Superconductivity

Perfect diamagnetism: Complete repellence of external magnetic field.

Application: levitation by applied external magnetic field.

State of zero resistivity at low temperature, low current, low magnetic field.

History of Superconductor
1911: Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes. Resistivity of mercury at 4K
disappears. In 1913 he won Noble prize for his research in this area

1933. Walter Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld discovered that a

superconducting material will repel a magnetic field.
- A magnet moving by a conductor induces currents in the conductor. This is
the principle upon which the electric generator operates. But, in a
superconductor the induced currents exactly mirror the field that would have
otherwise penetrated the superconducting material - causing the magnet to be
repulsed. This phenomenon is known as diamagnetism and is today often
referred to as the "Meissner effect".

History of Superconductor (continued)

1941: niobium-nitride was found to superconduct at 16 K.
1953: vanadium-silicon displayed superconductive properties at 17.5 K.
1957: The first widely-accepted theoretical understanding of superconductivity
was advanced in by American physicists John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and
John Schrieffer (below). Their Theories of Superconductivity became know as
the BCS theory - derived from the first letter of each man's last name - and
won them a Nobel prize in 1972.

- See levitation of magnet over a superconductor

Reference: http://superconductors.org/

Reference: http://superconductors.org/

History of Superconductor (continued)

1962: scientists at Westinghouse developed the first commercial
superconducting wire, an alloy of niobium and titanium.
1986: A truly breakthrough discovery: Alex Mller and Georg Bednorz
(below), researchers at the IBM Research Laboratory in Switzerland,
created a brittle ceramic compound (Lanthanum, Barium, Copper and
Oxygen compound) that superconducted at the highest temperature then
known: 30 K.

1993: Prof. Dr. Ulker Onbasli at the University of Colorado discover the
current system of ceramic superconductors with the highest transition
temperatures are the mercuric-cuprates.
A. Schilling, M. Cantoni, J. D. Guo, and H. R. Ott of Zurich, Switzerland
hold the world record Tc of 138 K. It is a thallium-doped, mercuric-cuprate
comprised of the elements Mercury, Thallium, Barium, Calcium, Copper
and Oxygen.
Reference: http://superconductors.org/

Type of Superconductor

Type of Superconductor

Type 1: Metals at extremely cold temperature

Type 2: metallic compounds and alloys

They require incredible cold to slow down atomic vibrations

sufficiently to facilitate unimpeded electron flow.
Has a distinct critical temperature
Completely repel magnetic field

Metal

Critical
temperature

Lead (Pb)

7.196 K

Lanthanum (La)

4.88 K

Tantalum (Ta)

4.47 K

Mercury (Hg)
Tin (Sn)

Critical temperature is broad

Allow some penetration of
magnetic field

Metal

Critical
temperature

Hg0.8Tl0.2Ba2Ca2Cu3O8.33

138 K

HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8

133-135 K

4.15 K

Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3O10

127-128 K

3.72 K

Tl1.6Hg0.4Ba2Ca2Cu3O10+

Protactinium (Pa)

1.40 K

YBa2Cu3O7+

93 K

Thorium (Th)

1.38 K

Y2Ba4Cu7O15

93 K

Aluminum (Al)

1.175 K

Gallium (Ga)

1.083 K

Molybdenum (Mo)

0.915 K

Zinc (Zn)

0.85 K

126 K

Magnet

Superconductor above Tc

Why repulsion? Magnetic field is partly

excluded from the superconductor. Hence,
the same repulsion as between a magnet
and a diamagnetic.

Magnet
N
S

Surface currents

Superconductor below Tc

Figure 8.45: Left: A magnet over a superconductor becomes levitated.

The superconductor is a perfect diamagnet which means that there can
be no magnetic field inside the superconductor.
Right: Photograph of a magnet levitating above a superconductor
immersed in liquid nitrogen (77 K). This is the Meissner effect.
(SOURCE: Photo courtesy of Professor Paul C.W. Chu.)

Fig: Schematic visualization

of magnetic field lines

Why attraction? The magnetic flux lines

that managed to penetrate the
superconductor get pinned (trapped) there
by microscopic inhomogeneities. When
the magnet is lifted up, the superconductor
holds its magnetic lines and follows the
magnet. How to help magnetic lines
penetrate the superconductor? Place the
superconductor close to the magnet
already at high temperature (movie 2) or
push the magnet hard towards the
supercondictors (movie 3).

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

Reference: http://www.fys.uio.no/super/levitation/

Movie1: Levitation in action

Movie2: Lifting superconductor without touching it

A superconductor is immersed in liquid nitrogen to provide cooling below the critical

temperature. A magnet is placed in the air above the superconductor and left there
levitating. Nothing but magnetic interaction keeps the magnet from falling down.

At room temperature magnetic field lines from the magnet penetrate the
superconductor without restraint. After cooling by liquid nitrogen they get
trapped by microscopic inhomogeneities in the superconductor. The trapped
magnetic lines then serve as invisible threads holding the two objects together
at a certain distance.

Reference: http://www.fys.uio.no/super/levitation/

Reference: http://www.fys.uio.no/super/levitation/

Movie3: Smooth landing during warming up

When the superconductor is taken out of the liquid nitrogen, its temperature
slowly starts increasing. As a result, the superconducting properties weaken, and
the levitation force gradually gives way to the gravity.

Uses of superconductors
High-power motor

A small size with gigantic 5000 horse power motor

using superconductor wire in the coil.
Reference: http://www.fys.uio.no/super/levitation/

Uses of superconductors
Magnetic levitation (Maglev):

Uses of superconductors
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
By impinging a strong superconductor-derived magnetic field
into the body, hydrogen atoms that exist in the body's water and fat
molecules are forced to accept energy from the magnetic field. They
then release this energy at a frequency that can be detected and
displayed graphically by a computer.

The Yamanashi MLX01 MagLev train opened in 1990. The newest

version attain the world record speed of 531 km/h (approximately the
same speed as of a commercial airplane)
However, bio-hazard possibility of very high magnetic field and high cost
discourage commercialization.
Reference: http://www.rtri.or.jp/rd/maglev/

Fig: MRI of a human skull

Reference: http://superconductors.org/