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Soil Mechanics II

(Teuku Faisal Fathani)

1.Application of soil mechanics


2.Stress Distribution
3.Consolidation
4.Settlement
5.Shear Strength Parameter of Soil
6.Slope Stability
References:
- Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (Braja M.
Das, 2002)
- Soil Mechanics (R. F. Craig, 1987)
- Mekanika Tanah I (Hary Christady H., 2002)

Shear Strength Parameters


Shear strength parameter:
Internal resistant force per unit area
Failure of shear at a slip surface due to applied force to the soil.
Shear resistant:
1. Cohesion (c): depend on the type of soil and its density,
independent from normal stress () at the shear surface.
2. Friction inter material ( tan ): depend on the normal
stress () at the shear surface and internal friction angle ()
3. Combination of c and 

MOHR-COULOMB Failure Criteria


Mohr (1900): Failure of a material due to the combination of critical
condition between normal stress () and shear stress ()

Coulomb (1776)  f () :


N
F

 = shear strength (kN/m2)


c = cohesion (kN/m2)
 = internal friction angle ( 0)
 = normal stress at the failure
surface (kN/m2)

MOHR-COULOMB Failure Criteria

y


C
Mohr



f

A
Mohr-Coulomb


A  Failure does not occur
B  Failure occurs
C  Failure never happen

x

In effective stress condition (Terzaghi, 1925):

Saturated soil

 = shear strength (kN/m2)


c = effective cohesion (kN/m2)

 = effective internal friction angle ( 0)


 = effective normal stress on the failure plane (kN/m2)
u = pore water pressure (kN/m2)

Mohrs Circle and failure envelope


1


Failure
envelope

3

 f
f

3




f

3

 f

2

1

1

1 = effective major principle stress


3 = effective minor principle stress

 = theoretical angle between the failure plane and


major principal plane

Relationship between effective principle


stress at failure and shear strength
parameter c - :

Laboratory Test for Determination of


Shear Strength Parameter
1.Direct shear test
2.Triaxial test  UU, CU CD
3.Unconfined compression test
4.Vane shear test

Direct Shear Test


N

Loading
plate

L
T

h
Shear box

Sample

Porous stone
Method of test :
Stress-controlled Test
 Peak shear strength
Strain-controlled Test
 Peak shear strength and Residual shear strength

Direct test is appropriate to be used for sandy soil.


Shearing the sample up to failure or the maximum strain
reaches max = 20%
Direst shear tests are repeated on similar specimens at
various normal stresses (min. 3 times).


3
2
1



1

2

Pure sand  c = 0 ; maka


Dry condition :

3

Stress-strain characteristics of sand:


Peak shear strength

dense
Residual shear strength
loose

Compression

Expansion

 = constant

L
+

Dense sand

H

L
Loose sand

Shear displacement

Factors affected shear strength of sand:


- Particle size
- Water inter the particle
- Roughness of the surface of particle
- Grain size distribution
- Shape of particle
- Pore number (e) or relative density (Dr)
- Main principal stress
- Stress history

Example
Direct shear test on a clean compacted sand. Shear box with
dimension of 250 x 250 mm2. The results as follow:
Normal force (kN)

5,00 10,00

11,25

Peak shear force (kN)

4,90

9,80

11,00

Residual shear force (kN)

3,04

6,23

6,86

Calculate shear strength parameter of the sand in dense condition


and loose condition
 m dense sand  peak stress
t loose sand  residual stress
Normal stress (kN/m2)

80

160

180

Peak shear stress (kN/m2)

78,4 156,8

176

Residual shear stress (kN/m2)

48,6

99,7 109,8

 (kN/m2)
Peak stress

Residual
stress

 (kN/m2)
From the above figure

m dense sand = 450


t loose sand = 320

Triaxsial Test
The most reliable method to determine the shear strength
parameter of soil
Commonly use for site investigation for civil construction and for
research

v


h

h
v

Applied stresses:
1 = major principal stress
3 = minor principal stress
2 = 3 = confining stress
 = 1 - 3 = deviator stress
1
z

3

x
y

2
1

Correction of the sample area at a


certain strain (A)

Diagram of Triaxsial Test Equipment

Axial Load and Confining Pressure


3 +  = 1

3

3

3

3

3

3



3 +  = 1

Loading on vertical direction:


1. Apply the dead load gradually until failure. Axial deformation
is measured by dial gage.
2. Apply the axial deformation with a constant increment (straincontrolled). Axial load is measured by proving ring.

Types of Standard Triaxial Test


Test condition

3 (confining
pressure)

Deviator stress,


Output

U.U.
Drainage
Drainage
(Unconsolidated- connection  close connection 
Undrained)
close

Total stress

C.U.
(ConsolidatedUndrained)

3  consolidation Drainage
connection 
Drainage
connection  open close

u
Total stress
Effective
stress

C.D.
(ConsolidatedDrained)

3  consolidation Drainage
connection 
Drainage
connection  open open

Effective
stress

The Results of Triaxsial test





33

f1



32
31
c

 (%)

3 3 3

1

3 +  = 1
3

3
3 +  = 1

1 1 

C.D. Test
Confining
pressure

3

Deviator
stress

3

uc=0

3

3 +  = 1
3

ud=0

3

3 +  = 1

3
+
B = pore pressure parameter by
Skempton (1954)
B = 1 for saturated soft soil

Vc
-


f
f

Dense sand / NC
Loose sand / OC

 = constant


+

Dense sand / NC

Vd


Loose sand / OC

Because of the pore water pressure (u) during the


implementation of deviator stress is totally dissipated 
Total stress = Effective stress

The same test is conducted at the same soil sample with


different 3 (confining pressure).
After getting 1 and 3  Mohrs circle + failure envelope
can be drawn

Failure envelope of Triaxsial CD


For sand dan clay NC


1

Failure envelope


B

3

f
f

3

A
2

2
1=1

3=3


f

f

1

Failure envelope of Triaxial CD


for clay OC


NC

OC

1

BC
B
A

3

f
f

3

AB

c
3=3

1=1
c=c

1

C.U. Test
Confining
pressure

3

Deviator
stress

3

uc=0

3

3 +  = 1
3

ud0

3

3 +  = 1

3
+
A = pore water pressure parameter
by Skempton (1954)

Vc
-


f
f

Dense sand / NC
Loose sand / OC


+
ud

Loose sand / OC


Dense sand / NC

Pore water pressure during the application of deviator stress = ud


Total stress  Effective stress
Pore water pressure at failure can be measured = udf
Major principal stress at failure (total) :
Minor principal stress at failure (total) :
Pore water pressure at failure :
Major principal stress at failure (effective) :
Minor principal stress at failure (effective) :

In order to determine the shear strength parameter  triaxial test


on soil samples should be done with different confining pressure 3



33

f1



32
31
c

 (%)

3 3 3

1

3 +  = 1
3

3
3 +  = 1

1 1 

Failure envelope of Triaxsial CU


For sand dan clay NC

Failure envelope
of effective stress

Failure envelope
of total stress


cu

1
B

3

C A
3 3

1 1

udf

udf

f
f

3

1

Failure envelope of Triaxial CU


for clay OC


NC

OC

1

2
B
A

3

f
f

3

1

c
3

1


c

1

A = pore water pressure parameter by Skempton


(1954) at failure:

A parameter for clay:


 Lempung NC : 0,5 1
 Lempung OC : -0,5 0

A value depends on OCR 

c = c = maximum confining pressure when the soil sample


consolidates

U.U. Test
Confining
pressure

3

Deviator
stress

3

uc 0

3

3
Total pore water pressure =
and
Hence

3 +  = 1
3

ud0

3

3 +  = 1

Triaxial UU test on saturated clay :

f will be the same for different confining pressure 3


1


Failure envelope

3

f
f

3

cu
3

3

3

1

1

1

1

The application of Triaxial UU, CU and CD:


UU :
 Foundation on soft soils
 Embankment on soft soils
 Dam on soft soils
The loading apply so fast, hence the consolidation and drainage
did not occur yet at the soil layers  end of construction
CU :
 Slope stability, where the soil has been consolidated and
stable
 Rapid draw-down at of reservoir
 Embankment construction (several phase / stage)

CD :
 Embankment  long time construction
 Earth dam affected by steady
 Clay excavation
 Practically, it is difficult to implement this test for clay,
because the time to get u = 0 will be too long,
p = need to be small  it takes a long time and very easy
to seep out.

Example 1
Triaxial CD has been done for normally consolidated clay.
The result of test as follow:
3 = 276 kN/m2
f= 276 kN/m2
Calculate :
a. Internal friction angle, 
b. The angle between failure surface and major principal plane, 
c. Normal stress  and shear stress f at failure surface

For Normally Consolidated Clay, the failure envelope equation


Principal stress:

1

Failure envelope


3

f
f

3


2
O

3=276 kN/m2

1=552 kN/m2

1

Failure
envelope



B
2
O

3=276 kN/m2

1=552 kN/m2 

At failure
plane

Example 2
Consolidated-Drained Triaxial test for example no. 1 :
a. Calculate effective normal stress () acting on the plane with
maximum shear stress ().
 Maximum shear stress occurs at the plane with  = 450

b. Why does the failure occur at the plane of  = 54,730, not at the
plane having maximum shear stress?
 Shear stress that causes the failure at  = 450:
Shear stress acting on that plane :

Example 3
The result of triaxial test (UU) as follow:
No of test

Confining pressure
(kg/cm2)

Deviator stress (kg/


cm2)

0,57

1,4

0,71

1,8

0,76

2,2

0,84

Calculate the shear strength parameter by using Mohrs circle.

No test

3 (kg/cm2)

 (kg/cm2)

1=3+
(kg/cm2)

(1+3)/2
(kg/cm2)

0,57

1,57

1,285

1,4

0,71

2,11

1,753

1,8

0,76

2,56

2,182

2,2

0,84

3,04

2,620

 (kg/cm2)

From the figure :


Failure envelope


c
32
1

33

12 34 13


2

14

 (kg/cm2)

Example 4
Triaxial test (CU) for normally consolidated clay, with the result:
3 = 260 kN/m2
Deviator stress : f= 200 kN/m2
Pore water pressure : udf = 120 kN/m2
Calculate :
a. Internal friction angle at Consolidated-Undrained (CU)
condition
b. Internal friction angle at Consolidated-Drained (CD) condition

Unconfined Compression
Test
(Uji Tekan Bebas)
Unconfined
Compression Test
as a special type of
Triaxial UU for
saturated clay

ASTM D2166
AASHTO T208

1

3=0

cu
3=0

1=qu

1


Consistency

qu = unconfined compression
strength

qu (kN/m2)

Very soft

0 25

Soft

25 50

Medium

50 100

Stiff

100 200

Very stiff

200 400

Hard

>400

Result of Unconfined Compression Test (Mohrs circle-1)


vs. Triaxial UU (Mohrs circle- 2 and 3) for saturated clay


The real failure envelope
of total stress

Theoretical failure envelope


of total stress

cu

3

1=qu

3

1

1

Vane shear Test


To determine shear strength at undrained condition  cu ( = 0)
for saturated clay.

Method:
Vane shear equipment is driven to
the borehole with minimum depth of
3 x borehole diameter
Rotate with the velocity of 6o 12o
per minute.
Every 15-30 seconds, record T value

Me

Ms

Shear strength mobility at 2


cylindrical edge surface

cu

Me
d

cu

cu

Bjerrum (1974) : cu form vane shear test is too high, because of


the shear zone expanded.
Vane shear result in the field need to be corrected:

 = correction factor = 1,7 0,54 log (PI)  See HCH MT1 :


5.2.4 page 305
PI = Plasticity index = LL - PL

cu vs o
Clay NC :
(Skempton, 1957)
o = effective overburden pressure
IP = plasticity Index (%)

Clay OC :
(Ladd et al., 1977)

The other method to decide undrained shear strength:


Torvane

Pocket penetrometer

Sensitivity and Thixotropy of clay


Sensitivity

1
qu
undisturbed

qu

Classification

48

Sensitive clay

8 16

Extra sensitive
clay

> 16

Quick clay

remolded

From unconfined
compression test

Axial strain

Example :
Result of Unconfined Compression Test:
Strain (%)

Stress (kg/cm2)

0,268

0,450

0,46

0,47

0,46

12

0,45

Calculate the shear strength parameters.


Solution: Draw the relation between Strain () vs Stress ()

 (kg/cm2)
0,5

qu

0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0

10

15

cu
3=0

1=qu

20

 (%)

Ko (Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficient)


(Lateral earth pressure coefficient)

Depend on  and stress history

Ko for sand
(Jaky, 1944)
Ko value for sand OC > sand NC
(Schmidt,1967 & Alphan,1967)

Sand OC 
h = 0,4 0,5

h = 0,6 (dense sand)

Ko for clay
(Massarch, 1979)
See HCH MT1 Figure 5.42 Page 366

Slope stability analysis


1. Transitional movement
2. Rotational movement (circular slip
surface)
3. Method of slice
4. Slope stability software for 2D analysis
5. 3D landslide movement simulation

Slope Stability Analysis


Slope stability concept: limit plastic equilibrium
Purpose  to determine the safety factor (FS) of the potential slip
surface
Assumption:
 Sliding occurs at a certain slip surface  2 dimensional
problem
 Sliding material  massif
 Isotropic shear strength
 FS is analyzed based on average shear strength at the slip
surface

Difference between landslide and slope failure


Landslides

Slope Failures

Geology

Occur in places with particular


geology or geological formation

Slightly related to geology

Soils

Are mainly active on cohesive


soil such as slip surface

Frequently occur even in sandy


soils

Topography

Occur on gentle slopes of 5 to


20

Frequently occur on the slopes


steeper than 30

Situation of
activities

Continuous, or repetitive
occurrences

Occur suddenly

Moving velocity

Low at 0.001 to 10 mm/day

High speed > 100 mm/day

Masses

Have little disturbed masses

Have greatly disturbed mass

Provoking causes

Greatly affected by groundwater

Affected by rainfall intensity

Scale

Have a large scale between 1


and 100 ha

Have a small scale. Average


volume is about 440 m3

Symptom

Have cracks, depressions,


upheavals, groundwater
fluctuation, before occurrence

Have few symptoms and


suddenly slip down

Gradient

10 to 25

35 to 60

Steep slope
area

Height of steep slope


(h)

Slope failure

Landslide

Landslide area

Tsaoling Landslide
 Induced

by 1999 Chi-chi
Earthquake, Taiwan

 Volume:

1.4 x 108 m3

 Affected

area: 698 ha

 Total

length: 4 km

 Source

area:

Length: 1.5 km
Width: 2 km
Depth: < 200 m
 Destruction

of 5 houses,
resulting in 29 deaths.

Causes of Landslide
 Rainfall or storm rainfall  the rising of
groundwater level
 Construction works  Earthwork, Cutting,
Filling, Tunnel construction,
 Reservoir induced landslide  the rising and
drawdown of reservoir level
 Earthquake  horizontal acceleration gx, gy

Shear Strength Parameters


Shear strength parameter:
Internal resistant force per unit area
Failure of shear at a slip surface due to applied force to the soil.
Shear resistant:
1. Cohesion (c): depend on the type of soil and its density,
independent from normal stress () at the shear surface.
2. Friction inter material ( tan ): depend on the normal
stress () at the shear surface and internal friction angle ()
3. Combination of c and 

MOHR-COULOMB Failure Criteria


Mohr (1900): Failure of a material due to the combination of critical
condition between normal stress () and shear stress ()

Coulomb (1776)  f () :


N
F

 = shear strength (kN/m2)


c = cohesion (kN/m2)
 = internal friction angle ( 0)
 = normal stress at the failure
surface (kN/m2)

MOHR-COULOMB Failure Criteria

y


C
Mohr



f

A
Mohr-Coulomb


A  Failure does not occur
B  Failure occurs
C  Failure never happen

x

In effective stress condition (Terzaghi, 1925):

c = effective cohesion (kN/m2)


 = effective internal friction angle ( 0)
 = effective normal stress (kN/m2)
u = pore water pressure (kN/m2)

SLOPE STABILITY

= average shear stress


d = average shear stress at the critical slip surface due to the weight of
sliding material
Mohr-Coulomb
c- = shear strength parameter at the critical slip surface

Safety factor for cohesion component

Safety factor for friction component

In general FS  1,2
FS = Fc = F

Analysis on a translational slip surface


A.Infinite slope
A.1. Without seepage



E

Na W

E
Ta

H
S
A

T
Bedrock

Tr
P

Nr




E

Na W

E
Ta

H
S
A

T
Bedrock

Tr
P

Nr




E

Na W

E
Ta

H
S
A

If F = 1 (critical), so H = Hc:

T
Bedrock

Tr
P

Nr

Granular soil (c = 0)
Cohesive soil ( = 0)

F = 1 (critical), ( = 0):

 Stability number

A.1. With seepage




Na W

Hcos2

B
Ta

T
Bedrock

Tr
P

Nr

Due to water flow 


shear strength:

Granular soil (c = 0)
Cohesive soil ( = 0)

Example 1

a)H = 8 m ;  = 22o calculate FS & Hc

 = 1,86 t/m3
c =1,8 t/m2
 =20o
Bedrock

b) H = 8 m ;  = 25o , Calculate FS and Hc

Example 2

sat = 2 t/m3
c =1,8 t/m2
 =20o
Bedrock

If H = 8 m ;  = 22o ; calculate FS

Analysis on a translational slip surface


B. Finite slope
B.1. Culmans method
B

C
W
Ta
Na

H
Tr

A



Nr

C
W
Ta
Na

Shear resistant (d) at AB:


H

Tr

A



Nr

Critical condition F=1 


 = d

Critical condition
F=1  cd = c ; d = 

Example 1

timb = 1,96
c =2,5 t/m2
 =17o

New landfill
Previous
landfill

t/m3

H=?

 = 48,5o




=

40o

Calculate the maximum height of


new landfill, if the safety factor is
decided to be F=2

Example 2
 = 19 kN/m3
c = 25 kN/m2
 =12o





H=5 m
Tr

 = 52o
 = 30o

C
W
Ta
Na

Nr

B. Finite slope
B.2. Analysis on a circular slip surface

bedrock

(a) Toe circle

(b) Slope circle

L
O

(c) Shallow slope circle

bedrock

(d) Mid circle

Slope stability analysis on cohesive soil


Without
groundwater O

B
R

W
C

=0

W = weight of sliding material (kN)


LAC = length of circular plane (m)
c = cohesion (kN/m2)
R = radius of slip surface circle (m)
y = distance between W to point O (m)

Slope stability analysis on cohesive soil


With the
existence of O
groundwater

R
W
A

C
=0
U

W = effective soil weigth (kN)


LAC = length of circular slip surface (m)
c = cohesion (kN/m2)
R = radius of slip surface circle (m)
y = distance between W to point O (m)

Slope stability analysis on cohesive


soil, using Taylor Diagram (1948)


W2 = area (EFDA) x  x 1

y1
y2

W1 = area (EFCB) x  x 1

=0
F

Cd

W1

W2
E

Nd

 = angle from the figure in radian

Equilibrium condition


B

C
R

y1

y2
A

=0
F

Cd

W1

W2
E

Nd

R  trial and error  minimum FS

Taylor Method (1948)




Stability number:
B

C
R

y1
y2

=0
F

Cd

W1

W2
E

Nd

Critical condition (F=1); H = Hc ; cd = cu


Nd value is decided by using STABILITY DIAGRAM : =0 Taylor (1948)

Depth factor, D

Slope angle, 

Example:
Excavation of 10 m depth in saturated cohesive soil. Unit volume of
saturated clay is 18,5 kN/m3 and cohesion is 40 kN/m2. Bedrock located
at 12 m below the surface. If the internal friction angle of the soil is  =
0, calculate the inclination of the slope if the safety factor is decided to
be F=1,5.
Depth factor : D = 12/10 = 1,2

Depth factor, D

Slope stability analysis for the soil  > 0,


using Taylor Diagram (1948)


C

F
E

If the soil has the friction component ()  normal stress distribution (N)
affect the distribution of shear stress
Normal stress resultant and friction component have the inclination of 
based on normal line direction

Critical condition F=1:

Slope inclination, 

Contoh:
An earthfill H =12,2 m,  = 30o. Bedrock at infinite depth. C = 38,3 kN/m2,
 = 10o and total unit weigth  = 15,7 kN/m3. Calculate safety factor of
cohesion (Fc), to internal friction (F) and overall safety factor (F).

a.Assuming all  works  = 10o ;  = 30o


 From figure  cd/H = 0,075  cd = 14,4 kN/m2
Fc = c/cd = 38,3 / 14,4 = 2,67
b. Assuming all c works c = 38,3 kN/m2 ;  = 30o ; cd/H = 0,2
From figure  < 0  F = 
(Resistant moment due to cohesion > driving moment)

c. F to shear strength 

by trial and error

 All  works F = 1  Fc = 2,67


 Fc = c/cd = 2  cd = 38,3/2 = 19,2 kN/m2  cd/H = 0,1
From figure d = 7o  F = tan 10o / tan7o = 1,44
 Fc = c/cd = 1,8  cd = 38,3/1,8 = 21,3 kN/m2  cd/H = 0,11
from figure d = 5o  F = tan 10o / tan5o = 2,02

Slope stability analysis


Method of slice

Stability Analysis of Landslide Slope


The design of a slope  should ideally be based on an
allowable deformation
The difficulty with deformation analysis  stress-strain
relationship, peak and residual strengths, anisotropic, pore
pressure distribution, the non-homogeneity, and the effect
due to initial stress.
Finite element method  reflecting all of the factors.
As an alternative, a limit equilibrium analysis  stability of a
slope, in terms of a safety factor F.
Limit equilibrium method  analysis of natural & artificial
slopes (cut and fill)

Slope stability analysis based on the limit equilibrium


and slice method
No

Method

Equilibrium equation
Force

Moment

Horizontal

Vertical

Fellenius (1927)

Bishop Simplified (1955)

Janbus Simplified (1954)

Corps of Engineering (1982)

Lowe and Karfiath (1960)

Spencer (1967)

Sarma (1973)

Morgenstern and Price (1975)

Remarks :
 : The equilibrium of horizontal forces, vertical forces or moments are taken
into account for analysis.

Circular slip surface


Bishop Method
Fellenius Method

These methods are currently being widely used in


the field of landslide analysis.

Bishop method

R

P

En

n+1

P
ul

Xn
W

Xn-Xn+1

Xn+1
En+1

B
P

ls C


En-En+1

tan=1/F.tan

Bishop method
The Bishop method is a method for analyzing the equilibrium of a sliding
block, which slumps in a single movement about a given point.
The equilibrium equation for moments about the center of rotational
movement is expressed as :

The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is :

In solving stability problems  determine statically indeterminate elements,


obtaining equilibrium among the slice in horizontal and vertical directions.
In the simplified Bishop method, horizontal forces are ignored, and only the
vertical forces in each slice are taken into account:

Since both sides of expression contain F, the safety factor has to


be obtained by a series of calculations.

Fellenius
method

Internal forces applied to the wall


of each slice are ignored:
R
The moments of the entire
sliding block are in equilibrium:

En

n+1

Xn
W

Xn+1
En+1

B
P

ls C


h
D

Bishop method

Fellenius method
F
c
W

A
u
l



: the safety factor,


: cohesion of the slip surface (kN/m2),
: weight of each slice (kN), W =  A
: unit volume weight (kN/m3),
: area of each slice (m2),
: water pressure on the slip surface of each slice (kN/m2),
: length of slip surface of each slice (m),
: friction angle of slip surface,
: angle between the center bottom of each slice and the vertical line of the
center of sliding surface circle.

Non-circular slip surface


Janbu Method
Morgenstern and Price Method

Janbu Method
Janbu method : an analytical method for analyzing the stability of a
landslide block  sliding surface has a complex shape

where fo is a modifying coefficient representing the influence of the


shearing force acting on the walls of each slice.
The coefficient can be decided from analysis of soil and other
conditions, covering more than 40 different cross sections.

Simplified Janbus method


y
2

Xi+Xi

Xi

Ei+Ei

i
n

(1+kV)Wi
Ti

where

Ei

kHWi

Ni

i

Janbus correction factor :

Calculate the safety factor by using the ordinary method of slice

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