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19

Single vertical dikes

19.1 Introduction
Dikes have long been regarded as impermeable walls in the earth's crust, but recent
research has shown that dikes can be highly permeable. They become so by jointing
as the magma cools, by fracturing as a result of shearing, or by weathering.
If a single, permeable, vertical dike bisects a country-rock aquifer whose transmissivity is several times less than that of the dike; a specific flow pattern will be created
when the dike is pumped. Instead of a cone of depression developing around the well,
as in an unconsolidated aquifer, a trough of depression develops (Figure 19.1). Conventional well-flow equations therefore cannot be used to analyze pumping tests in
composite dike-aquifer systems.
The hydraulic behaviour of such systems is identical to that of single-fracture aquifer
systems. Nevertheless, the concepts used for single vertical fractures in Chapter 18
(i.e. short length and zero width) are not realistic for dikes, whose length can vary
from several kilometres to even hundreds of kilometres, and whose width can vary
from one metre or less to tens of metres.
In this chapter, the dike is assumed to be as shown in Figure 19.IA. It is infinitely
long, has a finite width and a finite hydraulic conductivity. The dike's permeability
stems from' a system of uniformly distributed fractures, extending downward and
dying out with depth. Below the fractured zone, the dike rock is massive and impermeable. The upper part of the dike is also impermeable because of intensive weathering
or a top clay layer. The water in the fractured part of the dike and in the aquifer
in the country rock is thus confined.
The well in the dike is represented by a plane sink. When the well is pumped at
a constant rate, three characteristic time periods can be distinguished: early time, medium time, and late time.
At early times, all the water pumped originates from storage in the dike and none
is contributed from the aquifer. A log-log plot of the time-drawdown of the well yields
~straigh..0ine seg..1}1~nt
witb a slope of 0.5. The governing equations are then identical
with those for early times in Chapter 18, but now the parallel flow occurs in the dike
instead of in the aquifer.
At medium times, all the water pumped is supplied from the aquifer and none is
contributed from storage in the dike. The flow in the aquifer can be regarded as predominantly parallel, but oblique to the dike. A log-log plot of the time-drawdown
da~~JL2.!F_~i~~t~~~Qt
with a ~Iope of 0.25 In inf'.retrole.um.li.t.er.a.tu~-,tI\~me
s~pe~~0~~j
for fractures wiili-..iL!l~.!~Jnr.gIaulic...conductiYily._{Cinco
Ley etarl978}

":J

At late times, the fl?w in the ~quife.r i(~eudo-radial. A semi-19~P!ot ?f the time- //'
.
drawdown data also yields a straIght-hne segment. '-- kJ(. Jf~
if
l".arI{l~
The change in flow from one period to another is not abrupt; b~t gradual. During
these transitional periods, a time-drawdown plot (whether a log-log plot or a semi-log
plot) yields curved-line segments.

275

country

rock

dike

country

rock

piezometric

dike

country
impermeable

><

rock

impermeable

~highly
~permeable

country

head

permeable

rock

1'axis of

fb\

I;ymmetry

\ \ \ \ \ t!till/
/1 ! / t I

\ \

\\\

country rock

Figure 19.1 Composite

dike-aquifer

system:

A: Cross-section showing an aquifer of low permeability


permeable, fractured part of a vertical dike;
B: Plan view: parallel flow in the pumped

in hydraulic

dike and parallel-to-near-parallel

contact

with the highly

flow in the aquifer

The methods of analyzing pumping tests in composite dike-aquifer systems are based
on the following general assumptions and conditions:
The dike is vertical and of infinite extent over the length influenced by the test;
- The width of the dike is uniform and does not exceed 10 m;
-

The flow through the fracture system in the dike is laminar, so Darcy's equation
can be used;

The uniformly fractured part of the dike can be replaced by a representative continuum to which spatially defined hydraulic characteristics

can be assigned;

The fractured part of the dike is bounded above by an impermeable weathered zone
and below by solid rock;
The well fully penetrates the fractured part of the dike and is represented by a plane

276

'1

sink; flow through the dike towards the well is parallel;


-

The country-rock aquifer, which is in hydraulic contact with the fractured part of
the dike, is confined, homogeneous,
extent;

isotropic,

and has an apparently

infinite areal

All water pumped from the well comes from storage within the composite system
of dike and aquifer;

The ratio of the hydraulic diffusivity of the dike to that of the aquifer should not
be less than 25;

Well losses and well-bore storage are negligible.

The methods we present in this chapter are based on the work of Boehmer and Boonstra (1986), Boonstra and Boehmer (1986), Boehmer and Boonstra (1987), and Boonstra and Boehmer (1989). The two methods in Section 19.2 make use of the drawdown
data from observation wells placed along the dike and at specific locations in the
aquifer; they are only valid for early and medium pumping times. The two methods
in Section 19.3 use drawdown data from the pumped well; these methods are complementary and, when combined, cover all three characteristic time periods.
All the methods in this chapter can also be applied to single vertical fractures, provided that the fracture is relatively long.

19.2

Curve-fitting

methods for observation

wells

For a well in a single, vertical dike of finite width in an otherwise homogeneous, isotropic aquifer of low permeability in the country rock, partial solutions are available
for the drawdown in observation wells i6the dike and in the aquifer abreast of the
pumped well.
19.2.1

Boonstra-Boehmer's

curve-fitting

method

To analyze the drawdown behaviour along the pumped dike, Boonstra and Boehmer
(1986) developed the following drawdown equation for early and medium pumping
times
s(x,t) =

(19.1)

Q
F(x;r)
3.75 jTdST/Sd

where

J;
F(X,T)= In exp(-2J-r) I exp
2

x
T

= 1.88

2j(T-~2)

Wd jSdTd/ST
ST
= 3.52 (WdSd)2 t

- f~2 J d~

(19.2)

(19.3)
(19.4)

= dummy variable of integration


277

s(x,t) = drawdown in the dike at distance x from the pumped well (m) and
pumping time t (d)
S
= storativity of the aquifer, dimensionless
Sd
= storativity of the dike, dimensionless
T
= transmissivity of the aquifer (m2/d)
Td
= transmissivity of the dike (m2/d)
Wd
= width of the dike (m)
Figure 19.2 shows the family of type curves developed from Equation 19.2. Values
of the function F(X,T)for different values of Xand Tare given in Annex 19.1.
In addition to the general assumptions and conditions listed in Section 19.1, this curvefitting method is further based on the condition that the flow in the aquifer exhibits
a near-parallel-to-parallel flow pattern, which means that the pumping time should
be less than
t < 0.28 S(WdTd)2/4P
Procedure 19.1
Using Annex 19.1, prepare a family of type curves on log-log paper by plotting

F(X,T) versus T for different vjlues of X;

Prepare the data curve by plotting the draw down s(x,t) observed in an observation

well in the dike at a distance x from the pumped well versus t;


Apply the type-curve matching procedure;

FIX,T)
101
8
6
4

""",:;:::::-

100)
8J
63

-;7
/'
/'

------

7V

""-

/V

10,1
8I
6;

4I

/0625

10,2
8I
6;

1/

';72-=:0,05

0,1

/
2,5

0,5
J25

5,0

I?

)0

4I

1/

!
10"3

6 8 10"2 2

6 8 10,1

4681002

6 8101

4681022

68103

468104
T

Figure 19,2 Family of type curves of the function F(x;r) for different values of X and 't (after Boonstra
and Boehmer 1987)
278

Substitute

the values of F(X;t), 't, s(x,t), and t of the matchpoint

A, together with

the X value of the selected type curve, the x value of the observation well, and the
known value ofQ into Equations 19.1, 19.3, and 19.4;
-

By combining

the results, calculate WctTct,WctSct,and ST.

Remark

If data from at least two observation wells in the dike are available, WctTct,WctSct,

and ST can also found from a distance-drawdown

19.2.2

Boehmer-Boonstra's

curve-fitting

analysis.

method

To analyze the drawdown behaviour in observation wells drilled in the aquifer along
a line perpendicular to the dike and abreast of the pumped well, Boehmer and Boonstra
(1987) developed the following drawdown equation for early and medium pumping
times
s(y,t) = SwF(ua)

(19.5)

F(ua)

exp(-uD - uaJn [1 - erf(ua)]

(19.6)

= 2:y v (SIT)J.r~

(19.7)

Ua

where

IfCFr\

s(y,t) = drawdown in the aquifer (m)


y
= distance between observation well and pumped well, measured along
a line through the pumped well and perpendicular to the dike (m)

Figure 19.3 shows the type curve developed from Equation 19.6. Values of the function
F(u.) for different values of l/u; are given in Annex 19.2.

In addition to the general assumptions and conditions listed in Section 19.1, this curvefitting method is further based on the condition that the flow in the country-rock
aquifer exhibits a near-parallel to parallel flow pattern, which means that the pumping
time should be less than
t < 0.28 S (WctTct)2/4T3
Procedure 19.2
-

Using Annex 19.2,prepare a type curve by plotting values of F(ua)versus l/u; on


log-log paper;
Prepare the data curve by plotting the drawdown ratios s(y,t)/swversus t;

Apply the type-curvematching procedure;


Substitute the values of l/u; and t of the matchpoint A, together with the y value
of the observation well, into Equation 19.7 and calculate the hydraulic diffusivity
T/S.
279

F(ua)
100
8
6
4

/'

2,

10-1
8
6
4

I1

10-2
8
6
4
2
10-3 L10-1

J
2

468100

4681012

6 8102

6 8103

468104
1/u~

Figure 19.3 Type curve of the function F(ua) (after Boehmer and Boonstra 1987)

Remarks
--

--

When data from at least two observation wellslocated in the aquifer are available,
the hydraulic diffusivity TjS can also be found from a distance-drawdown analysis;
If data are available from at least one observation well in the dike and another
in the aquifer, separate values of the transmissivity and storativity of the aquifer
can be found by combining the results obtained with the methods in Sections 19.2.1
and 19.2.2.

19.3

Curve-fitting methods for the pumped well

19.3.1 For early and medium pumping times


For a well in a single, vertical dike in an otherwise homogeneous, isotropic, confined,
aquifer of low permeability in the country rock, Boonstra and Boehmer (1986)
obtained the following solution for the drawdown in the pumped well during early
and medium pumping times
Sw =

Q
F(T)
3.75 jTdSTjSd

F(T)

= r=exp( -2fl

(19.8)

where
2

280

v re

..F

J0 exp[2j(T-{?)]

d~

(19.9)

Equation 19.9 is the reduced form of Equation 19.2 for X = O. Figure 19.4 shows
the type curve developed from Equation 19.9. Values of the function F(,) for different
values oh are given in Annex 19.3.
At early pumping times, when the drawdown behaviour in the well is predominantly
governed by the water released from storage in the dike, the drawdown function in
Equation 19.9 reduces to
2
(19.10)
Jr
F(,) = -

fir

and consequently
Sw =

Q
JrcTdSdWa

Jt

(19.11)

As Equation 19.11 shows, a log-log plot of the early-time drawdown versus time is
characterized by a straight line with a slope of 0.5. This early-time period ends at
approximately, = 0.003.
At medium pumping times, when the drawdown behaviour is predominantly governed by near-parallel-to-parallel flow from the aquifer into the dike, the drawdown
function in Equation 19.9 reduces to
(19.12)

F(,) =fc
and consequently
sw=

2.74JWdTdfST

fi

(19.13)

F(T)
101-

start

1/4 slope
I
I

--------10

end 1/2 slope


10-1

10-2
10-3

Figure

10-2

10-1

10

19.4 Type curve of the function F(T) for the pumped


(after Boonstra and Boehmer 1987)

101

well al early and medium

103
T

102

pumping

limes

281

As Equation 19.13 shows, a log-log plot of the medium-time drawdown versus time
is
characterized by a straight line with a slope 0.25. This period starts at approximately
T = lOO.
In addition to the general assumptions and conditions listed in Section 19.1, this curvefitting method is further based on the condition that the flow in the aquifer exhibits
a near-parallel-to-parallel flow pattern, which means that the pumping time should
be less than
t < 0.28 S(WdTd)2/4T3
Procedure 19.3
- Using Annex 19.3, prepare a type curve by plotting F(T) versus T on log-log paper;
- Prepare the data curve by plotting the drawdown Swversus t;
-

Apply the type-curve matching procedure;

Substitute

the values ofF(T), T, Sw>and t of the chosen matchpoint

value L&-into
(WdTd).j(ST).

Equations

A and the known

19.4 and 19.8 and calculate (WdSd)(WdTd)and

Remark
-

If the data plot only exhibits an 0.5 or an 0.25 slope straight-line segment,
(WdTd)(WdSd)or (WdTd)J(ST) can befound from Equations 19.11 or 19.13, respectively. This yields a value for
(WdTd)(WdSd)

Q2t

= ~nsw

(19.14)

or

(WdTd)J(ST) =

19.3.2

~
7.5 s;

(19.15)

For late pumping times

Boehmer and Boonstra (1986) also obtained a solution for the drawdown in the
pumped well during late pumping times
Sw=

2.30Q
40 T3t
4nT log S(WdTdf

(19.16)

Equation 19.16 shows that the drawdown is now a logarithmic function of time. A
plot of Swversus t on semi-log paper will thus yield a straight-line segment.
Boonstra and Boehmer (1989) showed that the solution for the drawdown in the
pumped well during late times can be integrated with the corresponding solutions
for early and medium times. This gives a family of type curves as a function of STd Sdi
(Figure 19.5). From an inspection of Figures 19.4 and 19.5, we can conclude that
the log-log plot will not exhibit a straight-line with a slope of 0.25 for STd/SdT values
lower than 25.
282

start 1~4 slope

Se Td
Sd Te

10

10-1
102

10'
Figure

103

19.5 Family of type curves of the function


Boonstra and Boehmer 1987)

104
F(e) for the pumped

105

107
T

106

well at late pumping

times (after

In addition to the general assumptions and conditions listed in Section 19.1, this
straight-line method is further based on the condition that the flow in the aquifer
exhibits a pseudo-radial flow pattern, which means that the pumping condition is
t> 50 S(WdTd)2/4T3
Procedure 19.4
-

On semi-log paper, plot the drawdown

Swversus t (t on logarithmic

scale);

Draw a straight line of best fit through the plotted points;


Determine the slope of this line L1Sand calculate T = 2.30Q/4TCL1s).

Remark
-

For a pumping test of the usual duration, the above method can only be applied
to dikes not wider than a few centimetres or to fractures.

('

Example 19.1
Boonstra and Boehmer (1986) and Boehmer and Boonstra (1987) describe a pumping
test that was conducted in a IO-m-wide fractured dolorite dike at Brandwag Tweeling,
Republic of South Africa. The country rock consists of alternating layers of non-productive Iow-permeable sandstones, silt stones, and mudstones of the Beaufort series,
which belong to the Karroo system.
The well in the dike was pumped for 2500 minutes at a constant rate of 13.9 lis
or 1200 m3/d. Drawdowns were measured in this well and in two observation wells,
one in the dike at a distance of 100 m from the pumped well and the other in the
aquifer abreast of the pumped well and 20 m away from it. Table 19.1 gives the drawdown data of the three wells.
283

Observationwell in the dike


Applying Procedure 19.1 to the data of the observation well in the dike (x = 100
m), we plot these drawdown data on log-log paper against the corresponding values
of time 1. A comparison with the family of type curves in Figure 19.6 shows that the
plotted points fall along the type curve for X = 1.0. We choose as matchpoint, Point
A, where F(X,T) = 1 and T = 100. On the observed data sheet, this point has the
coordinates s(lOO,t) = 2.29 m and t = 23.5 minutes. Introducing the appropriate
numerical values into Equations 19.1, 19.3, and 19.4, we obtain
WdTd = 2.6 x 1O4m3fd
WdSd = 4.3 X 10-4m
ST
= 3.2 x 10-4m2fd
Table 19.1 Drawdown data of the pumped well and two observation wells, Pumping Test Brandwag Tweeling, South Africa, after Boonstra and Boehmer (1986) and Boehmer and Boonstra (1987)
Time
(min)

x=O
(m)

x = 100
(m)

Time
(min)

x=O
(m)

x = 100
(m)

Time
(min)

x=O
(m)

x = 100
(m)

1
2
3
4
6
8
10
13
15
18
21
25
30
35

3.363
4.118
4.660
5.025
5.582
6.081
6.470
6.796
7.020
7.246
7.500
7.746
8.102
8.324

1.378
2.068
2.507
2.818
3.360
3.846
4.224
4.547
4.765
5.016
5.257
5.519
5.700
6.044

40
50
60
75
100
125
150
175
200
250
300
350
400
500

8.445
8.864
9.192
9.724
10.366
11.120
11.766
12.300
12.874
13.911
14.643
15.142
16.080
17.252

6.232
6.606
6.907
7.349
8.031
8.885
9.063
9.553
10.045
11.027
11.672
12.154
12.207
14.324

600
750
900
1050
1200
1350
1500
1700
1900
2100
2300
2500

18.108
18.948
19.795
20.253
20.667
21.033
21.076
21.389
21.486

15.031
15.907
15.704
17.813
17.565
17.916
17.945
18.285
18.409
18.483
18.858
19.109

Time
(min)

y=O
(m)

y = 20
(m)

Time
(min)

y=O
(m)

y = 20
(m)

Time
(min)

y=O
(m)

y = 20
(m)

1
2
3
4
6
8
10
13
15
18
21
25

3.363
4.118
4.660
5.025
5.582
6.081
6.470
6.796
7.020
7.246
7.500
7.746

0.572
1.249
1.741
2.540
2.800
3.422
3.905
4.286
4.530
4.800
5.055
5.375

30
35
40
50
60
75
100
125
150
175
200
250

8.102
8.324
8.445
8.864
9.192
9.724
10.366
11.120
11.766
12.300
12.874
13.911

5.630
3.006
6.110
6.500
6.815
7.320
7.858
8.489
9.039
9.457
9.901
10.723

300
350
400
500
600
750
900
1050
1200
1350
1500
1700

14.643
15.142
16.080
17.252
18.108
18.948
19.795
20.253
20.667
21.033
21.076
21.389

11.323
11.766
12.622
14.847
14.917
15.421
16.337
16.691
17.125
17.560
17.584

284

s(100, t) in m
102
FIX.T)
10'
10'

100

103

104
t in minutes

10-'

10-3

10-2

10'

102

103

104

Figure 19.6 The time-drawdown data of the observation well in the dike (x = 100 m), matched with one
of the curves of the family of type curves developed from Equation 19.2

Observationwell in the aquifer


Applying Procedure 19,2 to the data of the observation well in the aquifer, we match
the time-drawdown ratio data with the type curve F(ua), as shown in Figure 19.7.
We choose as matchpoint, Point A, where F(uJ = 1 and l/u; = 10. On the observed
data sheet, this point has the coordinates s(20,t)/sw = 0.9 and t = 5.3 minutes. Introducing the appropriate numerical values into Equation 19.7, we obtain
T/S = 2.7 x 105m2/d
Combining the results of Procedures 19.1 and 19.2, we can also obtain separate values
for the transmissivity and storativity of the aquifer
T = 9.3 m2/d
S = 3.4 X 10-5
Pumpedwell
Figure 19.8 shows the time-drawdown data of the pumped well, plotted on log-log
paper. This plot only exhibits a straight line with a slope of 0.25. Hence, we cannot
apply Procedure 19.3. Instead, we choose an arbitrary point A on this line, with coordinates Sw= 10.0 m and t = 70.7 minutes. Introducing these values into Equation 19.15,
we 0btain
285

S(y,t)

s;101

F(ua
10 I

10-1

4
es

10-2

10-3
101

10

101

102

103

104
l/u~

Figure 19,7 The time-drawdown ratio data of the observation well in the aquifer (y

20 m), matched

with the type curve F(ua)

Sw in metres

102

DIKE

ool.o~-~

0-

00_0

\0=0-0-0-0-0

101
0

. o_o_o_o_o_o~'

0_0-'

10

101

70.7

102

103

104
t in minutes

Figure 19,8 Time-drawdown relation of the pumped well, showing the characteristic straight-line slope
of 0,25 for medium pumping times
286

(WdTd)j(ST) = 425 m4/d3/2


(WdTd)
(ST),the
we values
get 465,ofwhich
corresponds
reasonablywith
well Procedure
with the value
425
SUbstitjing
WdTd
and ST obtained
19.1of into
obtained with Procedure 19.3.

287

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