For written discussion*

Paper No. 6982

THE DESIGN OF FLY-ASH CONCRETES

by

Iain A. Smith B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E.

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Glasgow

SYNOPSIS

This Paper describes a method foruse in the design of concrete mixes to give
a required early strengthand degree of workability when incorporating fly-ash.
The usefulness of the method is shown by comparison with a large number of
tests on fly-ash cement concretes and with analyses of previously published
papers from external sources. It is shown that there is no need to accept a
loss of early strength when using fly-ash in concrete.
NOTATION
The following notation will be used throughout. When the word cement
is used it will mean cement only. Cement mixed with fly-ash will be termed
fly-ash cement.
W
weight of free water (lb)
C
weight of cement (Ib)
F
weight of fly-ash (Ib)
weight of aggregates (lb)
A
effective
waterlcement ratio of a concrete with regard to its
(
W
C
>
.
(W/C). is equal to W/C. In a
strength.Inanormalconcrete
fly-ash cement concrete ( W / C ) , is the water/cement ratio required in a normal concrete to give it the same strength as the
fly-ash cement concrete
( W C ) , water/cement ratio of any orthodox concrete which gives to that
concrete a required degree
of workability
the aggregate/cement ratio of the above orthodox concrete with
N
waterlcement ratio ( W / O ,
the specific gravity of ash particles
G
The cementing elliciency of an ash relative to cement as measured
K
by the effect of the ash on the ratio ( W / O . . In its efTect o n this
ratio a weight F of ash will be equivalent to a weight KF of
cement.
INTRODUCTION
A POZZOLAN is a finely divided siliceous material which reacts with lime in the
I n modern times natural
presence of water to give cementitiousproducts.
pozzolanicmaterials havebeenused
for manyyears
in conjunctionwith
Portland-type cements. The cementing action
of the pozzolan is believed to
be dependent on reaction between it and lime liberated from the cement in its
hydration. The residue from modern electricity generating stations, in which
~~

~~

Written discussion should reach the Institution before

15 June, 1967. and will be
published in or after October 1967. Contributions should not exceed 1200 words.
769

770

SMITH ON THE DESIGN OF FLY-ASH CONCRETES

the fuelused is pulverized coal dust, takes the form

of extremely small particles
which,are generally, though not always, spherical in shape and
whose chemical
constituents are those of the original clay minerals in the coal. This residue
is called pulverized fuel ash or fly-ash. Approximately thirty years ago it was
realized that fly-ash possessed properties similar to those
of naturally occurring
pozzolansand research was institutedtodiscoverwhetherornot
fly-ash
actually behaved in the same way.
2. Research since that time has in general followed the methods used by
the original investigators who found the strength of a control concrete and
compared it with that of a similar concrete which differed from the first only
in having a certain quantity of cement replaced by fly-ash. When this is done
the result is always a lowering of early strength. This has been repeated so
many times that sight has been lost of the fact that it is possible to redesign
the fly-ash concrete to recover the loss of strength.
3. Thetwomainfactors
which affect thestrengths of similarnormal
concretes are the typeof cement and the water/cement ratio. If two cements
which differ in their rates of hardening are used in two concretes, then one
concrete can be made to reach the same strength as the other at agiven date
by adjusting its water/cement ratio. It
is possible to estimate the required
alteration in the ratio of water to cement to give a certain change in strength
by assuming that the relationship between water/cement ratio and strength
has the form of the Abrams Law curve.
4. It would be reasonable to apply the same method to mixturesof cement
and fly-ash if concretes containing differing ratios
of these were to reach equal
strengths at the same ages. The relative usefulness of a fly-ash could then be
judged by its effect on the curve of water/cement ratio against strength.
5. Some confusion exists about the practical
use of fly-ashinconcrete.
This confusion is made evident
when it is said that fly-ash can
be used in
concrete in three different ways-as a cement replacement, as an admixture
or as a replacement for sand.
Theseare, in effect, threedifferent ways of
looking at the same thing. The cementing effect of fly-ash in a concrete in
which 20% of the original cement has
been replaced by fly-ash will be the same
as in a concrete in which an admixture of fly-ash is 25% of the weight of
cement. If the change from cement to fly-ash-cement lowered the workability
and the aggregate/cement ratio was reduced to compensate, then it might be
argued that fly-ashwas replacingsand. The attitude of mindiswrongin
each of the three cases. A concrete containing fly-ash should be regarded as
a new type of concrete and designed accordingly.

EFFECT
OF FLY-ASH ON CONCRETE STRENGTH
6. Before a rational method of fly-ash concrete design could be found it
was necessary to discover the effect which thefly-ashwouldhaveonthe
strength of concrete containing it. As strength is linked with water content a
first series of tests was directed at discovering the effectof fly-ash on the
effective water/cement ratio of concrete containing it. This ratio is numerically equal to the water/cement ratio
of a cement concreteof the same strength,
at the same age, as the fly-ash-cement concrete under consideration.
7. To give somebasisforthecomparison
of test results with known
properties of the ashes used, each ash
was assumed to have a cementing

771

SMITH ON THE DESIGN OF FLY-ASH CONCRETES

efficiency K , such that a weight F of fly-ash would be equivalent to a weight

KF of cement. Thus for a concretecontaining weights W ofwater, C of
cement and F of fly-ash, the effective waterlcement ratio is
(WIG). = -= -

MATERIALS
8. The cement used in all the tests was Portland cement ranging in quality
from ordinary to rapid hardening. The aggregate used was combined from

CA

050
060
070
080
EFFECTIVE WATER/CEMENT RATIO

2 3000

.
0.60

0.50

070

O
Design S[. 4170
O

C R = 9 6 6C0A / C R =

1.28

0.90
(li/C) I

0.90

080

0.704

@OOV
1.00

RATIO (lV/C),

f
W

124w

-Strength =2500 ..(IY/C),

EFFECTIVEWATER/CEMENT

3000
2
U

3ooo

*--*--*

t,
W

L
2

2U

2150
---_-

Design X.
--+

200n

0.50

Actual SI. 2750

Actual st. 2500
F4

---

0.60

EFFECTIVE WATER/CEMENT
RATIO

2000
3000

070

(lV/C)s

4000

STRENGTH
DESIGN

FIG.1 : EXAMPLES
OF

CONSTRUCTIONS, (a) CONSTRUCTION OF CONTROL LINE; (b)

ESTIMATION OF EFFECTIVE WATER/CEMENT RATIO FROM CUBE STRENGTH; (c) CON-

STRUCTION OF ACTUALSTRENGTHIDESIGNSTRENGTHDIAGRAM

772

THE DESIGN OF FLY-ASH

ON .WITH

CONCRETES

washed sand and separatesizes of 3 in., 4 in., in. and 4 in. crushedwhinstone.
The absorption of the combined materials was negligible.
9. The first series of tests on fly-ash concretes used one sample of ash from
each of three generating stations.
In the second series of tests up to three
different samples were tested from each of a total of twenty-four generating
stations throughout England and Wales.
FIRST
SERIES OF TESTS
10. The tests in this series were intended to show whether or not the factor
K would be useful in measuring the effect of the presence of fly-ash on the
effective water/cement ratio of a concrete.
11. To calculate the value of K for each ash a control line of strength
against water/cement ratio was first plotted from results of tests cm control
concretes containing no ash. The abscissae of these lines are effective water/
cement ratios. (The effective water/cement ratio of a normal non-ash concrete
is its actual water/cement ratio.)
The ordinates of these lines are the Road
Research Note No. 4 values1 for strength, each multiplied by a factor which
makes the curve the best fit to the points plotted for the control concretes
alone. This is showninFig.l(a).
12. The strengths reached by concretes containing ash were then used to
find the effective water/cement ratios of these concretes against the control
K was thencalculated using the
curve as shownin Fig. l(b).Thefactor
effective water/cement ratio and the mix proportions using the relationship

13. Fig. l(c) shows examples of the construction used to find the positions
of the test results in a diagram of actual strength against design strength. To
construct this diagram the effective water/cement ratio of each concrete was
calculated from ( W/C),= (W/C)[1/1+ (KF/C)] using a value of 0.25 for K ,
and the value of ( WjC), used to find design strength on the control line.
14. The sources of the ashes, their specific surfaces and carbon contents
are shown in Table 1 . This table also shows the average value of K for each
ash at seven days old. At the age of 28 days K was found to be virtually
unchanged from the seven day value.

TABLE
1: AVERACE
VALUE OF K FOR

EACH OF THE THREE ASHES AT SEVEN DAYS

IN THE FIRSTSERIES

Ash source

Specific
.surface*

Carbon
per cent

No. of

mixes

Brunswick

. .

4300

3-75

0.255

Hackney .

5250

9.14

0264

6050

14.76

0.266

1
,

1
I

Croydon

~~

* Sq. cm/gm by an air permeability method.

24
13
10

SMITH O N THE DESIGN OF FL.Y-ASH CONCRETES

773

ANALYSES
OF REPORTS IN PREVIOUSLY PUBLISHBD PAPERS
As can be seen in Table 1 the first series of tests showed that for three
apparentlydifferentashesthe
efficiency factors K were similar. This was
quite unexpected and at first sight was not borne out by previously published
work. To find out how much variation couldbe expected from many different
ashes it was decided to analyse such of these earlier reports on the use of flyash in concrete as contained
sufficient information on mix proportions.2-5
16. Using the data on control concretes, control lines were drawn in the
same way as they were in the first series of tests.
17. From mix proportions given in the reports and using a rounded off
value of 0.3 for K , the effective water/cement ratios of the fly-ash cement concretes were calculated and plottedagainst the strengths they attained. The
results of these reductions can be seen in Figs 2-5.
18. References 2-5 were analysed in this way to give results on approximately fifty ashes withwidely differing properties. The value of 0.3 for K
can be seen to group the fly-ash-cement concrete results close or parallel to
the control lines. In the cases in Figs4(a) and 4(b) this isseen to happen
even in theconcretesin
whichfly-ashwas
originallyconsidered to be a
replacement for sand.
15.

SECOND SERIES OF TEST5

19. The foregoing tests and analyses show the effect of fly-ash on concrete
strength. The tests howeverwere on onlythree British ashes anddidnot
show the effect which fly-ash would have
on concrete workability. For these
reasons a second series of tests was carried out which included fly-ashes with
a wide range of properties and was intended to test the validity of assumptions
made in deriving a practical method for use in the design of fly-ash-cement
concretes.
20. The aggregates used in this series were of the same type as those used
in the first. Ash samples were received from the generating stations shown in
Table 2.
21. Up to three separate samples, from batches obtainedat different times,
were received from each of these stations. The carbon contents and specific
surfaces of most of these ashes were measured. Each ash was used in four
concretes which were designed to cover the normal range of structural concretes. Cubes were cast from each mix for testing at the ages of 7 days, 28
days, 56 days, 3 months and 6 months for the first 27 ash samples. For later
concretes, cubes for testing at 6 months were not cast. K was found for each
ash in the same way as for the ashes in the first series.
22. Cylinders 6 in. diameter and 6 in. long were also cast and tested by
splitting at 28 days old to enable an estimate to be made of the effect of the
presence of fly ash on thetensile strength of concrete.
DESIGN
METHOD FOR FLY-ASH CONCRETE
23. The results of the first series of tests show that a value of 0.25 for K
might be a reasonable one on which to base a rule for the design of a fly-ash
concrete to reach a desired strength.
24. To allow for the effect of fly-ash on concrete workability it was found
to be reasonable to assume that the workabilities of a Ay-ash concrete and a

774

SMITH ON THE DESIGN OF FLY-ASH CONCRETES

0.40

0.50
.

EFFECTIVE WATER/CEMENT
RATIO

0.60
(W/C) I

FIG.2: REDUCED
RESULTS FROM DAVIS
et aL2 TAKING K=0.30.

CONCRETE
V CON-

TAINED LIMESTONE DUST IN PLACE OF FLY-ASH.

NOTE
APPARENT
FAILURE
TO
DEVELOP PQZZOLANICACTION

775

SMITH ON THE DESIGN OF FLY-ASH CONCRETES

0.40

0 50

0.55

EFFECTIVE WATER/CEMENT RATIO ( W / L ) ~

FIG.

3: REDUCED
RESULTS

FROM

DAVIS
et aL3 TAKING K=0.30

776

.WITH ON
__

THE DESIGN OF FLY-ASH CONCRETES

(a1

P
m
]
500

0'

Strengths at7 d

-I

3r

1.10

I.20

I.30

l -40

I .so

I.60

EFFECTIVE WATEWEMENT RATIO ("/C)$

H.+
3;

" olo0

Control

Concrol

Strcngchr ac 7 d

090

1.00

Control

C
1.10

*D

1.20

1.30

I.40

EFFECTIVE WATER/CEMENT RATIO ("/C)

1.50

1.60

I .70

FIG.4: REDUCED
RESULTS FROM FREDERICK,
TAKTNG K=0*30, (a) REDUCED RESULTS
FROM FREDEXICKS
TABLE
114, (b) REDUCED RESULTS FROM FREDEIUCKS
TABLE
Ill4

normal concrete would be the same if each had the same volume ratio
of
cement-sized particles to water and the same volume ratio of cement-sized
particles plus water to total aggregate. This does nothold true for normal
fine powders. That it is approximately true for fly-ash may be due to the
spherical nature of the particles.
25. The above assumptions make it possible
to design a fly-ash concrete
which copies one property of each of two orthodox concretes at one and the
same time-one concrete for strength and another for workability. The mix
proportions which would berequired in the orthodoxconcretes may bedecided
either from the designer's personal experience or from curves and tables such
as those in Road Research Note No. 4.l
26. The basis of the design method is set out below.
(a) Orthodox concretes

27. A choicemustinitially
be made of theorthodox concretes. The
final fly-ash concrete willbedesigned
to reproduce the strength of one of
these and the workability characteristics of the other.

(i) In the first concrete,strengthconsiderations

will require a water/
cement ratio of (WIG),.
(ii) In the secondconcrete,workabilityconsiderations
will require an
aggregate/cement ratio of N when the water/cement ratio is
(W/C),. It should be noted here that the value chosen for (W/C),
has aneffect on the optimum quantity
of ash in the fly-ash concrete.
The ash quantity decreases with an increasing value of (W/C),.

777

SMITH ON THE DESIGN OF FLY-ASH CONCRETES

For this reason (W/C), should

be as low aspossible. The suggested practicalminimumvalue
is 0.4 althoughthedesigner
is
free to choose any value.
(b) Fly-ash concretes
28. The fly-ash concrete must have the same strength as the first orthodox
concrete. It will therefore have the same value of ( WjC),.
(W/C), =

i.e.

W/C = (W/C),[l+ (KF/C)I

. .

= Actual ratio by weight of water

to cement in the By-ash concrete.

29. For workability, the fly-ash concrete is to be designed to have the same
volume ratios as the second orthodox concrete.
30. In order to have equal volume ratios of water to cement and water to
cement plus ash in the two concretes, then

where 3. I S is taken as thespecific gravity

of cement particles and G is the
specific gravity of ash particles.
31. Substitutingfor WlC fromequation (1) andrearranging
optimum ratio of F/C to be used in the By-ash concrete

gives the

32. In order to have equal volume ratios of aggregate to cement mortar

and of aggregate to fly-ash cement mortar the aggregate/cement ratio of the
fly-ash concrete is given by

AIC

= 1 + 3.15( WIC),

[1+(3.15F/GC)+(3.15W/C)]

But from equation (2)

i.e.

AIC = N - WlC

. . . . . . .

(c) Design procedure

33. The procedure to be followed in the design of a fly-ash concrete is set

out below; weight ratios without subscripts are those pertaining to the fly-ash

concrete.
(i) Select (W/C)., the water/cement ratio of an orthodox concrete of
the required strength.
(ii) From a knowledge of the aggregate characteristics and behaviour,

77s

SMITH ON THE DESIGN OF FLY-ASH CONCRETES

0.60

0.70
EFFECTIVE WATER/CEMENTRATIO

FIG.5 : (a) REDUCEDRESULTS

FROM

0.80

(H'/C!)%

TIMMS
AND GRIEB5-'PORTLAND
K = 0.30

TAKING

CEMENT

A'-

779

SMITH ON THE DESIGN OF FLY-ASH CONCRETES

e82

e81
.AI

8000

7000

6000

''

I
\

i
-

'

2
-1

L
flr

5000

+
m
u

z
5
2U

4000

eA2

Strengths

at

28 d

Strengths

at

7d

3000

2000

0.60

0.70

0.80

EFFECTIVE WATER/CEMENT RATIO (IV/C)%

FIG.5 : (b) REDUCED

RESULTS

FROM

TIMMSAND GRIEBS-'PORTLANDCEMENT
K=0.30

TAKING

B'-

780

SMITH ON THE DESIGN OF FLY-ASH CONCRETES

TABLE
2 : AVERAGE
VALUES OF K

Aherthaw
Agecroft B

. .
. .

Agecroft C

. .

. .

. .
. .

Canington
Castle Donington

Conah's
Quay
Drakelow.
Dunston B

. .
. .

Ferrybridge'
Goldington

.
., ..

Ham's
Hall

Elland.

. .

.
Little Barford B .
Littlebrook . .
High Marnham

Meaford B
Rosecote

Rye House
Staythorpe

. .

. .
. .
. .

Skelton Grange
Stella North
Tir John

Average K at age given

Sample
number

Ash source

Bold

FOR ASH SAMPLES AT AGES TESTED

. .

. .

1
I

2
3

7d

28d

0.214
0. I78
0.117
0.335

0.252
0. I97
0.209
0.287

2
3
1

2
1
1
2
1

2
3
1
2
l
2
3
1
2

3
1
1
2

3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1

2
1
2
1

2
3
1

2
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1

2
3

Uskmouth

Unknown

2
1
2

0.168
0.358
0.272
0.259
0.195
0.326
0.415
0.262
0.320

n. 102

0.233

0.168
0.294
0.140
0.217
0.192
0.143
0.235
0 119

0.101

0.203
.

0.177
0.235
0 246
0 12J
0.635
0.290
0.4YS
0.402
0.252
0.318
0.338
0. t 93

0463
0 157
0.237
0.I32
0.796

n.
174.
- ..

0.218

0.038
0.508
0.285
0. I n 9
0.254
0.277
0.331
0.219
0.I70
0.208
n.
IIU
- ....

0.142
0.318
0.235
0.397
0.I 76
0.229
0. I83
0.135
0.292
0.181

0.21
- -. 1.

0.344
0.253
0.264

0.242
0.I79
0.207
0.208
0.247
0.286

n.
1417
..
.-

0.280'
0.260
0.257
0.201
0.148
0 372
0.34 1
0.095
0,108
0.485
0.348
0.I33
0.332
0,406
0.200
0.220
04lo7
0,217
0.248
0.297
0.349
0.186
0.307
0.103
0.228
0.I67
0.079
0.404
0.229

0.121
. .-.

0.312
0.287
0.207
0.202
0.087
0.2 I7
0.207
0.247
0.165

56d

0295
0.185
0.226
0.163
0.070
- 0.076
0.162
0.380
0.196
0.307
0.102
0.221
0.115

0.199
0.J28
0,072
0.233
0.070
0.205
0 348
0494
0.297
0.366
0,393
0.321
0.358
0.437
0.47 1
0- l85
O.lJ2

0.235
0.022
0.276

0.289
0.365
0.219
0.268
0.223
0.336
0.419
0,315
0.201
0.333
0.182
0,073
0.200
0.363
0.I97
0.165
0.308
0.294
0.268

0.304
0.204
0.198
0.305
0.334

3m
0.274
0.303
0.183
0.274
0.045

0.059
0.296
0.166
0,626
0.239
0 251

0.125

0.257
-0.019
0.1 18
0.I55
0.057
0.032
0. I16
0.283
0,306
0.493
0.422
0.238
0.395
0.437
0.495
0.328
0.473
0.163
0.6 I 8
0.236
0464
O.2R5

0.264
0.340
0. I67
0.362
0. I86
0.398
0.215
0.378
0.331
0.318
0.109

0.140

0.139

0. I29

0.406
0.301
0-275
0.427
0.785
0-310
0.142
0.145
0.295
0.2 I0
0.321
0.1 72

For Ferrybridge material retained on a 100 mesh sieve was not counted as ash
Each value of K ii the average from four mixes of differing strengths.

6m

SMITH ON THE DESIGN OF FLY-ASH CONCRETES

781

decide the aggregatelcement ratio, N , which in a normal concrete

of waterlcement ratio (W/C), would give the required degree of
workability.
(iii) Calculatetheoptimumratio
offly-ash to cement in the fly-ash
concrete

For most ashes the specific gravities lie between 1.9 and 2.3. It
is suggested that G be taken as 2.1. Using this value and taking
( WjC), as 0.4 and K as 0.25 the optimum ratio becomes
( WlC),- 0.4
0.6 - 0.25( WIC),
(iv) Calculate W / C =(W/C).(1+0.25F]C).
(v) Calculate for the fly-ash concrete

F/C =

If (W/C), is taken as 0.4 as suggested in (iii) then

Where N is the aggregatelcement ratio of a normal concrete of water/

cement ratio of 0.4.
(vi) The fly-ash concrete mix proportions then are
Water: fly-ash: cement: aggregate = W/C: FIC: 1 : A / C

( d ) Example
34. Design a concrete of mediumworkabilitywith
a meanstrength of
3000 Ib/sq. in. at 28 daysusingordinaryPortlandcement,incorporating
fly-ash, and using a p in. irregular gravel graded to curve 3 of Road Note No. 4.
(In the example Road Research Note No. 4 will be used only to show a common basis. In fact any valid information on the behaviour of the cement and
aggregate could be used.)
(i) From Road Note 4, Fig. 1, the specified strength requires a water/
cement ratio of 0.71, i.e. (W/C),=0.71.
(ii) For medium workability with an irregular aggregate of grading curve
3, the table in Road Note 4 shows that in a normal concrete of
waterlcement ratio 0.4 the aggregate/cement ratio must be 3 3
i.e.
with
(WIG), = 0.4; N = 3.5
(iii)
(iv)

W / C = (W/C).(1+0.25F/C) = 0.71.1.154 = 0.84

(vi) The mix proportions by weight are then:

Water: fly-ash :cement: aggregate = 0.84: 0.735 :'l:7.35.

782

SMITH ON THE DESIGN OF FLY-ASH CONCRETES

TESTRESULTS
ofmix design was used throughoutthesecond

35. Theabovemethod
series of tests.
36. As inthe first series acontrolline
of water/cement ratioagainst
strength was first obtained for each batch of cement from the results of tests
on concretes containing no fly-ash (Fig. l(a)). From these lines the
effective
water/cement ratio of each fly-ash concrete was obtained and K for the ash
calculated from this and the mix proportions (Fig. l(b)).
37. The control curves were also used to determine the design strength of
the fly-ash concretes when the value K was assumed to be 0.25. With this
value of K the effective water/cement ratio of each concrete was calculated
from (W/C),= ( W/C)(l/l KF/C) and used to obtain the design strength of
the concrete from the curve (Fig. l(c)).
38. Examples of these operations are shown in Fig. 1, and the results are
shown in Figs GlO.

m
8

IL

ZOO0

1
8

Control concrete
Fly-arh concrete

3000

4000

5000

DESIGN STRENGTH : LB/SQ. IN.

FIG.

6: ACTUAL
STRENGTH/DESIGNSTRENGTH

OF CONCRETES,AGED

DAYS

SMITH ON

783

THE DESIGN OF FLY-ASH CONCRETES

39. For any one ash the values of K calculated at the ages of 7,28 and 56
days did not differ appreciably. These values of K were therefore averaged
for each ash and an attempt made to find a reason for the difference in this
quantity from ash to ash. No correlation could be made between the average
3 shows
efficiencyof the ashes and a chemical or physical property. Table
ashes in order of decreasing efficiency together with the measured properties
of each ash.
40. The average of allvalues of K at the respective ages are shown in
Table 4.
41. Table 2 shows the value of K obtained from the average of four values
at eachage.
Thefour values were obtainedfromfourconcretes
which
covered the normal range of concrete strength.
42. Tensile strengthsof concretes were measured at 28 days by the splitting

7000

z 6000
S

;a

z2

+
<

5000

t
t,

2
2

4000

;F.

-v.

<

.*

3000

1oOc

:L

Controlconcrete
Fly-ash concrete

3000

5000
6000
DESIGN STRENGTH : LB/SQ. IN.

4000

FIG.7: ACTUALSTRENGTHIDESIGNSTRENGTH

7000

OF CONCRETES,AGED

28

DAYS

784

SMITH ON THE DESIGN OF FLY-ASH CONCRETES

T-

..
0

7000

t,
U

Control concrete

Fly-ash concrete

3000

.
4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

DESIGN STRENGTH : LE/SQ. IN.

FIG.

8 (above): ACTUAL
STRENGTH/DESIGNSTRENGTH

FIG.

9 (top right): ACTUALSTRENGTH/DESIGN

STRENGTH

OF CONCRETES,AGED

56 DAYS

OF CONCRETES,
AGED

MONTHS

FIG. 10 (right) : ACTUAL

STRENGTHIDESIGNSTRENGTH

OF CONCRETES,AGED

6 MONTHS

785

SMITH ON THE DESIGN OF FLY-ASH CONCRETES

I

9000

-.

'

_1

1 Control concrete
0

4000 6000 5000

Fly-ash concrete

7000

8000

9000

DESIGN STRENGTH : LB/SQ. IN.

7000

4000

5000 7000 6000

B000

DESIGN STRENGTH : LB/SQ.

IN.

9000

10000

786

SMITH ON T H E DESIGN OF FLY-ASH CONCRETES

1
l

...............
..............

787

SMITH ON THE DESIGN OF FLY-ASH CONCRETES

TABLE
4: AVERAGE
VALUE OF K
Age
K

FOR ALL SAMPLES AT ALL AGES TESTED

56-day 28-day

l-day

0.23 1

0.225

0.268

6-rnths 3-mths
0.352 0.256

cylinder test. Tensile strength was then plotted against 28 day cube strength.
The results are shown in Fig. 11 where it is apparent that the addition of flyash to a concrete does notaffect the ratio of tensile to compressive strength.
CONCLUSION
43. The intention of the above investigations was to produce a rational
method ofmix design bywhich trial mixesof fly-ashconcretescould be
produced with an accuracy equivalent to the accuracy obtainedwhen applying
Road Note No. 4 to the design of orthodox concretes. The design method
does achieve this.
44. No figures of workability are given intheresults of the tests. The
'placeabilities'approximatelyequal
to
fly-ash-cementconcretesdidhave
those of their orthodox counterparts. The addition of fly-ash, however, does
normally increase the cohesion of the fresh concrete and this change is made

700

Tensile

10 %Comprerrive

St.=

2000

b y-.

1 Control concrete

Fly-ash concrete

3000

4000

5000

CUBE STRENGTH AT 28 d : LB/SQ.

6000

7000

IN.

FIG. 11 :, TENSILE
STRENGTH COMPAHED WITH COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

788
SMITH ON THE DESIGN OF FLY-ASH CONCRETES
apparent in the normal tests of concrete workability in such a way as to give
misleading figures.
45. The mcthod of mix design given here was found to give the required
In particular,
values of strengthand placeability to the fly-ashconcretes.
strength of fly-ash concretes is shown to depend only on the relative proportions o f ash, ccment and water. That this result was not influenced by any
particular factor in the testing of the specimens can be seen by reference to

TABLE
5A:

COSTS AND SAVINGS PER CUBIC YARD OF CONCRETE WITH AGGREGATE

AT 20.9 PER TON

Concrete
type

28d
strength

sldlings

\Cement/ Ash
3000

only
OPC
OPC+ PFA
RHPCCPFA

6000

OPC only
OPC+ PFA
RHPC + PFA

Savinglcu. yd concrete Total

slrillings*
saving*
Ash
Agg.
Agg. Cement1

Costs/cu. yd concrete

1 ;;:! 1 1
nil

27.0

40.7
40.3
405

1 1-1

28.6

+4.2-2.57+2.9+4.53
+4.9
-2.95
+2.9

1 1 -1-1-1nil
02.57.77
1-31

- f4.85

27.0

+Os4

+0*2

25.7

-077 + l e 3
-1.31 + l a 3

+093
+0.19

All savings relative to non-ash concrete with OPC.

TABLE5B: COSTS AND SAVINGS PER CUBIC YARD OF CONCRETE WITH AGGREGATES
AT

Concrete
type

28d
strength

10s PER

TON

Cost/cu. yd concrete
shillings

Savinglcu. yd concrete Total

sldlings*
savmg*

Cement
Ash Agg.
OPC only

OPC+ PFA
RHPC PFA

3000

6000

27.0

22.8
22.1

OPC only

OPC+ PFA
RHPC+ PFA

nil
2.57
2,95

5; 1

14.3
12.85
12.85

5: : :

40.5
12.85
+0.20
-1.31

1 1

+F40 7
;
-

1+&65
+0.65

All savings relative to non-ash concrete with OPC.

+F28
-046

SMITH ON THE DESIGN OF FLY-ASH CONCRETES

789

Figs 2-5 which were plotted from data given in reports from other sources.
It should be noted here that Fredericks report4 is the original source of the
belief in sandreplacement and yet the efficiency method can be applied equally
well to those concretes in which fly-ash was considered as replacing sand as in
those where it replaced cement.
46. The design method given herecanbe
used to obtainanynormal
desired degree of strength and workability. The cementing efficiency method
is also suitable for evaluating the usefulness of any pozzolan or admixture
intended for use in concrete.
41. No evidence has yet been produced to show a relationship between
any chemical or physical property of a fly-ash and its cementing efficiency
whenused in concrete.Someashes
are better thanothersbuttheresults
suggest that a value of 0.25 for K would be suitable for use in preliminary
design.
48. Methods offly-ash concrete mixdesignwhich are at present in use
rely on the adjustment of a known concrete mix. These adjustments usually
consist of a certain proportional replacement of cement by fly-ash with or
without other variations in water or aggregate content. It is unlikely that a
fly-ash concrete prepared in this way will have volume relationships similarto
those of a normal concrete and the design method is not particularly versatile.
In any case an investigation of the mix proportions of these concretes will
show the ash to have the same efficiency as in a more rationally designed
concrete.What
may at f i t appear to be a moreeconomicconcretemust
only have been arrived at by a decrease in some qualityof the fresh or finished
material.
49. There are two main reasons for the useoffly-ash in concrete.One
is that fly-ash allows the design of concrete to be extended to lower strength
concretes which would otherwise segregate. The other reason is that the use
of fly-ash results in a lowered cost of materials in the finished concrete.
Tables 5a and 5b show the savings which can be expected per cubic yard of
finished fly-ash concrete relntivc to normalconcreteofequalstrength
and
equal, medium, workability. These Tables
havebeen constructed using the
data of Road Research Note No. 4 on a 4 in. irregular aggrcgate to grading
curve No. 3. The specific gravities of the materials have been taken as 3.15,
2.1 and 2.5 for cement, fly-ash and aggregate respectively. The costs taken
for these materials are per tonOPC, 130s; RHPC, 150s; and fly-ash, 20s.
There will be an increased saving in cost when the cement is of better quality
than that shown in Fig. 1 of Road Research Note No. 4.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work described in this Paper was carried out in the Departmentof
Civil Engineering at GlasgowUniversity under Professor W. T. Marshall,
Ph.D., M.I.C.E., M.1.Struct.E.
51. The tests were sponsored by the Central Electricity Generating Board
to whom the Author is indebted for permission to publish this Paper.
52. The Authors thanks are also due to the Generating Station Superintendentswhoarrangedthe
deliveries of fly-ash samples and Messrs J.
Colernan and J. Thomson of theconcretelaboratory
staff at Glasgow
University for their assistance throughout the series.
50.

790

SMITH ON THE DESIGN OF FLY-ASH CONCRETES

REFERENCES
1. ROADRESEARCHLABORATORY.
Design of concrete mixes. Road
Research
Road Note No. 4, H.M.S.O., London.
2. DAVISR. E. et al. Propertiesofcementsandconcretescontainingfly-ash.
J. Am. Concr. Inst., 1937.33 (May-June) 577-612.
3. DAVIS
R.E. et al. Weathering resistance of concretes containing fly-ash cements.
J. Am. Concr. Inst., 1941, 37 (Jan.) 281-296.
4. FREDERICK
H. A. Application of fly-ashforleanconcretemixes.
Proc. Am.
Soc. Test. Mat., 1944, 44, 810-820.
5. TIMMS A. G. and GMEBW. E. Use of fly-ash in concrete. Proc. Am. Soc. Test.

Mat., 1956,56, 1139-1160.