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Mechanical properties
St
Strength
th properties
ti
Lecture 3
Statistical strength
from the single samples properties the
property of the whole population can be
estimated by the
statistical methods
Statistika
Statistics - glossary
random experiment - an
Normal distribution
Statistical evaluation of
strenght
only
part of the p
population
is tested
yp
p
random sample
from
the results off random sample can
f
parameter
be estimated a corresponding
p
gp
of the population
typical
i l population
l i h
has normall
distribution ((Gaussian function))
Gaussian curve
Frequ
uency
y
mean
Measured value
Histogram
from testing
g of random sample
p the
distribution curve could not be made
the more numerous the random sample is,
the closer to the curve the histogram is
Statistical parameters
Values:
Mean
Deviations
Sum of deviations
Deviations square
Sum of squares
4 8
4,
8, 6
2 5
2,
5,11
11
x=6
x=6
-2,+2, 0
0
4, 4, 0
8
-4,-1,+5
0
16, 1, 25
42
Variance
2,67
14
Standard
deviation
1 63
1,63
3 74
3,74
mode
median
mean
Statistical parameters
mean
variance
standard
deviation
Standard deviation s
Normal distribution
measure of variability or
y of a data set
diversity
symetrical
+s to -s : 68,26 % of area
+2s
2 tto 2s
2 : 95,6
95 6 % off area
+3s to 3s : 99,7 % of area
Guaranteed strength
95 %
Guaranteed strength
the value of the strength, for which can be
statistically guaranteed, that 95 % of whole
production will have the same or higher
value of the strength
95 %
5%
-1,645 s
+1,645 s
guaranteed strength
Strength testing
according
g the loading
g
compressive
tensile
t
il
bending
torsion
shear
Compressive strength
maximum
a
u resistance
es s a ce o
of a material
ae a
to axial compressive loading
Fmax
F
R c max
A
Fmax ....
A ......
[MPa]
maximum
i
fforce [N]
compressed area
(cross-sectional) [mm]
Fmax
Compressive
p
strenght
g
Concrete C 25/30
cylinder strength < cube strength
h iinfluence
fl
i i b
i l
the
off ffriction
between material
surface and testing machine decreases
with
the h
height
the sample
ith th
i ht off th
l
irregular
shape
g
p
auxiliary plates
compressed area A
given by the area of
plates
Tensile strength
Fmax
Fmax
Rt
A
0
200
400
600
800
[MPa]
Fmax
Flexural strength
tensile strength of materials with
g
compressive
p
strength
g
distinctivelyy higher
than tensile strength
fracture in the place of the maximum
bending moment
Flexural strength
Mmax
Ry
W
Fmax
Fmax
Fmax
Flexural strength
Calculation of M and W
Bending moment M
according type of loading
(three point test, four point test)
S
Section modulus W
according the shape and
size
i off cross section
i
Rt
stones
s o es
fragile materials
2Fmax
.D.l
F
D
Brazilian test
Deformation properties
Deformation properties
describe
d
ib the
h b
behavior
h i off the
h materials
i l
before the fracture
Deformation
irreversible
plastic deformation
reversible
elastic deformation
Stress-strain diagram
graphical representation of the
relationship between stress,
stress derived
from measuring the load applied on the
sample, and strain, derived from
measuring
g the deformation of the
sample (elongation, compression, or
distortion)
[-]
[]
deformations
yield strength
ultimate strength
toughness
Young modulus
l [mm]
Stress-strain diagram
Stress-strain diagram
Stress
[MPa]
Load F
[kN]
[ ]
ll
A Fdl
0
Deformation l [mm]
Strain [-,%]
Stress-strain curves
Stress-strain diagram
g
stress
1 mild steel
R0,2
2 cold-formed steel
3
2
1
5 - failure
4 - ultimate strength
3 - yield strength
2 - elastic limit
1 - proportionality limit
strain
0,2 %
Deformation
stress
total
t t l
M d l off elasticity
Modulus
l ti it
total total
deformation
el - elastic
deformation
l ti
pl - plastic
deformation
pl
el
strain
(deformation)
Elastic
ast c be
behavior
a o o
of materials
ate a s desc
describes
bes
Hooke's Law :
E.
... strain [unitless]
... stress [MPa]
E ... modulus of elasticity [MPa]
(Youngs modulus)
Elastic modulus
E
el
the mathematical description of a
material's tendency to be deformed
elastically when a force is applied to it
Hooke's law is valid only for elastic
range of material
Elastic modulus
Graphical determination of
Y
Young's
' Modulus
M d l
E
el
E
el
loading
E tg
g
unloading
el
total
Young's modulus
determination
statical
Young's modulus
determination
Stress :
bending
M W
. stress
t
[MPa]
[MP ]
.. strain [-]
[]
compression
tension
F A
E
el
Young's modulus
determination
strain
l l1 l0
l0
l0
Measuring of elongation l
deformations l have to be measured
by special devices - strain gauge
Strain gauge:
mechanical
electrical
optical
l
l0
Dial
Movable
point
(O
Original)) gauge length)
Firm
point
Tested
material
Measuring of deformations
l 1 R
l K R
Dynamic Young's
Young s modulus
ultrasonic
lt
i waves
2
E dyn
c
. v
d
Measuring of dynamic
Young's modulus
200
150
100
70
50
25
moisture
in
i t
i porous materials
t i l
Material
Diamond
Steel
Glass
Aluminium and light alloys
Brass nad bronze
Concrete
Ceramic brick
Wood
Glass laminate
Th
Thermosets
t
Thermoplastics solid
Th
Thermoplastics
l ti ffoamedd
Rubber
25
15
10
1.5
0.03
Young's modulus
[GPa]
1050-1200
210
50 -85
65 -73
103-124
15 - 60
8 - 12
7 -18
18
10 - 30
4 - 13
0,1 - 4
0 02 0,3
0,02
03
0,002 0,005
Ductility
percentage elongation after tensile test
A( )
L u L 0 L
L0
L0
Reduction of area
change of cross sectional area as a
percentage of the original cross-sectional area
S Su
Z( ) 0
S0
S0..... original
i i l cross-sectional
ti
l
area before testing
Su..... minimal cross-sectional
cross sectional
Toughness
the amount of energy per volume that a
material can absorb before rupturing
units: kJ/m3
Test of toughness
impact
i
t toughness
t
h
Charpy, Izod test
notch toughness
(ability to absorb energy in
the presence of a flaw)
Brittleness
ttendency
d
off a material
t i l to
t fracture
f t
or fail
f il
upon the application of a relatively small
amountt off force,
f
impact,
i
t or shock
h k
opposite
pp
of toughness
g
no numerical value
Hardness
defines the materials resistance to
p
penetration
depends on temperature and moisture
Methods:
et ods
scratch hardness
indentation hardness
rebound hardness
Scratch h.
h Mohs scale
1. talc
2. gypsum
3 calcite
3.
4. fluorite
5 apatite
5.
6. feldspar (orthoclase)
7 quartz
7.
t
8. topaz
9. corundum
10. diamond
Indentation h
h. Vickers test
indenter: diamond point with a
136 point angle
abbreviation VHN
metals, hard materials
Indentation h
h. Brinell test
iindenter:
d t steel
t l (t
(tungsten)
t )
ball (10 mm )
abbreviation: HBW,
HBW (HBS)
metals, wood , hard
polymers
HB 0,102
Indentation h
h. Rockwell test
diamond cone
abb.: HR(A,B,C..G)
d th off indentation
depth
i d t ti
metals
Shore durometer
spring+ steel rod
abb.: SH
polymers, elastomers, rubber
2F
.D (D D2 d2 )
Indentation h.POLDI
POLDI hammer
Rebound h
h. Schmidt
hammer
calibrated bar
tested material
F ti
Fatigue
ffatigue
ti
occurs when
h a material
t i l iis subjected
bj t d tto
repeated loading and unloading
cyclic stress causes the decrease of the
strength
typical for metals
Fatigue limit (strength) = the amplitude (or
range) of cyclic stress that can be applied to
the material without causing fatigue failure
Fatigue
if the loads are above a certain threshold,
microscopic cracks will begin to form
after reaching critical size, and the structure will
suddenly (without warning) fracture
the shape of the structure affect the fatigue life
(square holes, sharp corners)
the greater the applied stress range, the shorter the
life
Endurance limit
some materials (ferrous and titanium alloys)
h
have
a di
distinct
ti t lilimit
it b
below
l
which
hi h th
there
appears to be no number of cycles that will
cause failure
f il
some structural metals (aluminium, copper)
do not have a distinct limit and will eventually
fail even from small stress amplitudes
Fatigue cracks
Whler curves
Fatigue testing
Infamous fatigue
g failures
B
Boston
t M
Molasses
l
Disaster
(Boston, 1919)
Alexander L
L. Kielland
oil platform capsize
(N
1980)
(Norway,
InterCity expres
(Germany,
E h d 1998)
Eschede,1998)
Dynamic strength
Tacoma narrows bridge
1940)
1950
(USA Washington
(USA,Washington,