Cell Division

Cell cycle
To make a new cell identical to itself a cell must pass through a cycle called cell cycle
which the cell must do these operations:1-It must grow and make additional copies of all its organelles ,enzymes and perform
metabolic activities such as protein synthesis.
2-It must duplicate its DNA.
3-It must separate the homologous chromosomes.
4-It must divided into two cells (cytokinesis).
The basic phases of the cell cycle divided into two phases interphase and mitosis.

Interphase
The non dividing cell is in a part of its life cycle and most of the cell cycle (98%) is
interphase .This phase is subdivided into (G1,S,G2)(Figure1).

G1 stage= first gap (resting cell):-This phase is follow the telophase and cytokinesis of the
cell at end of mitosis. In the G1cells perform the metabolite activities such as protein
synthesis and physiological function which characteristic of tissue in which they are
found ,a cell doubles its organelles and it accumulate the material needed for DNA
synthesis .In this phase chromosomes appear as thinner ,longer threadlike structure.
S stage= synthesis period:- Is a part of interphase in which the cell replicates its DNA
(chromosome duplication).
G2 stage =second gap :- Short gap, is the stage when the cell is stopped synthesis DNA
.In G2 the duplicated chromosome remain attached to the original chromosome by its
centromere .The original chromosome and its duplicated partner are called sister
chromatids .The chromosome in G2 appear as short ,thick and rod -like structure.

Cell division
Mitosis :Cell division for growth.The parent cell(46n) in all cells (except sex organs)
divided into two daughter cells which are also diploid (46n)and are identical to the
parent cell.
Meiosis :Cell division for production egg in the ovary or spermatozoa in the testes
The parent cell(46n) divided into four daughter cells which are haploid (23n) and are
not identical to the parent cell.This happend by meiosis I and II .

Mitosis
The DNA content changes during the mitotic cell cycle even if the chromosome
number remains constant.The cell cycle comprises various phases ,of which mitosis is
shorter .
Interphase :This period divided into three stages G1,S,G2 prepare the cell for division
.The nuclear envelope is intact and no chromosome are visible .Specific chemicals that
constitute the newly synthesized chromosomes and proteins that will give the rise to the
mitotic spindle are observed during this period.
Prophase :The important component formed during this phase is the formation of the
mitotic spindle, formed from fibers comprising tubulin-based microtubules and
associated proteins. There are two important classes of spindle fibers: (Fig.2)
1-The polar fibers (formed in prophase), which extended from the two poles of the cell
to the equator.
2-Kinetohcore fibers (formed in prometaphase),which attached to the kinetochore
(kinetochore is a large multi protein structure attached to the centromere of each
chromatid .
These spindle fibers in the direction of the spindle poles. The chromosomes begin to
condense and become visible as thread- like structure. The nucleolus disappears and
also the nuclear membrane begins to break down.

Figure 2- The classes of spindle fiber

Prometaphase: The kinetochore fibers form . The nuclear membrane now dissolves and
the chromosomes (condensing all the time) begin to move to the equatorial plane (known
as the metaphase plate), and can be seen to contain two chromatids.
Metaphase: At this point the chromosomes are at their most condensed ,consists of two
sister chromatids, joined together at the centromere in which attach to the spindle-shaped
structure by their centromeres. The spindle to which the centromeres attach is usually
formed from the two centrioles that originated on one side of the nucleus. These centrioles
then move to opposite sides of the nucleus and appear to radiate distinctive lines (astral
rays). In this stage , cytogenetic analysis concentrates on,because the chromosomes are at
their most condensed and readily recognized following G-banding treatment.
Anaphase: The attachment of the two sister chromatids now separates by the splitting of
the centromere. The two chrmoatids are pulled to opposite poles of the cell. The
appearance is that of active repulsion of the centromeres and dragging of the chromatids
along with them.
Telophase: The separated chromatids reach the opposite poles and begin to decondense
and become extended as they were in interphase. The nuclear membrane begins to reform
around the two sets of daughter chromosomes and the cytoplasm begins to divide.
Cytokinesis: Cytoplasm division is completed and gives rise to two daughter cells, with a
diploid number of chromosomes (Fig. 3).

Figure 3- Mitosis tissue growth

Meiosis
In man, meiosis involves two divisions of specialized diploid cells(2n) primary oocytes
(found in ovary) and primary spermatocytes (found in the testis). Four spermatozoa are
produced from the spermatocytes in males, whereas in females the cytoplasm divides
unequally at each stage, with the products of meiosis I being a large secondary oocyte and
small polar body. The secondary oocyte then gives rise to mature egg cell and another
(secondary) polar body(fig.4).
Egg (23)+ sperm (23) -------------Zygote (46)
Haploid gametes(n)

diploid baby(2n)

Figure
4-The

production of eggs in the ovary or spermatozoa in the testes

First meiotic division

Prophase I:The first division represents a reduction division where members of
homologous chromosomes pairs are separated but not the sister chromatids, that is the
numbers are reduced to half (1n). This first prophase is subdivided into the following five
stages:
i- Leptotene: The chromosomes appear as long slender threads, with two tightly bound
sister chromatids, and bead-like structures (chromomeres) along their length.
ii-Zygotene: Maternal and paternal chromosomes appear to attract each other and enter a
very close pairing (synapsis) where they form bivalents. Each pair of bivalents forms a
synaptonemal complex. The pairing is highly specific occurs between all regions of
homologous chromosomes.

iii-Pachytene: Completion of the formation of synaptonemal complexes marks the

start of pachytene, where the chromosomes thicken and condense and recombination or

crossover can occur, which is the exchange of genetic material between non sister
homologous chromatids(Fig.5). The two homologous can be observed to be physically
connected at a specific point called a chiasma (or chiasmata in plural). The chiasmata are
thought to fulfill an essential function in chromosome segregation, by holding the bivalent
together until anaphase I, similar to the role performed by the centromeres in mitosis and
meiosis. Each pair of homologous chromosomes is thought to undergo at least one
crossover, but in practice ,this could be many more and even the X and Y chromosomes
,which exhibit only partial homology ,are known to undergo at least one crossover.

Figure 5- Meiosis

iv-Diplotene: The bivalent appear to repulse each other but are still held together by the
chiasmata. In man,the position and number of chiasmata seem to be constant for a
particular chromosome .At this point the crossover can be documented and their positions
recorded.
v-Diakinesis: Coiling and contraction of the chromosomes occurs until they appear as
thick, heavy staining bodies. The bivalent usually migrate close to the nuclear membrane
and become evenly distributed. The nucleolus either disappears or detaches from its
associated chromosome. During the latter part of this stage, or in early part of first
metaphase, the nuclear membrane dissolves and the bivalents attach themselves by their
centromeres to the rapidly forming spindle.

Metaphase I: The chromosome reach a condensed state, as in mitosis, and appear

relatively smooth in outline. The chiasmata have moved to the ends of each bivalent
(terminalization). These chiasmata prevent the separation of the homologous
chromosomes, which now lie on each side of the equatorial plate of the spindle, stretched
by their respective centromeres to opposite poles.

Anaphase I:The disjunction of either homologous pair towards opposite poles results in
the single centromere dragging both chromatids along with it called dyad. The chiasmata
split off the ends of the chromosomes as they are pulled apart. Each chromosome of a
homologous pair is contributed by either parent, and thus the chaismata exchange during
meiosis results in the redistribution of chromosomal material from each parent to both
daughter cells formed. The greater the number of chromosomes present, the more the
likelihood that redistribution of genetic material from both parents will occur. In each
daughter cell there are 23 chromosomes, half the original number.
Telophase I and Interphase: These stages vary considerably between organisms. In most
cases, when the dyad reaches the spindle poles, a nuclear membrane is formed around it
and chromosomes pass into a short interphase before the second meiotic division.

Second meiotic division

This is an equatorial division of mitotic type. Metaphase, anaphase, and telophase follow
just as in mitosis, but these stages are distinguished from ordinary mitosis by using the
subscripts I and II as shown in (Fig.5).
Prophase II :The chromosomes enter this phase as dyads, or two sister chromatids,
connected together in their centromere regions.
Anaphase II :The chromatids divide, each one (monad) separates from its sister and
moves to the opposite pole .
Telophase II and Cytokinesis follow rapidly giving rise to four haploid cells from each
initial cell which entered meiosis.

Figure 6- A comparisons of meiosis and mitosis

The comparisons between meiosis and mitosis(Fig.6)

Meiosis
Mitosis
1-Occur in sex cells for production eggs
1- Occur in somatic cells for growth
and sperms.
2-Produce 4 daughter cells each with half
2- Produce 2 daughter cells each contain
the original number of chromosomes(1n).
the original number of chromosomes(2n)
3-Involve 2 nuclear division without
3- Involve nuclear division after DNA
DNA replication between them
replication
4-Homologous chromosomes pairs(bivalent), 4- All of them don't occur
Synopsis complex and crossover occur
in prophase I meiosis
5-Bivalent separate,while sister chromatids
remain together in anaphase I of meiosis

5-Sister chromatids separate in anaphase

of mitosis