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WHAT IS LIFE?

What is life?
condition that distinguishes organisms from
inorganic objects
life forms are able to act on their own behalf to
support their own existence, and to reproduce
themselves
Every living thing is cellular
either a single-celled or a multi-cellular creature
membrane bound
contains a full set of instructions necessary for its
operation, reproduction

Viruses
Not cellular, and are therefore described as "biological
entities" rather than organisms.

Grow as intracellular parasites after invading cells.


Viruses are reproduced and can evolve; however, they contain
no metabolic machinery of their own, so they use that of the
host cell to reproduce.
Without a host cell, viruses are merely inert, complicated
particles which do nothing.

The action of viruses

The T-4
Bacteriophage
virus is about to
attack the
bacterium.

The virus
injects its
genetic
material into
the
bacterium.

The bacterium explodes after it


is forced to make copies of the
virus

The action of viruses

Here's what an actual population of E. coli bacteria looks like as it is wiped out by T4
bacteriophage

Examples of viruses
Smallpox (Edward
Jenner in
1796)

Poliomyelitis
- (Jonas
Salk, 1955)

Hepatitis

Ebola Virus

Hanta Virus

Measles

Rabies

Chicken pox

Common
Cold

Influenza

HIV

Mumps

The chemicals of life


All living matter is
composed of
H2O
inorganic ions
small molecules
macromolecules

Figure 2-29 Molecular Biology of the Cell ( Garland Science 2008)

H20 and life


Cells ~70% water
involved in almost all
chemical rxns

Life has evolved around


special water properties
highly polar, therefore will
dissolve other polar
compounds

Biomolecules structures
arise from interaction with
water
Forms covalent and
noncovalent interactions

Biological molecules
Life on earth is carbon based: biological
molecules consist primarily of
carbon bonded to carbon
carbon bonded to other molecules

Carbon can form up to 4 covalent bonds.


Carbon may be bonded to functional groups
with specific properties

Biological macromolecules
Simplest organic molecules = Hydrocarbons;
consist of carbon, hydrogen
Covalent bonds store considerable energy.
Make good fuels

Biomolecules
Biomolecules are typically large molecules (polymers)
constructed from smaller subunits (monomers)
Biomolecules built up, broken down via water
interactions

Biomolecules
Biochemistry requires understanding the
structure, function of cellular components of
biomolecules
Proteins
Carbohydrates
Lipids
nucleic acids

Figure 2-30 Molecular Biology of the Cell ( Garland Science 2008)

Functional groups
Specific groups of atoms attached to carbon
backbones
Have definite chemical properties
Found in the various biomolecules
Proteins amines, carboxylic acid
Nucleic acids phosphoric esters, hydroxyl groups
Lipids alkanes, carboxylic acid
Carbohydrates alcohols, aldehydes, ketones

Rxns of biomolecules = rxns of their functional


groups
determine how molecule will interact with other
molecules

Proteins
contain an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH) and an H atom, all bonded to a central carbon
atom
Formed from 20 different monomers (amino acids)
most abundant, functionally versatile biomolecule

Proteins derived from amino acids


A protein is composed of one or more long chains
of amino acids linked by peptide bonds

Enzyme activity

Enzymes = biological catalysts


Figure 2-47 Molecular Biology of the Cell ( Garland Science 2008)

Enzymes

Nucleic Acids
Responsible for
storage, transfer of
genetic information
2 types:
1. Deoxyribonucleic
Acid (DNA)
Encodes information
used to assemble
proteins

2. Ribonucleic Acid
(RNA)
Reads DNA-encoded
information to direct
protein synthesis

The molecular design of life

Carbohydrates

Also known as sugars


Molecules with a 1:2:1
ratio of C, H, O
empirical formula:
(CH2O)n
examples: sugars,
starch, glucose
Since C H covalent
bonds hold much
energy, carbohydrates
are good energy storage
molecules

The structure of glucose,


a simple sugar

Functions of carbohydrates
energy stores, fuels, and metabolic intermediates
structural framework of RNA and DNA

structural elements in the cell walls of bacteria


and plants
linked to many proteins and lipids
participate in biological transport, cell-cell
recognition

Classification of carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
e.g., glucose, fructose

Oligosaccharides
Di, tri, tetra, penta, up to 9 or 10 monosacchs
e.g., lactose, sucrose

Polysaccharides or glycans
Homopolysaccharides-starch, glycogen, cellulose
Heteropolysaccharides
Complex carbohydrates

Starch = nutritional
reservoir in plants; makes
up >50% of carbohydrates
ingested by humans
These chains are broken
down into individual
glucose molecules and
used to generate energy
Consumption of excess
carbohydrates leads to
conversion into glycogen
or fats for future use.

Effect of decreased
blood glucose

Structural carbohydrates
Cellulose found in plants

Chitin found in arthropods


and fungi

Lipids
biomolecules that are insoluble
in H2O but soluble in organic
solvents
Examples of lipids:
Fats (triglycerides)
Phospholipids
Steroids

Variety of biological roles:


Fuel molecules/Energy store
Membrane components
Signal molecules

Lipids
Triglycerides
store twice as much energy as carbohydrates
May be saturated or unsaturated
Saturated fats - all internal carbon atoms are bonded to at
least two hydrogen atoms; maximum # of H

Unsaturated fats - at least one double bond between


successive carbon atoms

Fatty acids/Triglycerides
animal fats are usually saturated fats
solid at room temperature

plant fats (oils) are usually unsaturated


liquid at room temperature

Phospholipids
Main component of biological membranes
Membranes usually exist as lipid bilayer
Polar head groups in contact with H2O
Nonpolar tail lies in interior

Phospholipids

The watery interior of cells is surrounded by the plasma


membrane, a two-layered shell of phospholipids

Steroid hormones
are derived from
cholesterol

Metabolism of dietary fuels


In humans, catabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins for energy = important aspect of nutrition
provide energy to maintain body functions during rest and
all forms of physical activity

most diets provide >> required amt of calories


Carbohydrates, fats consumed in excess of
nutritional requirements converted to storage
forms
Carbohydrates glycogen
Lipids triglycerides

How did life start?

Origin of life hypotheses


1. Special creation
supernatural

or divine

origin

2. Extraterrestrial origin
(panspermia)
e.g., comets

3. Spontaneous origin
life originated from

inanimate materials
Abiotic evolution

Conditions on early Earth


primitive atmosphere not conducive to life
Earths surface temperature probably hotter than today

Early atmosphere often referred to as a reducing


atmosphere
No free oxygen (O2)

Contained free hydrogen (H2) and saturated hydrides


(CH4, NH3 and H2O)
Energy for chemical reactions between these gases
could come from electric discharge in storms or solar
energy (no ozone layer)

Stages of prebiotic evolution

Geophysical Stage

Chemical Stage

Biological Stage

How did the earths crust and


atmosphere look like when
life originated?

How can the building blocks of


life (nucleotides, amino acids) be
synthesized?
These blocks may (partially) have
been different from modern
blocks.
How did the building blocks
organize into living organisms?

Reasonably
well
understood

Poorly
understood

Origin of life
Life began~ 3.5 bya
Stage 1: Abiotic synthesis of organic
molecules such as proteins, amino acids and
nucleotides

Glucose, ribose, deoxyribose and other sugars form from


formaldehyde (CH2O) when exposed to UV radiation
Adenine forms from hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and was
probably the first base to form

The Miller-Urey experiment


Conducted in 1953 by Stanley L. Miller and Harold C.
Urey at the University of Chicago
Performed to test Oparin and Haldane's hypothesis:
Conditions on the primitive Earth favored
chemical reactions that synthesized organic
compounds from inorganic precursors

simulated hypothetical conditions present on the


early Earth
tested for the occurrence of chemical evolution

The Miller-Urey experiment

Miller-Urey experiment: results


After 1 week, the following were observed:
1. As much as 10-15% of the carbon within the system
was now in the form of organic compounds.
2. 2% of the carbon had formed amino acids.
3. Sugars, lipids, and some of the building blocks for
nucleic acids were also formed.
4. Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) themselves were not
formed.

Miller-Urey experiment: conclusions


experiments cannot reproduce the exact
conditions on the primitive Earth
reconstructed atmosphere was probably wrong
experiment had never been repeated with a more
accurate mixture

Showed that the basic building blocks for the


large macromolecules can be synthesized in
vitro from inorganic compounds

Origin of life
Stage 2: joining of small molecules
(monomers) into large molecules

From monomers to polymers


Amino acids combined to form polypeptides
could have occurred when dry or highly
concentrated monomers are heated

Condensation reactions take place forming


phosphodiester bonds form between
nucleotides
Formation of polynucleotides

Origin of life
Stage 3: origin of self-replicating molecules
that eventually made inheritance possible

What was the first biomolecule?

Proteins

Nucleic acids

easier to
polymerize
proteins than
nucleotides

special conditions
in the soup enabled
replication without
proteins?

Both?

What is the first


biomolecule?
DNA needed to make
proteins
Proteins needed to
make DNA
RNA world theory
proposes that RNA =
1st biomolecule
Since RNA can be used
to store genetic info,
but may also contain
catalytic properties
Figure 6-110 Molecular Biology of the Cell ( Garland Science 2008)

What was the first biomolecule?


Metabolism-first proponents argue that
simple metal catalysts, as opposed to
advanced protein-based enzymes, may have
created a soup of organic building blocks that
could have given rise to the other
biomolecules

Authors created nucleic acid precursors starting with just


hydrogen cyanide (HCN), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and
ultraviolet (UV) light
HCN abundant in comets; H2S common in early earth
Conditions that produce nucleic acid precursors also create
the starting materials needed to make amino acids and lipids
Results suggest that a single set of reactions could have given
rise to most of lifes building blocks simultaneously

Membranes defined the first cell


The phospholipids
form lipid bilayers
when they are
surrounded by water
Formed 1st organism:
anaerobes
Fed off organic
molecules in the
oceans
Utilized CO2, released
O2

Cell-like microspheres can be


formed by agitating proteins
and lipids in a liquid medium

By 2 billion years ago free


oxygen was appearing in the
atmosphere due to the
activity of cyanobacteria
photosynthetic bacteria
able to produce free
oxygen

What were the earliest organisms like?


Photosynthesis increased the amount of
oxygen in the atmosphere
Led to development of aerobic organisms

The oldest eukaryotic fossils are ~2 billion


years old
symbiotic community of prokaryotes living within larger
prokaryotes (Endosymbiosis theory)
led to development of membrane enclosed organelles

Endosymbiont theory

Some organisms acquired membrane-enclosed organelles from


engulfed bacteria

The oldest fossils of multicellular organisms are ~1.2 billion years old

Clock analogy for


some key events
in evolutionary
history

How many species are there?


Estimates of the total number of living species range
from 10 to 100 million.
Actual number likely around 13 14 million
most are insects, microscopic life forms in tropical
regions
About 1.75 million have been given scientific names.
We may never know how many there are
Many will become extinct before being counted, described

Classifying living things


Until the 20th century, most biologists considered all
living things to be either a plant or an animal
By the 1970s, the 5 Kingdom system, which
accomodates fungi, protists, and bacteria became
accepted as the model by which all living things could
be classified
Current model = domain system, which classifies
organisms according to evolutionary history
includes a 3rd life form: the Archaea

The 5 kingdom classification scheme

Archaea: distinct fom prokaryotes


and eukaryotes
Archaea have an independent evolutionary history
from bacteria
thought to have split from Bacteria 2 bya

show many differences in their biochemistry from


other forms of life
may be the only organisms that can live in extreme
habitats
Methanogens (produce methane CH3)
extreme halophiles (salt-loving)
extreme thermophiles (heat-loving)

The 3 domain classification scheme

Did life arise on another planet?

Various space missions have aimed to answer the


question: Did life exist on Mars in the past or
present?
Could Mars be used to tell us more about the
evolution of both Earth and our solar system?

First photograph ever taken from the surface of Mars.


Viking 1 Lander July 20, 1976.

Primary objectives of the Viking missions


- obtain high-resolution images of the Martian surface,
- characterize the atmosphere and surface
- search for evidence of life on Mars
http://grin.hq.nasa.gov/ABSTRACTS/GPN-2003-00061.html

Mission to Mars
..\..\youtube downloads\NASA Mars Rover Landing_ Curiosity
Lands, Beams Back Pictures of Mars Surface.mp4

Mission to Mars
Curiosity was designed to assess whether Mars
ever had an environment able to support small
life forms, e.g., bacteria
In other words, to determine the planet's
"habitability

Carries a gas chromatograph, mass spectrometer


and laser spectrometer
instruments will look for telltale isotopes, gases and
elements, especially methane and other carbon
compounds

The landing site of the Mars rover Curiosity was once covered with
fast-moving and possibly waist-high water that could have possibly
supported life, NASA scientists announced Thursday.
Star Tribune Sept 28, 2012
..\1st sem 2014 - 2015\Curiosity Rover Report (6_24_2014)_
Curiosity Completes Its First Martian Year.mp4

Mars One mission: a one-way trip to the


red planet in 2024

The Mars One project aims to establish a human colony on the red
planet by 2025
~20,000 applied to be part of the team (including several Filipinos!)
However, has been recently reported as poorly planned, doomed
to failure and could endanger the future of science

..\1st sem 2014 2015\The Great


Debate - What is
Life_.mp4

NatSci 50 reporting topics


1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Life outside earth: does it exist?


Unusual adaptations
Extinct/threatened species
Genealogy testing using DNA analysis
Mitochondrial Eve, Y chromosome Adam
Bioinformatics
Common misconceptions in genetics and
heredity
8. Synthetic biology

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