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Mechanical evaluation of asphaltaggregate


mixtures prepared with fly ash as a filler
replacement
Serkan Tapkn

Abstract: The objective of this study is to investigate the effect of fly ash as a filler replacement on the mechanical properties of asphaltaggregate mixtures. Utilization of fly ash, which is the by-product of coal-fired power generation, is of
great importance from an environmental and economical point of view. In this study, a dense bituminous mixture composed of calcareous aggregate was selected as the reference mixture. It was observed that there was a definite increase in
Marshall stability and decrease in flow values, especially when calcareous filler was replaced by Soma-type fly ash, which
was one of the three types of fly ashes used. The mechanical properties, namely elastic strain, elastic modulus, and permanent strain, of the asphalt mixtures were determined by carrying out fatigue tests with a UMATTA tester for three types of
fly ashes, portland cement, lime, and control specimens. The changes in mechanical properties are important in the sense
that they affect the behavior of asphalt concrete pavement under applied loads. This mechanism can be explained basically
by bitumen extension. The fatigue life of fly ash specimens, especially Soma fly ash, was found to be considerably higher
than that of calcareous filler specimens. Based on this study, it is demonstrated that fly ash can be used effectively in a
dense-graded wearing course as a filler replacement.
Key words: fly ash, filler replacement, Marshall method, mechanical properties, fatigue test, performance, bitumen extension, fatigue life.
Resume : Lobjectif de cette etude etait dexaminer limpact des cendres volantes comme matie`re de charge de remplacement sur les proprietes mecaniques des melanges asphalte-granulats. Lutilisation des cendres volantes, le sous-produit des
centrales thermiques alimentees au charbon, est dune grande importance environnementale et economique. Dans la presente etude, un melange bitumineux dense, compose dagregat calcaire, a ete choisi comme melange de reference. La stabilite Marshall a definitivement augmentee et une diminution des valeurs decrasement a ete remarquee, surtout lorsque la
matie`re de charge calcaire etait remplace par les cendres volantes de type Soma, lun des trois types de cendres volantes
utilises. Les proprietes mecaniques, dont la deformation elastique, le module elastique et la deformation plastique des melanges asphaltiques ont ete determinees en effectuant des essais de resistance a` la fatigue par un UMATTA pour trois types
de cendres volantes, du ciment Portland, de la chaux et des echantillons temoins. Les changements aux proprietes mecaniques sont importants en ce quils ont un impact sur le comportement du revetement en beton asphaltique sous les charges
qui y sont appliquees. Ce mecanisme peut etre explique a` la base par lextension du bitume. La longevite a` la fatigue des
echantillons de cendres volantes, surtout la cendre de type Soma, sest averee considerablement plus elevee que celle des
echantillons comportant des matie`res de charge calcaires. La presente etude a demontre que les cendres volantes peuvent
etre utilisees de manie`re efficace comme matie`re de charge dans une couche dusure de categorie dense.
Mots-cles : cendres volantes, matie`re de charge de remplacement, methode Marshall, proprietes mecaniques, essai de fatigue, rendement, extension du bitume, longevite a` la fatigue.
[Traduit par la Redaction]

1. Introduction
With development of infrastructure and increasing transportation demands, construction of better pavements with
longer service lives is required. The development of new
Received 22 January 2007. Revision accepted 5 June 2007.
Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at cjce.nrc.ca on
30 January 2008.
S. Tapkn. Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of
Engineering and Architecture, Iki Eylul Campus, Anadolu
University, 26555 Eskis ehir,Turkey (e-mail: cstapkin@
anadolu.edu.tr).
Written discussion of this article is welcomed and will be
received by the Editor until 31 May 2008.
Can. J. Civ. Eng. 35: 2740 (2008)

modified paving materials and use of them in construction


results in high performance pavements to meet the needs of
the communities. While developing these new modified
paving materials, attention should be paid to using waste
industrial materials effectively in construction to address
environmental and economic concerns.
In the last few decades, research findings have shown that
the use of new paving materials requires more sophisticated
approaches for pavement and material mix design processes.
Pavement design and mix design should be handled together
and performance evaluation techniques should accompany
the classical mix design methods.
The use of modified asphaltaggregate mixtures in surfacebound layers creates a demand for evaluation of the performance of those modified mixtures. Asphalt modification

doi:10.1139/L07-082

2008 NRC Canada

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is accomplished by using polymer modifiers in the asphalt


aggregate mixtures. This modification can be done both by
modifying bitumen with the polymer or by adding the
modifier directly in to the mixture of bitumen and aggregate during mixing process. The first technique needs specialized equipment and therefore brings additional
expenditure. Asphalt modification by using polymers,
whether bitumen-based or mix-based, is an expensive process and needs skilled workmanship and special equipment.
Also, for developing countries, asphalt modification with
polymers means more dependence on developed countries
for the transfer of technology, know-how, and, most importantly, importation of patented modifiers. The importance
of using waste materials, such as fly ash, in the modification of asphaltaggregate mixtures comes into the scene at
this point. Together with the economic considerations, using fly ash in asphaltaggregate mixtures alters the mixture
behavior in a beneficial way (Ali et al. 1996; Churchill
and Amirkhanian 1999; Asi and Assaad 2005).
The oldest application of asphaltaggregate mix modification is the replacement of normal filler material by another
suitable material available in nature or easily found on the
market. This process is called filler replacement. In practice,
filler replacement is put into application for cases where
normal filler produced during the crushing process of rocks
from quarries is scarce or aggregate is not clean and inherent mud or clay constituents are present; thus, it becomes
necessary to wash out the aggregate, which causes the total
loss of filler.
There are several materials available on the market and in
nature that may be used in place of normal filler. Fly ash, a
by-product of coal-fired power generation, is an example of
such a material. Because of its origin, there is a rising interest in fly ash among scientists and civil engineers (Sobolev
and Naik 2005). The importance of fly ash as a waste material, from the economic point of view, draws major attention
to this material by pavement engineers. The vast amount of
waste material produced daily is one of the major worldwide
problems in waste management. Developing countries like
Turkey produce a considerable amount of fly ash in coalfired power plants every year and this huge amount of waste
creates a significant problem with respect to handling and
storage, which are important both from the economic and
environmental point of view. Nations are forced to search
for more suitable ways to recycle these waste materials, the
main reason being primary environmental concerns and a
decreasing number of landfill sites. For a considerable
amount of time, researchers have been investigating the use
of fly ash in the construction industry, to enable better management of this important waste material and to improve the
properties of construction materials. Fly ash has been used
extensively in concrete production for many years, but there
are limited applications where fly ash has been used in
pavement engineering when compared with concrete applications. This study aims to provide a suitable means for the
utilization of fly ash in dense bituminous mixtures.
The first aim of this study was to review available literature on the use of fly ash in asphalt concrete mixtures. Second, the possibilities of improving the mechanical properties
of asphalt mixtures by using fly ash as mineral filler was
explored. Finally, the effect of the use of fly ash as a filler

Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 35, 2008

material was evaluated for performance improvement of


asphalt concrete pavements.

2. Historical background and definition of


filler replacement
Normally, stone dust produced during the aggregate
crushing process is used as filler in asphaltaggregate mixtures. It is common practice to use hydrated lime, portland
cement, and some other materials in place of stone dust
when it is not available in the required amounts. The influence of mineral filler comes from the fact that although
small in weight with respect to the total mix, its surface
area is quite large. In some cases, a reduction in the demand
for bitumen can be accomplished by the addition of mineral
filler because it fills the voids in the aggregate mass. However, in other cases, due to the increase in surface area, a
larger demand for bitumen may be necessary. In this study,
various filler materials were selected to investigate this
important effect on the characteristics of the mixture.
Paving mixtures are composed of mineral aggregates held
together by an asphalt binder or bitumen. The mineral
aggregates are distributed throughout the mixture in sizes
ranging from coarse to fine. Properly compacted asphalt
mixtures produce a structure whose stability, stiffness, and
wearing properties are dependent on the interlocking of the
aggregate and the cohesiveness of the binder. Based on the
above rationale, mineral filler is defined as finely divided
mineral matter and includes material such as rock dust, slag
dust, portland cement, hydrated lime (used also as an antistripping agent), fly ash, waste glass (Sobolev 2003), and
loess (Anderson et al. 1982). If a more formal definition is
sought to be given, mineral filler is the material passing a
No. 200 (0.074 mm) US standard sieve. In usual practice,
the mineral filler used in asphaltaggregate mixtures is the
tail-end product obtained during the crushing process of natural rock that conforms with aggregate specifications. The
use of fly ash, portland cement, or other suitable materials
in place of natural mineral filler is universally accepted.
A controversial and unresolved question regarding filler
materials concerns the mechanisms by which fillers change
the properties or behavior of paving mixtures. Brief consideration of such mechanisms may be helpful for the sake of
completeness of the filler replacement theory.
The mineral filler, whether artificial or natural, can affect
hot-mix asphalt concrete in a number of ways. It may:
.
.

.
.
.

stiffen the asphalt cement


extend the asphalt cement (it can be called the bitumen
extension)
alter the moisture resistance of the mix
affect the aging characteristics of the mix
affect the workability and compaction characteristics of
the mix (Anderson et al. 1982).

The mineral filler fraction is often referred to as the


amount of material filling the voids between the coarser
sand and aggregate particles. This concept sounds very elegant until an attempt is made to define the size range of the
coarser fraction that creates the voids. Puzinauskas (1983)
arrived at the conclusion that there is no single size that can
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Tapkn

be considered as filling the voids or creating the voids. More


appropriately, the filler, the dust or simply the minus No.
200 (US standard sieve) fraction should be considered an
extension of the mineral aggregate framework. It is this mineral aggregate framework that is primarily responsible for
the stability and load carrying properties of hot-mix asphalt
concrete (Puzinauskas 1983).
The portion of the filler with particles thicker than the
asphalt film contributes to the interlocking of the aggregate.
The other portion of the filler, with particles smaller than
the thickness of the asphalt film, is suspended in the asphalt
and constitutes the binder in the mixture. The filler may extend the asphalt, thereby increasing the effective asphalt
content in the mixture (Dukatz and Anderson 1980). Two
types of stiffening effects may result from the portion of the
mineral filler that is suspended in the asphalt:
.

a relatively small stiffening resulting from the volume


filling of the filler
a relatively large stiffening resulting from the physicochemical interaction between the asphalt and the surface
of the mineral filler (Puzinauskas 1983).

29

as an extender on density measurements, voids, and mechanical properties of asphalt. Indirect tensile strength, creep,
and resilient modulus test results showed that the addition
of class F fly ash provided superior fatigue life, rut depth
resistance, and tensile strength.
Also, Tons et al. (1983) investigated the use of class F fly
ash as a bitumen extender. Bitumen was replaced by various
percentages of different fly ashes. Tests were carried out on
asphalt specimens to determine resistance to moisture damage, thermal cracking, rutting, fatigue life, and asphalt hardening in mixtures. Noticeable improvements were observed
for asphalt hardening, moisture and freezethaw damage
resistance, rutting resistance, fatigue life, density, and tensile
strength.
Cabrera and Zoorob (1994) established that, based on a
workability index at various temperatures, the pulverized fly
ash filler hot-mixed asphalt could be mixed and compacted
at temperatures as low as 110 and 85 8C, respectively, without any detrimental effects on engineering and performance
properties. They stated that there might have been considerable savings in energy without an additional asphalt cement
requirement.

3. Use of fly ash in asphalt concrete mixtures

4. Experimental program

The idea of using fly ash as mineral filler in asphalt mixtures is not a new concept. Its use in asphalt concrete mixtures has been investigated by many scientists and the
research findings that have been obtained by these scientists
can be summarized as follows.
Carpenter (1952) determined that a class F fly ash resulted in an excellent effect on the retained compressive
strength for asphalt concrete specimens immersed in water.
Warden et al. (1952) stated that fly ash was a suitable filler
material in terms of mixing, placing and compaction, stability, resistance to water damage, and flexibility. Zimmer
(1970) analyzed the effect of carbon content on fly ash. His
results revealed that specimens that are prepared by using
fly ash had higher retained strength after immersing them in
water.
Of significant difference from Carpenters research, Henning (1974) investigated the effect of a class C fly ash on
asphalt mixture properties. He concluded that the addition
of 4% fly ash resulted in the highest stability and flow, but
ended up with lower air voids. Henning also stated that fly
ash created an improvement in the stability after immersion
in water. Sankaran and Rao (1973) made a comparison of
fly ash with other fillers, such as kaolin clay and crushed
dust. They pointed out that fly ash at 2% filler content provided the highest stability among the other fillers.
Rosner et al. (1982) used fly ash as mineral filler and
anti-stripping agent for asphalt concrete mixtures. They
showed that the retained strength of the samples increased
as additional fly ash was used in the prepared mixtures. In
most of their cases, the retained strengths of fly ash mixtures
were considerably greater than those using natural filler
material.
In a study carried out by Suheibani (1986), fly ash was
evaluated as an asphalt extender. Suheibani analysed how
fly ash particle size affects the viscosity of the asphalt to
which it was added. He also examined the effect of fly ash

4.1. Material properties


Mixture characteristics are directly dependent on the
properties of the aggregate and bitumen that constitute the
paving mixture. As the filler, in general, is an integral part
of the aggregate used in bituminous mixtures, its characteristics and amount contained in the mix play an important
role in modifying the mixture characteristics. The optimum
bitumen content and air voids is influenced by the filler
amount and eventually all mechanical mixture characteristics are affected.
In the laboratory test program, a single aggregate gradation was selected to suit the wearing course type 3 gradation
limits set by the General Directorate of Highways of Turkey
(2000). Calcareous aggregates obtained from a native quarry
and 60/70 penetration bitumen obtained from a nearby refinery were used in the preparation of all specimens. The physical properties of the bitumen are stated in Table 1.
Modified mixtures used three types of fly ash, namely
Soma (F type), Cayirhan (F type), and Kangal (C type) and
two other filler materials, namely lime and portland cement
in place of the calcareous filler. This replacement was made
solely on a weight basis. Some of the major properties of
the coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, and six types of filler
(namely calcareous, three types of fly ash, lime, and portland cement) are stated in Tables 2, 3, 4, and 5.
Aggregate gradation for the bituminous mixtures tested in
the laboratory has been selected as an average of the wearing course type 3 gradation limits given by the General
Directorate of Highways of Turkey (2000). The mixture
gradation and gradation limits can be seen in tabulated
form in Table 6. Throughout the study, six different types
of filler were used, namely three types of fly ash, calcareous filler, lime, and portland cement. The fly ash used
throughout the study was obtained from Soma, Cayirhan,
and Kangal thermal power plants located in different regions of Turkey. Soma fly ash and Cayirhan fly ash are F
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Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 35, 2008


Table 1. Physical properties of the asphalt cement.
Property
Penetration at 25 8C (1/10 mm)
Penetration Index
Ductility at 25 8C (cm)
Loss on heating (%)
Specific gravity at 25 8C (kg/m3)
Softening point (8C)
Flash point (8C)
Fire point (8C)

Test value
62.0
+1.0
>100
0.053
1033
57
257
295

Table 2. Physical properties of coarse aggregates, tested in accordance with ASTM C12780 (ASTM 1980b).
Property
Bulk specific gravity (kg/m3)
Apparent specific gravity (kg/m3)
Water absorption (%)

Test value
2754
2821
0.26

Table 3. Physical properties of fine aggregates,


tested in accordance with ASTM C128-79
(ASTM 1979b).
Property
Bulk specific gravity (kg/m3)
Apparent specific gravity (kg/m3)
Water absorption (%)

Test value
2741
2766
1.43

type and Kangal fly ash is C type. The lime and portland
cement were obtained from local manufacturers. Calcareous
filler was the tail-end product of calcareous aggregate that
was obtained from the local quarry.
The chemical composition of the fly ash was supplied by
the research laboratories of the relevant thermal power
plants. The compositions are given in Table 4 and the apparent specific gravity values are given in Table 5.
4.2. Hot-mixture design using Marshall test method
To determine the optimum bitumen content, it is required
to perform Marshall tests and carry out some analysis on
these test results. The relevant Marshall test data are stated
in a tabulated manner in Tables 7 through 12. These values
are the average of three different sets of specimens. Therefore, each table represents the test results of 30 different
specimens. The standard Marshall specimens were prepared
by applying 50 blows on each face. Also, the optimum bitumen contents obtained for six different types of filler materials at the end of the Marshall design are given in Fig. 1.
Throughout the tests that were carried out, 7% of filler was
replaced solely on a weight basis by the three types of fly
ash, portland cement, and lime.
By using results given in Tables 712, namely for the
three different types of fly ash, portland cement, lime, and
calcareous filler, the optimum bitumen contents have been
calculated and presented in a graphical form in Fig. 1.
The bitumen contents corresponding to the mixtures with
maximal stability and unit weight, 4% air voids and 80%

Standard
ASTM D573 (ASTM 1973)

ASTM D 11379 (ASTM 1979a)


ASTM D 680 (ASTM 1980)
ASTM D7076 (ASTM 1976b)
ASTM D3676 (ASTM 1976a)
ASTM D 9278 (ASTM 1978)
ASTM D 9278 (ASTM 1978)

Table 4. Chemical composition of fly ash (FA) samples. LoI, loss


on ignition.
Oxide (%)

SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
SO3
Na2O
K2O
Na2Oeq
LoI

FA Soma
(class F)
50.48
27.64
4.80
82.92
13.08
1.30
0.97
0.30
2.00
1.62
1.07

FA Cayirhan
(class F)
49.74
14.70
9.04
73.48
13.64
5.10
3.64
2.10
1.20
2.89
2.44

FA Kangal
(class C)
27.92
11.96
5.14
45.02
37.86
2.60
12.10
0.40
0.80
0.93
3.15

Table 5. Apparent specific gravities of


filler materials, tested in accordance
with ASTM D854-83 (ASTM 1983).
Filler type
Calcareous filler (kg/m3)
Soma fly ash (kg/m3)
Cayirhan fly ash (kg/m3)
Kangal fly ash (kg/m3)
Lime (kg/m3)
Portland cement (kg/m3)

Test value
2632
2105
2194
2525
2315
3060

Table 6. Type 3 wearing course gradation according to the General Directorate of Highways of
Turkey (2000).
Sieve size
(mm)
12.7
9.52
4.76
2.00
0.42
0.177
0.074
Pan

Gradation
limits (%)
100
87100
6682
4764
2436
1322
410

Passing
(%)
100
93.5
74
55.5
30
17.5
7

Retained
(%)
0
6.5
19.5
18.5
25.5
12.5
10.5
7

voids filled with asphalt, were found and averaged according


to the limits given by the General Directorate of Highways
of Turkey (2000) to find the optimum value. These optimum
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31
Table 7. Marshall test results for calcareous filler. V.M.A., voids in mineral aggregate.
Bitumen
content (%)
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0

V.M.A.
(%)
17.875
17.241
16.640
15.474
14.063
14.317
14.234
14.752
15.141
15.905

Air void
(%)
11.882
10.546
9.136
6.762
4.084
3.249
2.037
1.516
0.858
0.653

Unit weight
(kg/m3)
2235
2298
2329
2373
2424
2429
2443
2439
2440
2429

Stability
(kg)
1254
1496
1850
2109
2396
2034
1926
1574
1345
1087

Flow
(mm)
2.01
2.14
2.28
2.46
2.60
2.75
3.65
3.89
5.11
6.15

Marshall
quotient
623.9
699.1
811.4
857.3
921.5
739.6
527.7
404.6
263.2
176.7

Table 8. Marshall test results for Soma (class F) fly ash filler. V.M.A., voids in
mineral aggregate.
Bitumen
content (%)
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0

V.M.A.
(%)
17.680
17.573
17.201
16.724
16.180
15.987
15.520
15.813
15.982
16.414

Air void
(%)
12.155
10.979
9.512
7.919
6.238
4.941
3.325
2.578
1.691
1.121

Unit weight
(kg/m3)
2247
2261
2282
2306
2332
2349
2373
2376
2383
2381

Stability
(kg)
1388
1717
2207
2385
2649
2476
2432
2119
1755
1358

Flow
(mm)
2.27
2.32
2.40
2.31
2.16
2.41
2.40
2.68
3.50
4.33

Marshall
quotient
611.5
740.1
919.6
1032.5
1226.4
1027.4
1013.3
790.7
501.4
313.6

Table 9. Marshall test results for Cayirhan (class F) fly ash filler. V.M.A., voids in
mineral aggregate.
Bitumen
content (%)
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0

V.M.A.
(%)
16.080
15.874
15.931
15.430
14.919
14.846
14.227
14.544
14.880
15.686

Air void
(%)
10.749
9.447
8.427
6.792
5.134
3.957
2.154
1.416
0.708
0.563

Unit weight
(kg/m3)
2290
2307
2317
2342
2367
2381
2410
2412
2414
2402

bitumen contents are represented in Fig. 1. Voids in mineral


aggregate (V.M.A.) must be greater than 12%13% according to the same criteria set forth by this agency. The V.M.A.
results tabulated in Tables 712 confirm this fact.
The particle size distribution graphs of six different filler
specimens, which are grouped into two parts as fly ashes
and the others, are given in Figs. 2 and 3. The particle size
distribution analyses of filler materials were carried out by
Malvern Mastersizer (Malvern Instruments Ltd. 1997) working in a dry basis. All of the tests were carried at the same
laboratory with the same test conditions. Figure 2 shows the
particle size distribution of three types of fly ashes. It can
be observed that the finest of these three samples is Kangal fly ash (class C) and the Soma fly ash (class F) is the

Stability
(kg)
1524
1834
1909
2123
2062
1902
2047
1597
1342
1122

Flow
(mm)
2.27
2.32
2.40
2.31
2.16
2.41
2.40
2.68
3.50
4.33

Marshall
quotient
671.4
790.5
795.4
919.0
954.6
789.2
852.9
595.9
383.4
259.1

coarsest. The values of specific surface areas are stated in


Table 13. These fly ash samples had approximately equal
specific surface area values (Table 13). Kangal fly ash has
the highest specific surface area, therefore, resulting in the
highest optimum bitumen content (highest bitumen absorption capacity). The research results confirm this assumption. As can be seen in Fig. 1, the optimum bitumen
content of Kangal fly ash is 6.28%, which is the largest
amount of all fillers. Soma fly ash has a specific gravity
of 2105 kg/m3. It is the lightest among the fillers and it
can affect some of the mixture properties. The amount and
the characteristics of the filler material can considerably alter the behavior of bituminous mixtures (Puzinauskas 1983;
Dukatz and Anderson 1980; Carpenter 1952; Warden et al.
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Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 35, 2008


Table 10. Marshall test results for Kangal (class C) fly ash filler. V.M.A., voids in
mineral aggregate.
Bitumen
Content (%)
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0

V.M.A.
(%)
18.240
18.277
18.577
18.242
18.849
18.339
17.330
16.889
16.251
16.867

Air void
(%)
12.991
11.966
11.207
9.801
9.413
7.782
5.566
3.980
2.153
1.791

Unit weight
(kg/m3)
2257
2267
2270
2290
2283
2309
2348
2372
2402
2395

Stability
(kg)
1499
1815
1930
2091
1989
2073
2219
2268
2231
1863

Flow
(mm)
3.15
2.97
2.85
2.37
2.60
2.67
2.83
2.74
3.53
3.46

Marshall
quotient
475.9
611.1
677.2
882.3
765.0
776.4
784.1
827.7
632.0
538.4

Table 11. Marshall test results for lime filler. V.M.A., voids in mineral aggregate.
Bitumen
content (%)
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0

V.M.A.
(%)
17.933
17.825
18.417
17.434
17.609
16.999
16.474
16.295
16.105
16.528

Air void
(%)
12.597
11.417
10.999
8.859
7.985
6.230
4.556
3.267
1.962
1.376

Unit weight
(kg/m3)
2252
2266
2261
2299
2305
2334
2360
2376
2392
2392

Stability
(kg)
1225
1577
1687
2065
1889
1824
1774
1675
1579
1329

Flow
(mm)
2.88
2.84
2.20
2.04
2.21
2.12
2.44
2.51
3.38
4.57

Marshall
quotient
425.3
555.3
766.8
1012.3
854.8
860.4
727.0
667.3
467.2
290.8

Table 12. Marshall test results for portland cement filler. V.M.A., voids in mineral
aggregate.
Bitumen
content (%)
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0

V.M.A.
(%)
17.681
17.082
15.945
15.681
14.777
14.171
14.308
14.741
15.391
16.092

Air void
(%)
12.285
10.552
8.217
6.817
4.692
2.882
1.907
1.278
0.914
0.627

Unit weight
(kg/m3)
2303
2331
2375
2394
2431
2460
2468
2467
2460
2451

1952). During the mixing process at high temperatures, the


bitumen and filler come together to form a paste. The ultimate physical and chemical characteristics of this paste
determine the mixture behavior. Bitumen extension and
stiffening effect controlled by the filler content and its
characteristics are two phenomenons that are frequently
mentioned in published literature (Puzinauskas 1983;
Dukatz and Anderson 1980; Carpenter 1952; Warden et al.
1952). Although the experimental results provide adequate guidance for the mix design process, to further clarify fillerbitumen interaction, more complete studies are
needed.
The effect of filler replacement with fly ash, lime, and
portland cement is given in Tables 14 and 15. The most im-

Stability
(kg)
1722
2014
2232
2151
2280
2420
2162
1860
1549
1327

Flow
(mm)
2.71
2.70
2.57
2.25
2.43
2.37
2.97
3.97
4.25
4.58

Marshall
quotient
635.4
745.9
868.5
956.0
938.3
1021.1
727.9
468.5
364.5
289.7

pressive and interesting observation is the increase in the


Marshall stability values and decrease of flow values for
Soma fly ash specimens (versus control specimens with calcareous filler).
Table 14 reports the maximum stability values obtained
from each data set of different fillers. It can be seen that
the average stabilities of Soma fly ash specimens are approximately 11% higher and the average flow values are
approximately 17% lower than that of calcareous filler
(control) specimens (Table 14). Also, the average air void
values of Soma fly ash specimens are approximately 53%
higher than that of the control specimens. Finally, the average specific gravity values of Soma fly ash specimens are
approximately 4% lower than that of calcareous filler
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Fig. 1. Optimum bitumen content for different filler materials.

Fig. 2. Particle size distributions of fly ash.

Fig. 3. Particle size distribution of portland cement, lime, and calcareous filler.

specimens. The reasons why Soma fly ash specimens perform better than the other two types of fly ashes can be
stated as follows:
(1) Soma fly ash (class F) is the coarsest of the three types
of fly ashes (Fig. 2). Therefore, the stiffening effect aris-

ing from the fillerbitumen interaction is realized in the


asphalt concrete specimens prepared with Soma fly ash.
(2) The aluminium oxide (Al2O3) percentage of Soma fly
ash specimens is 27.64%, which is more than twice that
of the other types of fly ash. The aluminium oxide portion of fly ash can be considered to be responsible for
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Table 13. Specific surface areas of different types of filler materials, tested in
accordance with ASTM C204-00
(ASTM 2000).
Filler type (m2/kg)
Calcareous filler
Soma fly ash
Cayirhan fly ash
Kangal fly ash
Lime
Portland cement

Test value
322.9
249.4
242.7
277.0
582.2
265.3

the bond with bitumen and, therefore, for the higher


strength and stiffness of the Marshall specimens.
(3) The apparent specific gravity of Soma fly ash is
2105 kg/m3, which is the smallest of the three types of
fly ashes. Also, this value is much smaller than the
specific gravity of the calcareous filler. Therefore, it
can be concluded that the fillerbitumen paste of Soma
fly ash specimens shows better bitumen extension when
compared with the specimens prepared with other types
of fillers.
These results conform well with the results obtained by
Tons et al. (1983) in the sense that class F fly ash acts as a
superior bitumen extender. Two other fly ash materials and
lime did not show superior properties versus calcareous
filler, with respect to stability. But, on the other hand, lime
has an average flow value of approximately 22% lower than
calcareous filler. This interesting behavior of lime comes
from the fact that it has the highest specific surface area of
582.2 m2/kg. However, lime filler specimens also have the
smallest average stability values. Another major drawback
is related to the behavior of the portland cement specimens
(Table 14). As can be seen, these samples also show superior properties because of the high specific gravity of portland cement. The highest average Marshall quotient value,
which gives important information about the stiffness modulus of the mixture, was obtained for Soma fly ash specimens. This gives an important indication for fatigue life
prediction of these types of specimens (i.e., the higher the
stiffness of the specimens, the longer the fatigue life is).
The fatigue life of Soma fly ash specimens is the highest
among all specimens. The minor variations in the specific
gravity values of the Marshall specimens can be explained
by the changes in the specific gravity values of filler materials.
From the point of view of economics, the aim of the designer is to minimize the cost of the bitumen that is being
used in the design. In the case where fly ash or other waste
material is used as filler material, there is no extra cost to
pay for the replacement operation. The most important point
that has to be emphasized is that fly ash replacement provides real economy. This is the major difference from the
polymer modification option. The optimum bitumen content
for calcareous filler is approximately 5%. Comparisons between calcareous filler and the other filler materials are

shown in Table 15. In this table, the stability values are


taken as the reference point as these are important mechanical parameters of asphalt. Also, the stability values act as a
dominant figure in the design process of asphaltaggregate
mixtures. Therefore, the bitumen content values that produce
a stability value similar to that of the control specimens
(with calcareous filler) have to be represented. The maximum stability values obtained for different types of fly ash
are greater than those of the control specimens. A representative bitumen content value that gives approximately equal
stability values to the optimum bitumen content of 5%, as it
was defined for the control specimens, is accepted as the
adjusted bitumen content of the different fillers. These
values are presented in Table 15.
The Marshall quotient values in Table 15 are presented in
Fig. 4. This figure shows the favourable behavior of fly ash
specimens when compared with a calcareous type of filler.
The fatigue life of fly ash specimens is relatively higher
when compared with the fatigue life of the control mix.
4.3. Experimental methods
4.3.1. Fatigue life analysis of Marshall specimens
Fatigue can be defined as the phenomenon of fracture
under repeated or fluctuating stress having a maximum
value generally less than the tensile strength of the material
(Austin and Gilchrist 1996). Another definition for fatigue is
that it is a process of progressive localized permanent
structural change occurring in a material subjected to conditions that produce fluctuating stresses and strains at some
point or points and which may culminate in cracks or complete fracture at a sufficient number of fluctuations (ASTM
1963). Fatigue in asphalt pavement surfaces is caused by the
repetitive application of vehicular loads, which induce fluctuating stresses and strains in the bituminous surface layer.
Under traffic loading, the layers of a flexible pavement
structure are subjected to continuous flexing. The distress,
which is caused by the fatigue phenomenon, begins with
cracking that shows up as map or alligator cracking patterns
on the surface.
4.3.2. Repeated load indirect tensile test
The repeated load indirect tensile test is a commonly used
tensile test for stabilized materials. Most of the early reported tests have been reported for concrete or mortar; however, this test is currently applied to cement-treated gravel,
lime-soil mixtures, and asphalt-stabilized materials. This
test involves loading a cylindrical specimen with a compressive load along two opposite sides, which results in a relatively uniform tensile stress acting perpendicular to and
along the diametral plane of the applied load. Finally, a
splitting failure generally occurs along the diametral plane
(Austin and Gilchrist 1996).
Under the applied force, perpendicular and horizontal
stresses, elastic modulus and strain values can be easily calculated. The fatigue life can be determined from the reduction of the elastic modulus value to a limiting value, defined
as a fraction of the initial value (generally 50%) or as a
number of load repetitions that cause the first crack to arise
in the specimen (Brown 1990).
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Table 14. Volumetric mix properties of mixtures with maximum stability based on
different types of filler materials.
Filler type
Calcareous filler
Soma fly ash
Cayirhan fly ash
Kangal fly ash
Lime
Portland cement

Air void
(%)
4.084
6.238
6.792
3.980
8.859
2.882

Unit weight
(kg/m3)
2424
2332
2342
2372
2299
2460

Stabilitymax
(kg)
2396
2649
2123
2268
2065
2420

Flow
(mm)
2.60
2.16
2.31
2.74
2.04
2.37

Marshall
quotient
921.5
1226.4
919.0
827.7
1021.3
1021.1

Table 15. Mixture properties and the adjusted bitumen content values.
Filler type
Calcareous filler
Soma fly ash
Cayirhan fly ash
Kangal fly ash
Lime
Portland cement

Adjusted
bitumen content
5.0
3.5
4.0
4.0
4.0
3.0

Stability
(kg)
2034
2207
2123
2091
2065
2014

Flow
(mm)
2.75
2.40
2.31
2.37
2.04
2.70

Marshall
quotient
739.6
919.6
919.0
882.3
1012.3
745.9

Gain in
bitumen (%)
0
+30
+20
+20
+20
+40

Fig. 4. Marshall quotient values for different filler specimens.

4.3.3. Elasticity modulus, permanent and elastic


deformations
The UMATTA tester (ELE-UMATTA 1994) is a testing
system that is used to find both the elastic modulus and the
permanent and elastic deformations of the previously prepared Marshall specimens (Wallace and Monismith 1980).
The system operates automatically and is controlled with
the help of a personal computer and software called UMAT
(ELE-UMATTA 1994). The parameters, such as applied
load level, load repetition, and time to reach maximum loading level, are given as an input before starting the test.

While the test is being carried out, with predefined intervals,


the elastic and plastic deformations are recorded and tensile
stress, resilient strain, and elastic modulus values are calculated. The experiment is conducted in a temperaturecontrolled unit and the interior and surface temperature of
the specimen is continuously recorded.
Based on these experiment results, the fatigue life of
asphalt pavements have been modelled in laboratory conditions and extensive tests have been conducted to investigate the effect of fly ash replacement on mixture
properties. These tests were carried out with a UMATTA
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Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 35, 2008

Fig. 5. Elastic strain versus pulse count of specimens prepared with different fillers.

tester (ELE-UMATTA 1994). The aim of these experiments was to model the fatigue or alligator cracking on
the pavement structure.
In this study, repeated indirect loadings were applied on
Marshall specimens and lateral deformations were measured.
The experiment was terminated when visible cracks started
to occur on the specimen surface.

5. Test results and discussion


The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of different types of fillers on properties of dense bituminous
mixes. For the calcareous aggregate, calcareous type of
filler, and 60/70 penetration bitumen used throughout the
entire study, the optimum bitumen content was found to be
approximately 5.0%. The six sets of specimens, each composed of three different samples, were prepared using the
5.0% bitumen content (the optimum bitumen content for
calcareous filler specimens). Although the air void contents
of the Marshall specimens prepared with Kangal fly ash
and lime are above 6%, these specimens were tested to
determine their fatigue lives. These types of mixes performed very well in the fatigue tests when compared with
control specimens. The fatigue tests were carried out in a
temperature-controlled unit. The test temperature was
40 8C to resemble the in situ conditions that initiate fatigue cracking. The Poissons ratio was taken as 0.35 and
the pulse period was selected as 500 ms. Loading time
was 100 ms, the rest period was 400 ms, and the applied
load was 1000 N. All of the tests were carried out with
these testing parameters and the test results presented in
Figs. 5, 6, and 7 are the average values of the three sets
of asphalt concrete specimens. Figure 5 represents the elastic strain versus pulse count of six different types of specimens prepared with different fillers. Figure 6 represents the
elastic modulus versus pulse count of the same specimens.
Figure 7 represents the permanent strain versus pulse count
of these specimens.

It can be observed that different types of specimens show


quite different patterns with respect to their fatigue lives. As
can be seen from the graphs in these figures, Soma fly ash
specimens have the longest fatigue life and calcareous filler
specimens have the shortest. When these graphs are analysed, it can be seen that there are some peak points in the
elastic strain versus pulse count graphs. After these points
are reached, if the test is continued, a strain-hardening portion with a second peak value can be observed (Tapkn
1998). In this study, the tests were terminated at the point
where the first visible crack was seen on the specimen surface. Therefore, the fatigue lives were calculated on this
basis. Initial strain values, maximum strain values, final
strain values, and the pulse counts corresponding to these
final strain values are presented in Table 16.
There are various approaches for the determination of
fatigue life of dense bituminous mixtures in published literature (Tapkn 1998). In this study, the first visible crack approach was used. According to this, an average fatigue life
of the Soma fly ash specimens is approximately 36.8%
higher than that of the control specimens.
The average initial resilient strains of the Soma fly ash
specimens are 97.4% lower than that of calcareous filler
specimens. This is a clear indicator for the anticipated longer fatigue life of this material. The average maximum resilient strain of Soma fly ash specimens is 26.8% less than that
of the control specimens. This means that Soma fly ash
specimens are exposed to a considerably lower amount of
resilient strain and, therefore, such materials would have
longer fatigue lives. The final average resilient strain of the
Soma fly ash specimens is 5.6% less than the reference
specimen. This is shown in the strain hardening portion of
the graphs in Fig. 5, which comes after the first peaks. With
this redistribution of the load in the specimen body, the
Soma fly ash specimens show longer fatigue lives.
The elastic modulus versus pulse count of six different
types of filler specimens are presented in Fig. 6. The mini#

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Fig. 6. Elastic modulus versus pulse count of specimens prepared with different fillers.

Fig. 7. Permanent strain versus pulse count of specimens prepared with different fillers.

Table 16. Resilient strains of specimens with different fillers.


Specimen
Calcareous filler
Soma fly ash
Cayirhan fly ash
Kangal fly ash
Lime
Portland cement

eo
(e)
300
152
254
174
289
201

emaximum
(e)
766
561
711
641
742
674

efinal
(e)
540
510
560
601
587
604

Pulse
count
48 222
65 947
51 336
58 520
50 558
54 223

mum value of the resilient modulus values is the point that


is believed to be the end of the fatigue life. From this point
of view, Table 17 shows the behavior difference between
the six different types of specimens.

Table 17. Resilient modulus of specimens with


different fillers.
Specimen
Calcareous filler
Soma fly ash
Cayirhan fly ash
Kangal fly ash
Lime
Portland cement

Eo
(MPa)
350.1
580.0
401.9
466.2
372.8
433.3

Emin
(MPa)
101.1
321.4
137.5
263.3
115.8
174.5

Pulse
count
48 222
65 947
51 336
58 520
50 558
54 223

As can be seen from Table 17, Soma fly ash specimens


have the highest initial resilient modulus (Eo). On the other
hand, the calcareous filler specimens have the lowest initial
resilient modulus. The initial resilient modulus of Soma fly
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Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 35, 2008

Fig. 8. Region of crack initiation for permanent strain versus pulse count (Tapkin 1998).

ash specimens was 65.7% higher than the control specimens


and the minimum resilient modulus (Emin) was 217.9%
higher than the control specimens. This represents the significant behavioral difference between these two types of
specimens with respect to their mechanical performance.
Therefore, it is also clear from Table 17 and Fig. 6 that the
Soma fly ash specimens will have the longest fatigue life.
This supports the results of the resilient strain analysis.
Figure 7 shows the permanent strain versus pulse count of
six different types of filler specimens. Permanent strains
recorded during the tests show that as the number of load
repetitions increase, permanent strains also increase. At the
initial stages of the test, this increase is gradual and nearly
linear. When Fig. 7 is examined, it can be observed that,
after a number of load repetitions, the rate of increase in
permanent strains gets higher and, at later stages, again
drops. Before visible cracks are observed on the samples,
the increase in permanent strains with load repetitions again
becomes nearly linear. Crack initiation, which is not visible
and not easily detectable, most probably will occur in between the two linear portions of permanent strain plots
(Tapkn 1998). This is shown in Fig. 8 for the permanent
strain versus pulse count relation.
It is believed that crack initiation starts before pulse count
reaches the point where the rate of increase in permanent
strain is at its maximum. From each permanent strain
pulse count plot, these points are determined by a single
procedure. To each permanent strain pulse count relation,
a regression curve is fitted and the pulse counts at which
rate of increase in permanent strains start to change abruptly
are determined. According to these discussions, the fatigue
lives of specimens can be thought of as the number of load
repetitions at which the rate of increase in permanent strains
is highest (Tapkn 1998). These critical pulse counts are
shown in Fig. 9 for the entire series of specimens tested.
When the values of these six sets of specimens are examined (which change between 38 325 and 50 344 pulse
counts), it can be seen that the difference between the fatigue lives of the calcareous filler and Soma fly ash filler
specimens with respect to permanent strain measurements is
31.4%. This value conforms well with the fatigue life differ-

ence value of 36.8% obtained from the analysis of elastic


strain and elastic modulus graphs of Fig. 5 and Fig. 6.

6. Conclusions and recommendations


Filler replacement with fly ash provides a considerable
economy of bitumen in asphaltaggregate mixtures designed
for the equivalent stability. From the physical interaction
of fly ash and bitumen paste, a more preferable asphalt
aggregate mixture behavior is obtained. This asphaltaggregate
mixture behavior was investigated from the point of view
of rheological properties of the mixtures, namely by carrying out fatigue tests. The fatigue life of fly ash specimens,
especially Soma fly ash, was found to be considerably
higher than that of the control specimens. This is a very
promising result that can be explained mainly by the stiffening and void-filling effects of the fly ash filler acting as
a bitumen extender in the asphaltaggregate mixture. Soma
fly ash is the coarsest among the investigated types of fly
ash it has the highest Al2O3 content and has the lowest
specific gravity therefore, the specimens prepared with
Soma fly ash had the longest fatigue lives.
Fly ash filler replacement will draw the interest of pavement engineers as utilization of fly ash is an important problem both from an economic and environmental point of
view. Also, another alternative, polymer modification, is a
more expensive process that brings additional cost to the
overall design. Fly ash can be obtained easily with little
cost and the addition of fly ash to the asphaltaggregate
mixtures does not need any specialized equipment or skilled
workmanship.
The physico-chemical interaction between fly ash and the
bitumen should be studied with the help of techniques used
in materials science. The use of scanning electron microscopy can resolve many questions about the interaction of
fly ash and bitumen paste. Also, fatigue tests were carried
out using the 5% optimum bitumen content, which was the
calculated value for calcareous filler specimens. The same
tests can be carried out with the adjusted bitumen contents
obtained for the different types of fillers, to validate economic considerations with respect to the use of these fillers.
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Fig. 9. Fatigue lives of specimens prepared with different fillers according to permanent strain records.

These recommendations are beyond the scope of this study,


but they form a good basis for further research.

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