AH HOC

Sensor
Networks
land

Theory and Applications ^Edition)

Carlos de Morais Cordeiro

Intel

Corporation, USA

Dharma Prakash

Agrawal

University of Cincinnati

USA

\M World Scientific
NEW JERSEY

LONDON

SINGAPORE

BEIJING

SHANGHAI

HONG KONG

TAIPEI

CHENNAI

Contents

vii

Preface to the Second Edition

Preface to the First Edition

ix

xiii

Acknowledgements for the Second Edition

Acknowledgements for the First Edition

xv

1. Introduction
1.1 Introduction

1.2 The Communication Puzzle

1.3
1.4

Applications of MANETs
Challenges
1.4.1 Scalability
1.4.2

Quality

8
8
9

of Service

1.4.3 Client-Server Model Shift

10

1.4.4

Security
Interoperation with the Internet
1.4.6 Energy Conservation
1.4.7 Node (MH) Cooperation
1.4.8 Interoperation
Book Organization

10

1.4.5

1.5

11
11

12
12
16

1.6 Conclusions and Future Directions

Homework

Questions/Simulation Projects

2.

Routing

18

in Ad hoc Networks

18

2.1 Introduction

2.2

16
16

References

versus Position-Based

Topology-Based
Topology-Based Routing Protocols
2.3.1 Proactive Routing Approach
2.3.2 Reactive Routing Approach
2.3.3 Hybrid Routing Approach
2.3.4 Comparison
2.4 Position-Based Routing
2.3

xvii

Approaches

19
20

20
26
34
40
40

cviii

AD HOC & SENSOR NETWORKS

2.4.1

Principles and

Issues

40

2.4.2 Location Services

2.4.3
2.4.4
2.5 Other
2.5.1

41

Forwarding Strategies
Comparisons
Routing

47
57

Protocols

62

Signal Stability Routing

62

2.5.2 Power Aware

63

2.5.3

63

2.5.4

Routing
Associativity-Based Routing
QoS Routing

2.6 Conclusions and Future Directions

3.

64
69

Homework Questions/Simulation Results

70

References

71

Broadcasting, Multicasting

and

Geocasting

74

3.1 Introduction

74

3.2 The Broadcast Storm

76

3.2.1

3.3

3.4

Broadcasting in a MANET
3.2.2 Flooding-Generated Broadcast Storm
3.2.3 Rebroadcasting Schemes
Multicasting
3.3.1 Issues in Providing Multicast in a MANET
3.3.2 Multicast Routing Protocols
3.3.3 Comparison
Geocasting
3.4.1 Geocast Routing Protocols
3.4.2 Comparison

3.5 Conclusions and Future Directions

Homework Questions/Simulation

Projects

References

77

78
80
90
91
91
115
116
117
125
125
127
127

4. Wireless LANs

130

4.1 Introduction

130

4.2

Why Wireless LANs

4.3 Transmission

Techniques

131
132

4.3.1 Wired Networks

132

4.3.2 Wireless Networks

133

4.4 Medium Access Control Protocol Issues

138

4.4.1 Hidden Terminal Problem

138

4.4.2 Reliability

140

4.4.3 Collision Avoidance

141

Congestion Avoidance
4.4.5 Congestion Control

141

4.4.4

142

Contents

xix

Energy Efficiency

142

4.4.7 Other MAC Issues

143

4.4.6

4.5 The IEEE 802.11 Standard for Wireless LANs

143

4.5.1 Network Architecture

146

4.5.2 The Physical Layer

147

4.5.3 The MAC Layer

159

4.5.4

169

Security

4.5.5 The IEEE 802.1 le MAC Protocol

4.5.6 A Glimpse on

Past and Present IEEE 802.11 Efforts

4.6 Enhancements to IEEE 802.11 MAC

174
178
178

4.6.1 Power Control

180

4.6.2

184

Spatial Reusability
4.6.3 QoS Provisioning

189
191

4.7 Conclusions and Future Directions

Homework

Questions/Simulation Projects

192
193

References
5. Wireless PANs

196

5.1 Introduction

196

5.2

Why Wireless

5.3 The Bluetooth

PANs

197

Technology

198

5.3.1 Hi story and

199

Applications

200

5.3.2 Technical Overview

5.3.3 The Bluetooth
5.3.4 Piconet

206

Specifications

Synchronization

and Bluetooth Clocks

5.3.5 Master-Slave Switch

210

5.3.6 Bluetooth

211

5.4 Enhancements

Security

to

217

Bluetooth

5.4.1 Bluetooth Interference Issues

217

5.4.2 Intra and Inter Piconet

223

5.4.3

Scheduling

234

Bridge Selection

5.4.4 Traffic

236

5.4.5

239

Engineering...
QoS and Dynamic Slot Assignment

5.4.6 Scatternet Formation

5.5 The IEEE 802.15

5.6

209

Working Group

for WPANs

241
243

5.5.1 The IEEE 802.15.3

244

5.5.2 The IEEE 802.15.4

246

Comparison between WPAN Systems

5.6.1 Range

251
252

5.6.2 Data Rate

252

Support for Voice

5.6.4 Power Management

252

5.6.3

253

AD HOC & SENSOR NETWORKS

XX

5.6.5

Comparison

and Summary of Results

5.7 Conclusion and Future Directions

Homework

Questions/Simulation Projects

References

253
254
255
255

6. Wireless Mesh Networks

259

6.1 Introduction

259

6.2 Network Architecture

261

6.3 Challenging Technologies

264

6.3.1 MR

264

6.3.2 IGW

265

6.3.3

266

Deployment
Deployment
Channel Assignment

6.4 Other Issues

269

Homework Questions/Simulation Projects

269

References

269

7. Directional Antenna

Systems

270

7.1 Introduction

270

7.2 Antenna

272

Concepts

7.2.1 Gain

273

7.2.2 Radiation Pattern

274

7.2.3 Beam Width

275

7.3 Evolution of Directional Antenna Systems

7.3.1 Sectorized Antenna

Systems
7.3.2 Diversity Antenna Systems
7.3.3 Smart Antenna Systems
7.4 Advantages of Using Directional Antennas
7.5 Directional Antennas for Ad Hoc Networks
7.5.1 Antenna Models
7.6 Protocol Issues

on

the Use of Directional Antennas

275
275
276
279
280
281
284

7.6.1 Directional Neighborhood

284

7.6.2 New Types of Hidden Terminal Problems

286

7.6.3 Deafness

289

7.7 Broadcasting
7.7.1

Broadcasting Protocols

7.8 Medium Access Control

7.8.1

7.9

275

Single

Channel

291
292

297
298

7.8.2 Multi-Channel

308

7.8.3 Other Protocols

310

Routing

312

7.9.1 Protocols

312

7.10 Conclusions and Future Directions

315

xxi

Contents

316

Questions/Simulation Projects

Homework

316

References

8.

Cognitive

318

Radio and Networks

318

8.1 Introduction
8.2
8.3
8.4

319

Cognitive Radio and Networks

Spectrum Access Models
Cognitive Radio Technologies and Challenges

320
323

8.5 The IEEE 802.22 Standard

325

8.5.1 TV Band and PUs

325

8.5.2

Applications

326

of IEEE 802.22

8.5.3 Reference Architecture

326

8.5.4 The IEEE 802.22

327

Physical (PHY) Layer

8.5.5 The IEEE 802.22 Medium Access Control

8.5.6
8.5.7

(MAC) Layer...

Spectrum Management Model

Spectrum Sensing

333
342
346
356

8.6 Other Activities

8.6.1 IEEE 802.22.1 and IEEE 802.22.2

356

8.6.2 IEEE SCC 41

356

8.6.3 IEEE 802.llaf

357
357

8.7 Conclusions and Future Directions

Homework

Questions/Simulation Projects

358
358

References

360

9. TCP over Ad Hoc Networks

9.1 Introduction

360

9.2 TCP Protocol Overview

361

9.2.1 Designed and Fine-Tuned

Wired Networks

to

362

9.2.2 TCP Basics

362

9.2.3 TCP Header Format

364

9.2.4

Congestion

9.2.5

Round-Trip

367

Control
Time Estimation

370

9.3 TCP and MANETs

9.3.1 Effects of Partitions
9.3.2

9.4.1

on

TCP

Impact of Lower Layers

9.4 Solutions for TCP

over

on

TCP

Ad Hoc

Mobility-Related

9.4.2 Fairness-Related
9.5 Conclusions and Future Directions
Homework
References

369

Questions/Simulation Projects

372
375
388
389
395
401
403
404

xxii

10.

AD HOC & SENSOR NETWORKS

Applications of Sensor Networks

406

10.1 Introduction

406

10.2

408

Applications of WSNs

10.3 DARPA Efforts towards Wireless Sensor Networks

410

10.4

411

Body Area Network

10.5 Habitat

Monitoring

412

10.6 The Grand Duck Island Monitoring Network

10.6.1 Architecture

413
413

10.6.2 A Remote Ecological Micro-Sensor Network

10.6.3 Environmental Monitoring

414

10.6.4 Environmental Observation and Forecasting System

10.6.5 Drinking Water Quality

416

10.6.6 Disaster Relief

417

Management

10.6.7 Soil Moisture Monitoring

415

417

418

10.7 Health Care Monitoring

418

10.8

Building, Bridge,
Monitoring
Energy and Home/Office and Industrial Assembly
Lines Applications
10.10 Greenhouse Monitoring
10.11 Unusual Applications of WSNs

419

10.12 Conclusions and Future Directions

423

and Structural

10.9 Smart

Homework

Questions/Simulation Projects

421
422

424

References

11. Sensor Networks

420

424

Design Considerations

427

11.1 Introduction

427

11.2

429

11.3
11.4

Empirical Energy Consumption

Sensing and Communication Range
Design Issues
11.4.1

434

Challenges

436

11.5 Localization Scheme

11.6

431

Clustering

440

of SNs

442

11.6.1 Architecture of WSNs

444

11.6.2 Network Lifetime

445

11.6.3

447

Physical Layer

11.7 MAC Layer

11.7.1

Design

447
Issues

449

11.7.2 MAC Protocols

450

11.7.3The Sensor-MAC
11.8 The

Self-Organizing MAC
And-Register Protocol
11.8.1 SMACS

450
for WSNs and the

Eaves-drop-

452
453

Contents

xxiii

11.8.2 EAR

452

11.8.3 The STEM

458

11.8.4 Link Layer

459

11.9 Routing Layer

11.9.1 Directed Diffusion
11.9.2
11.9.3
11.9.4
11.9.5
11.9.6
11.9.7
11.9.8

459
461

Sequential Assignment Routing (SAR)

Minimum Cost Forwarding
Algorithm
Coherent and Non-Coherent
Processing
Energy Aware Routing
Hierarchical Routing
Cluster Based Routing Protocol
(CBRP)
Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH)..

11.9.9 Threshold-sensitive
11.9.10

Adaptive

Periodic

Energy Efficient (TEEN)

TEEN (APTEEN)

11.9.11 SPIN-based
11.9.12

11.10 Flat
11.11

464
464
465

465
466
468
470

Adaptive Routing
Power-Efficient Gathering in Sensor Information

472

Systems (PEGASIS)

474

11.9.13 Small Minimum

11.9.14

462
463

Energy Communication Network

(MECN)

475

Routing in Fixed-size Clusters

476

versus

Hierarchical

47 8

Operation-Based Protocols

479

11.12 Location-B ased Routing

11.13 High-Level Application Layer Support
11.13.1 Distributed

4 84

484

Query Processing
11.13.2 In-Network Processing

484

11.13.3 Data

489

Aggregation

486

11.13.4 Mobile SNs and BSs

491

11.14 Conclusions and Future Directions

492

Homework Questions/Simulation Proj ects

492

References

494

12. Sensor Networks in Controlled Environment and Actuators

502

12.1 Introduction

502

12.2 Regularly Placed Sensors

504

12.3

508

Design

Issues

12.4 Network Issues

510

12.5 RF ID

511

as a

Passive Sensor

12.6 Conclusions and Future Directions

511

Homework Questions/Simulation Projects

512

References

514

AD HOC & SENSOR NETWORKS

xxiv

13.

Security

in Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks

13.2 Distributed

13.3

13.4

516

Systems Security

Security
13.3.1 Security Requirements
13.3.2 Security Solutions Constraints
13.3.3 Challenges

517

13.3.4 Authentication

522

Key Management

523

Conceptual Background
13.4.2 Diffie-Hellman Key Agreement
13.4.3 N-Party Diffie-Hellman Key Agreement

523

13.4.4 The Ingemarsson Protocol

13.4.5 The Burmester and Desmedt Protocol

529

in Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks

13.4.1

13.4.6 The

Hypercube

518
519

520

525
526

531
532

Protocol

Octopus Protocol
13.4.8 The CLIQUES Protocol Suite

534

13.4.9 The Tree-based Generalized Diffie-Hellman Protocol....

542

13.4.7 The

13.5 Secure

537

543

Routing
Ad Hoc Routing Protocols

13.5.1 Problems with

Existing
Misbehaving Nodes
Leaking on Network Topology

544

13.5.2 Detect and Isolate

548

13.5.3 Information

548

13.5.4

Network

Concealing
Routing

13.5.5 Secure

Topology

Cooperation

549
559

Protocol

566

13.5.6 The Wormhole Attack

13.6

515

515

13.1 Introduction

567

in MANETs

13.6.1 CONFIDANT

568

13.6.2 Token-Based

569

13.7 Wireless Sensor Networks

570

13.7.1 WSN Security

571

13.7.2 Key Distribution and Management

572

13.8 Intrusion Detection Systems

577

13.8.1 Overview

577

13.8.2 Unsuitability of Current IDS Techniques

578

13.8.3 An IDS Architecture for Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks..

578

13.8.4

582

Anomaly

Detection

13.9 Conclusions and Future Directions

Homework Questions/Simulation

References

Projects

583

584
584

Contents

14.

Integrating MANETs, WLANs,

and Cellular Networks

14.1 Introduction
14.2

Ingredients

of

587
-

Heterogeneous

Architecture

587
589

14.2.1 Mobile User Stations

590

14.2.2 Base Station and Access Point

591

14.2.3 Core IP Network

591

(CN)

14.2.4 Possible Communication Scenarios

592

14.2.5

593

Design

Factors

14.3 Protocol Stack

14.3.1 The

14.4

xxv

Physical Layer
14.3.2 The Data Link Layer
14.3.3 The Network Layer
14.3.4 Transport Layer
14.3.5 Application Layer
14.3.6 Mobility and Connection Management
Comparison of the Integrated Architectures

14.5 Conclusions and Future Directions

594
595

596
598

607
609
609
613
616

Homework Questions/Simulation Projects

617

References

618

Index

621

About the Authors

635