Professional Documents
Culture Documents
19.1 Introduction
Dikes have long been regarded as impermeable walls in the earth's crust, but recent
research has shown that dikes can be highly permeable. They become so by jointing
as the magma cools, by fracturing as a result of shearing, or by weathering.
If a single, permeable, vertical dike bisects a country-rock aquifer whose transmissivity is several times less than that of the dike; a specific flow pattern will be created
when the dike is pumped. Instead of a cone of depression developing around the well,
as in an unconsolidated aquifer, a trough of depression develops (Figure 19.1). Conventional well-flow equations therefore cannot be used to analyze pumping tests in
composite dike-aquifer systems.
The hydraulic behaviour of such systems is identical to that of single-fracture aquifer
systems. Nevertheless, the concepts used for single vertical fractures in Chapter 18
(i.e. short length and zero width) are not realistic for dikes, whose length can vary
from several kilometres to even hundreds of kilometres, and whose width can vary
from one metre or less to tens of metres.
In this chapter, the dike is assumed to be as shown in Figure 19.IA. It is infinitely
long, has a finite width and a finite hydraulic conductivity. The dike's permeability
stems from' a system of uniformly distributed fractures, extending downward and
dying out with depth. Below the fractured zone, the dike rock is massive and impermeable. The upper part of the dike is also impermeable because of intensive weathering
or a top clay layer. The water in the fractured part of the dike and in the aquifer
in the country rock is thus confined.
The well in the dike is represented by a plane sink. When the well is pumped at
a constant rate, three characteristic time periods can be distinguished: early time, medium time, and late time.
At early times, all the water pumped originates from storage in the dike and none
is contributed from the aquifer. A log-log plot of the time-drawdown of the well yields
~straigh..0ine seg..1}1~nt
witb a slope of 0.5. The governing equations are then identical
with those for early times in Chapter 18, but now the parallel flow occurs in the dike
instead of in the aquifer.
At medium times, all the water pumped is supplied from the aquifer and none is
contributed from storage in the dike. The flow in the aquifer can be regarded as predominantly parallel, but oblique to the dike. A log-log plot of the time-drawdown
da~~JL2.!F_~i~~t~~~Qt
with a ~Iope of 0.25 In inf'.retrole.um.li.t.er.a.tu~-,tI\~me
s~pe~~0~~j
for fractures wiili-..iL!l~.!~Jnr.gIaulic...conductiYily._{Cinco
Ley etarl978}
":J
At late times, the fl?w in the ~quife.r i(~eudo-radial. A semi-19~P!ot ?f the time- //'
.
drawdown data also yields a straIght-hne segment. '-- kJ(. Jf~
if
l".arI{l~
The change in flow from one period to another is not abrupt; b~t gradual. During
these transitional periods, a time-drawdown plot (whether a log-log plot or a semi-log
plot) yields curved-line segments.
275
country
rock
dike
country
rock
piezometric
dike
country
impermeable
><
rock
impermeable
~highly
~permeable
country
head
permeable
rock
1'axis of
fb\
I;ymmetry
\ \ \ \ \ t!till/
/1 ! / t I
\ \
\\\
country rock
dike-aquifer
system:
in hydraulic
contact
The methods of analyzing pumping tests in composite dike-aquifer systems are based
on the following general assumptions and conditions:
The dike is vertical and of infinite extent over the length influenced by the test;
- The width of the dike is uniform and does not exceed 10 m;
-
The flow through the fracture system in the dike is laminar, so Darcy's equation
can be used;
The uniformly fractured part of the dike can be replaced by a representative continuum to which spatially defined hydraulic characteristics
can be assigned;
The fractured part of the dike is bounded above by an impermeable weathered zone
and below by solid rock;
The well fully penetrates the fractured part of the dike and is represented by a plane
276
'1
The country-rock aquifer, which is in hydraulic contact with the fractured part of
the dike, is confined, homogeneous,
extent;
isotropic,
infinite areal
All water pumped from the well comes from storage within the composite system
of dike and aquifer;
The ratio of the hydraulic diffusivity of the dike to that of the aquifer should not
be less than 25;
The methods we present in this chapter are based on the work of Boehmer and Boonstra (1986), Boonstra and Boehmer (1986), Boehmer and Boonstra (1987), and Boonstra and Boehmer (1989). The two methods in Section 19.2 make use of the drawdown
data from observation wells placed along the dike and at specific locations in the
aquifer; they are only valid for early and medium pumping times. The two methods
in Section 19.3 use drawdown data from the pumped well; these methods are complementary and, when combined, cover all three characteristic time periods.
All the methods in this chapter can also be applied to single vertical fractures, provided that the fracture is relatively long.
19.2
Curve-fitting
wells
For a well in a single, vertical dike of finite width in an otherwise homogeneous, isotropic aquifer of low permeability in the country rock, partial solutions are available
for the drawdown in observation wells i6the dike and in the aquifer abreast of the
pumped well.
19.2.1
Boonstra-Boehmer's
curve-fitting
method
To analyze the drawdown behaviour along the pumped dike, Boonstra and Boehmer
(1986) developed the following drawdown equation for early and medium pumping
times
s(x,t) =
(19.1)
Q
F(x;r)
3.75 jTdST/Sd
where
J;
F(X,T)= In exp(-2J-r) I exp
2
x
T
= 1.88
2j(T-~2)
Wd jSdTd/ST
ST
= 3.52 (WdSd)2 t
- f~2 J d~
(19.2)
(19.3)
(19.4)
s(x,t) = drawdown in the dike at distance x from the pumped well (m) and
pumping time t (d)
S
= storativity of the aquifer, dimensionless
Sd
= storativity of the dike, dimensionless
T
= transmissivity of the aquifer (m2/d)
Td
= transmissivity of the dike (m2/d)
Wd
= width of the dike (m)
Figure 19.2 shows the family of type curves developed from Equation 19.2. Values
of the function F(X,T)for different values of Xand Tare given in Annex 19.1.
In addition to the general assumptions and conditions listed in Section 19.1, this curvefitting method is further based on the condition that the flow in the aquifer exhibits
a near-parallel-to-parallel flow pattern, which means that the pumping time should
be less than
t < 0.28 S(WdTd)2/4P
Procedure 19.1
Using Annex 19.1, prepare a family of type curves on log-log paper by plotting
Prepare the data curve by plotting the draw down s(x,t) observed in an observation
FIX,T)
101
8
6
4
""",:;:::::-
100)
8J
63
-;7
/'
/'
------
7V
""-
/V
10,1
8I
6;
4I
/0625
10,2
8I
6;
1/
';72-=:0,05
0,1
/
2,5
0,5
J25
5,0
I?
)0
4I
1/
!
10"3
6 8 10"2 2
6 8 10,1
4681002
6 8101
4681022
68103
468104
T
Figure 19,2 Family of type curves of the function F(x;r) for different values of X and 't (after Boonstra
and Boehmer 1987)
278
Substitute
A, together with
the X value of the selected type curve, the x value of the observation well, and the
known value ofQ into Equations 19.1, 19.3, and 19.4;
-
By combining
Remark
If data from at least two observation wells in the dike are available, WctTct,WctSct,
19.2.2
Boehmer-Boonstra's
curve-fitting
analysis.
method
To analyze the drawdown behaviour in observation wells drilled in the aquifer along
a line perpendicular to the dike and abreast of the pumped well, Boehmer and Boonstra
(1987) developed the following drawdown equation for early and medium pumping
times
s(y,t) = SwF(ua)
(19.5)
F(ua)
(19.6)
= 2:y v (SIT)J.r~
(19.7)
Ua
where
IfCFr\
Figure 19.3 shows the type curve developed from Equation 19.6. Values of the function
F(u.) for different values of l/u; are given in Annex 19.2.
In addition to the general assumptions and conditions listed in Section 19.1, this curvefitting method is further based on the condition that the flow in the country-rock
aquifer exhibits a near-parallel to parallel flow pattern, which means that the pumping
time should be less than
t < 0.28 S (WctTct)2/4T3
Procedure 19.2
-
F(ua)
100
8
6
4
/'
2,
10-1
8
6
4
I1
10-2
8
6
4
2
10-3 L10-1
J
2
468100
4681012
6 8102
6 8103
468104
1/u~
Figure 19.3 Type curve of the function F(ua) (after Boehmer and Boonstra 1987)
Remarks
--
--
When data from at least two observation wellslocated in the aquifer are available,
the hydraulic diffusivity TjS can also be found from a distance-drawdown analysis;
If data are available from at least one observation well in the dike and another
in the aquifer, separate values of the transmissivity and storativity of the aquifer
can be found by combining the results obtained with the methods in Sections 19.2.1
and 19.2.2.
19.3
Q
F(T)
3.75 jTdSTjSd
F(T)
= r=exp( -2fl
(19.8)
where
2
280
v re
..F
J0 exp[2j(T-{?)]
d~
(19.9)
Equation 19.9 is the reduced form of Equation 19.2 for X = O. Figure 19.4 shows
the type curve developed from Equation 19.9. Values of the function F(,) for different
values oh are given in Annex 19.3.
At early pumping times, when the drawdown behaviour in the well is predominantly
governed by the water released from storage in the dike, the drawdown function in
Equation 19.9 reduces to
2
(19.10)
Jr
F(,) = -
fir
and consequently
Sw =
Q
JrcTdSdWa
Jt
(19.11)
As Equation 19.11 shows, a log-log plot of the early-time drawdown versus time is
characterized by a straight line with a slope of 0.5. This early-time period ends at
approximately, = 0.003.
At medium pumping times, when the drawdown behaviour is predominantly governed by near-parallel-to-parallel flow from the aquifer into the dike, the drawdown
function in Equation 19.9 reduces to
(19.12)
F(,) =fc
and consequently
sw=
2.74JWdTdfST
fi
(19.13)
F(T)
101-
start
1/4 slope
I
I
--------10
10-2
10-3
Figure
10-2
10-1
10
101
103
T
102
pumping
limes
281
As Equation 19.13 shows, a log-log plot of the medium-time drawdown versus time
is
characterized by a straight line with a slope 0.25. This period starts at approximately
T = lOO.
In addition to the general assumptions and conditions listed in Section 19.1, this curvefitting method is further based on the condition that the flow in the aquifer exhibits
a near-parallel-to-parallel flow pattern, which means that the pumping time should
be less than
t < 0.28 S(WdTd)2/4T3
Procedure 19.3
- Using Annex 19.3, prepare a type curve by plotting F(T) versus T on log-log paper;
- Prepare the data curve by plotting the drawdown Swversus t;
-
Substitute
value L&-into
(WdTd).j(ST).
Equations
Remark
-
If the data plot only exhibits an 0.5 or an 0.25 slope straight-line segment,
(WdTd)(WdSd)or (WdTd)J(ST) can befound from Equations 19.11 or 19.13, respectively. This yields a value for
(WdTd)(WdSd)
Q2t
= ~nsw
(19.14)
or
(WdTd)J(ST) =
19.3.2
~
7.5 s;
(19.15)
Boehmer and Boonstra (1986) also obtained a solution for the drawdown in the
pumped well during late pumping times
Sw=
2.30Q
40 T3t
4nT log S(WdTdf
(19.16)
Equation 19.16 shows that the drawdown is now a logarithmic function of time. A
plot of Swversus t on semi-log paper will thus yield a straight-line segment.
Boonstra and Boehmer (1989) showed that the solution for the drawdown in the
pumped well during late times can be integrated with the corresponding solutions
for early and medium times. This gives a family of type curves as a function of STd Sdi
(Figure 19.5). From an inspection of Figures 19.4 and 19.5, we can conclude that
the log-log plot will not exhibit a straight-line with a slope of 0.25 for STd/SdT values
lower than 25.
282
Se Td
Sd Te
10
10-1
102
10'
Figure
103
104
F(e) for the pumped
105
107
T
106
times (after
In addition to the general assumptions and conditions listed in Section 19.1, this
straight-line method is further based on the condition that the flow in the aquifer
exhibits a pseudo-radial flow pattern, which means that the pumping condition is
t> 50 S(WdTd)2/4T3
Procedure 19.4
-
Swversus t (t on logarithmic
scale);
Remark
-
For a pumping test of the usual duration, the above method can only be applied
to dikes not wider than a few centimetres or to fractures.
('
Example 19.1
Boonstra and Boehmer (1986) and Boehmer and Boonstra (1987) describe a pumping
test that was conducted in a IO-m-wide fractured dolorite dike at Brandwag Tweeling,
Republic of South Africa. The country rock consists of alternating layers of non-productive Iow-permeable sandstones, silt stones, and mudstones of the Beaufort series,
which belong to the Karroo system.
The well in the dike was pumped for 2500 minutes at a constant rate of 13.9 lis
or 1200 m3/d. Drawdowns were measured in this well and in two observation wells,
one in the dike at a distance of 100 m from the pumped well and the other in the
aquifer abreast of the pumped well and 20 m away from it. Table 19.1 gives the drawdown data of the three wells.
283
x=O
(m)
x = 100
(m)
Time
(min)
x=O
(m)
x = 100
(m)
Time
(min)
x=O
(m)
x = 100
(m)
1
2
3
4
6
8
10
13
15
18
21
25
30
35
3.363
4.118
4.660
5.025
5.582
6.081
6.470
6.796
7.020
7.246
7.500
7.746
8.102
8.324
1.378
2.068
2.507
2.818
3.360
3.846
4.224
4.547
4.765
5.016
5.257
5.519
5.700
6.044
40
50
60
75
100
125
150
175
200
250
300
350
400
500
8.445
8.864
9.192
9.724
10.366
11.120
11.766
12.300
12.874
13.911
14.643
15.142
16.080
17.252
6.232
6.606
6.907
7.349
8.031
8.885
9.063
9.553
10.045
11.027
11.672
12.154
12.207
14.324
600
750
900
1050
1200
1350
1500
1700
1900
2100
2300
2500
18.108
18.948
19.795
20.253
20.667
21.033
21.076
21.389
21.486
15.031
15.907
15.704
17.813
17.565
17.916
17.945
18.285
18.409
18.483
18.858
19.109
Time
(min)
y=O
(m)
y = 20
(m)
Time
(min)
y=O
(m)
y = 20
(m)
Time
(min)
y=O
(m)
y = 20
(m)
1
2
3
4
6
8
10
13
15
18
21
25
3.363
4.118
4.660
5.025
5.582
6.081
6.470
6.796
7.020
7.246
7.500
7.746
0.572
1.249
1.741
2.540
2.800
3.422
3.905
4.286
4.530
4.800
5.055
5.375
30
35
40
50
60
75
100
125
150
175
200
250
8.102
8.324
8.445
8.864
9.192
9.724
10.366
11.120
11.766
12.300
12.874
13.911
5.630
3.006
6.110
6.500
6.815
7.320
7.858
8.489
9.039
9.457
9.901
10.723
300
350
400
500
600
750
900
1050
1200
1350
1500
1700
14.643
15.142
16.080
17.252
18.108
18.948
19.795
20.253
20.667
21.033
21.076
21.389
11.323
11.766
12.622
14.847
14.917
15.421
16.337
16.691
17.125
17.560
17.584
284
s(100, t) in m
102
FIX.T)
10'
10'
100
103
104
t in minutes
10-'
10-3
10-2
10'
102
103
104
Figure 19.6 The time-drawdown data of the observation well in the dike (x = 100 m), matched with one
of the curves of the family of type curves developed from Equation 19.2
S(y,t)
s;101
F(ua
10 I
10-1
4
es
10-2
10-3
101
10
101
102
103
104
l/u~
Figure 19,7 The time-drawdown ratio data of the observation well in the aquifer (y
20 m), matched
Sw in metres
102
DIKE
ool.o~-~
0-
00_0
\0=0-0-0-0-0
101
0
. o_o_o_o_o_o~'
0_0-'
10
101
70.7
102
103
104
t in minutes
Figure 19,8 Time-drawdown relation of the pumped well, showing the characteristic straight-line slope
of 0,25 for medium pumping times
286
287