almost incompressible, to increase the pressure form
atmospheric to 250 bar we require only an additional amount of one cubic meter of water.
This is faster and requires much less effort. In case of the failure of any part the pressure also
is reduced immediately preventing further damage.
Steam Blowing of Power Station Pipelines Why and How
Steam blowing allows power station boilers and pipelines to ensure that during normal
operation no adhering material in the superheaters, reheaters and steam pipelines will get
dislodged and reach turbine blades and damage them. Many methods are used to achieve
this requirement.
Why steaming blowing is done
The steam blowing operation cleans all the debris in the superheater, reheater and the steam
pipe line connecting the turbine. During the maximum continuous rating load of the turbine
the drag force in the pipe line can dislodge particles loosely adhering to the tubes internal
surface, causing great damage to the turbine blades. Guidelines given by various boiler
designers and agencies like CEGB, etc., to effectively carry out this operation focus on
creating a drag force created on the inside surface of tubes or pipes which is much higher
than that occurring during the maximum continuous rating load of the turbine. Ratio of the
drag created during steam blowing to the drag occurring during the maximum continuous
rating load is called the disturbance factor.
How steam blowing is done
Steam blowing guidelines focus on creating a drag force on the surface of tubes or pipes
much higher than that which occurs during the maximum continuous rating load of the
turbine. The ratio of the drag created during steam blowing to the drag occurring during the
maximum continuous rating load is called the disturbance factor. Boiler designers and
commissioning groups prefer to keep a disturbance factor of about 1.6.
The puffing method
The puffing method
As steam blowing is one of the initial stages of start-up operation, extra care must be taken to
maintain the boiler operating parameters as per the commissioning procedure.
The boiler is slowly brought up to the required pressure level
Do not exceed the furnace outlet temperature as the reheater is dry and has to be
protected
Boiler downward expansion should be noted as the pressure is raised to 40 kg/cm2
The firing rate must be slowly increased, keeping in mind the drum temperature
differential
Keep the drum level slightly above the normal level as when the blowing is started the
water level will raise and go beyond sight then as the blow proceeds it will drop below
lowest sight level if water level maintained is at or below normal.
In the first stage of blowing the first blow is done at much lower pressure to check the
temporary pipe supports and anchors.
The temporary valve provided is opened to blow through the superheater, the main
steam pipe and the temporary pipe.
The first few blows, generally three blows, are done without any target plate till the
color of steam is clear. Then the preliminary target or impact plates made of stainless
steel material 40 to 50 mm wide, 25 mm thick and of length to suit the pipe diameter
is placed to capture the indentation of the particles going along with the steam.
The target plate must be placed just after the mainsteam line in the temporary pipe
but not too far and the velocity at this place must be around 245 m/s.
While blowing the fire is killed and the pressure is dropped to around 15 kg/cm2; this
ensures a good temperature differential for any adhering material to dislodge.
The boiler is started after closing the steam blowing valve and the process is
continued.
The final target plate of turbine blade is placed once the preliminary target plate is in
acceptable form, and the blowing is continued till the indentations are acceptable to
the turbine manufacturer.
After the mainsteam line is completed the other stages are done in the similar way to
achieve a clear target plate of acceptable quality.
Continuous Blowing Method

The procedure adopted in the continuous method of steam blowing is the same as the puffing
method but for the fact that the pressure is maintained constantly during the blow. This
reduces the reactionary forces on the temporary pipe and also the stresses on the boiler
system are lower.
However, many boiler designers and commissioning groups adopt the puffing method.
Precautions
During steam blowing
The thick wall components like the drum, headers and piping are subjected to much
higher thermal stresses than the normal operation of the boiler, so it is prudent to
keep the number of blows to the minimum required for effective cleaning.
As a rule of thumb it is good to keep the number of blows less than 50 a day.
The temporary pipe is designed for a much lower pressure than the boiler system and
hence the operators should take extra care not to exceed the pressure beyond what is
required for blowing.
Care must be taken in the forced circulation boiler. If the drum level is very low and
the pump losses its suction then the boiler must be tripped and the blow must be
terminated
It is not possible to avoid carryover of solids to the superheater during steam

blowing, hence boiler water should not be treated with non- volatile chemicals
The temporary supports provided should be watched and every day before starting
the boiler they must be inspected fully to avoid any catastrophe.
Major Milestones Schedule:
Sl.No
Activity
scheduled
Achieved
Commencement of supplies
09.12.2006
22.12.2006
Start of Boiler Erection
09.02.2007
21.03.2007
Boiler drum lifting
09.06.2007
26.08.2007
Hydraulic test
09.05.2008
08.05.2008
Start of Turbine Erection
30.09.2007
22.05.2008
Start of Condenser Erection
30.09.2007
17.05.2008
Boiler Light up
09.11.2008
28.01.2010
Turbine Box up
09.09.2008
Synchronization
09.02.2009
10
Completion of Trial operation
09.04.2009
Anticipated
31.03.2010
Under mechanical scope , the following check should be carried out during installation of turbo generator.
1.1. Centering and elevation check of Generator foundation.
1.2. Gas tight test of stator terminal bushing
1.3. Primary centering of generator
1.4. Air gap clearance check
1.5. Axial travel check.
1.6. Single gas tight test
1.7. Generator leak test.

1.8. Bearing Contact check
1.9. Hydrostatic test of cooling water line
1.10. Leak test of H2 gas cooling line
1.11. Generator Turbine Shaft Alignment
Run-out check at the couplings
The run-out check should be performed at both half couplings (turbine, generator) in radial and axial direction.
Any minor manufacturing tolerances measured should be taken into account accordingly during the subsequent
coupling checks and when coupling the shafts.
Bearing on T.E side, E.E side shall be cleaned again and reinstall after finish flushing. Check and clean the
bearing oil inlet, outlet, oil groove, assure that be free from foreign materials, lock the block on two end of the
extreme pressure oil way of the bearing. Refer to the drawing (BEARING T.E) and (BEARING E.E) measure and
record the bearing gaps. Install bearing cover. The magnitude of inference fit between bearing cover and
support block (on the top of bearing) should be -0.02mm~+0.02mm, install insulation pins; it requires that the
bearing cover and bearing bracket contact well.
Take measurement of insulation resistance of E.E side, Install oil pipe rigging, the oil pipe rigging must be
annealed at site, and bent a suitable shape around the bearing bracket, and it would not be bent badly. Install
temperature detector for bearing and vibration pick up, after all finished, to check the insulation resistance, it
would be not changed. Install observation window of oil return on the bearing oil return pipe where easy to
watch bearing oil return.
Check and clean transition ring and end bracket, mounting surface should be free from burrs. Install contact.
Check the gland seal housing.
Drive knock pins in gland seal housing, tighten all bolts, use 0.03mrn thickness clearance gauge should not be
inserted in the mounting face, the metal contact surface must has 2~3 contact points 10 x10mm2, and contact
surface should be not less than 75%, and those contact points should scatter evenly. If it is not good, it must
be ground. Check the vertical mounting surface should be not transformed and misplacement. Check the oil
house, the labyrinth of gland seal should be free from foreign matter and the mounting surface should be free
from burrs and flaws. When assembling T.E and E.E side gland seal housing match the marks.
Check the seal ring
Assemble the seal ring according to the match marks: QQ, QK, LQ, LK on the seal ring encircle. The seal ring is
split into four pieces. Assure that no gap exit at any of four mounting points. Check the seal ring must be free
from burrs and flaws. Check seal ring gap by a gauge between seal ring and shaft. Assemble seal ring on the
tool for checking size of seal ring. Tie the ring by the rubber strap on the external portion of the ring, measure
the total diameter side gap should be 0.18~0.20mm.
Measure the total diameter side gap also could take another method, fit the ring in the seal housing, measure
the ring inside diameter and shaft, and calculate the gap between the ring inside and the shaft.
(1) Demount the seal housing; put the upper and lower seal housing on the flat ground, baffler is downward.
(2) Install the spring on the seal housing, its two ends hang on the bolt and pipe, tighten the bolts and locked
them.
(3) First fit hydrogen side seal rings in the seal housing then fit air side seal rings. After installing the seal
rings, push it by hand to assure that it can move.
(4) Couples the upper seal housing with the lower seal housing, drive sleeve pins tighten clamping bolts.
(5) Measure the inside diameter of the seal ring and the diameter of shaft, calculate the gap, between the ring
inside and the shaft should be 0.18~0.20mm.
(6) Install baffler and block on the gland seal housing, adjust the gap between baffler and shaft then lock the
block.
(7) Demount the gland seal housing bolts and pins.
Finishing the oil flushing work, assemble the seal ring
Install the T.E and E.E. side insulation washer, feed oil hole on the washer should face the feed oil hole on the
transition ring. Install the lower. Seal housing with the crane, place the lower seal housing on the shaft, lift the
lower seal housing means of a chain block and gently turn in a rotated direction. Install the upper seal housing,
drive knock pins, clamp the joint, and tighten the clamping bolts. Push the assemble seal housing to transition
ring, drive insulation pins, install the insulation bushing, insulation washer, washer and bolts, and tighten all
bolts check the gap of call position should be satisfied the drawing. Put the wire through holes in the seal
housing mounting bolts heads and lock the bolts.
Flushing of bearing oil system should be performed, in a manner identical to that of turbine. Take notice that
before the flush oil has not become good, oil not to be promise to flow throws the contact face between the
journal and the bearing. The mesh shall be fitted and the inlet of feed oil pipe, prevent impurity flow through
into the journal and the bearing.
Flushing of seal oil system should be performed refer to flushing of bearing system. Choke the rubber stripe in
the gap between the seal housing and shaft to prevent oil flow into interior of generator. The seal ring must be
disassembled, before flushing and reassembled after finishing the flushing.No rotate the rotor when flushing,
knock the pipe to accelerate the process of flushing.
Receiving and Storage

All equipment shall be checked on received at site for any damage and any missing parts from the packing list.
If any discrepancies found shall be reported as described in the material control procedure. An OSD (Overage,
Shortage, and Damage) report shall be prepared for any discrepancies. Care shall be taken to transportation
and storage of the equipment to make sure proper procedures are adopted as per manufactures
recommendations.
Pre installation Checks
The foundation to be checked as per the drawing dimensions by the surveyor and mark the centre line and co
ordinates on the foundation. Check the anchor bolt for the correct location and straightness with respect to the
equipment. Check the capacity of lifting equipment and rigging plan shall be prepared and approved before
lifting of the equipment.
The basic document for equipment erection :

a. The civil works report relating to the equipment basement or foundation level.
b. Equipment manufacturing and general arrangement drawing.
c. The erection instruction including erection drawing & documents.
d. Erection quality control plan and etc.
General requirement for concerning works is the access and erection area must be clean,free from other
materials, and all necessary steps shall be taken to protect thesurrounding equipment or waiting for erection.
Basement Level Preparation
Checking the basement or foundation level :
a. Mark out of equipment and anchor holes center line on the concrete foundation.
b. Surface condition of foundation level and anchor holes.
c. Visual examination of foundations to search for apparent construction and erection defects and faults (crack,
deformations, etc). And inspection have been performed.
Concrete Basement Level Preparation
Checking of dimensions, flatness and horizontality and chipping the whole of equipment foundation are to be
grouted. Most of design chipping thickness is 30 mm. Performed of chipping by using a pneumatic or electric
hammer.
Metal Basement Level Preparation (Subsole Plate)
Cleaning the basement level or foundation surface from any materials (oils, dust, etc). Mark the setting
position of the subsole /padding plate on the foundation surface. Put the grouting materials onto setting
positions and depress the subsole plate on it and adjust the level of subsole plate. Adjusting the level shall by
precision level equipment like Auto level or theodolite. Make sure that adjusting level shall follow the
manufacturer tolerance.
Installation of Equipment
Rotating equipment can be deliver :
- On rigid frames, mounted and set in workshop.
- In separate elements with shaft line to be assemble at site.
Installation of equipment as following :
a. Preparation of correct lifting equipment and lifting tools as required during erection.
b. Unpack the package equipment.
c. Pre-position of equipment to the foundation and put on to foundation, measure and match the equipment
center to the foundation center marks.
d. Put and arranged on each of anchor bolt, and as close as possible to the anchor holes.
e. The temporary wedges or hydraulic jack provided to make final adjusting easier, and shall be removed
before the anchor bolts are grout and tightened. Most of jack wedges embedded in grouting mortar and shall
be block by tack welds after the last alignment checking and before the grouting mortar is poured.
Alignment of Equipment
Measure the level of rotating equipment using precision level gauge (dial gauge), if required the level shall
adjusted using shim liner which put on the subsole plate. Measuring point are 4 points of upper, right, lower,
left directions with turning driver & driven interval 90 degree. Consider the type of the equipment, all or some
of the following alignment must be carried out
- Pre-alignment : Only for the machine (driver & driven).
- Alignment prior to pipe joining : centering, clearance to the pipe connection.
- Final alignment after the supports and the pipe connection : complete piping installation and connection.
Inspection
Inspection shall be performed by erector quality control and must take all the necessary steps to ensure
erection quality.
a. Inspections of the basement level as following
- Visual examination to detect the visible defect.
- Basement or foundation level altitude.
- Dimension of the equipment basement or foundation.
- Anchoring and fixing holes (number, locations, etc).
- Chipping the basement surface.
b. Equipment Installation Inspections (Pre-alignment)
- Surface condition, dimensions, flatness, horizontality of basement levels.
- Position of theoretical axes of the equipment and orientation with respect to the reference.
- Preliminary alignment of the independent machines.
Grouting
After the final alignment the equipment will be fully grout., by install the temporary wooden board for grouting
to beside foundation. Before grouting cleaning of concrete surface should be by air blow and water blasting.
Grouting materials shall refer to the manufacturing or specification standard. Mixing and application of cement
grout shall strict accordance with the instructions of the manufacturer. After hardening the mortar the
tightening of the all anchor bolts. Tightening the bolts shall refer to the torque standard.
Straight Edge Indication

Alignment by using Straight Edge Ruler, Caliper, Feeler Gauge Tool, which alignment accuracy is low (depend
on the limited resolution of human eye).
Rim & Face Indication ( Axial & Radial Alignment )
Measurement method conducted in 4 (four) different point by turned around of the shaft driver. Which by using
the Dial Indicator, and from the measurement result taken by average value.
Reverse Indication
Alignment needing with high accuracy and usually conducted at the equipment with long spacer. This alignment
is combine between Rim and Face Alignment. Calculation and user must be highly experience.
Method of alignment beside using the simple way like Straight Edge Indication, Rim & Face Indication which by
using dial indicator, there is any other way of more highly accurate that is by Laser Alignment System. But the
method still same as above mentioned.
Advantages of Laser Alignment :
1. Error free, fasted, accurate and reliable measurement with optimally result.
2. No human uncertainties that can be influence to reading error.
3. Universal precision brackets designed for quick and rigid set up.
4. Automatic computation and quick of horizontal and vertical alignment result, which quick on screen display.
Compared to alignment by used Dial Indicator System, Laser alignment system more accurate, quick and
efficiencies. Below is how accurate are Dial Indicator Reading?
1. Mechanical linkage bracket ( long, big, not strong enough) can be influence to the reading error.
2. Sometimes the dial gauge must be tapped in order the dial indicator needle is settle on its final value.
3. The simple human error that occur when the dial indicator must be read under poorly condition and severe
constrains.
4. Tilted the indicator because dial gauge not be mounted perpendicular to the measurement surface, so that
part of the displacement reading is lost
The biggest contribution of rotating system is to align the equipment correctly in the first place, in order to
avoid any problem to the equipment while operation after installation and the cost cause of damage. When
misalignment the loading of shaft dramatically increases due the reaction forces created within coupling.
The effect of misalignment :
a. Premature bearing, seal, shaft and coupling failures
b. High bearing and coupling temperatures & excessive vibration
c. Looseness of foundation bolts
d. High power consumption
To eliminates or reduce of misalignment the precision alignment of equipment have to be done in the correct
way or follow the manufacturer instruction.
Kinds of misalignment :
a. Parallel (Radial) Misalignment
b. Angular (Axial) Misalignment
c. Parallel & Angular Misalignment
ALIGNMENT TOOLS
Dial Indicator
Filler Gauge
Micrometer
Caliper
Straight Edge
Dial Gauge Stand with magnetic Base
Laser Alignment
Auto Level Sets
Theodolite Sets
Hydraulic Jack
Chipping the foundation within 10 mm to 30 mm depth. Mark the position of seating plates. Put some water on
chipped surface to make the foundation wet. Set the seating pad to it elevation and required level. Wooden
form work is required for seating plate grouting. Grout it with amount of non shrink cement. Put taper plate on
seating pad after.
After Generator sole plate places on their elevation and level according to drawing; grouting work for sole plate
is required. The wooden formwork dimension for generator sole plate should be 120 mm larger than its
dimension on design drawings, and the detail requirements are as follows: it should be 20 mm longer at the
air-exhausting side, and 100 mm longer at grouting side. The width should be 100 mm wider than design
value, and the height should be 10 mm lower than the top elevation of seating pad on drawings.
The formwork of concrete cushion block should be fabricated and installed according to D30ON-198000C, and
all comers inside and outside of the formwork should be sealed by normal cement mortar to avoid grouting
leakage. Arrange the sole plates, seating plates, the sole plates, seating plates and the case contact surface
should not be less than 75%, and those, contact points should scatter evenly. All the sole plates and the
seating plates should be on the required height and in horizontal
Polish and cleaning the sole plate, check the hole position and its marking refer to drawing. Install the sole
plate on the requirement high and level. Adjust the sole plates high and level through the taper pads and
arrange the sole plates axial and across direction to requirement. Check its centre line and level. Use the
engineering precision level. All the sole plates and seating plates should be on the required high and transverse
distance.
Installation of Turbine Generator Stator

Installation of Stator Frame.
E.E end and T.E. end side of the stator frame must be in accordance with the installing direction at site when
transporting and lifting the stator. Well considered lifting measures to ensure the security and safety. PVC
plates with thickness of 25~30 mm should be put on the sole plate on the left and right and on generator
foundation as sliding blocks for moving of stator.
Lead box installation.
Place the Lead box in its position and keep it in hanging position by using temporary support and manhole
should be faced carbon brush holder.
Generator stator on base.
At lifted position, check and clean the bottom of stator and apply Molykote ; at the same time on the top of
sole plate. During generator stator on base, put stator about 900 mm right toward turbine end, ensure that the
there is enough space for E.E. end frame installation , i.e. 1900 mm from the end of terminal to foundation pit.
Assembly of stator and end frame
Before end frame installation, clean completely the four locating pin hole, trial install the pins and mark them,
for installing the pins their right place after end frame installation. Clean the stator and end frame to ensure no
dust and foreign matter. Pre-install the end frame, tighten 1/3~1/2 number bolts, the feeler of 0.04 mm should
not be inserted in the clamping face. Check and clean the mounting faces, use oil stones to remove the burrs.
Thread the leads of the hydrogen temperature RTD detector through the T.E side and E.E side end plate special
hole, thread the leads of the all temperature RTID detector through the hole diameter is about ?48 mm (4 on
T.E., 2 on E.E) Otherwise, the leads could not take out when stator and end frame connect together.
Put the 16 round oil proof-rubber in the dovetail compound, and coat sealant on the inner side of the rubber,
connecting rubber refers to FIG5 to insure seal capability. Place the E.E side end frame on the Installation site.
Connect the end frame with the stator, knock in pins and tighten all bolts, 0, 03 mm feeler should not be
inserted, in the clamping face Place T.E side end frame on the installation site, connect the end, frame with the
stator, knock in the pins and tightens all bolts, 0,03 mm feeler should not be inserted in the clamping face,
then, adjust the whole stator location to installation
Lift the stator and take the PVC plate.
Pay attention to: the stator and two Sides end frame should raise or fall at the same time, dont lift either the
stator or two sides end frame with jack or crane, avoid the stator distortion or the centre of the stator and two
sides end frame change. Clean the cooler domes. Take away the nut of out hydrogen pipe on the end frame
and the cooler domes. Then connect the cooler domes and the end frame with the bolts Take seal welding for
the cooler domes and the end frame joint position.
Hydrostatic test of stator water way.
With coagulating water of 0.75 MPa in 8 hours. Before the test, weld a pipe on the drain water flange, and
assemble a valve on the pipe. Open the valve to vent air inner stator winding when pure water filling. Then
close valve air vent completely. Check for each joint portion should, be no leakage. Use condensate water or
de-mineralized water (can be replaced by pure water); all the water inside of stator winding should be blown
off by dry compressed air after test.
Check and clean coolers free from foreign matter. Take a 0.6 MPa (gauge) hydrostatic test. The test duration is
30 minutes, check no water is leakage. After the hydrostatic test, drain all water out of the cooler. Insert
hydrogen cooler according to the number marked on the cooler domes.
Coat sealant on the clamping faces and tight all bolts. Fit cooler knock screw. Fit exhaust air and water pipes
on every cooler, there are tundishs, valves, on the pipes. Hydraulic test of hydrogen cooler should be carried
out by city tap water.
Install all insulation pipe, insulation pipe should modified according fact condition assure the clamping position
smooth without sharp edge; avoid damage insulation when the generator run. Then lock all clamping bolts.
Install inner end shield. Inner end shield and blower shroud should be clamped on the end frame for delivering.
They must
be disassembly and cleaning at site. Mount tool covers and close all manholes, pipe flanges and other holes.
Then carried out single gas-tight test of generator stator.
Weld seal plate and take gas-tight test gauge pressure of 0.4MPa. Use soap water checks no leakage.
Test standard and requirement;
1. Keep test pressure P=0.3Mpa for 24 hours continuously.
2. Allowable gas leakage is ? V=0.43 m/24h, (P0=0,1Mpa, t0=20 C).
3. Precision pressure gauge (grade 0.25) should be used for Measure.
4. Gas Leakage is calculated as followings: ? V=V{T0/P0}24/?t x{P1+P01/T1-P2+P02/T2}m3
In the formula :
? V = Gas Leakage.
T0 = Absolute temperature of atmosphere under given state. T0 = 270+t0.K (atmosphere temperature
t0=20 C under given state).
P0 =Atmosphere absolute pressure under given state,
P0=0,1Mpa.
T1 = Absolute gas temperature in stator at the beginning of test. T1=273+t1.K (temperature in stator at the
beginning of test is t1).
T2 = Absolute gas temperature in stator at the end of test. T2=273+t2.K (temperature in stator at the end of
test is t2).
P1 = Gas pressure in stator at the beginning of test (gauge pressure),Mpa.
P2 = Gas pressure in stator at the end of test (gauge pressure),Mpa.
P01 = Absolute pressure of atmosphere at the beginning of test, Mpa.
P02 = Absolute pressure of atmosphere at the end of test, Mpa.
?t = Test Duration, h.
V = Gas volume in stator, 78 m3
At the beginning stage of single gas-tight test, use soap water to check gas leakage and eliminate the leakage
if there is. Until that it is difficult to find the gas leakage by soap water, fillcom pressed air to stator till the
pressure inside reaches 0.05Mpa, then fill Freon (F12) with pressure of about 330~660Pa, after that use Freon
leakage detector to check and repair until the test is qualified.
Clean lower bearing brackets oil chambers, oil passage, oil hole, before install bearing brackets, kerosene leak
test of the lower of bearing should be carried out site. Pour kerosene in brackets oil chambers and oil passage,
after 24 hours latter, check with white ash pen, there should be no kerosene leak out, (Inner and outer oil
deflector must be clamped on the bracket test together). Paint on the chambers should be firm; Paint should
be uprooting if paint dissolve in the turbine oil.
Clean mounting surface of end bracket, clean and inspect the interior of the equipment. Check the seal
compound grooves of the end Frame and end bracket use oil stones to remove burrs. Put the 16 round oil
proof rubber in the dovetail compound groove, and coat sealant smoothly on the inner side of the rubber
connecting to insure seal capability.
Drive knock pins in. Fit the entire bolt and tighten specified torque 0.04 feeler should not be inserted in the
mounting surface.
Preliminary Centering of Stator

November 25th, 2010 admin 0 Comments
The bottom half of the bearing of T.E and E.E must be abrading with bearing bracket for finish the surface at
site. Install lower-half bearing of T.E. and E.E., check the clearance and contacting condition between adjusting
block for pads and bearing sleeves, 0.05mm feeler can not be inserted in and contacting surface should be at
least 75% by red lead powder dye test.
Plug-wire method for adjusting: 0.5mm wire should be fixed at he alignment support on foundation and
through generator, centring the turbine bearing, generator bearing and stator core, counterweight suspended
on wire is 20kg, adjust the height of generator bearing centre, the tolerance is 0.5mm. Check relative position
to turbine centre.
Set an 0.5mm piano wire through the centering gauge provided on the bench-mark of generator platform so
that it passes through the centre of turbine bearing and generator connecting side bearing. The end of the
piano wire shall be pulled straight by 20 kg weight. Adjust the generator bearing centre by this wire. The
measuring accuracy of the steel scale is required 0.5mm.
Before stator is installed clamp, the inner end shield and blower shroud refer to the drawing (INNER END
SHIELD). The inner end shield and blower shroud is installed when delivered this instruction is given for
reassembly after disassembly.
Rotor Installation of Turbine Generator

Check and test for the rotor at site.

Gas-tight test for rotor. Test with Nitrogen or dry cleaning air during 6 hours with 0.5MPa pressure (gauge),
when the atmospheric pressure and temperature have no changed, and the pressure fall down must be smaller
ten percent. Check all inlet or outlet gas way with leak detector or industrial alcohol and dont allow using soap
water to the parts of collective ring. No leakage is required. Check if balance plugs and balance bolts are locked
Assure that journals, coupling surface and slip ring are free from flaws. Remove all rubber plug on the
ventilation holes for protected and test, collect them for power plant to use later.
Preparation for inserting rotor
Demounting T.E and E.E bearing bracket and take them away by crane, then install blower shrouds. Check
again before insert the rotor for presence of foreign matter in the stator and damage to the coils, clean the
interior with a vacuum cleaner, lock all blower shrouds bolts. Check if gas baffles inside diameter is satisfied
with drawing requirement, avoid damaged the gas baffles when inserting the rotor.
Hang the seal washer, insulation washer, gasket on the journal (E.E side inner oil deflector, ring, gland seal
housing), T.E insulation washer can cut dove tail paste up with 502 glue when installation. Install rotor hoist
tool on the frame mounting face both E.E side and T.E side. Install rails on the brush holder sole plate centering
with stator.
Lifting rotor
Install support roller and wrap fibber paper on the rotor lifting place, avoid damaged the ventilation holes. Put
the balance weight on the support roller and lift the rotor let it horizontally. Lifting rotor should care as follow:
1) When placing and lifting rotor, the position of North Pole and South Pole of the rotor must be in vertical
direction.
2) In any case, transporting and placing the rotor, rotor wedge, retaining ring, collecting ring, should not be
point of forces.
3) Wrap not only with Dacron felt, fibber paper but also cooper (or aluminium) plate on the rotor journal before
lifting the rotor.
Insert rotor.
Insert rotor slowly into the stator core. One worker wearing soft rubber shoes shall enter the stator core and
guide the rotor in order that it does not contact the core. Two workers shall stand on E.E side and insert rotor
carefully while communicating with the worker located inside. The gap between the rotor retaining ring and
stator gas baffles is so small that when inserting rotor those gas baffle must be take good care of and not to be
damaged. When the end of tool shaft installed on rotor moving out of T.E side, lifting the end by rotor hoist
tool, and gently loose crane rope. At this time the rotor is lifted by rotor hoist tool at T.E side and supported by
roller at E.E side. Take away crane rope and protect tool on the rotor.
Turn crane to T.E side and lift the end of tool shaft, then loose the rotor hoist tool, and take it away. Install two
chain block between the E.E side frame and support roller on both left side and right side. Move rotor slightly
by pulling the chain blocks on both sides uniformly with moving of the crane. If the inserting work is to be
stopped by the turbine in axial direction, the crane and the rotor hoist tool of T.E side must be inter changed to
lift the rotor again and again to shorten the tool shaft until the rotor is completely inserted into stator core.
When the rotor has attained the demanded position as the the drawing, support it with steel lock on T.E side
and with support roller on E.E side, take away rotor hoist tool the lift place of the rotor must be wrapped
protect packing felt.
Assembly of lower end bracket and bearing.
Install the lower end bracket of E.E side and take care of the end bracket mounting surface. Put the ?16 round
oil proof rubber in the compound groove and coat the sealant smoothly on the two sides. Drive knock pins in,
fit all the bolts And tighten to specific torque. When reinstalling the lower end bracket, take measure to protect
the ?16 round oil proof rubber, not to be damaged. Install the jacking rotor tool on the outside oil deflector
mounting, lift the rotor by crane and put the rotor on the jacking tool, then demount lifting tools and rotor.
Adjust the centre of the journal by the rotor jacking tools to assembly the lower bearing. Lift the lower bearing
of T.E side. Fit metal lubricated with turbine oil on the journal and the bearing ring. Place the, bearing on the
shaft gently turn in by its weight when lower the chain block. When the bearing enters, take out the jacking
tool and hold the rotor by the bearing.
Turn the jacking rotor tool to the E.E side, with the same method, install the E.E side lower end bracket and
bearing, hold the rotor by the bearing. Measure parallelism of Journal to bearing, with gap gauge for identical
thickness gauge, inserted into four places (A, B, C, D) to a depth of 25mm or more. Make adjustment to the
insert is less than (A~B) ? 5mm, (C~D) ? 5mm, (A~C) ? 10mm, (B~C) ? 10mm
Adjustment of Generator Position

Measure the gap between the stator core and rotor core though measurement notch. Of gas baffle at up, low,
right, and left, four positions both T.E and E.E side and calculate the deviation. if the deviation value is bigger
then adjust by add or reduce the mounts of the regulation copper shim of the bearing and after adjusting the
bearing must be grinding in with bearing bracket.
Air clearance at one side of generator is 75mm, measure the clearance at the four points: top, bottom, left and
right side of generator, the difference between the average value at each end and each point value should be
less than 0.5mm. Generator magnetic centreline value is 11.5mm (the stator must be moved towards E.E. side
11.5mm); carbon brush holder and steady bearing should be moved 14.5mm toward E.E. side.
Adjust the Axial direction of stator. Considering the lengthening of the Shafts of turbine and generator when
operation at rated load. The stator, brush rigging must be moved towards E.E side some distance so when
operation at rated load the magnitude field centre of stator and rotor is on the same position, Centering
generator with turbine. Measure the total run out of the end surface of shaft coupling, run out of the en circle
of shaft coupling, the value should be satisfied with the drawing .
Because centering work involves the turbine and generator, the works shall be completed under close
coordination when performing centering, the dial indicator shall be installed the teeth of turning gear of the
low-pressure rotor coupling. Measurement the deflection of the indication in advance and take this value into
consideration when recording and measuring.
Centering of the turbine and generator is performed with turbine and generator rotor turned together.
1.
When perform centering, the measure tool should be installed on the low pressure rotor
coupling or generator rotor coupling, and marked measure position with b and b. Measure
position b and b angular differences 180 angle. When turn the rotor, two couplings should not
connected and angular displacement. When turning them together do not fit pins into the
coupling bolts holes, but fit pins of diameter which is thinner than bolt hole diameter by 1.0 mm
and fit wire so that the rotor can be turned. Turn the rotor by 900 each time and take
measurement at a, and b, b
2.
Turn the rotor 900 each time and measure a, b, b, then calculation.
3.
Demanded range: Centre deviation (vertical direction): not more than 0.02mm |A1| ? 0.02mm
Centre deviation (horizontal direction): not more than 0.02mm |A2| ? 0.02mm Up parallel
deviation (not down parallel deviation): not more than 0.03mm |B1| ? 0.03mm Parallel
deviation (left and right): not more than 0.02mm |B2| ? 0.02mm
Lock the bearing before turning the rotor both T.E and E.E side. Employ steel plate as stopper at E.E. and T.E.
bearings, repair the contact surface between stopper and rotor by welding copper, grind and polish contacting
surface to prevent rotor from axial displacement during turning rotor. The tolerance is 0.5mm. Adjust the
height centre generator by taper pads.
Final Grouting of Generator
(Related Document No: P-T3104-CM-002; Grouting Procedure) Second grouting should used MASTERFLOW
880, non-shrink cement with metallic aggregates; mixing ratio and technic should be according to the
requirement on instruction manual.
The second grouting for turbine, generator, and brush holder perform in progression should not interrupt and
should be performed one time. For big set, the second grouting permits separately in special case. If set sole
plate connects each other, the second grouting should not permit separately performed. When the second
grouting were finish; keep humid more than 3days with temperature retain 10~350C. Grouting sample test is
required.
Location of generator
1.
Install sole plate of brush rigging.
2.
Install the alignment keys refer to the drawing
3.
Spot weld the taper pads and the anchor bolt s to be lock, after considering the installing of the
sole plate of Noise isolating housing then makes the second grouting mortar.
4.
After the second grouting mortar, check the centre of generator and turbine again, if it changed,
they must be accurately adjusted by the regulating shim of the frame foot, and then the bearing
must be ground in with the bearing bracket.
5.
Ream the bolt holes of couples of generator together with that of turbine rotor. After all
completed, tighten all blots in diagonal sequence to the SPECIFIED TORQUE VALUES
Definition and Purposes of Standard & Code

Standards
Documents prepared by a professional group having requirements believed to be good and proper engineering
practice and which are written with mandatory requirements (i.e., the verb shall is used) or Something that is
established by authority, custom, or general concern as a model or example to be followed. Example; ASTM,
AWWA, MSS, API 620/650, SNI, JIS, DIN, etc.
Code
A group of general rules or systematic standard for design, materials, fabrication, installation, and inspection
prepared in such a manner that it can be adopted by a legal jurisdiction and made into law or ii.A set of rules
of procedures and standards of material designed to secure uniformity and to protect the public interest in such
matter as welding construction and public health, established usually by a public agency. Example; ASME
I/VIII, AWS D1.1, ASME B31, etc.
Recommended practices
Documents prepared by a professional group indicating good engineering practices but which are optional.
Example; API 686, RP 651/652, SNT-TC-1A
Specification
A detailed, precise, explicit presentation of something or a plan or proposal of something. Example; API 5L
(Specification line pipe), AWS B2.1 (Specification for welding procedure and performance qualification)
Guides and Guidelines
Documents by agencies, organizations, and committees enumerating various engineering methods which are
considered good practice, without any specific recommendation or requirement. These guides may be used at
the engineers discretion. Example; MSS SP-77 (Guidelines for support contractual relationship), AWS A5.01
(Filler Metal Procurement Guidelines.
Purpose
1.
Codes, Standards, Recommended Practices and Guides are written by committees consisting of
persons representing industries, professional societies, manufacturers, consultants occasionally
regulatory bodies.
2.
Codes contain prohibitions or cautions to be followed in the standardization of design practices

for safety considerations
3.
Companies develop engineering and design guides in order to have consistent in house design
procedures and to avoid having one project differ substantially from others. These guides may
be used at the engineers discretion.
There are many differences between the QC activities in Japan and those in the United States and Western or
Europe. This is due in part to each nations unique social and cultural background. QC activities cannot be
conducted in a social and cultural vacuum.
JAPANESE
1.
All employee, all section and multi skill
2.
Vertical Society (The division which are directly involved in business activities, such as
manufacturing, design, marketing and procurement , are usually strong but supporting staff
such as QC are relatively Weak). In other word is Seniority System
3.
Labor Unions (workers) are enterprise-wide unions and multi functional workers are nurtured
4.
Well education and training for all employees (Well organization in education and training)
5.
Regeneration with experiences from bottom or multi skill
6.
Pay system is based on individual, group goal and come from both of them and not only money
7.
Lifetime employment is practiced or long period turnover
8.
(from the points of view of humanity, democracy, and management)
9.
Writing system is Kanji (the most difficult in the word, so many character)
10. A nation of one race and one language

11. Very interested in education (more than 70% attendance)
12. Religion is Still strongly influenced by the teaching of Confucianism (Mencius) and Budhism (that
man is by nature good)
13. Any division or section is trust with others, so QC section only verified (Quality minded already
entered to each personnel or section). Total QC Inspectors only 1% from total employees
14. Education to Subcontractors or suppliers. Or make subcontractor specialist. 70% purchased
matl or manufacturing cost from outside suppliers or subcontractor
15. Old style of capitalism already changed (Owner is become manager in SMALL company only, but
after war there was a dissolution of Zaibatzu =conglomerates become manager in their
company).
16. The system of hiring of the President or Manager Company is to make long term profit (normally
3 Years). There is any opportunity to try other method during 3 years.
17. The role of the Government = No control, but just stimulation. Since 1960, Japan has entered
an era of trade liberalization. Free Competition. They are good education, before Meiji
Restoration the Japanese people is teaches by Temple School. This is a basic for Meiji
Restoration. And after second word war, compulsory education was extended to nine years).
June 1981; European Conference on QC at Paris, Dr. Juran gave a special presentation on the
subject When can the West catch up with Japan?. Japanese has done its QC education well but
it took 10 years to show the result (Quality improve and productivity to rise). No matter how
hard western nations try to engage in QC education, they may not catch up with Japan until the
1990s; said Dr. Juran
WESTERN (or USA)
1.
Professionalism or Specialization
2.
Proportional (Vertical and Horizontal)
3.
Labor unions are organized along functional lines (Shipyard in England has forty-five trade
unions). Labor Unions or functional unions are too strong (Welders, Fitters, Plumbers) so if any
problem for it (Boycott), company can not operated
4.
The Taylor method (Management by specialist = hoping to work standard) and Absenteeism.
Many workers work in order to obtain a livelihood.
5.
People are treated like machines.
6.
Elitism and class consciousness (No chief division or section come from foreman)
7.
Pay system is based on merit and always money, so will be much obtained by seniority and
ranking if we compare with worker. 100% turnover rate. It means within one year, one hundred
people will be hired and will leave their post.
8.
Alphabetic (easier, little numbers)
9.
A single race (Europe) but many foreign workers
10. The united states (Multiple race and multiple language)

11. Still a middle interested in education (30~70% attendance)
12. Religion is Christians (that man is by nature evil)
13. No trust in construction so the QC section is greater power because of independence. Total QC
inspector 15% from total employees
14. No education to Supplier or subcontractor but education to company self. (50% purchased matl
or manufacturing cost is from outside suppliers or subcontractor.
15. Old style of capitalism already changed (Owner may directly operate the company, but now the
manager is hired from elsewhere to operate company). The system of hiring of the President or
Manager Company is to make short term profit (Only 1 Years) and his performance will be
checked in periodically. If fail in one year = No Excuse
16. Bureaucrats and capitalism control.
17. QC education still not yet run until 1973 up to 1980.
Assembly of Rotor Fan Blades

December 1st, 2010 admin 0 Comments
1.
Check the fan blades they should be from burrs and flaws.
2.
Clean fan blade fit position of the fan hub
3.
Fan blades are classified by E.E side and T.E side by numbers.
4.
Each fan blade, lock washer and bolt should be installed according to the numbers marked on
hub.
5.
Install a half of fan blades and turn the rotor by 1800 before installing the remaining half
6.
Tighten the fan blades with the specified torque (25kg.m) and lock all washers.
7.
Check and measure the gap between the fan blade and bellower shroud refer to the drawing
(THE GAPS IN GENERATOR). The value must be in the range 2 2.7 mm
8. Oil Deflector Installation

9.
December 1st, 2010 admin 0 Comments
10. Before install inner oil deflector, inner and outer oil deflector should be carried out kerosene leak test
with lower bearing
bracket. Check the labyrinth of oil deflector free from foreign matter; check the bearing bracket, oil
deflector mounting surface should be free from burrs and flaws. Install inner oil deflector.
11. Drive knocks pins in inner oil deflector, tighten all bolts, and check the vertical mounting surface
should not be transform. Use 0.03mm thickness clearance gauge should not be inserted in the
mounting face, the metal contact surface must has 2~3 contact pins per 10x10mm2, and contact
surface should not be less than 75%, and those contact points should scatter evenly. If it is not good,
it must be ground.
12. First place the lower half oil deflector on the journal and gently turn it around journal and fit it. Make
horizontal and vertical adjustment by the two adjusting screw, check the gap by a gauge between the
inner oil deflector and the shaft at bottom and two sides.
13. Install upper half inner oil deflector. Tighten and lock clamping bolts of the matching surface, check
the gap by a gauge between the inner oil deflector and the shaft at top, bottom, and two sides.
Measure and record insulation resistance of the E.E side inner oil deflector with 100V megger, the
value should be more than 1M?.
14.
Oil Gland Seal Installation
15. December 2nd, 2010 admin 1 Comment
16. Check and clean transition ring and end bracket, mounting surface should be free from burrs. Install
contact. Check the gland seal housing.
17. Drive knock pins in gland seal housing, tighten all bolts, use 0.03mrn thickness clearance gauge
should not be inserted in the mounting face, the metal contact surface must has 2~3 contact points
10 x10mm2, and contact surface should be not less than 75%, and those contact points should
scatter evenly. If it is not good, it must be ground. Check the vertical mounting surface should be not
transformed and misplacement. Check the oil house, the labyrinth of gland seal should be free from
foreign matter and the mounting surface should be free from burrs and flaws. When assembling T.E
and E.E side gland seal housing match the marks.
18. Check the seal ring
Assemble the seal ring according to the match marks: QQ, QK, LQ, LK on the seal ring encircle. The
seal ring is split into four pieces. Assure that no gap exit at any of four mounting points. Check the
seal ring must be free from burrs and flaws. Check seal ring gap by a gauge between seal ring and
shaft. Assemble seal ring on the tool for checking size of seal ring. Tie the ring by the rubber strap on
the external portion of the ring, measure the total diameter side gap should be 0.18~0.20mm.
Measure the total diameter side gap also could take another method, fit the ring in the seal housing,
measure the ring inside diameter and shaft, and calculate the gap between the ring inside and the
shaft.
(1) Demount the seal housing; put the upper and lower seal housing on the flat ground, baffler is
downward.
(2) Install the spring on the seal housing, its two ends hang on the bolt and pipe, tighten the bolts
and locked them.
(3) First fit hydrogen side seal rings in the seal housing then fit air side seal rings. After installing the
seal rings, push it by hand to assure that it can move.
(4) Couples the upper seal housing with the lower seal housing, drive sleeve pins tighten clamping
bolts.
(5) Measure the inside diameter of the seal ring and the diameter of shaft, calculate the gap, between
the ring inside and the shaft should be 0.18~0.20mm.
(6) Install baffler and block on the gland seal housing, adjust the gap between baffler and shaft then
lock the block.
(7) Demount the gland seal housing bolts and pins.
19. Finishing the oil flushing work, assemble the seal ring
Install the T.E and E.E. side insulation washer, feed oil hole on the washer should face the feed oil hole
on the transition ring. Install the lower. Seal housing with the crane, place the lower seal housing on
the shaft, lift the lower seal housing means of a chain block and gently turn in a rotated direction.
Install the upper seal housing, drive knock pins, clamp the joint, and tighten the clamping bolts. Push
the assemble seal housing to transition ring, drive insulation pins, install the insulation bushing,
insulation washer, washer and bolts, and tighten all bolts check the gap of call position should be
satisfied the drawing. Put the wire through holes in the seal housing mounting bolts heads and lock
the bolts.
20.
GENERATOR PIPES FLUSHING
21. December 2nd, 2010 admin 0 Comments
22. Flushing of bearing oil system should be performed, in a manner identical to that of turbine. Take
notice that before the flush oil has not become good, oil not to be promise to flow throws the contact
face between the journal and the bearing. The mesh shall be fitted and the inlet of feed oil pipe,
prevent impurity flow through into the journal and the bearing.
23. Flushing of seal oil system should be performed refer to flushing of bearing system. Choke the rubber
stripe in the gap between the seal housing and shaft to prevent oil flow into interior of generator. The
seal ring must be disassembled, before flushing and reassembled after finishing the flushing.No rotate
the rotor when flushing, knock the pipe to accelerate the process of flushing.
24.
GENERATOR LEAK TEST
25. December 3rd, 2010 admin 0 Comments
26. Single gas-tight test and generator leak test should be performed as follow.
Require for test air: dry and clean compressed air, the humidity should be not more than 3.75g/m3 at
250C and one barometric pressure. Goods to be preparation: air hose, soap water, brush, etc. 14.2.
Fill dry and clean compressed air into the generator, increase the pressure from 0.05MPa, 0.10MPa,
0.20MPa, to 0.30MPa, detect the leak points by soap water or leak detector. Before use leak detector,
first fill Freon gas (CCl2F2), its press is about 330~660pa, then fill compressed air.
27. When the internal pressure reaches 0.1MPa, stop the supply of compressed air and immediately start
detection. The points to be inspected as follows:
(1) End bracket. Fitting to casing, bolt knock part, end bracket fitting.
(2) Hydrogen cooler mount.
(3) Manhole.
(4) Rotor collector ring.
(5) Piping flanges. Welded parts values, etc.
Inspect with soap water to find the leaking point (but soap water is not promised to used with
collector ring)
28. Require for single gas-tight test
Fill dry and clean compressed air into the generator, increase the press to 0.30MPa, after 24hours, the
air leak quality must be less than: 0.43 m3/day.
29. Require for generator leak test
Generator should be performed after finish installation of generator gas piping and gas control
equipment, before leak test, hydrogen pipes, and carbon dioxide pipes should be performed first.
Operate the seal oil equipment and assure that seal pressure is higher than internal pressure
0.04~0.06MPa. When the pressure rise from 0.10MPa, 0.20MPa, 0.30MPa, to 0.35MPa, the seal oil
pressures increases with almost constant difference to the internal pressure, it shows that the
operation of automatic oil pressure regulator values is in good condition. Operate the seal oil
equipment and assure that operation values, automatic oil pressure regulator valve, seal oil pump and
other requirement are in satisfactory condition. Operate the seal oil equipment and adjust automatic
oil pressure regulator value and set the differential pressure of seal oil to the range demanded.
30. When the pressure rises from 0.10MPa, 0.20MPa, 0.30MPa, to 0.35MPa, the seal oil pressure increases
with almost constant difference to the internal pressure, it shows that the operation of automatic oil
pressure regulator values is in good condition. Fill dry and clean compressed air into the generator,
increase the pressure to 0.30Mpa, after 24hours, the air leak quality must be less than
1.7m3/day.Generator operate with hydrogen, the leak quality should be less than 8.5m3/day or
vendor requirement.
31.
BEARING ASSEMBLY FOR TURBINE GENERATOR
32. December 3rd, 2010 admin 0 Comments
33. Bearing on T.E side, E.E side shall be cleaned again and reinstall after finish flushing. Check and clean
the bearing oil inlet, outlet, oil groove, assure that be free from foreign materials, lock the block on
two end of the extreme pressure oil way of the bearing. Refer to the drawing (BEARING T.E) and
(BEARING E.E) measure and record the bearing gaps. Install bearing cover. The magnitude of
inference fit between bearing cover and support block (on the top of bearing) should be
-0.02mm~+0.02mm, install insulation pins; it requires that the bearing cover and bearing bracket
contact well.
34. Take measurement of insulation resistance of E.E side, Install oil pipe rigging, the oil pipe rigging must
be annealed at site, and bent a suitable shape around the bearing bracket, and it would not be bent
badly. Install temperature detector for bearing and vibration pick up, after all finished, to check the
insulation resistance, it would be not changed. Install observation window of oil return on the bearing
oil return pipe where easy to watch bearing oil return.
35.
INSTALLATION STEADY BEARING ASSEMBLY
36. December 4th, 2010 admin 0 Comments
37. Install steady bearing. Clean steady bearing housing take kerosene leak test, and 24 hours later,
check with white ash pen should be no kerosene to leak out.
38. The shaft has been assembled in the work shop, and stamped the marks; assemble according to the
marks at site. Clean two sides of the shaft coupling, measure the run out of end surface of the shaft
coupling should be satisfied the requirement of the drawing (ROTOR ASSEMBLY). Install the shaft,
check no clearance between the rotor shaft coupling and shaft coupling, measure run out of the shaft
journal should be no more than 0.04mm. Then lock the bolts with lock plate
39. Adjust the centre height by shim under the steady bearing housing. Clamping bolts, check clearance
between steady bearing coupling face, steady bearing cover and steady bearing housing, use 0.03mm
thickness clearance gauge should not be inserted I fitting surface, and contact face should be not less
than 75%, If it is not good, it must be, ground. The contact face between bottom half bearing ring
and bearing housing should be not less than 75%, and those contact points
should scatter evenly. The magnitude of interference fit between bearing, cover and the top of bearing
should be -0.02mm~ +0.02mm.
40. Adjust the steady, bearing relative position to the shaft, the gap between the bearing ring and the
journal (left, right, and bottom) satisfied with the drawing. Finish the gap adjusting; lift the steady
bearing housing about 0.40mm, then put down the steady bearing housing. Considering the
lengthening of the shafts of turbine and generator when the power set is running at rated load, the
steady bearing housing must be moved towards E.E side some distance.
41. Install the oil deflector, and adjust the gap between the oil deflector and the shaft. Check and
measurement the insulation resistance of steady bearing with 1000V megger, the value should be
more than 1 M?.. Assemble the coupling cover and end cover, install the tachometer gear (if its
provided by the supplier). After all processes have finished, ream taper pine hols between steady
bearing housing and brush holder yoke and the base frame, and knock the taper pins.
42.
INSPECTION OF IMPORTANT EVENT
43. December 5th, 2010 admin 0 Comments
44. Under mechanical scope , the following check should be carried out during installation of turbo
generator.
1.1. Centering and elevation check of Generator foundation.
1.2. Gas tight test of stator terminal bushing
1.3. Primary centering of generator
1.4. Air gap clearance check
1.5. Axial travel check.
1.6. Single gas tight test
1.7. Generator leak test.
1.8. Bearing Contact check
1.9. Hydrostatic test of cooling water line
1.10. Leak test of H2 gas cooling line

1.11. Generator Turbine Shaft Alignment
45. Run-out check at the couplings
The run-out check should be performed at both half couplings (turbine, generator) in radial and axial
direction. Any minor manufacturing tolerances measured should be taken into account accordingly
during the subsequent coupling checks and when coupling the shafts.
46.
NOISE-ISOLATING HOUSING INSTALLATION
47. December 5th, 2010 admin 1 Comment
48. Install noise-isolating housing, adjust axial position of noise isolating housing. Ensure that generator
operate at rated load, the step of the shaft must not collide the housing. After decide the position of
the housing weld the foot of the housing plate with the embedded plate on the base.
49. Adjust the gap between the clamp plate on the noise-isolating housing and the shaft should be
satisfied with the drawing. Tighten all clamping bolts, ream taper pin holes between the foot plate of
the noise-isolating housing and the embedded plate, and knock the taper pins in.
Fixed and Mobile Scaffolding

December 6th, 2010 admin 0 Comments
Scaffolding has been one of the primary tools used to perform elevated work in the construction industry for
quite some time. Within the last couple of years we are seeing more use of scaffolding in our line of work
whether its on water tanks, church steeples, smoke stacks or even against buildings.
Like everything else we use to perform our work we must keep it in good condition to insure safe and practical
use. As a company we need to be diligent when it comes to scaffold inspection, we need to make sure that
contractors erecting and /or using scaffolding are complying with the Sub/Contractor S&H program Section
5.12.
There are a number of different types of staging used in the Telecommunications industry that include, but are
not limited to, pipe staging, Baker staging and chimney staging. However, for every different scaffold used the
same principles apply when it comes to use and inspection. We are striving to be certain that work can be
performed safely on every platform. Some items to be on the look out:
1. Are structures being erected in compliance with OSHA Standards? (if not PFAS may need to be used)
2. Are there adequate anchor points for fall arrest where required?
3. Is the scaffold tagging system being implemented?
Green Tag, this has been built to OSHA standards and is safe to use,
Yellow Tag, this has not been built to all OSHA standards and a harness (PFAS) must be used on this
structure,
Red Tag, this structure is either not complete or being dismantled and shall NOT BE USED.
No Tag, if no tag is on the scaffold it shall not be used until inspected by the person responsible for
the erection of the scaffold and tagged with the appropriate tag.
4. Are handrails and toe boards installed where required?

5. Is a competent person checking the work platforms on a daily basis?
6. Do they have sufficient access and egress points with ladders, stairs, etc?
7. Are they cleaned off and free from debris on a daily basis?
8. Are materials stored in a safe and accessible fashion?
When using Mobile scaffolding we need to be aware of some other things that do not pertain to fixed scaffold.
1. Does the scaffold have proper locking castors?
2. Is there sufficient headroom for the complete path of the scaffold?
3. Is there debris and/or material in the path of the scaffold?
4. Are there any holes or openings of any kind in the floor that the scaffold will travel on?
5. Is the surface the scaffold will travel on level?
6. If used on upper floors or roofs; is the floor or roof strong enough to carry the load of the scaffold, material
and personnel?
There are several tools on the Becweb that will guide us regarding scaffolds and elevated platforms to their
safe use, we should use these tools to help us identify the hazards associated with scaffolds.
What information should I gather as I start my equipment inventory

project?
This may vary by project. Here are some of the fields that customers might gather as they assemble a list of
assets to tag:
1.
Serial number or other unique number for asset
2.
Asset description
3.
Cost of the asset
4.
Installation and upgrade costs for the asset
5.
Date that the asset was purchased or obtained
6.
Asset Class
7.
Location for the asset
8.
Owner of the asset (i.e. is it leased, which company owns it, etc.)
9.
Size, weight, color of asset
10. Intellectual Property value or other security risks associated with the asset i.e. how critical is it
to your security and business strategy to keep the asset tracked)
11. Depreciation method (straight line, double declining depreciation, etc.) and current asset value
(net of depreciation and replacement value)
12. QA/QC and Maintenance requirements for the asset
13.
Material Comparison between ASTM A36 & SS 400
15. Herewith I would like to inform you the comparison of chemical composition and the Mechanical
Strength of ASTM A36 & SS 400 with thickness under inch (20 mm) as follows :
16.
17. From these comparison, we can propose SS 400 to substitute ASTM A36 as structural material of tank
18.
Features of High Strength T.C. (Tension Control) Bolts
20. T.C. bolts, improved type of heavy hexagonal structural bolts, were developed for more simplified bolt
fastening and more accurate performance and offer such excellent characteristics as shown below
because no fastening technique of high level is required :
1 Controlled clamping force can be ensured.
2 Completion of bolt fastening can be comfirmed by the shear-off of the notched end of the bolt.
3 Fastening can easily be done by electric wrench.
4 Noiseless installation and no need of wrench adjustment.
5 The bolt does not rotate when fastening.
6 No apprehension of bolts being left unfastened.
21.
22.
Duplex Stainless Steel Grades

The high corrosion resistance and the excellent mechanical properties combination of duplex stainless steels
can be explained by their chemical composition and balanced (duplex) microstructure of approximately
equivalent volume fractions of ferrite and austenite. Firstly, the chemical composition based on high contents of
Cr and Mo, improves intergranular and pitting corrosion resistance, respectively. Moreover, additions of
nitrogen can promote structural hardening by interstitial solid solution mechanism, which raises the yield
strength and ultimate strength values without impairing toughness. Secondly, the two-phase microstructure
guarantees higher resistance to pitting and stress corrosion cracking in comparison with conventional stainless
steels.
The duplex stainless steels comprise a family of grades with a range in corrosion performance depending on
their alloy content. Modern duplex stainless steels are often addressed in four groups:
1.
Lean duplex, such as 2304 (S32304), which contain little or no deliberate Mo addition;
2.
2205 (S32205), the workhorse grade accounting for more than 80% of duplex use;
3.
25 Cr duplex, such as 255 (S32550) and S31260;
4.
Superduplex, with 25-26 Cr and increased Mo and N, such as 2507 (S32750).
The table lists the duplex stainless steels covered in ASTM specifications for plate, sheet, and bar products.
Although few of the duplex grades are patented, many of these grades are closely associated with particular
steel producers as proprietary developments. This situation is often reflected in the naming of the grades. Only
one duplex stainless steel has an AISI designation, Type 329, a first generation duplex stainless steel without
intentional nitrogen addition. Many of the grades have become commonly known by a number that reflects
their typical chromium and nickel contents, e.g., 2205 with 22% Cr and 5% Ni. These composition-based
names, used by many producers, have recently been added to A 240 and are being added to the ASTM
specifications for other product forms. Trademarks of individual producers are not permitted in the ASTM
specifications. All grades in the ASTM specifications are all listed by their designations in the Unified Numbering
System (UNS). It is important to reference the UNS number when ordering to the standard specifications in
order to get the desired grade
Various Grades of Stainless Steels

There are more than 250 different stainless steels. These various grades of stainless are divided into five
major families or classes. The general classes have been developed to consolidate the chemistries and
mechanical properties required to meet specific customer application needs.
Martensitic Stainless Steels
These steels of the 400 series usually contain a minimum of 11.5% up to 18% chromium and have higher
levels of carbon than ferritics. They are capable of being heat treated to a wide range of useful hardness and
strength levels, and are used extensively in cutlery, sports knives and multipurpose tools.
Ferritic Stainless Steels
This group of steels in the 400 series contains 10.5% to 20% chromium for corrosion resistance and resistance
to scaling at elevated temperatures. They are non hardenable by heat treating and are always magnetic.
Ferritic stainless is used in applications where resistance to corrosion is important, such as automotive
emission control exhaust systems.
Austenitic Stainless Steels
Austenitic stainless steels are the most specified grades produced because of their excellent formability and
corrosion resistance. All 200 and 300 series steels are austenitic and contain 15% to 30% chromium and 2%
to 20% nickel for enhanced surface quality, formability and increased corrosion and wear resistance. They are
non-magnetic in the annealed condition and depending on the composition, primarily the nickel content, they
become slightly magnetic when cold worked. These steels are used for automotive trim, cookware, processing
equipment and a variety of industrial applications.
Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steels
There are two general areas of PH grade stainless steels; martensitic and semi-austenitic. The martensitic
group includes 17-4 PH and 15-5 PH chromium nickel, with columbium and copper additions. They develop
their high strength and hardness through heat treatment, which precipitates the copper. The martensitic PH
steels are used in aerospace, chemical and petrochemical, and food processing applications. The semiaustenitic grades are 17-7 PH and PH 15-7 Mo. They are austenitic in the annealed state, but martensitic in
the hardened condition. 17-7 PH stainless has excellent high strength and fatigue properties, and is used in
aerospace components. PH 15-7 Mo stainless is used in applications requiring high strength and hardness, such
as retaining rings, springs and aircraft bulkheads.
Duplex Stainless Steels
These alloys have a mixture of austenite and ferrite in their structure. They exhibit characteristics of both
phases with higher strength and ductility. Nitrogen is added to second generation duplex alloys and provides
strength and increased weldability. AK Steels NITRONIC 19D has good cyclic oxidation, high strength and
excellent stress corrosion resistance, and the 2205 alloy provides very good pitting and uniform corrosion
resistance, high strength and high resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
Alloys Make the Grade of Stainless Steels

The manufacture of quality stainless steel, from heat to heat and year to year, demands precise control of raw
material ingredients and melting practices. Exact quantities of presorted scrap and alloying elements are
delivered to the melting furnaces so that the heats or lots will be within specified composition ranges. Those
composition ranges typically include a group of chemical elements for each grade of stainless steel.
Alloying Elements
Following is a brief look at the alloying elements found in stainless steels and their functions.
Chromium forms a surface film of chromium oxide to make the stainless steel corrosion resistant. It also
increases the scaling resistance at elevated temperatures.
Nickel stabilizes the austenitic structure and increases ductility, making stainless steel easier to form. It
increases high temperature strength and corrosion resistance, particularly in industrial and marine
atmospheres, chemical, food and textile processing industries.
Silicon increases scaling resistance by forming a tight initial scale, which will withstand cyclic temperature
changes. It resists carburizing at high temperatures and slightly increases tensile strength and hardness. Small
amounts of silicon are added to all grades of stainless for deoxidizing.
Manganese promotes the stability of austenite, at or near room temperature and improves hot working
properties. Addition of up to 2% manganese has no effect on strength, ductility and toughness. Manganese is
important as a partial replacement of nickel in 200 series stainless grades.
Molybdenum increases corrosion resistance, strength at elevated temperatures, and creep resistance. It
expands the range of passivity and counteracts tendency to pit especially in chloride environments.
Aluminum is a very strong ferrite former and lowers the hardenability of stainless steel. It improves scaling
resistance.
Carbon strengthens stainless steel but promotes the formation of precipitates harmful to corrosion resistance.
Columbium combines with carbon to reduce susceptibility to intergranular corrosion. It acts as a grain refiner
and promotes the formation of ferrite.
Copper is added to stainless steels to increase their resistance to certain corrosive environments. It also
decreases susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking and provides age-hardening effects.
Titanium combines with carbon to reduce susceptibility to intergranular corrosion. It acts as a grain refiner
and promotes
the formation of ferrite.
Epoxy Resin Lining

General Description: The epoxy resin lining process is a non-structural lining technique whose main objective
is to improve the hydraulic characteristics of the water mains and at the same time preventing the
accumulation of tuberculars on the interior pipe walls.
History: This technique was first used in the United Kingdom in 1989. At the time, only one epoxy resin was
on the market. Since that date, five other products have been tried and tested in the UK. Of the six approved
products, four of them have North American approval.
Application:
Pipe Diameter: The minimum pipe diameter that can be successfully lined, using the approved materials and
equipment is 3-inches. Using the proper equipment, water mains with a diameter of up to 24-inches can be
epoxy spray lined.
Pipe Shape: The shape of the pipe for this process is generally a circular pipe, since the application is
performed using a centrifugal spray head that needs to be centred while advancing through the selected
section.
Pipe Length: The maximum length of water main that can be lined depends on the spray hoses that are
mounted on the equipment. In practice, the maximum length that can be lined in one pass is approximately
600 feet. The access pits will be excavated at strategic locations to coincide with valves and other fittings.
Pipe Material: The pipe material that can be successfully epoxy spray lined are; cast iron, ductile iron,
asbestos cement and steel pipes.
Pipe Condition: The epoxy resin lining process is a non-structural lining, therefore the lining will not correct
any deterioration in the pipe. However, once the epoxy resin lining is applied, there will be no contact with the
water and the host pipe, hence reducing further deterioration from the interior.
Standards / Patents of Epoxy Resin Lining

Material: Each manufacturer has its own formulation for a two-part epoxy resin. Currently, all companies that
manufacture epoxy resin have complied with ISO-9002 certification.
Design: The epoxy resin and hardener must be designed to be solvent, alcohol and benzol free. Both resin and
hardener must conform to the NSF B Standard 61 in the US and BNQ B standard 3660-950 in Quebec.
Installation: In the UK, there exists an Operational Guideline / Code of Practice for in-situ Epoxy Resin
Lining that is used by all the water authorities and contractors that execute epoxy resin projects. The
installation of the two components is carefully monitored by a computer controlled pumping system that mixes
the resin and hardener to the manufacturers recommended mix-ratio. Each epoxy resin has its own specific
mix-ratio. The epoxy resin will be applied at a minimum thickness of 1mm (40mils) in one pass.
Process Installation: In general, the following steps are performed:
1. Install Bypass
2. Construct Access Pits
3. Clean Pipe
4. Apply Epoxy
5. Cure and Inspect Epoxy Lining
6. Pressure Test Pipe
7. Disinfect Pipe
8. Tie-in to Existing System
9. Remove Bypass and Connect Services
What is a pipe epoxy lining?

After eliminating rust, scale, other accumulated substances inside of pipe, lining inside of if pipe with epoxy
paint in order to maintain fluids pure, prevent corrosion of pipe and life extend life of the pipe.
If we operate a pipe lining .
Protection Make a membrane inside of a pipe, prevent moisture or water contact to a surface of the
pipe.
Therefore we can prevent corrosion. .
Life Extension Since prevent corrosion of a pipe, the life of pipe can extended. .
No harm to human Oil and fat for coating does not contain any kinds of heavy metal, so its not
harmful to human
and no smells at all.
Pure water supply Pure water can be supplied since there are no rust or moss in the pipe
Protect facilities By using the existing pipe arrangement permanently, you can protect facilities
without any
damage.
Operation range of Pipe Epoxy Lining
Nature of Pipe All kinds of pipe Steel pipe, cast iron pipe, copper pipe, etc.
Size Over 5mm (15mm~350mm generally)
Form of pipe All kinds of pipe Tee, elbow, enlarged or reduced pipe etc.
Length of pipe All kinds of pipe long and short pipe .
Usage Can be applied to sanitary pipe, heating pipe, waste water pipe, process pipe, etc. .
Place Common house, collective house complex, APT, building, factory, etc.
Duplex Stainless Steels and Metallurgy Process
The iron-chromium-nickel ternary phase diagram is a roadmap of the metallurgical behavior of the
duplex stainless steels. A section through the ternary at 68% iron (Figure 3) illustrates that these
alloys solidify as ferrite, some of which then transforms to austenite as the temperature falls to about
1000C (1832F) depending on alloy composition. There is little further change in the equilibrium
ferrite-austenite balance at lower temperatures. The effect of increasing nitrogen is also shown in
Figure 3 (Ref. 1). Thermodynamically, because the austenite is forming from the ferrite, it is
impossible for the alloy to go past the equilibrium level of austenite. However, as cooling proceeds to
lower temperatures, carbides, nitrides, sigma and other intermetallic phases are all possible
microstructural constituents.
The relative amounts of ferrite and austenite that are present in a mill product or fabrication depend
on the composition and thermal history of the steel. Small changes in composition can have a large
effect on the relative volume fraction of these two phases as the phase diagram indicates.
The tendencies of individual elements to promote the formation of austenite or ferrite apply
reasonably well to the duplex grades. Work is underway to develop ferrite number relationships as a
function of composition for duplex grades, similar to those that exist for austenitic stainless steel
weldments. The goal of maintaining the desired phase balance in a duplex stainless steel is achieved
primarily by adjusting chromium, molybdenum, nickel, and nitrogen contents, and then by control of
thermal history. However, because the cooling rate determines the amount of ferrite that can
transform to austenite, cooling rates following high temperature exposures influence the phase
balance. Because fast cooling rates favor retention of ferrite, it is possible to have more than the
equilibrium amount of ferrite. For example, low heat input welding of a heavy section might result in
excessive ferrite in the HAZ.

Another beneficial effect of nitrogen is that it raises the temperature at which the austenite begins to
form from the ferrite. Therefore, even at relatively rapid cooling rates, the equilibrium level of
austenite can almost be reached. In the second-generation duplex stainless steels, this effect reduces
the problem of excess ferrite in the HAZ.

Because sigma phase forms at temperatures below which austenite begins to re-form from the ferrite
on cooling, the goal of avoiding sigma phase in mill products is achieved by selecting an appropriate
intermediate cooling rate that favors austenite re-formation at high temperature and retards sigma
formation at lower temperature. Fortunately, this intermediate cooling rate is quite rapid, allowing the
use of water quenching. Only when welding widely differing section sizes or when welding heavy
sections with very low heat inputs may the problem of too rapid quenching be observed in actual
fabrication.
Alpha prime is also a stable phase in duplex alloys, forming in the ferrite phase below about 525C
(950F) in the same manner it forms in fully ferritic alloys. Alpha prime causes the loss of ambient
temperature toughness in ferritic stainless steel after extended exposure to temperatures centered in
the range of 475C (885F); this behavior is known as 475C / 885F embrittlement.
The use of nitrogen as an alloying element in these stainless steels means that chromium nitrides may
be present on ferrite-ferrite grain boundaries and on austenite-ferrite boundaries in the heat-affected
zone of welds. If formed in large quantity and under conditions in which the chromium-depleted areas
do not have time to repair themselves during annealing, these chromium nitrides may adversely affect
corrosion resistance. However, because higher nitrogen promotes austenite, which has a high
solubility for nitrogen, the second-generation duplex stainless steels seldom contain significant
amounts of chromium nitrides. Furthermore, the second-generation duplex stainless steels are made
with very low carbon content so that carbide formation to a detrimental extent is not usually a
practical concern.
Detrimental sigma, alpha prime, and carbides and nitrides can form in a matter of minutes at certain
temperatures. Consequently, the thermal treatments required for processing and fabrication, as well
as the service cycles, must take reaction kinetics of phase formation into account to ensure that
desired corrosion resistance and mechanical properties are obtained. These grades have been
developed to maximize corrosion resistance and retard precipitation reactions sufficiently to allow
successful fabrication.
An isothermal precipitation diagram for 2304, 2205, and 2507 duplex stainless steels is shown in
Figure 4 (Ref. 2,3,4,5). The start of chromium carbide and nitride precipitation begins at the relatively
slow time of 1-2 minutes at temperature. This is slower than in the ferritic grades or the highly
alloyed austenitic grades, and is due, in part, to the high solubility of carbon and nitrogen in the low
nickel austenite phase and possibly to a retardation effect of nitrogen on the carbide precipitation. As
a result, the duplex grades are relatively resistant to sensitization on cooling. The carbide and nitride
formation kinetics are only marginally affected by chromium, molybdenum, and nickel in these grades,
so all the nitrogen-alloyed duplex stainless steel grades have kinetics similar to 2205 in regard to
these precipitates. Sigma and chi precipitation occurs at slightly higher temperatures but in
approximately the same time as the carbide and nitride precipitation. Duplex grades that are more
highly alloyed in chromium, molybdenum, and nickel will have more rapid sigma and chi kinetics than
2205; those with lower alloy content are slower.

This is illustrated by the dashed curves in Figure 4 showing an earlier start of sigma and chi formation
in the more highly alloyed 2507 and a slower start for 2304. Alpha prime precipitates within the ferrite
phase, and its effects are to harden and embrittle the ferrite. Fortunately, because duplex stainless
steels contain 50% austenite, this hardening and embrittling effect is not nearly as detrimental as it is
in fully ferritic steels. The loss of toughness (embrittlement) due to alpha prime precipitation is slower
than the rate of hardening (Figure 4). As a result, alpha prime embrittlement is rarely a
matter of concern during fabrication. However, the upper temperature limit for service is controlled by
alpha prime formation.

Because long-term, elevated temperature exposure can result in loss of ambient temperature
toughness, pressure vessel design codes have established upper temperature limits for the maximum
allowable design stresses. The German TV ode distinguishes between welded and unwelded
constructions and is more conservative in its upper temperature limits than the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code. The temperature limits for these pressure vessel design codes for various
duplex stainless steels are summarized in Table 2
ALLOY STEEL HEAT EXCHANGERS



All About GTAW Welding

February 2nd, 2011 admin 0 Comments
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) is frequently referred to as TIG welding. TIG welding is a
commonly used high quality welding process. TIG welding has become a popular choice of welding
processes when high quality, precision welding is required. In TIG welding an arc is formed between
a non consumable tungsten electrode and the metal being welded. Gas is fed through the torch to
shield the electrode and molten weld pool. If filler wire is used, it is added to the weld pool
separately.
TIG Welding Benefits
Superior quality welds
Welds can be made with or without filler metal
Precise control of welding variables (heat)
Free of spatter
Low distortion
Shielding Gases
Argon
Argon + Hydrogen
Argon/Helium
Helium is generally added to increase heat input (increase welding speed or weld penetration).
Hydrogen will result in cleaner looking welds and also increase heat input, however, Hydrogen may
promote porosity or hydrogen cracking.
GTAW Welding Limitations
Requires greater welder dexterity than MIG or stick welding
Lower deposition rates
More costly for welding thick sections
Common GTAW Welding Concerns

We can help optimize your welding process variables. Evaluate your current welding parameters and
techniques. Help eliminate common welding problems and discontinuities such as those listed below:
weld Discontinuities
Undercutting
Tungsten inclusions
Porosity
Weld metal cracks
Heat affected zone cracks
TIG Welding Problems
Erratic arc
Excessive electrode consumption
Oxidized weld deposit
Arc wandering
Porosity
Difficult arc starting
Types of Welding Process
February 3rd, 2011 admin 1 Comment
metal Inert gas (MIG) Welding: An arc is struck between a consumable electrode and the sheet
metal to be welded. The consumable electrode is in the form of continuous filler metal. An inert gas
surrounds the arc and shields it from the ambient to prevent oxidation.
Carbon steels, low alloy steels, stainless steels, most aluminum alloys, zinc based copper alloys can
be welded using this process.

Tungsten Inert gas (TIG) Welding: An arc is truck between a tungsten electrode (nonconsumable) and the sheet metal to be welded. An inert gas shields the arc from the ambient to
prevent oxidation. A filler material is optional

Carbon steels, low alloy steels, stainless steels, most aluminum alloys, zinc based copper alloys can be
welded using this process. TIG is quite suitable for welding dissimilar materials, but usual cautions of
galvanic corrosion still apply.
The TIG process is a slower process compared to the MIG process, but the quality of weld is
cosmetically better. There is no weld spatter, and the quality of welds is higher than MIG welding.
Oxy Acetylene gas Welding: Acetylene or some combustible gas is combined with Oxygen and the
flame heats the sheet metal to be welded. A filler metal rod supplies the molten metal for the joint.
This method is readily available, but the heat can cause distortion in sheet metal. Due to this, this
method is being displaced by other methods such as MIG and TIG welding.
The Importance of Welding

February 3rd, 2011 admin 2 Comments
Welding is the most economical method to permanently joint metal parts, Ex.; Comparison of welded and
riveted structural and pipe (see pict.-1). Some of these advantages are ;
The lowest-cost joining method
Joins all commercial metals
Can be used anywhere
Provides design flexibility
It is also to know the limitations of welding
Some of welding depend on the human factor
It often requires internal inspection
Most of these limitations can be overcome by means of good control and supervision
Comparation of welded and riveted

Welding Joins All Metals.
All metals can be welded, but some are easier to weld than others. They posses weld ability. See pict-2
Summary metals welded
About Welding Processes Classification

February 3rd, 2011 admin 0 Comments
There are about 35 different welding and brazing processes and several soldering methods in use by industry
today.There are various ways of classifying the welding and allied processes. For example, they may be
classified on the basis of :
(i) Source of heat, i.e., flame, arc, etc.
(ii) Type of interaction i.e. liquid/liquid (fusion welding) or solid/solid (solid state welding).
In general, various welding and allied processes are classified as follows:
1. Gas Welding
Airacetylene Welding
Oxyacetylene Welding
Oxyhydrogen Welding
Pressure gas Welding
2. Arc Welding
Carbon Arc Welding
Flux Cored Arc Welding
TIG (or GTAW) Welding
Plasma Arc Welding
Electroslag Welding and Electro gas Welding
Stud Arc Welding.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Submerged Arc Welding
MIG (or GMAW) Welding
3. Resistance Welding
Spot Welding
Seam Welding
Projection Welding
Resistance Butt Welding
Flash Butt Welding
Percussion Welding
High Frequency Resistance Welding.
4. Solid State Welding
Cold Welding
Diffusion Welding
Explosive Welding
Forge Welding
Friction Welding
Hot Pressure Welding
Roll Welding
Ultrasonic Welding.
5. Thermo Chemical Welding Processes
Thermit Welding
Atomic Hydrogen Welding.
6. Radiant Energy Welding Processes
Electron Beam Welding
Laser Beam Welding
What are Welding-defects?

February 4th, 2011 admin 0 Comments
Another cause is the use of a very wide weld joint. If the arc is directed down the center of the joint,
themolten weld metal will only flow and cast against the side walls of the base plate without melting them.
Theheat of the arc must be used to melt the base plate. This is accomplished by making the joint narrower or
bydirecting the arc towards the side wall of the base plate. When multipass welding thick material, a split
beadtechnique should be used whenever possible after the root passes. Large weld beads bridging the
entiregap must be avoided.
They are excessive conditions, outside the acceptance limits, which risks to compromise the stability or the
functionality of the welded structure. They are also called rejectable discontinuities. This means that the same
type of discontinuity of a lesser degree, might be considered harmless and acceptable.
Are there acceptable Welding-defects? No, by definition a defect is rejectable. There can be acceptable
discontinuities. The designer, or the purchaser, or the person in charge of the welding project is entitled to
define the limits of acceptance. And these limits are valid only for the application and the usage involved.
Are there undetected defects? Hopefully not! No Welding-defects should go undetected, but undetectable
discontinuities yes, that are acceptable, as defined by the designer.
What should be done when Welding-defects are detected? One shouldreject the items and put them
temporarily on hold. One should determine the cause and try to implement a corrective action to avoid future
recurrence. Then an authorized professional should determine if the defects are repairable or not. If yes by
which procedure. Standard procedures may be approved for routine application.
Lack of fusion can also occur in the form of a rolled over bead crown. Again, it is generally caused by a verylow
travel speed and attempting to make too large a weld in a single pass. However, it is also very oftencaused by
too low a welding voltage. As a result, the wetting of the bead will be poor.When welding aluminum, the
common cause of this type of defect is the presence of aluminum oxide. Thisoxide is a refractory with a melting
point of approximately 3500 0F (19270C). It is also insoluble in moltenaluminum. If this oxide is present on the
surfaces to be welded, fusion with the weld metal will be hampered.
Carbon Steels & Low alloy Steels (part-1)

Carbon Steels are alloys of iron and carbon in which carbon does not usually exceed 1%, manganese does not
1.65%, and silicon each do not exceed 0.60%
C < 1%
Mn < 1.65%
Si < 0.6%
Classification and Weld ability of Carbon Steels
Common Name
Carbon Content
(%)
Typical
Hardness
Typical Use
Weld ability
Low Carbon Steel
0.15% Max
60 HRB
Special plate, shapes,

sheet, strip, welding
electrode
Excellent
Mild Steel
0.15~0.30
90 HRB
Structural shapes, plate

and bar
Good
Medium Carbon
Steel0.30~0.50
25 HRC
Machine parts and tools
Fair (Preheat & PWHT

normally required, Low
hydrogen electrode
recommended)
High Carbon Steel
0.50~1.00
40 HRC
Spring, Dies, railroad rail
Poor (Low hydrogen

electrode, preheat &
PWHT is required
Carbon Steel
can be classified according to various deoxidation practices, as rimmed, capped, semi killed or killed
steel
Deoxidation and the steel making process will have an affect upon the characteristic and properties of
the steel
Increasing carbon content will increase the mechanical properties such as hardness and strength
AISI-SAE carbon steel are the 10XX, 11XX, 12XX, and 15XX
Welding Electrodes; E60XX, E70XX-XX
Composition & Strenght Requirement

High Strength Low Alloy steels (HSLA)

are designed to provide better mechanical properties and sometimes greater resistance to atmospheric
corrosion.
The principal difference between structural grades of CS and HSLA steels is chemical composition.
The YS (Min.) is 42~80 ksi and The TS (Min.) is 60~90 ksi.
The Weld ability of most HSLA steels is similar to that of mild steel.
Preheat & Control of hydrogen is required
PWHT is seldom (for maintain dimensions during machining)
The examples of HSLA materials for constructions project are :
Structural Steel; A242 Gr. I, A441, A572 Gr. 42-50-60-65, A588 Gr. A-B-C-D-E-F-G-H-J, A633 Gr. A-BC-D-E, A710 Gr. A-B, etc.
Pressure Vessel; A202 Gr. A-B, A203 Gr. A-B-C-D-E, A204 Gr. A-B-C, A225 Gr. C-D, A302 Gr. A-B-C-D,
A353, A735, A736, A737 Gr. B-C
Some of project with chimney installations uses one of materials as are : A588 and A242. The
Welding Electrode uses E8016/18-G, B1, B2, B2L, C1, C2, C3 (compatible with chemical composition)

Quench and Tempered Steels (Q&T)
Are furnished in the heat treatment condition with yield strength 50~150 Ksi
The carbon content of Q&T steels generally does not exceed 0.22%
HY80, HY100 and HY130 are sample for plate military specification (American standard)
A514 & A517 (Plate) and A 592 (Forging) are used in wide range of application; TV towers, Fans, and
ships, Steel Mill and mining equipment, pressure vessel, etc. Welding process for this material using
Electrode E1X01X-M.
A533 Gr. B, A537 CL 2 for Pressure Vessels where high notch toughness and minimum yield strength
of 60 Ksi is required. Using the Electrode E901X-D1,M and E901X-D1,M
Construction work for power plant rare using this material.
Arc Welding Guides
February 6th, 2011 admin 1 Comment
This article on arc welding describes what it is, and what projects its used for, and more. Electricity is
Arc Welding Basics

a pretty linear current that stays safe tucked away inside an outlet amongst a jumble of wires ready
to deliver voltage on the flip of an on switch.

Many people might not consider electricity as a maneuverable tool that can be harnessed to produce
in power applications. On the opposite end of the spectrum are welders who control the flow of
electricity with their own aptitude and skill to join two pieces of metal. This is referred to as Arc
weldingUsing the power of electricity to melt metal to a liquid form. This is used to fuse two pieces
of metal together. Arcwelding units referred to as stick welding works by drawing electricity through
an electrode (a specialized steel rod) which is passed through the material at hand. Because the
electric arc from the welding tool can be negatively influenced by wetness or rustiness, electrodes are
coated with flux that prevents the formation of oxides.

Welding jobs in this area of expertise run anywhere from $100 to $600 dollars, depending on its size
and project ability. They have a reputation for being able to weld thicker metals than MIG welders.
Only high end MIG welders in the two to three thousand dollar range are capable of welding the same
metal thickness. In essence, high end MIG welders are worth it

because they provide the same power as arc-welders, yet
cleaner. An arc-welders electrical current is more difficult to
master.
Using arc welders must be proceeded with caution. These tools
emit ultra violet rays and sparks, which work together to
penetrate the skin. For body protection, a pair of jeans free of
tears and rips is ideal since they can be ignited by sparks. In
addition, your sleeves and collars should be buttoned. Hands
should be protected with leather gloves and eyes should be
safeguarded with goggles at the very least, along with a welding
helmet that filter plates. Although you can use this technique on
rusted metal, it is a good idea to establish your arc on clean
surfaces.
Stainless Steels
Stainless Steels are those alloy steels that have a normal Chromium content of at least 12% with or without
other alloy additions.
Martensitic SS type; 403, 410, 416, 414, 420, 431, 440A/B/C, CA-6NM, CA-15, CA-40
Ferritic SS type; 405, 409, 429, 430, 434, 436, 442, 444, 446, 26-1, 29-4, 29-4-2, CB-30, CB-50
Austenitic SS type ; 201, 202, 301, 302, 303, 304/L, 305, 308, 309/S, 310/S, 314, 316/L, 317/L,
321, 329, 330, 347, 348, 384
Precipitation hardening SS
This materials often uses in workspace are; Type 304/L, 316/L, 309, 310, 347 and the electrode used
are : E308/L, E316/L, E309, E310, E347
Recommended electrode and filler metal for this materials are :
Stainless Steels filler metal
High Alloy Steels

Covers the weld ability of alloy steels that content more than about 5% total alloy additions except SS, Cr-Mo
Steels, 9% Nickel Steel.
Ultra High Strength Steels (180~200Ksi); AF1410, H11, H13, HP9-4-20, HP9-4-30, HY-180
Maraging Steels (high strength and excellent toughness); A 538 Gr. A/B/C, 18Ni, Cast 18Ni, A590
Austenitic Manganese Steel (11-14.5% Mn, 0.7~1.4% C), Called also with HADFIELD; C-Mn, C-Mn-Cr,
C-Mn-Ni, C-Mn-Mo
This materials seldom used in welding construction work.
High alloy Steels Filler Metal
Coal Burner Wear for Power Generation

Steel Construction
Coal is the prime fuel for power generation across the globe. More than fifty percent of electricity is produced
by coal. Coal has in it organic material, an inorganic portion, and moisture. There are other components like
sulphur, trace metals like arsenic, etc. which all form a very small percentage. The inorganic portion in coal
varies highly making it difficult to predict any standard behavior. As coal formed under the earth is a
heterogeneous material, it makes it still difficult.
Coal burners, both in wall fired boilers and in tangential fired boilers, are subjected to wear during their
operation. The rate of wear on the burner depends on many factors.
Percentage of ash (Inorganic portion): As the percentage of ash in coal increases, the wear increases,
but the rate of wear need not be the same for same percentage of ash coals.
The chemical composition of the ash: Knowing the constituents which make up the ash in coal
facilitates our understanding of the reason for the difference in rate of wear of the burner using the
same percentage of ash in coal. It is seen that the silica in coal plays a major role in erosion of coal
burners.
Velocity adopted for fuel air mixture: It is seen that the velocity adopted has an influence on the wear
rate on the coal burner. The higher the velocity, the higher the rate of wear, but this cannot be varied
much as it depends on the burner requirement, the flame front anchoring point, etc. The effect of
velocity is more predominant in the case of pressure parts erosion in the boiler.
The pulverized coal fineness: Coal fineness has an influence on the rate of wear depending upon the
segregation of ash from organic portion of the coal
The number of hours operated
Material used for burner construction: As burners are subjected to heat radiation from burning fuel,
they are made of very high alloy steels. The more often preferred material is stainless steel. However
to contain wear and improve life a lot of methods like weld overlay, cladding, or metal spraying are
adopted.
The flame profile and distance from burner tip: The flame intensity and flame distance from the
burner tip has two influences on the wear of the burner. One, it leads to warping of the burner tip and
second, it creates eddies which speeds up wear.
The load carried by the burner, which is basically the quantity of coal flow through the burner
Many of the factors like percentage ash, chemical composition, the number of hours of operation, etc.
cannot be tailored to contain the wear of the burner components. The designers adopt mainly weld overlay or
cladding or metal spraying to improve life of the coal burner. The method chosen will depend on the ash
percentage and composition of coal being used in the boiler, the cost, and the life enhancement period.
Chromium-Molybdenum Steels
Contains 0.5~9% Cr and 0.5~1.0% Mo
The Carbon content is normally less than 0.2%
Preheat and PWHT (Pre Welding Heat Treatment) normally is required to prevent the hardening and
cracking
Most of these materials use for Power Plant with elevated temperature application
Welding Electrode See Sample attached
Chronium-molybdenum ASTM Spec-1
Chronium-molybdenum ASTM Spec-2
Starting System
Starting system provides the initial momentum for the Gas Turbine to reach the operating speed. This is similar
to the starter motor of your car. The gas turbine in a power plant runs at 3000 RPM (for the 50 Hz grid 3600
RPM for the 60 Hz grid). During starting the speed has to reach at least 60 % for the turbine to work on its on
inertia. The simple method is to have a starter motor with a torque converter to bring the heavy mass of the
turbine to the required speed. For large turbines this means a big capacity motor. The latest trend is to use the
generator itself as the starter motor with suitable electrics. In situations where there is no other start up power
available, like a ship or an off-shore platform or a remote location, a small diesel or gas engine is used.
Fuel System
The Fuel system prepares a clean fuel for burning in the combustor. Gas Turbines normally burn Natural gas
but can also fire diesel or distillate fuels. Many Gas Turbines have dual firing capabilities.
A burner system and ignition system with the necessary safety interlocks are the most important items. A
control valve regulates the amount of fuel burned . A filter prevents entry of any particles that may clog the
burners. Natural gas directly from the wells is scrubbed and cleaned prior to admission into the turbine.
External heaters heat the gas for better combustion.
For liquid fuels high pressure pumps pump fuel to the pressure required for fine atomisation of the fuel for
burning.
These are the main Aiuxiliary systems in a Gas Turbine Power Plant. Many other systems and subsystems also
form part of the complex system required for the operation of the Gas Turbine Power Plant
Oxy Acetylene Welding Knowledge

Oxy Acetylene Welding

Oxy acetylene welding is a type of welding that uses
fuel gas and oxygen to weld metal.
Many would not know it but oxy acetylene cutting and
welding is actually one of the oldest welding techniques
known to man, the reason many people do not know
this is because the use of oxy acetylene cutting and
welding has declined so it is a lesser known welding
application to non welders.
Oxy acetylene welding was first found in 1903 by two
French engineers named Edmond Fouch and Charles
Picard and the process soon became widely used in the early nineteen hundreds.
The idea of oxy acetylene cutting welding is that you have two cylinders, one of a fuel gas such as acetylene
and another cylinder of oxygen; this means that the welding technique uses pure oxygen instead of air as part
of the process. The use of oxygen instead of air allows the oxy acetylene cutting and welder to hold a higher
flame temperature when compared to other welders, in fact an oxy acetylene flame heats up to around 3,500
C (6,330 F).
When Oxy Acetylene Welding, a welder will have two cylinders, one for oxygen and another for acetylene. The
welder will also have an oxy acetylene welder and a welding torch to carry out the welding application.
Many would not know but you can actually use oxy acetylene for cutting metal as well as welding, this is
because the welding torch generates enough heat to bring the metal up to melting temperature. When using
an oxy acetylene torch it is always important to ensure you have the correct torch attached to the welder as
there is a different torch for oxy acetylene cutting and welding.
A welding torch used in the welding application has the gas hoses attached to the base which attach to the
cylinder with the gas on and off valves; two pipes come out of the cylinder and attach to the torch head. The
oxy acetylene cutting torch has a few differences to the welding torch; these are that there is an oxygen blast
trigger on the top, an oxygen blast valve on one side, three pipes instead of two and a nozzle that can be
unscrewed on the torch head.
In this day and age oxy acetylene cutting and welding is still used in metal artwork, pipe and tube work, the
glass industry, jewelery production and in stone work among other industries.
SMAW / Shielded Metal Arc Welding)

This welding method using wrapped electrode.
Heat caused by the arc causes electrode and base metal melted
Flux works to protect electrode weld metal so as not to react with the environment / atmosphere.
For small diameter of electrode, the electric current used is small or low. This condition is used for the
material of the thin type of carbon steels in all welding positions. whereas for larger diameter
electrodes, the electric current used is high, this condition is used to weld carbon steels materials that
are thicker on the flat and horizontal welding positions. Alloy materials can be formulated for using
metal powders in flux
This welding method is used in almost all the material because the process is more simple and low
cost
GTAW / Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

In classification methods using the GTAW electrode type of tungsten. Tungsten not follow the melt in
the classification process, while the melt is a welding rod that serves as filler material.
Arc occurs between electrode and materials basis, while the shielding gas is used to protect electrode
and liquid metal.
In general, the classification method using DCSP GTAW (DCEN) for Carbon Steels, stainless Steels,
Ti or AC stuff classification Aluminum, magnesium.
Gas used are noble gases, which are: Argon, Helium or a mixture of argon and helium
Applications in the field in general:
Full GTAW, for Pipe with a thickness of 5 mm in diameter ? 4 "for carbon steels, stainless steels, while
the material can be used in all diameter measurements. otherwise be applied to the classification of
thin plates made of stainless Steels dies or aluminum pipe.
Used in the root section only, for the upper filler and capping the SMAW method. This method is used
in the classification of the Pipe thickness of> 6 mm well of a CS and SS. This method is also used in
the classification process for welding root cladding pipe.
What Is Welding Slag?

Welding slag is an annoying occurrence that every welder, no matter what their experience, will suffer with at
one time or another when carrying out welding. This being said, the more experienced a welder is the less
likely slag will appear because of the quality of the weld applied.
Welding Slag is a residue left from certain types of welding such as MIG, MMA and FCA welding, namely
welding techniques that use some form of flux process (with the exception of MIG welding which does not
require flux in the welding process).
Slag causes an imperfection to the work being welded as it is a deoxidation by product from the flux reaction
process, when two welds are applied side by side the slag then gets trapped in the weld causing a pocket in the
weld. This pocket is because the slag does not get melted out as part of the weld, the cavity formed by the
slag makes the weld lose strength and durability and is known in the business as a linear defect.
Slag caught in a welding cavity can over time can cause cracks in the weld and make the weld break causing
damage to the work welded. This is even more of an issue if the work is of industrial use as it tends to mean
harsher environments with vibrations and heavy workloads required putting more stress on the weld.
Preventing slag
There are a few top tips to help prevent welding slag when welding, the more experienced welders use these
techniques on a daily basis but green welders may not know about this simple techniques.
Ensure you use the correct welding technique to produce smooth and strong weld beads as this will reduce the
chances of slag pockets forming.
Make sure the correct current is used for your work and that the welding torch travel speed is correct for your
current and work.
If carrying out multi layer welds always ensure you remove slag and clean the weld area between each weld
layers. You can use a wire brush and for stubborn slag forms use an angle grinder with a sand disc or in worse
case scenario use a grinding disc.
Welding slag is not just an imperfection it is also something that can have a detrimental impact on the work
being carried out as it can cause a weld to lose strength and durability. This in turn can mean the weld breaks
later on from the stress being applied to the weld of day to day workloads.
Duplex Stainless Steels FAQs During Fabrication

The following questions reflect the experience of fabricators in the questions most typically asked during
fabrication of duplex stainless steel. Answers are suggested but in these practical matters, there is a wide
range of possibly "correct" answers. The answer given may not be applicable to all possible situations. For
further reading on welding guidelines please visit the Fabrication and Welding page. Feel free to send us your
own question to duplex.ssw@kci-world.com.
1. Although it is recommended to use plasma torches for back gouging of the root and defect removal, can a
conventional carbon arc be used? What is a minimum grinding that should follow arc gouging in order to
remove heat-affected layer?
Carbon arc back gouging has been successfully used in the construction of 2205 duplex stainless steel vessels,
but care must be taken to minimize the heating and the potential for carbon contamination. When care is taken
in the back gouging procedure, the minimum grinding is not burdensome. It would be appropriate to perform a
weld procedure qualification in which the typically applied back gouging has been included as it will be used in
the practical construction.
2. What is the maximum allowed thickness reduction resulting from cold forming before solution anneal/ water
quenching treatment would be required?
A precise answer to this question has not been developed. However, it has been common in construction of
2205 duplex stainless steel vessels to apply the same limits that are applied to carbon steels by the ASME
Code. This limitation, while possibly overly conservative, has not led to any problems in service. For vessels not
being constructed to ASME Code, significantly more aggressive deformation has been permitted, with no
reports of problems attributed to this cold worked condition.
3. What is a proper method of repairing small defects and metal tears on the process side (for example, caused
by knocking off of the pre-cut ladder supports and lifting lugs usual method of removal)?
The repair procedure most typically satisfactory is to open the defect by grinding, if necessary, and then to
repair by GTAW with the typical matching filler. Because of the size of the weld involved, it is unlikely that small
defects or tears will lead to excessive time at temperature for these repair welds. However, care must be taken
to avoid too rapid cooling of the weld (with resulting excessive ferrite). Slight warming of the metal under
shielded conditions using the weld torch before the filler is introduced will typically.
Prevent too rapid cooling. Autogenous repairs are not recommended because of the likelihood of forming
excessive ferrite in the weld.
4. Excessive heat input may result from weld repair of the defect discovered by post-weld NDT. Should such
procedure be pre-qualified, and how?
It is appropriate to demonstrate that the weld repair has not damaged the material, i.e., to qualify the repair in
much the same way as the procedure was qualified. So fabricators have qualified reasonably anticipated repair
procedures in advance. Alternatively, the repair practice can be documented and simulated on a production run
out tab, with the usual production test plate procedures then being applied to the repaired weld.
5. What is in fact the upper limit for weld heat input, provided base metal fully passed A-923 criteria?
Because the goal is to limit total time at temperature, it is generally better to complete a weld in fewer passes
with relatively high heat input than many passes of lower heat input. The duplex stainless steels can tolerate
relatively high heat inputs. It is not impossible to hot crack a duplex stainless steel during welding, but it is
rare. The duplex stainless steels have relatively low thermal expansion and high thermal conductivity. The
solidification of the duplex filler metals is not prone to hot cracking as is a fully austenitic solidification.
Maximum heat input values as high as 65-100 kJ/mm have been found to be satisfactory, depending on the
welding process
Interpass Temperatures
This topic is sometimes misunderstood when it comes to hard facing. In joining applications, it is done mostly
to prevent rapid cooling and prevent hydrogen entrapment. While the same is true in hard facing, it does have
additional implications. In hard facing we are dealing with the SURFACE characteristics of the weld metal to a
much greater extent than we are in joining, so our focus has to be shifted a little bit. This is especially true in
a rebuilding procedure, where base materials can be pretty hard and contain hefty amounts of alloy and
carbon. Knowing the base metal chemistry as well as the hardfacing material is an essential part in
determining the proper preheat and interpass temperatures to employ. This is particularly true in dealing with
Martensitic alloys as the hardfacing product.
Those hardfacing alloys such as High Chromium Irons or Chromium Carbide alloys do not fall into this category
because their hardness is derived through the formation of very hard particles in a soft matrix and are not
dependent upon quenching. Martensitic alloys derive their hardness and also their wear resistance through
quenching from high temperatures or the Interpass Temperature. Thus it is essential to understand the
ramifications of following the preheat and interpass requirements.
There is an old formula, or should I say, a number of formulas that attempt to predict preheat and interpass
temperatures by means of chemical compositions. A Carbon Equivalent is calculated and then related to the
temperature requirements. Below is an example.
Carbon Equivalent = Carbon + (Manganese/20) + (Nickel/15) + ((Chromium + Moly +
Vanadium)/10)
Carbon Equivalent
0.80
0.50
0.30
0.20
* These temperatures are for thick materials and will vary downwards for thinner materials.
This method can be helpful, but a good rule of thumb is:
Interpass Temperature (Fahrenheit) = (Carbon x 100) + 100(If alloys are present)
For example: For a straight 1040 carbon steel, whose Carbon is 0.40, the Interpass temperature would be
400F. But for a 4140 alloy steel, whose Carbon is also 0.40 and has additional alloy, the Interpass
temperature would be (400 + 100) = 500F. Of course it is always best to consult the manufacturer for the
recommended temperatures, but this will suffice as a ballpark figure.
Maintaining this temperature throughout the hardfacing procedure is essential. If for any reason the
temperature drops below the Interpass temperature before the hardfacing procedure is complete, hardening
will start and increase in volume, depending upon how far it drops. While this doesnt appear to be too
damaging, because we do want a hard surface, the danger comes when additional passes or layers are
applied. The additional heat from these passes and layers will soften the hardened material and leave the
underlying layers prone to excessive wear. The very top layer will be hard enough, but the layers underneath it
will be soft and undesirable. The whole idea when hardfacing with these alloys is to maintain the Interpass
temperature and allow the whole deposit to quench to room temperature, or some intermediate temperature,
all at the same time, thereby insuring that all the layers will be sufficiently hard.
Summary of Welding Control Measures

Welding Stainless Steel Process

Welding Stainless Steel
Heres how to weld stainless steel: Stainless is such an interesting material to use, it is a material that is a
steel allot containing around eleven percent Chromium. When it comes to welding Stainless steel it is not as
simple as welding standard steel using a MIG welder, no welding stainless steel is actually a harder and more
interesting task to undertake.
The reason why Stainless steel is harder to weld than standard steel is the fact that
it has a lower reaction point to heat so when high temperatures are applied to
Stainless steel it tend to distort as it calls making the work being welded become
damaged.
Stainless steel welding part 1:
For thinner pieces of stainless steel the most common form of welding is TIG
welding. If you are wishing to learn how to weld stainless steel then access to a TIG
welder is a must.
To use a TIG welder you need to turn on the welder and have welding wire to hand,
once your ready you need to strike a welding arc by quickly touching the welding torch to the material then
pulling the welding torch away by about a quarter of an inch. Now you are ready to weld, to do this keep the
welding torch at about a ninety degree angle and weld away from your body. When welding you should ensure
you keep the quarter inch distance at all times and that you keep a constant steady speed throughout the
welding process feeding your welding rod in throughout.
How to weld stainless steel part 2:
Stainless Steel Welding Tips
One of the best tips handed to me when welding stainless steel is to use a heat sink clamped to the material
just outside the weld area, this absorbs some of the heat and keeps you from damaging your work through
heat. One of the best materials for using as a heat sink is brass as it has such a high melting point that the
heat will not impact the brass.
Another tip is to ensure you keep a steady speed and distance throughout welding as this will help keep a
strong and clean weld.
How to weld stainless steel part 3:
Safety First
Although welding may seem like a great hobby or business opportunity it is also very dangerous so it is
important to put your safety and those in the vicinity first. For your own safety use welding gloves and goggles
and also welding protective clothing, for those in the close vicinity use a welding curtain to shield the welding
activity from those around you.
Heat Treatment in Welding

Normalizing is the process of raising the temperature to over 60 C (108 F), above line A3 or line ACM fully
into the Austenite range. It is held at this temperature to fully convert the structure into Austenite, and then
removed form the furnace and cooled at room temperature under natural convection. This results in a grain
structure of fine Pearlite with excess of Ferrite or Cementite. The resulting material is soft; the degree of
softness depends on the actual ambient conditions of cooling. This process is considerably cheaper than full
annealing since there is not the added cost of controlled furnace cooling. The main difference between full
annealing and normalizing is that fully annealed parts are uniform in softness (and machine ability) throughout
the entire part; since the entire part is exposed to the controlled furnace cooling.
In the case of the normalized part, depending on the part geometry, the cooling is non-uniform resulting in
non-uniform material properties across the part. This may not be desirable if further machining is desired,
since it makes the machining job somewhat unpredictable. In such a case it is better to do full annealing. Top
of Page Process Annealing Process Annealing is used to treat work-hardened parts made out of low-Carbon
steels (< 0.25% Carbon). This allows the parts to be soft enough to undergo further cold working without
fracturing. Process annealing is done by raising the temperature to just below the Ferrite-Austenite region, line
A1on the diagram.
This temperature is about 727 C (1341 F) so heating it to about 700 C (1292 F) should suffice. This is held
long enough to allow re-crystallization of the ferrite phase, and then cooled in still air. Since the material stays
in the same phase through out the process, the only change that occurs is the size, shape and distribution of
the grain structure. This process is cheaper than either full annealing or normalizing since the material is not
heated to a very high temperature or cooled in a furnace.
Mig Welding Process

How to make a perfect mig weld? It all starts with getting the fundamentals down. The following is a step by
step guide for the mig welding process:
1.) Install the wire one of the most important steps in the mig welding process, and one of the most critical,
as failing to do this properly will break down the process later on entirely. Before preparing the wire, first check
to see if there is any rust on the wire; new packages of wire do at times come with rust on the wire, and it is
important to screen the wire carefully for this, since any rust will give you feeding problems eventually. to
prepare the wire, the spring tensioner on the wire reel mounting should be tightened so that the reel does not
unravel first; then place the wire spool onto the axle/spindle of the wire feeding unit or welding machine (this
will be next to or behind the wire feed drive rollers). BE SURE not to install the spool upside down, and to
replace the cotter pin afterwords. Next, align the spool with the pin on the spindle; this pin, located on the
back of the spindle, should line up with the hole on the spool. The first three inches of wire should be straight,
and the bent part of the wire (usually the first inch or so) should be cut off. The tensioner should be tight
enough so that the spool does not unravel on its own.
2.) The wire used should be as thin as possible when welding thin metal, and the opposite when welding thick
metal (as thick as possible); the correct wire for the metal type should always be used as well aluminum
wire for aluminum, stainless steel wire for stainless steel, and steel wires for steel.
3.) Feed the wire guide the wire through the guide tube of the torch and over the roller (or tube rolls);
remove the contact tip from the end of the torch so that the wire potentially does not get stuck when feeding it
into the torch. Insert the wire into the hole of the wire liner (there should be little or no force necessary for this
step, and the wire should slip in easily; if not, you have likely missed the wire liner). After the wire has been
inserted a few inches into the wire liner, replace or turn down the tension/tensioner clamp, turn on the welder,
and lay the welding torch out as straight as possible. Use the wire feeder to push the wire through the liner. As
you do so, increase the tension until the wire feed stoops slipping, but not to the point where the wire feed
motor slows.
4.) Check the tension on the wire reel, making sure that it is as light as possible; set the wire feed speed to
the maximum necessary. Pull the trigger on the torch until the wire is out on the other end; when releasing the
trigger, the wire reel should stop but not unravel. Replace the contact tip, put back the nozzle and cover the
machine
5.) Clean the metal that you are planning to work on.
6.) Determine and set the wire feed rate/speed this will set the arc length. One way of doing this is simply
by trial and error using a scrap test piece of metal, turn on the gun and drag it along the metal until you get
a smooth arc (this speed is the ideal speed). There should be no burning smell, and a constant sizzling sound
should be heard with a good speed; too slow a speed will create the burning smell, and too fast a speed will
produce a popping, machine gun like sound; extremely fast will cause the wire to bend, and create a lot of
spatter. For thinner metals, a slower speed is usually necessary (in fact, it is usually set at the lowest speed
necessary), while with corners a faster speed is used to decrease the length of the arc and avoid the sides.
With less expensive or do-it-yourself welding machines, as the welding machine power increases the speed of
the wire feed will need to be increased manually as well.
7.) Determine and set the power tip rate/voltage this will determine the level of penetration of the metal and
the weld appearance; the goal is to have enough penetration so that the metals join and fuse together, but not
so much that the penetration is excessive. Using a piece of scrap metal that is the same thickness as the
metal you plan to actually work on, test the voltage settings of the welding machine to find the optimal
setting.
8.) Make sure you are in a comfortable position and can move freely before you begin the actual weld; be sure
you can hold the torch with two hands rather than just one, have a full face mask on, and can rest one arm
against something.
9.) Position the tip the tip should be positioned about 6 to 10 mm from the surface of the metal. Keep a
to 3/8 inch wire stick-out. Determine the angle of the position of the tip if you want to push (electrode
directed ahead of the bead this gives you a wider bead and less penetration), point the tip at about a ten
degree angle, facing in the direction ahead of the bead if you want to pull/drag (electrode pointed back into
the bead this gives you more penetration and a narrower bead), point the tip at about a ten degree angle in
the direction facing back into the bead) if you wish to move perpendicularly, point the tip straight down at
the bead so that the torch stands in a straight line above the bead
10.) How you move the torch will determine the type, and overall quality, of the weld how fast you move it
will determine the level of penetration, how well you control it, and the type of pattern you move in (zigzag,
weave, or straight) will be determined by the type of metal and type of weld you want. Using the correct
pattern combined with how fast you move the gun can affect whether or not you have holes or a puddle on
either side (too slow) or an in-continuous or hollow weld (too fast), a weak weld, and much more.
11.) If welding thin metal or aluminum, you may wish to consider using pulsed mig welding, which consists of
short blasts with a few seconds in between each blast. This reduces the chance of holes and is easier to
produce a continuous weld.
12.) The shielding gas should contain as high a concentration of argon when welding thin metal or aluminum to
generate less heat and get less spatter in the process. Carbon dioxide will create deeper penetration and is
best suited for thicker metals.
Welding Stainless Steels Purging

Usually when we do welding stainless steel, titanium or other corrosion resistant materials are always doing
purging or infusion. What is purging? Actually the main purpose of purging is to maintain the corrosion
resistance properties of the material during welding heat effect to remain optimal.
As we know at the time of heating the welding occurs that changes the nature of the material. Welding of SS
on the events surrounding the oxidation when the environment contains oxygen (H2O so H2 and O2).This
event is to be avoided. So no O2 is oxygen-free environment must be created by flowing inert gas such as
argon.
What effect if any oxygen?
If the corrosion-resistant material has a surface that has the auto-oxidation of the existence of this oxidation
will reduce the resistance to corrosion so that other treatments necessary to improve the corrosion resistance
properties. But there are times when it can no longer be done because access to the object in only one side, eg
in the pipe welding process.
How do I make purging ?
Usually when both ends of the field or foam pipe insulation given the dense pore pore. Its main purpose is to
ensure that no air in and out, so there is no oxygen in the welding environment. Both ends and then given a
hole to insert the gas Argon (Nitrogen also can). After that the new argon gas flowed at a speed that does not
happen gradually so that turbulences. Until confirmed that the oxygen gas that is already out everything in this
purging chamber. Argon is usually a lot of wasted due to uncontrolled use and which include also do not know
and want to quickly get it over with. While the gap in the weld will also be on the seal with a seal material that
is free of halogens, halogen elements such as Chlorine will create a brittle material. Some projects require
oxygen content (oxygen indicator in ppm) during welding of corrosion of this material to determine the
effectiveness of purging
What is the speed of gas purging is required ?
How quickly the gas velocity depends on the volume of purging the isolation area. Usually able to estimate the
ejection velocity of oxygen in the chamber. And also to be ensured there is no possibility of gas from the
outside going into the chamber.
How Long Have to purging?
In some welding theory purging done enough to weld deposit thickness is 8 ~ 12 mm and it depends also by
WPS and work environment that occurred during welding. Preheating to avoid the formation of chromium
carbides is recommended and the remaining oxygen content below 100 ppm.
If we can do well then purging it is definitely the result of welding corrosion-resistant materials will also be
higher quality.
Wall Blowers Optimization in Boilers furnace wall deposits

Steel Engineering
Wall blowers are provided in boilers to clean the furnace wall deposits. They seldom finds use in oil and gas
fired boilers. The deposition and slagging in boiler furnace is required to be removed from the furnace walls at
regular intervals. The interval period will depend on the area of deposition and the severity of deposition.
Steam wall blowers are found to be very efficient in removing the furnace wall deposits. However, the steam
wall blowers are not at all effective in the case of molten slag removal from the furnace walls. Water lancers,
instead, are used for molten slag removal.
In a large boiler of around 1500t/hr capacity, the total number of soot blowers can be around 120. In this,
around 90 numbers will be wall blowers. The frequency of soot blowing will depend on the type of coal being
fired. However the operating group must remember that the initial suggested sequence and frequency is more
general and has to be adapted to each boiler. The purpose of these soot blowers is to keep the heat transfer
surface clean so as to contribute towards optimal performance of the boiler.
Effect of the wall blower on boiler performance
Removes the deposits on the furnace wall and ensures good heat transfer in the furnace region
The furnace outlet temperature slowly ramps up after wall blowing as time lapses
Superheater spray quantity is seen to increase with time lapse after wall blowing
Increases the bottom ash quantity depending upon the deposition on furnace walls
Increases furnace tube material loss if blowing is done too frequently without any deposits. This leads
to boiler outage or increased maintenance.
In the case of water lancers for removing molten slag, while operating there will be a large dip in
generation for the same heat input. This is mainly due to the increased boiler losses.
Optimisation of wall blowers

Before taking up wall blower optimization, the following will have to be ensured.
All wall blowers are set to the right steam pressure recommended by the designer
Check the alignment of the wall blower with respect to the furnace walls
Ensure at least 50 degree centigrade of super heat in the steam being used. This is to prevent
damage of the furnace walls due to wet team impingement.
All wall blowers are operational
It will be of great help if the boiler furnace walls are photographed just after a planned shutdown.
Before shutting down the boiler, do not wall blow the furnace for one full sequence. This will ensure
deposit collection on the walls between the adopted frequency. While shutting down the boiler ensure
minimal thermal shock, by slowly lowering the load. This will ensure deposits stay on the walls. Take
the photograph from a convenient man hole. But take all safety precautions as anytime the deposit
can fall down due to cooling or thermal gradient
What Preheat Temperature Is Required?

Welding codes generally specify minimum values for the preheat temperature, which may or may not be
adequate to prohibit cracking in every application. For example, if a beam-to-column connection made of ASTM
A572-Gr50 jumbo sections (thicknesses ranging from 4 to 5 in [100-125 mm]) is to be fabricated with a lowhydrogen electrode, then a minimum prequalified preheat of 225F (107C) is required (AWS D1.1-96, Table
3.2). However, for making butt splices in jumbo sections, it is advisable to increase the preheat temperature
beyond the minimum prequalified level to that required by AISC for making butt splices in jumbo sections,
namely 350F (175C) (AISC LRFD J2.8). This conservative recommendation acknowledges that the minimum
pre-heat requirements prescribed by AWS D1.1 may not be adequate for these highly restrained connections.
When no welding code is specified, and the need for preheat has been established, how does one determine an
appropriate preheat temperature? Consider AWS D1.1-96, Annex XI: Guideline on Alternative Methods for
Determining Preheat which presents two procedures for establishing a pre-heat temperature developed
primarily from laboratory cracking tests. These techniques are beneficial when the risk of cracking is increased
due to the chemical composition, a greater degree of restraint, higher levels of hydrogen or lower welding heat
input.
The two methods outlined in Annex XI of AWS D1.1-96 are: (1) heat affected zone (HAZ) hardness control and
(2) hydrogen control. The HAZ hardness control method, which is restricted to fillet welds, is based on the
assumption that cracking will not occur if the hardness of the HAZ is kept below some critical value. This is
achieved by controlling the cooling rate. The critical cooling rate for a given hardness can be related to the
carbon equivalent of the steel, which is defined as:
From the critical cooling rate, a minimum preheat temperature can then be calculated. AWS D1.1-96 states
that Although the method can be used to determine a preheat level, its main value is in determining the
minimum heat input (and hence minimum weld size) that prevents excessive hardening (Annex XI, paragraph
3.4).
The hydrogen control method is based on the assumption that cracking will not occur if the amount of
hydrogen remaining in the joint after it has cooled down to about 120F (50C) does not exceed a critical value
dependent on the composition of the steel and the restraint. This procedure is extremely useful for high
strength, low-alloy steels that have high harden ability. However, the calculated preheat may be some what
conservative for carbon steels.
The three basic steps of the hydrogen control method are: (1) Calculate a composition parameter similar to the
carbon equivalent; (2) Calculate a susceptibility index as a function of the composition parameter and the filler
metal diffusible hydrogen content; and (3) Determine the minimum preheat temperature from the restraint
level, material thickness, and susceptibility index.
How Is Preheat Applied?
The material thickness, size of the weldment and available heating equipment should be considered when
choosing a method for applying pre-heat. For example, small production assemblies may be heated most
effectively in a furnace. However, large structural components often require banks of heating torches, electrical
strip heaters, or induction or radiant heaters.
Preheating carbon steel to a precise temperature generally is not required Although it is important that the
work be heated to a minimum temperature, it usually is acceptable to exceed that temperature by
approximately 100F (40C). However, this is not the case for some quenched and tempered (Q&T) steels such
as A514 or A517, since welding on overheated Q & T steels may be detrimental in the heat affected zone.
Therefore, Q&T steels require that maximum and minimum preheat temperatures be established and closely
followed.
When heating the joint to be welded, the AWS D1.1 code requires that the minimum preheat temperature be
established at a distance that is at least equal to the thickness of the thickest member, but not less than 3 in
(75 mm) in all directions from the point of welding. To ensure that the full material volume surrounding the
joint is heated, it is recommended practice to heat the side opposite of that which is to be welded and to
measure the surface temperature adjacent to the joint. Finally, the interpass temperature should be checked to
verify that the minimum preheat temperature has been maintained just prior to initiating the arc for each pass.
Summary
Preheat can minimize cracking and/or ensure specific mechanical properties such as notch toughness.
Preheat must be used whenever applicable codes so specify; when no codes apply to a given situation,
the welding engineer must determine whether or not preheat is needed, and what temperature will be
required for a given base metal and section thickness.
Annex XI of AWS D1.1-96 provides guidelines for alternative methods of determining proper amounts
of pre-heat: the HAZ hardness control method, or the hydrogen control method.
Preheat may be applied in a furnace, or by using heating torches, electrical strip heaters, or induction
or radiant heaters. Carbon steels do not require precise temperature accuracy, but maximum and
minimum preheat temperatures must be followed closely for quenched and tempered steels
Selecting Filler Metals: Electrodes for Stress Relieved Applications

February 21st, 2011 admin 0 Comments
Introduction
This is the third and final installment in a series on selecting filler metals. Many filler metals are classified in the
as-welded condition. This simply means that no subsequent heat treating operation was performed following
welding and prior to mechanical testing. Other electrodes are classified in the stress relieved condition. The
choice of an appropriate electrode should be based on the actual condition of the welded part; either as-welded
or stress relieved.
What Is Stress Relieving?
Thermal stress relieving is a postweld heat treating operation to reduce residual stresses. The weldment is
heated to a temperature below the transformation temperature, approximately 1350F (730C) for ferritic
steels, and held at this temperature for a predetermined amount of time, followed by uniform cooling. Stress
relieving is often used to reduce distortion and to control dimensional stability and tolerances. For example,
presses require precise dimensional control and are typically stress relieved after welding. Stress relieving may
also be performed to prevent stress corrosion cracking or other deleterious results of residual stresses.
Which Electrodes Are Stress Relieved?

Table 1 contains the AWS filler metal specifications where deposited weld metal can be classified in the stress
relieved condition. If the filler metal classification includes one of the suffixes listed in Table 2, then that
product is classified in the stress relieved condition. For example, Lincoln Outershield 81B2-H (E81T1-B2) is
classified with a postweld heat treatment of 1275F (675C) for 1 hour. The B2 suffix alone is enough
information to know that the deposit is stress relieved. Notice that in Table 2 the stress relieving time and
temperature vary for each suffix, and in some cases they vary between the different filler metal specifications.
For specific requirements, the filler metal specifications should be reviewed.
In the classification designation for submerged arc, the third character identifies the postweld heat treatment
condition: either as-welded or stress relieved. An A indicates as-welded and a P designates postweld heat
treatment. For example, an F7A4-EGNi flux/electrode combination is classified in the as-welded condition, while
an F7P4-EG-Ni1 is classified in the stress relieved condition. In some cases, the same product can be classified
in both the as-welded and stress relieved conditions (e.g., Lincoln LA85/882 is classified as F7A4-EGNi1 and
F7P4-EG-Ni1).
Potential Problems
Three situations can arise where the wrong electrode is used.
An electrode classified in the stress relieved condition is used in an application that does not get stress
relieved.
An electrode classified in the as welded condition gets stress relieved.
The actual postweld heat treatment time and/or temperature differ from that of the classification.
If one of these scenarios occurs, it does not necessarily mean that is the result will be a bad weld. However,
the situation should be reviewed to determine any influence on mechanical properties and quality.
Influence on strength
Stress relieving typically reduces weld strength by about 10 to 15%. For example, the tensile strength in the as
welded condition may be 80 ksi, while in the stress relieved condition it may only be 70 ksi. Therefore, if an
electrode classified in the as-welded condition is stress relieved, the final tensile strength could fall below the
minimum classification tensile strength. This situation would create a weld that is weaker than intended.
On the other hand, if a weld is made with an electrode classified in the stress relieved condition and is not
stress relieved after welding, then an overmatching strength relationship may exist. This situation is not
necessarily detrimental. However, higher strength welds generally lead to higher residual stresses, lower
ductility and greater crack sensitivity. In addition, the AWS D1.1 Structural Welding CodeSteel requires that
the welding procedure be qualified by test if overmatching strength is used.
Influence on notch toughness In most cases, notch toughness is increased by stress relieving. If an as-welded
product is stress relieved, the notch toughness will most likely go up. However, if the product is classified as
stress relieved, and the Charpy V-Notch (CVN) properties are only slightly above the minimum values, this
could be a problem if the weld deposit is not stress relieved. In this case, the as-welded CVN energy values
could fall below the minimum requirements. Furthermore, excessively high stress relieving temperatures can
reduce the measured CVN toughness values. Therefore, during stress relieving care should be taken to control
the temperature and time at temperature.
Conclusions
If stress relieving heat treatment is to be conducted, the final weld properties and quality should be evaluated
and the filler metal should be one that is classified in the stress relieved condition. The influence of the heat
treatment on the weld metal, heat-affected zone and base metal properties should be assessed. Finally, if the
heat treatment time and temperature are different than the filler metal classification, then the possible effects
of these differences should be evaluated
What welding salary can you expect to get? With any job there is a pay scale, this pay scale differs on ability
and experience and this is also the case when it comes to welding. There are so many types of welding and
business sectors that require welding specialists that the welder salary pay scale has a vast range.
Typically for welding jobs the pay range in the United States starts at around $52,000 and goes up to around
$85.000. This variation in pay again differs on welding ability and experience, an example of this is that a
newly qualified welder in the fabrication field is not going to get paid as much as an underwater welder with
ten years experience in the oil and gas field.
In fact the welding salary hierarchy is very interesting as it shows that those in the welding fabrication and
production field are towards the lower end of the welding salary scale while those in the oil and gas field enjoy
the top salary range.
Popular Industries and the welder salary range
Fabricated Metal Product Manufacturing $61,000 $75,000
Automotive Supplier $63,000 $78,000
Oil Gas $68,000 $85,000
Manufacturing and Distribution - $63,000 $78,000
Welding Products $59,000 $72,000
One welding job that doesnt seem to fit into the above ranges is that of an underwater welding salary. An
underwater welder is also known as a welder diver. These special breed of welders need to possess strong
welding capabilities with lots of experience in both welding and diving meaning they can command a higher
salary than any other type of welder.
When it comes to an underwater welders salary many underwater welders can make well over $100,000 dollars
per year but this depends on the company/clients they work for. The highest paid jobs for this type of welding
are for the oil and gas business sector and large shipping companies.
If youre looking to get a foothold on the welder salary ladder then its important to get yourself qualified and
building your welding experience. It takes time to build up to the higher echelons of the welding salaries
available as these do require increased welding abilities and years of welding experience.
If all else fails and you wish to speed up your welder salary you could decide to become one of the special
breed of underwater welders but do remember this welding type carries more health and safety risk than any
other welding type and does require diving accreditation also.
Precipitation hardening stainless steels contain alloying additions such as aluminum which allow them to be
hardened by a solution and aging heat treatment. They are further classified into sub groups as martensitic,
semiaustenitic and austenitic precipitation hardening stainless steels. They are identified as the 600-series of
stainless steels (e.g., 630, 631, 660). The alloying elements which appear in stainless steels are classed as
ferrite formers and austenite formers and are listed below.
FERRITE FORMERS
Chromium provides basic corrosion resistance.
Molybdenum provides high temperature strength and increases corrosion resistance.
Niobium (Columbium), Titanium strong carbide formers.
AUSTENITE FORMERS
Nickel provides high temperature strength and ductility.
Carbon carbide former, strengthener.
Nitrogen increases strength, reduces toughness.
NEUTRAL EFFECT
Regarding Austenite & Ferrite
Manganese sulfide former
Silicon wetting agent
Sulfur Selenium improve machinability, cause hot cracking in welds.
Stainless steels may be welded by the gas metal arc process, using either spray arc, short circuiting or
pulsed arc transfer.
Copper backup strips are necessary for welding stainless steel sections up to 1/16 inch thick. Backup is also
needed when welding 1/4 inch and thicker plate from one side only.
No air must be permitted to reach the underside of the weld while the weld puddle is solidifying. Oxygen picked
up by the molten metal may reduce the corrosion resistance and ductility of the stainless steel as it cools. To
prevent this, the underside of the weld should be shielded by an inert gas such as argon. The shielding gas
source can be built into the fixture.
Electrode diameters as large as 3/32 inch, but usually less than 1/16 inch, are used with relatively high
currents to create the spray arc transfer. A current of approximately 300-350 amperes is required for a 1/16"
electrode, depending on the shielding gas and type of stainless wire being used. The degree of spatter is
dependent upon the composition and flow rate of the shielding gas, wire feed speed and the characteristics of
the welding power supply. DCEP is used for most stainless steel GMA welding and an argon 1 or 2%-oxygen
gas mixture is recommended. Suggested procedures for GMA welding 200 and 300 series stainless steels in the
spray transfer mode are given in Figure 16.
On square butt welds, a backup strip should be used to prevent weld metal drop-through. When fit up is poor
or copper backing cannot be used, drop-through may be minimized by short circuiting transfer welding the first
pass.
When welding with the semiautomatic gun, forehand (pushing) techniques are beneficial. Although the
operators hand is exposed to more radiated heat, better visibility is obtained. For welding plate 1/4 inch and
thicker, the gun should be moved back and forth in the direction of the joint and at the same time moved
slightly from side to side. On thinner metal, however, only back and forth motion along the joint is used. The
more economical short circuiting transfer process for thinner material should be employed in the overhead and
horizontal position for at least the root and first passes. Although some operators use a short digging spray arc
to control the puddle, the weld may be abnormally porous.
Power supply units with slope, voltage and inductance controls are recommended for the welding of stainless
steel with short circuiting transfer. Inductance, in particular, plays an important part in obtaining proper puddle
fluidity. The shielding gas often recommended for short circuiting welding of stainless steel contains 90%
helium, 7.5% argon and 2.5% carbon dioxide. The gas gives the most desirable bead contour while keeping
the CO2 level low enough so that is does not influence the corrosion resistance of the metal. High inductance in
the power supply output is beneficial when using this gas mixture.
Single pass welds may also be made using argon-oxygen and argon-CO2 gas mixes. However, arc voltage for
steady short circuiting transfer may be as much as 6 volts lower than for the helium based gas. The colder arc
may lead to lack of fusion
defects. The CO2 in the shielding gas will affect the corrosion resistance of multi pass welds made with short
circuiting transfer due to carbon pickup.
Wire extension or stick out should be kept as short as possible. Backhand welding is usually easier on fillet
welds and will result in a neater weld. Forehand welding should be used for butt welds. Outside corner welds
may be made with a straight motion. A slight backward and forward motion along the axis of the joint should
be used. Figure 17 summarizes the welding procedures normally used for the short circuiting transfer welding
of stainless steel.
Short circuiting transfer welds on stainless steel made with a shielding gas of 90% He, 7-1/2% A, 2-1/2% CO2
show good corrosion resistance and coalescence. Butt, lap and single fillet welds in material ranging from .060
inch to .125 inch in 304, 310, 316, 321, 347, 410 and similar stainless steels can be made successfully. The
pulsed arc process, as normally used, is a spray transfer process wherein one small drop of molten metal is
transferred across the arc for each high current pulse of weld current. The high current pulse must be of
sufficient magnitude and duration to cause at least one small drop of molten metal to form and be propelled by
the pinch effect from the end of the wire to the weld puddle. During the low current portion of the weld cycle,
the arc is maintained and the wire is heated, but the heat developed is not adequate to transfer any metal. For
this reason, the time duration at the low current value must be limited otherwise metal would be transferred in
the globular mode.
Wire diameters of 0.045 and 0.035 inch are most commonly used with this process. Gases for pulsed arc
welding, such as argon plus 1% oxygen are popular, the same as used for spray arc welding. These and other
wire sizes can be welded in the spray transfer mode at a lower average current with pulsed current than with
continuous weld current. The advantage of this is that thin material can be welded in the spray transfer mode
which produces a smooth weld with less spatter than the short circuiting transfer mode. Another advantage is
that for a given average current, spray transfer can
be obtained with a larger diameter wire than could be obtained with continuous currents. Larger diameter wires
are less costly than smaller sizes, and the lower ratio of surface to volume reduces the amount of deposit
contamination.
The electrode diameters for gas metal arc welding are generally between 0.030 and 3/32 inch. For each
electrode diameter, there is a certain minimum welding current that must be exceeded to achieve spray
transfer. For example, when welding stainless steel in an argon-oxygen atmosphere with 0.045 inch diameter
stainless steel electrode, spray transfer will be obtained at a welding current of about 220 amp DCRP. It must
be kept in mind that, along with the minimum current, a minimum arc voltage must also be obtained. This is
generally between 22 and 30 volts.
Electrodes come on spools varying in weight between 2 and 60 lb and sizes range from 0.015 to 0.125 inch.
Also available are electrodes for welding the straight chromium stainless steels and austenitic electrodes that
contain more than the usual amount of silicon. The latter have particularly good wetting characteristics when
used with the short circuiting transfer process.
Some stainless steel weld metals during welding have a tendency toward hot shortness or tearing when they
contain little or no ferrite Type 347, for example. When welding these, more welding passes than indicated in
the procedures may be needed. Stringer bead techniques are also recommended rather than weaving or
oscillating from side to side. Hot cracking may be eliminated by stringer bead techniques since there is a
reduction in contraction stresses, hence cooling is more rapid through the hot short temperature range. A
procedure that tends to produce a more convex bead than normal can be very helpful, and care should be
taken to fill craters.
Weld metal hot cracking may be reduced by short circuiting transfer welding, because of the lower dilution
from the base metal. Excessive dilution may produce a completely austenitic weld metal having strong cracking
characteristics. When welding magnetic stainless steels (ferritic and martensitic types) to the relatively
nonmagnetic types (austenitic types), it is desirable to:
1.
Use a single bevel joint to obtain minimum joint reinforcement.
2.
Use low heat input short circuiting transfer to minimize the arc deflection encountered when
welding magnetic to nonmagnetic steels.
3.
For uniform fusion, be sure the wire is kept centered over the nonbeveled edge of the joint.
Parameters and procedures for welding 200 and 300 series stainless steels by the GMAW spray arc mode are
given in Figure 16. Figure 17 gives parameters and procedures for welding the 200 and 300 series stainless
steels by the GMAW short circuiting mode
Cutting Welding Torch

Cutting Welding Torch Basics: For those that dont know certain welders, predominantly oxy acetylene welders,
can also be used for cutting metal as well as welding metal together. Many skilled and experienced welders are
fully aware of the cutting properties of oxy acetylene welders and use them on a regular basis in the field to
cut and shape metal where required.
Although the process is known as cutting metal it actually isnt a cutting

process, it is more about bringing the metal to melting temperature in a
localized area so the metal is melted through causing a cut in the metal.
This process works as the torch flame is roughly 3,500 C (6,330 F) in
temperature, higher than the melting temperature of most metal
materials.
As mentioned it is the oxygen added welding types such as oxy acetylene
welders that are used for cutting and this is because the added pure
oxygen raises the temperature of the welding torch by over one thousand
degrees when compared to welders that use air with their shielding gas.
A cutting welding torch is similar to a standard welding torch but does
carry some differences needed to be able to carry out the cutting function
it was created for.
So what are these subtle differences?
A cutting torch has a metal lever on top that is pushed down by the user
to give an oxygen blast to the oxy acetylene welder, there is also an oxygen blast valve located on the left side
of the torch. The torch has three pipes instead of the standard two on a welding torch that isnt used for
cutting, this is so the oxygen has its own pipe for blasting more oxygen through. The torch head is also
different as the nozzle is shorter and wider than that of a welder and it is also detachable by unscrewing unlike
the fixed welding head.
A cutting welding torch is an important piece of equipment for welders who are out in the field and require to
cut thick pieces of metal. The reason for this is because it is light weight and means your welder can double up
as a cutter rather than having to carry extra weight of a cutting tool, or even worse having to work without
one.
Many welders swear by their cutting welding torch when using an oxy acetylene welder as it gives them an
added quality tool to ensure they can carry out their job effectively.
Welding Technology
Like MIG welding, TIG welding also specializes in fusing pieces of aluminum together. Dubbed tungsten inert
gas, it is used to blend metals like aluminum and magnesium. During the procedure, welds are formed
between the TIG-welders electrode and the surface worked on. A gas shield is formed, which produces a clean
weld. Unlike the less versatile MIG weld, TIG-welding allows its users to create different kinds of joints
including butt, corner, T, and lap joints. Tig vs mig welding
This welding video was take from a new welding instructional DVD called TIG Welding Basics It is without a
doubt the best DVD on Tig welding. This welding guide will help you achieve beautiful, strong welds that you
never thought you could achieve.
The big debate: tig vs mig welding. For novice metalworkers, the debate rages on: which is better, TIG or MIG
welding? What are the differences between the two? For starters, the MIG welding processes joints metal
together through arc heat.
The arc is added between the filler metal electrode and the surface area that is being worked on. TIG does not
add its electrodes to the completed weld and no filler metals are used. Traditionally, MIG welding is quicker and
easier to learn than TIG. MIG welding requires you to control a continuously fed current on a wire, while TIG
welding obliges you to hold two items: the welding rod and an electric torch which is used to melt rods into the
material.
TIG welding is a hallmark of more intricate work within the metalsmithing realm. Whereas MIG welding is
mostly reserved to sheet metal work and automobile manufacturing with larger parts (ideal with softer metals
since the pace of weld is quicker), TIG is used towards smaller objects like gunsmithing, auto restoration that
requires better finishes, and welding chrome for race cars. It is also suitable for more exotic metals and works
at multiple amperages more efficiently than MIG welding.
One of the great metalworkers of our day, Ron Covell, says that Tig is best for custom projects like custom
cars, motorcycles, and other similar projects. Although Mig creates very strong welds, TIG allows you to work
with your welds easier during the fabrication process. You can work with your welds with much less worry of
cracking or ruining your welds. Whereas with Mig, the welds are so strong (probably best for industrial types of
projects), that they may crack as you work with them on your custom project
Effects of Composition and Microstructure on Corrosion

1xxx Wrought Alloys. Wrought aluminums of the 1xxx series conform to composition specifications that set
maximum individual, combined, and total contents for several elements present as natural impurities in the
smelter grade or refined aluminum used to produce these products.
Corrosion resistance of all 1xxx compositions is very high, but under many conditions, it decreases slightly with
increasing alloy content. Iron, silicon and copper are the elements present in the largest percentages. The
copper and part of the silicon are in solid solution.
2xxx wrought alloys and 2xxx casting alloys, in which copper is the mayor alloying element, are less
resistant to corrosion than alloys of other series, which contain much lower amounts of copper.
Alloys of this type were the first heat-treatable high-strength aluminum base materials and have been used for
more than 75 years in structural applications, particularly in aircraft and aerospace applications. Much of the
thin sheet made of these alloys is produced as an alclad composite, but thicker sheet and other products in
many applications require no protective cladding.
Electrochemical effects on corrosion can be stronger in these alloys than in alloys of many other types because
of two factors: greater change in electrode potential with variations in amount of copper in solid solution and,
under some conditions, the presence of no uniformities in solid solution concentration. However, that general
resistance to corrosion decreases with increasing copper content is not primarily attributable to these solidsolution or second phase solution-potential relationships, but to galvanic cells created by formation of minute
copper particles or films deposited on the alloy surface as a result of corrosion.
2xxx Wrought Alloys Containing Lithium. Lithium additions decrease the density and increase the elastic
modulus of aluminum alloys, making aluminum-lithium alloys good candidates for replacing the existing highstrength alloys, primarily in aerospace applications.
3xxx Wrought Alloys. Wrought alloys of the 3xxx series (aluminum-manganese and aluminum-manganesemagnesium) have very high resistance to corrosion. The manganese is present in the aluminum solid solution,
in submicroscopic particles of precipitate and in larger particles of Al6(Mn,Fe) or Al12(Mn,Fe)3Si phases, both
of which have solution potentials almost the same as that of the solid solution matrix.
4xxx Wrought Alloys and 3xx.x and 4xx.x Casting Alloys. Elemental silicon is present as second-phase
constituent particles in wrought alloys of the 4xxx series, in brazing and welding alloys, and in casting alloys
of 3xx.x and 4xx.x series.
Corrosion resistance of 3xx.x castings alloys is strongly affected by copper content, which can be as high as
5% in some compositions, and by impurity levels. Modifications of certain basics alloys have more restrictive
limits on impurities, which benefit corrosion resistance and mechanical properties.
5xxx Wrought Alloys and 5xx.x Casting Alloys. Wrought Alloys of the 5xxx series (aluminum-magnesiummanganese, aluminum-magnesium-chromium, and aluminum-magnesium-manganese-chromium) and casting
alloys of the 5xx.x series (aluminum-magnesium) have high resistance to corrosion, and this accounts in part
for their use in a wide variety of building products and chemical-processing and food-handling eguipment, as
well as applications involving exposure to seawater.
6xxx Wrought Alloys. Moderately high strength and very good resistance to corrosion make the heattreatable wrought alloys of the 6xxx series (aluminum-magnesium-silicon) highly suitable in various structural,
building, marine machinery, and process-equipment applications.
7xxx Wrought Alloys and 7xx.x casting alloys contain major additions of zinc along with magnesium or
magnesium plus copper in combinations that develop various levels of strength. Those containing copper have
the highest strengths and have been used as constructional materials, primarily in aircraft applications, for
more than 40 years.
The copper-free alloys of the series have many desirable characteristics: moderate-to-high strength, excellent
toughness, and good workability, formability, and weldability. Use of these copper-free alloys has increased in
recent years and now includes automotive applications, structural members and armor plate for military
vehicles, and components of other transportation equipment.
The 7xxx wrought and 7xx.x casting alloys, because of their zinc contents, are anodic to 1xxx wrought
aluminums and to other aluminum alloys. They are among the aluminum alloys most susceptible to SCC.
Resistance to general corrosion of the copper-free wrought 7xxx alloys is good, approaching that of the
wrought 3xxx, 5xxx and 6xxx alloys. The copper-containing alloys of the 7xxx series, such as 7049, 7050,
7075, and 7178 have lower resistance to general corrosion than those of the same series that do not contain
copper. All 7xxx alloys are more resistant to general corrosion than 2xxx alloys, but less resistant than wrought
alloys of other groups.
Although the copper in both wrought and cast alloys of the aluminum-zinc-magnesium-copper type reduces
resistance to general corrosion, it is beneficial from the standpoint of resistance to SCC
Hydrodynamic lubrication is said to exist when the moving surfaces are separated by the pressure of a
continuous unbroken film or layer of lubrication. In this type of lubrication, the load is taken completely by the
oil film.
The basis of hydrodynamic lubrication is the formation of an oil wedge. When the journal rotates, it creates an
oil taper or wedge between the two surfaces, and the pressure build up with the oil film supports the load.
Hydrodynamic lubrication depends on the relative speed between the surfaces, oil viscosity, load, and
clearance between the moving or sliding surfaces.
In hydrodynamic lubrication the lube oil film thickness is greater than outlet, pressure at the inlet increases
quickly, remains fairly steady having a maximum value a little to the outside of the bearing center line, and
then decreases quickly to zero at the outlet.
Application of hydrodynamic lubrication
Delicate instruments.
Light machines like watches, clocks, guns, sewing machines.
Scientific instruments.
Large plain bearings like pedestal bearings, main bearing of diesel engines.
Hydrocarbon oils are considered to be satisfactory lubrication for fluid film lubrication. In order to maintain the
viscosity of the oil in all seasons of the year, ordinary hydrocarbon lubricants are blended with selected long
chain polymers.
Fossil and Biomass Fueled Power Plants Components

March 1st, 2011 admin 0 Comments
1. Steam Turbine Condenser

Expanded steam from the low pressure turbine is drawn into the tube condenser by a vacuum which is
maintained at 28- 29Hg where it is condensed by water which has been cooled in the cooling tower.
2. Air Ejector
The air ejectors are used to create the initial vacuum in the condenser and maintain a vacuum of 28-29Hg for
optimum steam evaporation. The ejectors draw the air out of the condenser by passing high pressure steam
through a vortex piping arrangement thus causing the vacuum.
3. Condensate Pump
This pump draws the water from the bottom of the condenser or hotwell and pumps it up to the deaerator.
4. Tray Deaerator
This is a pressure vessel with a horizontal and vertical section somewhat like a comic strip submarine shape. It
effectively removes the air and oxygen from the feed water (condensate) which would otherwise damage the
inside of the boiler tubes by corrosion.
There are several types of deaerators; we will look at the tray type which is a vessel having a horizontal section
with a vertical dome. The bottom horizontal section is used to collect and store the deaerated water; the
vertical section has perforated trays set at intervals along its upper length. The condensate enters at the top of
the vertical section cascading down through the trays, meeting steam injected from the sides and gathers at
the bottom section where it is heated by steam coils or sprays. The air is vented from the very top of the
deaerater vertical domed section.
5. Boiler Feed Pump
This pump takes the water from the deaerator and pumps it through a series of feed heaters into the boiler
economizer (see boiler auxiliaries article) and into the boiler top drum through the feed water control valve.
The water used to condense the steam to condensate is now pretty hot itself, so it needs to be cooled down
before being used again. The cooling tower is used for this purpose. It is a vertical hyperboloid concrete
structure with a honeycombed interior usually of plastic and the water enters at the top cascading down
through the plastic sections. It draws in air from the bottom, which rising up through the tower mixes with the
water thus cooling it helped by evaporation, the resultant plume rising out of the top of the tower.
6. Cooling Medium Pumps
These pumps circulate the cooling medium from the main vacuum condenser and LO cooler to and from the
cooling tower.
Ut is one method NDT (Non Destructive Test) to see whether a

of casting, rolling, forging, or welding is
material
notflawed. In
the world
is the
result
of construction used to see
the soundness ofthe weld.

In
addition
to UT ifact thereis another method for detecting
defects of the weld suchas magnetic particle testing (MPI), Dyepenetrant Test (DPI), Radiography test. Edy curr
ent Test.
Ultrasonic test
1. The
was
used to complete joint penetration. The
test results obtained directly without
having
to wait
advantage of UT are:
foranother
process sepeprti RT
2. Portable / portable where

3. Able
to perform testing with a limited acsess
4. Does not contain the risk of hazards

How do I work so it can detect defects UT?
UT uses sound
waves to
1. Transmitted sound generated from the

energy (sound) with the
2. Sound into
3. Any
change of
help
electrical
of an
energy is
instrument
the material to
the density of
detect defects
converted
called
follow the
a material,
into mechanical
a probe or transducer.
law Sneil or reflection.
the sound is partlyreflected and partly direfraksikan.
4. So if there are defects (density different from the base metal)then the wave will be reflected and return to
the probe receiver.
5. From
the probe sound waves (mechanical) re-converted into
6. Electrical
electrical
energy with
the
aid amplifier.
energy is then converted into Echo in CRT CathodeRay Tube
7. Echo this is what is considered as a discontinuity.

Manganese
Increases strength and hardness; forms a carbide; increases hardenability; lowers the transformation
temperature range. When in sufficient quantity produces an austenitic steel; always present in a steel to some
extent because it is used as a deoxidiser
Silicon
Strengthens ferrite and raises the transformation temperature temperatures; has a strong graphitising
tendency. Always present to some extent, because it is used with manganese as a deoxidiser
Chromium
Increases strength and hardness; forms hard and stable carbides. It raises the transformation temperature
significantly when its content exceeds 12%. Increases hardenability; amounts in excess of 12%, render steel
stainless. Good creep strength at high temperature.
Nickel
Strengthens steel; lowers its transformation temperature range; increases hardenability, and improves
resistance to fatigue. Strong graphite forming tendency; stabilizes austenite when in sufficient quantity.
Creates fine grains and gives good toughness.
Nickel
And
Chromium
Used together for austenitic stainless steels; each element counteracts disadvantages of the other.
Tungsten
Forms hard and stable carbides; raises the transformation temperature range, and tempering temperatures.
Hardened tungsten steels resist tempering up to 6000C
Molybdenum
Strong carbide forming element, and also improves high temperature creep resistance; reduces temperbrittleness in Ni-Cr steels. Improves corrosion resistance and temper brittleness.
Vanadium
Strong carbide forming element; has a scavenging action and produces clean, inclusion free steels. Can cause
re-heat cracking when added to chrome molly steels.
Titanium
Strong carbide forming element. Not used on its own, but added as a carbide stabiliser to some austenitic
stainless steels.
Phosphorus
Increases strength and hardnability, reduces ductility and toughness. Increases machineability and corrosion
resistance
Sulphur
Reduces
toughness
and
strength
and
also
weldabilty.
Sulphur inclusions, which are normally present, are taken into solution near the fusion temperature of the
weld.
On cooling sulphides and remaining sulphur precipitate out and tend to segregate to the grain
boundaries as liquid films, thus weakening them considerably. Such steel is referred to as burned. Manganese
breaks up these films into globules of maganese sulphide; maganese to sulphur ratio > 20:1, higher carbon
and/or high heat input during welding > 30:1, to reduce extent of burning
How Pipe is Made

March 2nd, 2011 admin 0 Comments
Melting
Stainless steel is one of the worlds most recycled materials, with some 90% of each new batch or heat
coming from scrap. At Outokumpus European melt shops, we use electric arc melting, sophisticated AOD/CLU
refining and a specialized ladle treatment that adds additional alloy elements to the steel at precise amounts
and temperatures. The high-quality refining and ladling is essential for the downstream production of our
corrosion-resistant and heat-resistant special grades.
Continuous
Production
There are two manufacturing methods for producing pipe. They can be produced from large coils of strip or
skelp, which is welded without interruption. This is called continuous production. Or they can be produced in
large sizes, one piece at a time, which is called batch production.
The starting material for making continuous pipe is a coil of strip or a skelp with the right thickness and width
to make the required pipe size. The strip is formed through a series of rolls to make a completely uniform,
circular section.
Size range includes continuous produced pipe from 1/2 through 14-inch nominal pipe size in Schedules 5, 10,
40, and 80.
Batch Production
For batch production, the starting material is plate. Almost all of the stainless steel plate used is produced by
the Outokumpu plate mill in New Castle, Indiana, which assures the quality of our starting material. batchproduced pipe covers the size range from 16 inch to 80-inch diameter. In addition to the lighter wall ranges,
the batch-produced pipe includes wall thicknesses up to two inches for the largest pipes.
Welding
For batch production, the plate arrives at the pipe mill cut to the correct length and width for the pipe size to
be manufactured. First, the edges of the plate are formed to provide for the correct geometry in the weld. Then
the whole pipe is roll-formed to provide the cylindrical shell for welding.
After the shell is rolled, the joint is tack welded to hold the shell together until the final welding operation. The
shell is then transferred to the welding machine. Has several welding machines, each specially designed to
perform different types of welding on the inside or outside diameter with or without filler metal according to
the specification for the pipe.
In-Line
Bead
Rolling
In continuous production, each weld is cold worked so that subsequent heat treatment will produce a grain
refinement in the weld structure, which provides for a superior profile of the weld in cross section, both inside
and out. A rolling mandrel inside the pipe supports the section being rolled, which holds the mandrel in the
right place to support the bead working.
Annealing
Annealing recrystalizes the stainless steels internal structure, which is altered in the rolling process. In
continuous production, pipe is annealed in line followed immediately by water quenching. All continuously
produced pipe is in-line annealed.
In batch production, anneals cut pipe lengths in a separate furnace. Once the pipe reaches the minimum
required annealing temperature it is held for a time proportional to the wall thickness, and then water
quenched by placing the pipe in a water tank adjacent to the furnace. To produce a straight pipe with a circular
cross section we press the pipe in a die of the correct final size.
Cutting
Continuous pipe is cut in desired lengths by a special device which monitors the length produced and then
locks on to the pipe and travels with it to cut off the desired length without interrupting its smooth movement.
Each piece of pipe is inscribed with an identification indicating the original heat and lot of coil.
Mechanical
Straightening
The cold forming, welding, and rapid cooling of continuously produced pipe may produce some distortion, so
the next step is a mechanical straightening. uses several methods, but the most common is cross rolls
straightening. This method produces a straight pipe with a uniformly circular cross section with as little
deformation as possible.
Testing
Test samples are cut from the pipe as required. The number of samples, their location, and exactly which tests
are done vary based on what the customer has requested in the ordering specification. may be required to test
for composition, strength, hardness, toughness, and corrosion resistance. On the pipe itself we also perform a
number of non-destructive tests such as hydro, eddy current testing, and x-ray examination to confirm weld
integrity.
Pickling
Once the continuously produced pipe has been shown to meet the metallurgical and dimensional requirements
of the ordering specification, it is ready for pickling. The pipe is immersed in a nitric hydrofluoric acid solution,
which cleans the steel, and removes the oxide formed during annealing. Once the pipe has been thoroughly
rinsed it quickly restores its protective, passive film.
Packaging
and
Shipping
The pipe is now ready for final inspection and marked for packing in accordance with the customers
specification. After the order has been labeled
Piping Material Engineers Principal Activities
March 3rd, 2011 admin 0 Comments
Steel Engineering
Outlined here are the principal activities of a piping material engineer. These are listed in chronological order
as they would arise as a project develops from preliminary to detailed design. The Piping Material Engineer
Development of the Project Piping Classes
All process plants have of two types of principal piping systems: process (primary and secondary) piping
systems and utility piping systems. Process piping systems are the arteries of a process plant. They receive the
feedstock, carry the product through the various items of process equipment for treatment, and finally deliver
the refined fluid to the battery limits for transportation to the next facility for further
refinement. Process piping systems can be further divided into primary process, which is the main process
flow, and secondary process, which applies to the various recycling systems. Utility piping systems are no less
important. They are there to support the primary process, falling into three groups:
Supportinstrument air, cooling water, steam. .
Maintenanceplant air, nitrogen. .
Protectionfoam and firewater.
There are other utility services such as drinking water. Piping Classes.Each piping system is allocated a piping
class, which lists all the components required to construct the piping. A piping class includes the following:
. Process design conditions.
. Corrosion allowance.
. List of piping components.
. Branch table.
. Special assemblies.
. Support notes.
Hydrogen contributes to delayed weld and/or heat affected zone cracking. Hydrogen combined with
high residual stresses and crack-sensitive steel may result in cracking hours or days after the welding
has been completed.

High strength steels, thick sections, and heavily restrained parts are more susceptible to hydrogen
cracking. On these materials, we recommend using a low hydrogen process and consumable, and
following proper preheat, interpass, and postheat procedures. Also, it is important to keep the weld
joint free of oil, rust, paint, and moisture as they are sources of hydrogen.
A Mig welder gun has all the usual equipment of other welders, such as an earth clamp and cable, but it also
has a specially designed arced torch with a trigger on its underside. The torch allows for the semi automatic
process in Mig welding, making it easier for the welder to carry out his work.
How does the gun work?
Once the welder is ready to start work, he or she will bring the torch down close to the metal they wish to
weld. The welder will then press the trigger on the underside of the torch, keeping applied pressure for as long
as they require. By pressing the trigger the torch will feed welding wire from the welder down onto the metal
being welded and also release shielding gas.
The Mig welder always has the arc ignited so once the welding wire comes out of the torch and close to the
metal being worked an arc will form.
The design of the gun or torch
The torch is found on the end of the protective torch cable, this cable carries the welding wire, electric current
and shielding gas.
Within the handle of the mig welder gun, known as the torch body, there are two pipes. One of the pipes is
small and this pipe carries the shielding gas, the second pipe is wider and feeds the filler wire through the
torch. The torch trigger is attached to both pipes and does not allow either the wire or shielding gas to feed
through their pipes unless pressed.
At the end of the torch body there is an insulated neck that is arced and carries the filler wire and shielding gas
pipes to the nozzle at the end. The nozzle is metal and is larger than the insulated neck in circumference. The
nozzle contains a contact tip and provides the electrical connection to the filler wire.

What Happens When You Heat Water at Normal Atmospheric Pressure

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What Happens When You Heat Water at Normal Atmospheric Pressure

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What happens when you heat water at normal atmospheric pressure?

There are three stages.

The boiler is slowly brought up to the required pressure level

Boiler downward expansion should be noted as the pressure is raised to 40 kg/cm2

Continuous Blowing Method

It is not possible to avoid carryover of solids to the superheater during steam

Major Milestones Schedule:

Start of Boiler Erection

Boiler drum lifting

Start of Turbine Erection

Start of Condenser Erection

Completion of Trial operation

1.7. Generator leak test.

Receiving and Storage

The basic document for equipment erection :

Straight Edge Indication

Dial Gauge Stand with magnetic Base

Auto Level Sets

Installation of Turbine Generator Stator

Preliminary Centering of Stator

Rotor Installation of Turbine Generator

Check and test for the rotor at site.

Adjustment of Generator Position

Install sole plate of brush rigging.

Install the alignment keys refer to the drawing

Definition and Purposes of Standard & Code

Codes contain prohibitions or cautions to be followed in the standardization of design practices

All employee, all section and multi skill

Regeneration with experiences from bottom or multi skill

Lifetime employment is practiced or long period turnover

(from the points of view of humanity, democracy, and management)

10. A nation of one race and one language

Proportional (Vertical and Horizontal)

People are treated like machines.

Alphabetic (easier, little numbers)

A single race (Europe) but many foreign workers

10. The united states (Multiple race and multiple language)

Assembly of Rotor Fan Blades

Clean fan blade fit position of the fan hub

8. Oil Deflector Installation

December 1st, 2010 admin 0 Comments

Oil Gland Seal Installation

15. December 2nd, 2010 admin 1 Comment

GENERATOR PIPES FLUSHING

21. December 2nd, 2010 admin 0 Comments

GENERATOR LEAK TEST

25. December 3rd, 2010 admin 0 Comments

BEARING ASSEMBLY FOR TURBINE GENERATOR

32. December 3rd, 2010 admin 0 Comments

INSTALLATION STEADY BEARING ASSEMBLY

36. December 4th, 2010 admin 0 Comments

INSPECTION OF IMPORTANT EVENT

43. December 5th, 2010 admin 0 Comments

1.10. Leak test of H2 gas cooling line

NOISE-ISOLATING HOUSING INSTALLATION

47. December 5th, 2010 admin 1 Comment

Fixed and Mobile Scaffolding

4. Are handrails and toe boards installed where required?

What information should I gather as I start my equipment inventory

Serial number or other unique number for asset

Cost of the asset

Installation and upgrade costs for the asset

Date that the asset was purchased or obtained

Location for the asset