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Article history:
Received 19 July 2013
Received in revised form
14 November 2013
Accepted 17 November 2013
Available online xxx
Keywords:
Supply chain modeling
Biofuels
Bioenergy
Mathematical programming
Multi-scale modeling
a b s t r a c t
This article describes the key challenges and opportunities in modeling and optimization of biomass-tobioenergy supply chains. It reviews the major energy pathways from terrestrial and aquatic biomass to
bioenergy/biofuel products as well as power and heat with an emphasis on drop-in liquid hydrocarbon
fuels. Key components of the bioenergy supply chains are then presented, along with a comprehensive
overview and classication of the existing contributions on biofuel/bioenergy supply chain optimization.
This paper identies fertile avenues for future research that focuses on multi-scale modeling and optimization, which allows the integration across spatial scales from unit operations to biorenery processes
and to biofuel value chains, as well as across temporal scales from operational level to strategic level.
Perspectives on future biofuel supply chains that integrate with petroleum renery supply chains and/or
carbon capture and sequestration systems are presented. Issues on modeling of sustainability and the
treatment of uncertainties in bioenergy supply chain optimization are also discussed.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Biomass-derived liquid transportation fuels and energy products have been proposed as part of the solution to climate change
and our heavy dependence on fossil fuels, because the biomass
feedstock can be produced renewably from a variety of domestic
sources, and the production and use of bioenergy/biofuel products have potentially lower environmental impacts than their
petroleum counterparts (An, Wilhelm, & Searcy, 2011a; Gold &
Seuring, 2011; Marquardt et al., 2010). Consequently, many countries have set national biofuels targets and provide incentives and
supports to accelerate the growth of bioenergy industry. For example, in the U.S. the Renewable Fuels Standard (RFS), part of the
Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) of 2007, establishes
an annual production target of 36 billion gallons of biofuels by
2022 (EISA, 2007). Currently most biofuels in the U.S. are made
from corn starch that might have negative implications in terms
of both food prices and production (McNew & Grifth, 2005;
Rajagapol, Sexton, Hochman, Roland-Holst, & Zilberman, 2009).
To avoid adverse impacts on food supply, EISA further species
that 16 out of the 36 billion gallons of renewable fuels produced
in 2022 should be advanced biofuels made from non-starch feedstocks, such as cellulosic or algal biomass. Yet, the current annual
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 847 467 2943; fax: +1 847 491 3728.
E-mail address: you@northwestern.edu (F. You).
production capacity of advanced biofuels is less than 1 billion gallon worldwide. It is foreseeable that the bioenergy industry will be
undergoing a rapid expansion in the coming decade. Many sustainable and robust biomass-to-bioenergy supply chains, which link the
sustainable biomass feedstock and the nal fuel/energy products,
need to be designed and developed for lower costs, less environmental impacts and more social benets (Elia, Baliban, & Floudas,
2012; Hosseini & Shah, 2011; Sharma, Ingalls, Jones, & Khanchi,
2013). To accelerate the transition towards the large-scale and sustainable production and use of biofuels and bioenergy products,
a signicant challenge in research is to systematically design and
optimize the entire bioenergy supply chains from the biomass feedstock production to the biofuel/bioenergy end-use across multiple
spatial scales, from unit operations to biorenery processes and to
the entire value chain, as well as across multiple temporal scales,
from strategic to operational levels, in a cost-effective, robust and
sustainable manner (Daoutidis, Marvin, Rangarajan, & Torres, 2013;
Marquardt et al., 2010). It is the objective of this paper to identify the key research challenges and opportunities in modeling and
optimization of biomass-to-bioenergy supply chains using Process
Systems Engineering (PSE) tools and methods, and to chart a path
for addressing these challenges.
In this paper, we classify the existing contributions on bioenergy
supply chain optimization, elucidate the research challenges, and
demonstrate that multi-scale modeling and optimization approach
can play a leading role to address these challenges. We rst review
the major biomass-to-biofuels pathways, with a specic emphasis
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compchemeng.2013.11.016
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The second group of terrestrial biomass feedstocks, the cellulosic biomass, can avoid adverse impacts on food supply, because
they are non-starch, non-edible and non-food feedstocks. Cellulosic
biomass feedstocks can be obtained from a number of sources, such
as agricultural residues, forest residues and energy crops. Agricultural residues are typically plant parts left in the eld after harvest
(e.g., corn stover), as well as the secondary residues like manure and
food processing wastes. Forest residues are leftover wood or plant
material from logging operations, forest management, and landclearing, as well as secondary residues like mill wastes. Dedicated
energy crops (e.g., poplar, switchgrass, Miscanthus) are typically
fast-growing trees and perennial grasses specically grown for
energy uses.
2.1.2. Aquatic feedstocks
Aquatic biomass includes a diverse group of primarily
aquatic, photosynthetic algae and cyanobacteria ranging from the
microscopic (microalgae and cyanobacteria) to large seaweeds
(macroalgae) (DOE/EERE, 2010b).
Many macroalgae, microalgae, and cyanobacteria carry out
photosynthesis to drive rapid biomass growth. Certain strains of
microalgae make extremely efcient use of light and nutrients. As
they do not have to produce structural compounds such as cellulose
for leaves, stems, or roots, and because they can be grown oating
in a rich nutritional medium, microalgae can have faster growth
rates than terrestrial crops. In some cases, algae growth rates can
be an order of magnitude faster than those of terrestrial crop plants.
As algae have a harvesting cycle of 110 days, their cultivation permits several harvests in a very short time-frame, a strategy differing
from that associated with yearly crops. Algae naturally remove and
recycle nutrients (e.g., nitrogen and phosphorous) from water and
wastewater, and can be used to sequester carbon dioxide from the
ue gases emitted from fossil fuel-red power plants. Adding to the
appeal, some strains of microalgae can grow on land unsuitable for
other established crops, for instance: arid land, land with excessively saline soil, and drought-stricken land. This minimizes the
competition on arable land with the cultivation of food crops. More
importantly, algae biomass can contain high levels of oil (lipids or
triacylglycerides), making it a promising feedstock for the production of renewable gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel. Algae can produce
one or even two orders of magnitude more oil per unit area than
conventional crops such as rapeseed, palms, soybeans, or jatropha
(DOE/EERE, 2010b; Hasan & Chakrabarti, 2009).
The cultivation of macroalgae (e.g., seaweed) is similar to that of
terrestrial plants but in aquatic environment. In practice, macroalgae are cultivated in large offshore farms, near-shore coastal zones,
or open pond facilities. In contrast, depending on the type of
microalgae and cyanobacteria, there are various cultivation methods, varying both in their advantages and challenges. Broadly
speaking, algae can be cultivated via photoautotrophic or heterotrophic methods. The former requires light and carbon dioxide
for photosynthesis while the latter requires suitable feedstocks
such as lignocellulosic sugars for growth. The cultivation system
for microalgae and cyanobacteria is either closed bioreactor or open
pond. Closed bioreactor yields less loss of water and better biomass
quality, but has scalability problems. Open pond requires lower
capital costs and take advantage of evaporative cooling, but it is
subject to weather and condition changes and inherently difcult
to avoid contamination and foreign algae (DOE/EERE, 2010b).
2.2. Types and major properties of biofuels
2.2.1. Ethanol and other alcohols
As the rst generation biofuel technology, biomass-derived
ethanol and other alcohols were largely produced from starchor sugar-based biomass, such as corn and sugarcane. Due to the
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Fig. 1. Selected conversion pathways from terrestrial and aquatic biomass to intermediates and to nal biofuel products.
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Cellulosic biomass to
hydrocarbon biofuels
Mele, Guillen-Gosalbez,
and Jimenez (2009),
Zamboni, Bezzo, and Shah
(2009a), Zamboni, Shah,
and Bezzo (2009b),
Eksioglu, Li, Zhang,
Sokhansanj, and Petrolia
(2010), Akgul, Zamboni,
Bezzo, Shah, and
Papageorgiou (2011),
Corsano, Vecchietti, and
Montagna (2011), Dal-Mas,
Giarola, Zamboni, and
Bezzo (2011), Mele, Kostin,
Guillen-Gosalbez, and
Jimenez (2011), Bai et al.
(2012)
Selection of technologies
Decentralized production
Multi-objective optimization
Sustainability
Uncertainties
Game theory
Simulation models
Algae to biofuels
Avami (2012)
cek et al.
Cucek et al. (2010), Cu
(2012a,b)
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Table 1
Summary of some recent publications on the modeling and optimization of biofuel supply chains.
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technologies are relatively mature and the corresponding supply chain design and optimization is desired for commercial-scale
implementation. The column algae to biofuel represents the
supply chains using fourth-generation biofuel technologies, which
produce various liquid fuels and chemicals from lipids and/or
hydrocarbons in algae feedstocks. Compared to other columns,
there is a signicant lack of studies on these nascent technologies, mainly because of the scarcity of credible data and references.
Processes regarding algae cultivation, harvesting, and conversion
need to be well classied and documented before the supply chain
modeling and optimization can be implemented. The last column
biomass to power, heat, food, etc. includes supply chains
with non-fuel uses of biomass resources, which provide electricity and heat supply to surrounding communities or produce foods
and other valuable chemical products. As can be seen, the large
body of literature in this column indicates the importance of these
non-fuel biomass utilization pathways.
By observing the rows of Table 1, we can see that most research
works focused on supply chain design, mainly involving the
transportation network design and biorenery facility location
problems. A few studies integrated the planning and operation of
bioreneries into the supply chain models, thus achieving a higher
resolution in both spatial and temporal scales. We note that earlier
works on the design of biofuel supply chains seldom considered the
selection of technologies. However, as more and more conversion options become available, selection of technologies become
a critical component in the recent works on supply chain design
and optimization. As will be further discussed in later sections,
decentralized production is a relatively new concept, mainly
emerging from the design of advanced hydrocarbon biofuel supply
chains, which suggests that the traditional integrated biorenery
can be decomposed into multiple conversion steps in multiple
geographically distributed production facilities. Multi-objective
optimization is required when conicting objectives are considered simultaneously. This often involves the tradeoff between
economic, environmental and social performances of the supply
chain as well as the risks associated with design and operation.
Since biofuels are considered as a renewable energy alternative
to fossil fuels, the sustainability issues deserve further attention to avoid introducing adverse impacts on the ecosystem and
human society. Some works employed the life cycle analysis (LCA)
methodology to assess the environmental impacts (e.g., greenhouse
gas emissions), while some addressed job creation opportunities
brought by the biofuel value chains. While most models considered
the design and operation of biofuel supply chains under deterministic environments, some recent works investigated the performance
of a biofuel supply chain system in the presence of various uncertainties (e.g., price volatility, yield uncertainty). Instead of treating
the biofuel supply chain system as a cooperative entity, we can also
view the biofuel supply chain system as a value chain composed
of different parties, who are acting selshly and in a noncooperative manner. Few existing works utilized game theory and spatial
market equilibrium to model the inter-relationships in biofuel supply chains. In addition to mathematical programming approaches,
simulation models are also useful tools for the study of biofuel
supply chains, which can easily capture dynamics in complex systems and provide process data for the optimization.
the biofuel supply chain (Hosseini & Shah, 2011). In this paper, we
portray a schematic framework of multi-scale modeling and optimization for biofuel supply chains in Fig. 2. From bottom to top,
four system layers regarding different temporal and spatial scales
typify the level of ecosystem, supply chain, process, and molecule,
respectively.
At the ecosystem layer, the ecosystem and human society constitute the environment where various activities in biofuel supply
chains take place. All these activities would cause impacts and footprints on the ecosystem throughout the life cycle and value chain
of the biofuel products, involving biomass cultivation, biomass harvesting and logistics, biomass pretreatment and fuel production in
conversion facilities, and fuel distribution and end-use. Modeling
and optimization tools can be applied to simultaneously evaluate and identify the sustainable solutions with minimum adverse
impacts on the environment and maximum benets to the society. Since multiple conicting objectives are often involved when
optimizing the sustainability of biofuel supply chains, a number
of multi-objective optimization techniques can be applied, such as
epsilon-constraint method, goal programming method, etc. Triangle charts can be used for comparison between different solutions
with different economic, environmental, and social performances.
Pareto frontiers obtained from multi-objective optimization can
reveal the tradeoffs between conicting objectives and provide a
set of Pareto-optimal solutions for decision-making.
At the supply chain layer, modeling and optimization tools
can play an important role in optimizing the supply chain network structure and improving the various activities involved in the
installation and operation of biofuel supply chains. A biofuel supply chain usually consists of multiple sites and multiple echelons,
which requires coordination across the entire supply chain network
(You, Grossmann, & Wassick, 2011). At the design stage, superstructure optimization allows the decision maker to determine the
optimal network design from a number of choices among candidate
suppliers, facility locations, technology options, transport modes,
etc. By using mathematical programming approaches, description
of the various activities, even across multiple sectors, can be easily
interpreted into equations in the constraints or objective functions.
However, a comprehensive and detailed superstructure, though
appealing, may be computationally intractable. Therefore, when
modeling the biofuel supply chain systems, we should take advantage of the properties of the supply chain system (e.g., network
structure, spatial scale) and drop off the components that have negligible inuences on the optimization objectives to trade off the
modeling resolution and computation efciency.
At the process layer, the processes and units at a production
facility are studied in a more detailed manner. Superstructurebased optimization can again be employed for the design, synthesis,
and retrot of conversion processes, involving the selection
among candidate processing methods, equipment units, catalysts,
resource supply scenarios, etc (Yeomans & Grossmann, 1999).
Regarding the operation at a biorenery, three levels of decisions need to be optimized, namely planning, scheduling, and
control. Optimization for planning involves the development of
robust forecasting model, multi-year strategy for capacity expansion and process retrot, multi-period targets for purchase, sales
and production, etc. Optimization for scheduling involves the efcient and timely allocation of equipment units, raw materials, and
human labors to fulll the external and internal orders. Optimization for control involves real-time monitoring and adjustment of
process parameters to meet the required quantity and quality of
the products. The three decision levels are closely related, thus also
providing enormous opportunities for vertical integration (Chu &
You, 2012; Engell & Harjunkoski, 2012; Wassick et al., 2012).
At the molecule level, modeling and optimization tools can
be employed by researchers with diverse background to facilitate
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Optimization models regarding vehicle routing and eet scheduling can be employed to cope with these problems. At the logistics
phase, one needs to gure out the optimal inventory policies
regarding how much to replenish from the upstream, how much to
deliver to the downstream, how much to utilize for the production
of intermediates or fuel products, and what level of inventory to
keep in the storage units. These problems become more challenging
as the supply of several types of biomass feedstocks would be subject to season-to-season changes and limited in certain months of a
year. Lots of tools and theories developed for generic supply chains
can be incorporated for inventory optimization in biofuel supply chains, including sophisticated forecasting models, enterprise
resource planning (ERP) system, material allocation rules, service
level measurements, information ow structure, etc. At the production phase, major operational decisions involve the coordination of
various material ows and scheduling of multiple processing tasks
with continuous/batch equipment units in order to guarantee the
timely delivery of requested products both in quantity and quality. Extensive studies on planning and scheduling in petroleum
and chemical production industries can be adapted to study the
problem. Additionally, in cases that the quality and water content of biomass feedstocks vary signicantly, optimization of the
operational parameters (e.g., temperature, pressure, ow rate) and
real-time control trajectory would be required. Advanced control
algorithms and dynamic simulation models exploiting the physical and thermodynamic properties are helpful for handling these
problems.
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Table 2
Total discounted capital, production, and transportation costs of the three designs
under different side length of the square world.
11
Distributed
Two-stage
40 km
60 km
135 km
200 km
$290 MM/y
$1.94/GEG
$457 MM/y
$3.06/GEG
$298 MM/y
$2.30/GEG
$530 MM/y
$1.58/GEG
$786 MM/y
$2.34/GEG
$528 MM/y
$1.81/GEG
$2224 MM/y
$1.31/GEG
$2610 MM/y
$1.54/GEG
$1927 MM/y
$1.30/GEG
$5156 MM/y
$1.38/GEG
$5126 MM/y
$1.38/GEG
$4031 MM/y
$1.24/GEG
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Fig. 3. Illustration of centralized vs. distributed supply chain networks. (a) Comparison of three designs of the biofuel supply chain. (b) Illustration of centralized-distributed
pathways. (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
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Fig. 4. Entry points for biomass resources into existing petroleum infrastructure.
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6.1.1.3. Impact assessment. In this phase, the LCI obtained from the
previous phase is translated according to certain damage assessment models. These models can generate a unied or a series of
environmental performance indicators, which are easily understandable and user-friendly numbers. The most widely-used LCA
metrics include GWP (IPCC, 2007), Eco-indicator 99 (Goedkoop
& Spriensma, 2001), IMPACT 2002+ (Humbert, Schryver, Bengoa,
Margni, & Jolliet, 2012), etc. GWP focuses on greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions causing the global warming effects, while Eco-indicator
99 and IMPACT 2002+ evaluate the environmental impacts in more
comprehensive categories (e.g., human health, ecosystem quality
and resources). We note one critical problem that has been recently
highlighted is about the water footprint of biofuel production systems (Chiu, Suh, Pster, Hellweg, & Koehler, 2012; Gerbens-Leenes
& Hoekstra, 2011), which should also be explicitly dealt with in biofuel supply chain design (Bernardi, Giarola, & Bezzo, 2012; Bernardi,
cek, Klemes, & Kravanja, 2012a,b).
Giarola, & Bezzo, 2013; Cu
6.1.1.4. Interpretation. In the nal phase, the LCA results are analyzed to provide a set of conclusions and recommendations, usually
in the form of written reports. In this regard, when we consider
the biofuel supply chain, the goal of LCA is to provide criteria
and quantitative measurements for comparing different network
layouts and operation alternatives. However, one of the critical
drawbacks of classical LCA framework is that it lacks a systematic approach for generating such alternatives and identifying the
best one in terms of environmental performance (Grossmann &
Guilln-Goslbez, 2010). Therefore, most researchers merely use
LCA as a post-optimization tool for the evaluation of environmental
sustainability.
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uncertainty we would like to mention corresponds to the climate and weathers. Different from petroleum resources, the annual
biomass yield is largely dependent on the sunlight, precipitation,
climate, as well as pest threats. For biomass, there are potential
catastrophic risks at both the seasonal and multi-seasonal scales.
Robust optimization might be the appropriate tool for the design
and operation of biofuel supply chains to guarantee the quantity
and quality of biomass supplies.
7.2. Operational uncertainty
Compared to the strategic uncertainties, the operational uncertainties are encountered thus need to be taken care of on a more
frequent basis. The most recognized type of operational uncertainty is the volatility in prices and costs, namely purchasing prices
of biomass resources at farms, bills for utilities (e.g., natural gas,
electricity, stream, etc.) and costs associated with various activities (e.g., labor, transport fuel, etc.). Note that pricing uncertainties
are different between biomass and petroleum. Petroleum feedstock and product prices are correlated. However, biomass products
(biofuels) are coordinated to petroleum fuels, while biomass feedstock costs are more correlated to climate and weather. In addition,
because of the variability in biomass feedstocks and the lack of
experienced workers, the uncertainty in process yields associated
with disturbances in operating conditions, errors in operation, etc.
can lead to unqualied biofuel products and delay in order delivery. We suggest probability theory and statistical tools can help to
explore the uncertainty dynamics. Whereas, robust optimization
may provide assistance to ensure satisfactory performances of biofuel supply chains under volatile market environment and unstable
process outcomes. Another two types of operational uncertainty
supply delays and demand uctuation are common topics in the
operations research community. Supply delays, also known as lead
time variability, often occur during batch production and material transportation, while demand uctuation is closely related to
the local consumption behavior and regional economy structure.
There is no doubt that accurate forecasting models are critical
to make biofuel companies well-informed of the future market.
Metrics such as conditional value-at-risk (Rockafellar & Uryasev,
2002) and downside risk (Eppen, Martin, & Schrage, 1989), coupled
with the corresponding models and algorithms (You, Wassick, &
Grossmann, 2009), can also be employed to control and manage the
risks at the optimal design and operation of biofuel supply chains. In
addition, optimization models based on stochastic inventory theory
(Graves & Willems, 2000, 2005; You & Grossmann, 2008b) might
be the most promising approach, because they can explicitly optimize the working and safety inventory to hedge against the supply
delay and demand uctuation, whilst guarantee the required service level (You & Grossmann, 2011b; Yue & You, 2013a; You, Pinto,
Grossmann, & Megan, 2011).
8. Supply chains of non-fuel end-uses for biomass
derivatives
Besides the production of biofuels for the transportation sector,
biomass sources also provide a sustainable alternative for producing electric power and heat. Furthermore, valuable co-products and
byproducts can be obtained accompany with the production of biofuels, which leads to additional prot for the biorenery industry.
8.1. Biopower and biomass-to-heat supply chain
Among the renewable power generation options, biopower
offers the advantage of being dispatchable, that is, the biomass can
be stored for the use of power plant operation to serve the load.
This avoids many of the grid integration challenges associated with
17
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pathways more efcient. Furthermore, process synthesis and integration and multi-physics process simulation can help to lower the
overall energy intensity of unit operations in bioreneries, maximize the use of all feedstock components, byproducts and waste
streams, and use economies of scale, common processing operations, materials, and equipment to drive down all production costs.
Since the additional material streams related to advanced bioproducts may be similar to those in the petroleumchemical supply
chains, we can also leverage the tools on planning and scheduling to coordinate the use of resources in production and optimize
the logistic activities in the downstream distribution system. Moreover, the upstream of the biomass-to-chemicals supply chain is the
same as the biofuel supply chain, thus the aforementioned modeling and optimization methods for biomass harvesting and logistics
also apply in this case.
9. Conclusion
Although ethanol and bio-diesel are the most worldwide
recognized biomass-derived liquid transportation fuel products
currently, it is foreseeable that in the near future advanced hydrocarbon biofuels would experience a rapid growth due to the
political expectation, economic promise, environmental requirement, and social benets. As reviewed in this paper, cellulosic and
algae-based hydrocarbon biofuels have numerous advantages over
ethanol and bio-diesel in compatibility with existing distribution
infrastructure, implication on food price and land competition, and
potential for substituting various high-value petrochemicals. The
multi-scale modeling and optimization framework can preserve
a holistic view and facilitate informed systematical researches in
elds of molecular engineering, unit operation, process design,
supply chain management, and sustainability assessment. Opportunities and challenges emerge from multiple spatial and temporal
scales in the biofuel supply chain systems are discussed. Perspectives on centralized-distributed network design, multi-player
interaction, and integration with other supply chain systems are
revealed in this paper. Additionally, we classify decisions into
strategic and operational levels according to their inuences on
the temporal scale. We also investigate issues associated with
biofuel supply chains in the threefold sustainabilityeconomy,
environment, and society, as well as the uncertainty and risks. Nonfood end-uses of biomass derivatives are also introduced in this
paper, identifying the opportunities for power and heat supply and
advanced bioproducts.
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge nancial support from the
Initiative for Sustainability and Energy at Northwestern University
(ISEN) and Argonne National Laboratory via a NorthwesternArgonne Early Career Investigator Award for Energy Research. The
submitted manuscript has been created by UChicago Argonne, LLC,
Operator of Argonne National Laboratory (Argonne). Argonne, a
U.S. Department of Energy Ofce of Science laboratory, is operated
under Contract No. DE-AC02-06CH11357. The U.S. Government
retains for itself, and others acting on its behalf, a paid-up nonexclusive, irrevocable worldwide license in said article to reproduce,
prepare derivative works, distribute copies to the public, and
perform publicly and display publicly, by or on behalf of the Government.
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