Geodesy and Surveying

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying
Instruments

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What is Geodesy?
The classical definition:
Geodesy is the science of
measuring and portraying the earths
surface" [Helmert, 1880].

Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

The modern definition:

Geodesy is the discipline that deals
with the measurement and
representation of the earth, including
its gravity field, in a threedimensional time varying space.

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What is Surveying?
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Chapter - 1

Surveying is the technique of measuring to determine of relative

positions of natural and man-made features on the earths surface, and
the presentation of this information either graphically or numerically.

The History of Surveying

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

Surveying is one of the most ancient of all engineering sciences.

Since the beginning of civilization, when primitive villages were
being built and land separated, geometers or surveyors were a
necessity.

Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

Cadastral surveys
(Babylonian, about 1700 BC)

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60,421
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Chapter - 2

60,422

60,419

Engineering surveys
(Egypt, about 2500 BC)

Surveyor (Egypt,
about 2000 BC)

The History of Geodesy

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

The first firm documented ideas about geodesy dates back to

Thales of Miletus and the school of Pythagoras. The Greek
philosopher Eratosthenes made reasonable accurate determination
of the earths size.

Surveying
Instruments

North pole

Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

= 7 12
Alexandria

= 1 / 50 of a circle

Shadow

b = 800 km

GPS

Earth

U = 50 800 = 40 000 km
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Chapter - 3

b
Assuan

Determination of the earth's size

(Eratosthenes, about 250 BC)

The History of Geodesy

Introduction
Coordinates

The expression "figure of the earth" has various meanings in

geodesy according to the way it is used and the precision with which
the earth's size and shape is to be defined.

Datum

Cassinis ellipsoid

Newtons theoretical ellipsoid

Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey

b
a

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GPS

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Chapter - 4

To prove the controversy the French Academy of Sciences sent a

geodetic expedition to Peru in 1735 to measure the length of a meridian
degree close to the Equator and another to Lapland to make a similar
measurement near the Arctic Circle. The measurements conclusively
proved the earth to be flattened, as Newton had forecast.

Mathematical - geometrical substitution

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

Reference ellipsoid is a mathematical and geometrical substitution for the

earth, created by rotating an ellipse around its axis and defined by the
large and small half axis. The ellipsoids listed below have been utilized in
geodetic work and many are still in use. The older ellipsoids are named
by their developers together with the year of development.

Surveying
Instruments

Plane survey

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

Ellipsoid
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Chapter - 5

a (m)

b (m)

Bessel

1841

6.377.397

6.356.079

Clarke

1866

6.378.206

6.356.584

Hayford

1924

6.378.388

6.356.912

Krassowskij

1942

6.378.245

6.356.863

1980

6.378.137

6.356.752

GRS 80

Physical - dynamical substitution

Introduction
Coordinates

Practical heights in geodesy, known as orthometric heights, are referred

to the geoid, which is an equipotential surface of the earth gravity field
approximated by the mean sea level surface.

Datum
Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

Potential (x,y,z) = cons.

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Chapter - 6

The vertical axis of the geodetic instrument coincides with the direction
of gravity and is, therefore, perpendicular to the geoid. The angle
between the plumb line which is perpendicular to the geoid (sometimes
called "the vertical") and the perpendicular to the ellipsoid (sometimes
called "the normal") is defined as the deflection of the vertical.

3-dimensional geodetic coordinate systems

Introduction
Coordinates

All real world objects have a position in three-dimensional space. This

position is represented mathematically as an ordered series of numbers
(coordinates). Cartesian geocentric coordinate systems (X, Y, Z) are used
for in astronomical and satellite positioning.

Datum
Surveying

Instruments
Plane survey

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

GPS

X
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Z axis passes through Origin

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X axis passes through the Greenwich Meridian

Y axis completes a right handed system

Chapter - 7

3-dimensional geodetic coordinate systems

Introduction
Coordinates

Geocentric polar (geographical) coordinate system (, , h) are used in

astronomical and satellite positioning.

Datum
Surveying
Instruments

Plane survey
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- Latitude is the angle measured at the centre of the earth northwards

(or southwards) between the equator and the position of a point on the
earth's surface.
- Longitude is the angle measured at the centre of the earth eastwards
(or westwards) from the Greenwich Meridian to the position of a point
on the earth's surface.
- Height is the distance normal to the ellipsoid.

Chapter - 8

Coordinate conversion and transformation

Introduction
Coordinates

The same position may be equivalently represented in different

coordinate systems. Changing the system is known as coordinate
conversion.

Datum
Surveying

Instruments

(, , h)p

Plane survey

(X, Y, Z)p
Y

X
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

The same point will have different coordinates in different datum.

Coordinates may be transformed from one datum to another.

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P
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(X1, Y1, Z1)p

Y
X
Chapter - 9

(X2, Y2, Z2)p

Y

Coordinate systems in the plane

Introduction
Coordinates

In order to describe the position of a point, two coordinates are

required. Polar coordinates need a line and an angle. Cartesian
coordinates need two lines within an orthogonal system.

Datum
Surveying
Instruments

Polar coordinates (s, )

Vertical survey

Plane survey

Cartesian coordinates (x, y)

P

x
s

Y
y

Photogrammetry
GPS

X
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The grid bearing tAB of a line AB is

defined as the clockwise angle from 0 to
360 at A between the direction to north
and the direction to B.

tAB
A
0

Chapter - 10

Projection of the earths surface in the plane

Introduction
Coordinates

A map projection is used to portray all or part of the round Earth on a

flat surface. This cannot be done without some distortion. Every
projection has its own set of advantages and disadvantages. There is no
"best" projection.

Datum
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Instruments
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Chapter - 11

Conical projection:
formed by considering
a cone tangential to the
ellipsoid. The Lambert
projection is an
example of this type of
projection.

Cylindrical projection:
is a special case of the
conical projection where
the apex is moved to
infinity so that the cone
becomes a cylinder. The
Universal Transverse
Mercator (UTM)
projection is one of the
most widely used of all
projection systems.

Azimuthal projection:
is a special case of the
conical projection
where the cone
degenerates to a
plane, an example of
this projection is the
stereographic
projection.

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey

Transverse Mercator projection (Gauss-Kruger

coordinates)
In the conventional Transverse Mercator (TM) projection the standard
meridian (or "central meridian") is mapped without distortion as it is
the line of tangency of the spherical approximation of the ellipsoid
with the cylinder. The central meridian is the y-axis (north direction)
of the projection, while the x-axis is the mapping of the equator. The
ellipsoid is partitioned into 120 zones of 3 longitude, each with the
central meridian in the centre of the zone. As a point moves away
from the central meridian the distortions grow larger as the scale
factor increases.

Vertical survey

X (H)
Photogrammetry

X
GPS

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Latitude
ca. 50

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0
Chapter - 12

ca. 200 km
factor
1,0000

addition 500 km

Y (R)

Equator

UTM- coordinates
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying

A modification of the TM is the UTM. Firstly, the ellipsoid is

partitioned into 60 zones, each 6 longitude in width. Secondly, the
scale factor at the central meridian is 0.9996 to reduce the large
distortions in the fringes of the zone.

Instruments

P
P

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

Latitude
ca. 50

ca. 400 km
factor
0,9996

Plane survey

0 addition 500 km

E
equator

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Chapter - 13

UTM is an important projection in surveying applications. The UTM

projection is defined between 80 degrees south and 84 degrees
north. Outside these limits, the Universal Polar Stereographic
(UPS) projection applies.

Geodetic Datum
Introduction
Coordinates

The position of objects in 2D or 3D space need to be measured

in relation to something else (the Datum).

Datum
Surveying
Instruments

Plane survey
Vertical survey

X
Photogrammetry

GPS

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Chapter - 14

Reference system is a defined mathematical framework against

which the position of real world objects may be measured and
recorded.
Reference frame is the realisation of a reference system, made by
giving a set of points coordinates.

Horizontal geodetic datum

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying

A horizontal geodetic datum may consist of the longitude and latitude

of an initial point (origin); an azimuth of a line (direction) to some other
triangulation station; the parameters (radius and flattening) of the
ellipsoid selected for the computations; and the geoid separation at the
origin.

Instruments

Geodetic networks
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

A
Initial point

(, )

GPS

Ellipsoid
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Chapter - 15

The geodetic networks of national extent, sometimes called national

control networks, have been the main tool for positioning needed in
mapping, boundary demarcation, and other geodetic applications.

Geodetic networks
Introduction

N2

N1

N3

Coordinates
Datum
Surveying

P1

Instruments

P2

Most common type of geodetic survey is

known as triangulation. Basically,
triangulation consists of the measurement
of the angles of a series of triangles. If the
distance along one side of a triangle and the
angles at each end of the side are accurately
measured, the other two sides and the
remaining angle can be computed.

Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

N2

N1
s

GPS

N3

P1

P2

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Chapter - 16

The simplest method of extending control is

called traverse. In performing a traverse, the
surveyor starts at a known position with a
known azimuth (direction) to another point
and measures angles and distances
between a series of survey points. With the
angular measurements, the direction of
each line of the traverse can be computed;
and with the measurements of the length of
the lines, the position of each control point
computed.

Height systems
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

The Earths gravity is irregular and ellipsoidal height does not relate to
the flow of water. Practical heights in geodesy, known as orthometric
heights, are referred to the geoid, which is an equipotential surface of
the earth gravity field approximated by the mean sea level surface.

Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey

HA

HB

Vertical survey

hA
Photogrammetry
GPS

NA

hB
Geoid
Ellipsoid

NB

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Chapter - 17

The orthometric height H is indeed different from the ellipsoidal height

h. The quantity N, the height of the geoid above the reference ellipsoid is
usually called the geoidal height (geoid undulation).

Height Datum
Introduction
Coordinates

Tide gauges are used to define a geoid. The corresponding height

reference is called Height Datum.

Datum
Surveying

Vertical networks
Instruments
Plane survey

tide-gauge
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

tide-gauge
H=0

Geoid

GPS

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Chapter - 18

Precise geodetic levelling is used to establish a basic network of

vertical control points. From these, the height of other positions in the
survey can be determined by supplementary methods.

Vertical networks
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

Differential levelling is the most accurate geodetic method. With the

instrument locked in position, readings are made on two calibrated
staffs held in an upright position ahead of and behind the instrument.
The difference between readings is the difference in elevation between
the points.

Surveying
Instruments

Dh1

Plane survey

Dh2

Dh3

Dhi

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

HP 1

GPS

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Chapter - 19

HP 2

Points with known elevations are referred to as "benchmarks". If we

know the elevation of one point, we can "transfer" the elevation for a
new point by applying the difference in elevation between the known
(or assumed) elevation and the new point.

Discrepancies between datums

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying

The differences between coordinates in areas of overlapping geodetic

networks, each computed on a different datum, occur because of the
different ellipsoids used and the probability that the centres of each
datum's ellipsoid is oriented differently with respect to the earth's
centre.
Datum PULKOWO

Datum RAUENBERG

Instruments

St. Petersburg

Berlin

Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

As with horizontal datums, there are many discrepancies among

vertical datums. There is never more than 2 meters variance between
levelling nets based on different mean sea level datums.

GPS

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NN - Datum
Chapter - 20

HN - Datum

St. Petersburg

Global geodetic networks

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

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Chapter - 21

Modern satellite networks are

inherently three-dimensional.
Because the intervisibility is not a
requirement for relative satellite
positioning, satellite networks can
and do contain much longer links
and can be much larger in
geographical extent. Nowadays,
global geodetic networks are
constructed and used for different
applications.
GPS control segment

ITRF 89

Modern Surveying
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying

The most frequent way of collecting the data in geodetic survey is the
direct collecting - measuring with geodetic instruments or indirect
collecting - measuring images. The following geodetic methods of
collecting data are given: orthogonal method, polar method or
tacheometry, levelling, aerial photogrammetry and remote sensing,
global positioning systems (GPS) etc.

Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey

Global
reference
system

Electromagnetic
distance
measurement

Photogrammetry
GPS

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Photogrammetry
and remote
sensing

Global
Positioning
System

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Chapter - 22

Spatial information
management

Branches of Surveying
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

Geodetic survey establishes the

fundamentals for determination of the surface
and gravity field of a country. This is realized
by coordinates and gravity values of control
points, arranged in geodetic networks.

Surveying
Instruments

Topographic surveys produce maps and

plans of the natural and man-made features.

Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

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Chapter - 23

Cadastral surveys are undertaken to produce

plans of property boundaries for legal
purposes. In many countries the registration
of ownership of land is based on such plans.

Engineering survey embrace all the survey

work required before, during and after any
engineering work.

125
3
125
1
125 125
3 4

Topographic Surveys
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

Topographic surveys determine the location and elevations of selected

ground points in order to plot the features (buildings, trees, fence-lines,
etc.) as well as to show the differences in elevations of the ground
surface.

Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

relief

GPS

location plan
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Chapter - 24

Surveying as Method of GIS-Data Capture

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying

A geographical information system (GIS) is an information management

process for organizing spatially related data so that it can be analyzed
and displayed. The data are stored in different "layers", which can be
overlaid to assess their interrelationship. The spatial nature of the GISdata means that one of the layers will be a digital map. The collection of
the data and its superposition onto the map has become an important
branch of surveying.

Instruments

Scale

Plane survey

1000000

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

100000

GPS

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Chapter - 25

10000

1000

Regional

Global
Geography
Environment
Climate
..

Topography
Statistic
Environment
Local
..
Municipality
Planning
Real Estate
..
Surveying Digitizing
Photogrammetry
Remote Sensing

Cadastral Surveys
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

Cadastral surveying deals mainly with the establishment or

relocation of land boundaries. According to law, only licensed land
surveyors can establish the locations of boundaries and carry out
legal surveys.

Surveying

Surveying

Cadastral map
Instruments

Cadaster numbering
series
3665

3665
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

3667

3667

Cadastral map

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3666

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Chapter - 26

3665

3666
3666
1
2
3667

Interpretation

Cadastral Surveys
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

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Chapter - 27

Legal (cadastral) surveys are usually made for one of the following
reasons:
- to acquire the data needed to write a legal description of a specific
parcel of land,
- to re-establish the boundaries of a parcel of land for which a survey
has previously been done,
- to subdivide a parcel of land into various pieces according to a
specific plan showing the predetermined size, shape and location for
each parcel.
Land consolidation

Engineering survey
Introduction

before building
(survey)

Coordinates
Datum
Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey
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Chapter - 28

Engineering survey embrace all the survey

work required before, during and after any
engineering work. Before any work begins,
large-scale topographical maps or plans
are required as a basis for design. The
proposed position of any new item of
construction must then be marked out on
the ground, both in plane and height, an
operation generally termed setting out.
Finally "as built" surveys are often
required.

during building
(setting out)

after building
(survey)

Surveying for earthwork calculation

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

The excavation, removal and

dumping of earth is a
frequent operation in
building or civil engineering
works. There are three
general methods for
calculating earthworks by
cross-sections, contours and
spot heights.

Mass computation
Profile

Area (m2) Distance (m) Volume (m3)

GPS

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Chapter - 29

0+00

29,054

0+10

32,065

0+20

23,542

0+28,21

31,430

Total volume

10,00

305,595

10,00

278,035

8,21

225,660
809,290

Route Surveys
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

Route surveys establish the location of transportation routes such

as: highways and roads, railways, canals, pipelines Surveys are
required for all types of route alignment, planning, design and
construction work. Route surveys range in complexity depending on
the size and scope of the project.

Surveying
Instruments

Plane survey

9+00
Vertical survey

10+00

8+00

Photogrammetry

Planimetric projection

GPS

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8+00

9+00

10+00
8+00

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9+00
10+00

NN
Vertical projection

Chapter - 30

Angle measurement
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

The theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles.

It is the most important instrument to carry out an accurate
survey, and many types are available to meet varying
requirements of accuracy and precision between 5' and 0,1".

Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey

vertical
circle

measuring
telescope

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

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Chapter - 31

level
axis
support

tripod
beacon

horizontal
circle

Instrument errors
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

The horizontal angle is independent of height difference between those

points if the telescope moves in strictly vertical plane when tilted. The
vertical angle is therefore correct only if the zero reading of the vertical
circle lies exactly in the zenith direction. Deviations from the ideal case
are caused by axial errors in the instrument.

Surveying

Instruments

Z
Plane survey
Vertical survey

Photogrammetry

GPS

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Chapter - 32

Axis system:
Z = collimation axis
V = vertical axis
H = tilting axis
L = bubble axis
Axis condition:
Z H
H V
L V

V
Because the instrument errors change with temperature, as a result of
vibration, and after long periods of transport. It is necessary to
determine instrument errors immediately before you measure.

The surveyors telescope

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

The Kepler type of telescope consists essentially of two convex lens.

To provide visible horizontal and vertical reference lines in the
telescope, a diaphragm is inserted in front of an eyepiece. The
imaginary line passing through the intersection normal to the crosshair, and through the optical centre of the object lens, is called the line
of collimation of the instrument.

Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey

Object lens

Focusing lens

Diaphragm

View through a typical telescope

Stadia hairs

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Eyepiece

Optical axis
Line of
collimation

Photogrammetry
GPS

Focusing

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Chapter - 33

Cross-hairs

The bubble tube

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

The tubes vary in length between 50 and 125 mm, and are ground to
circular profile in longitudinal section. The top surface of the tube is
graduated symmetrically about its centre. If the bubble tube is rotated
in a vertical plane so that the bubble is in the centre of its run, then
the axis of the bubble tube must be horizontal.

Surveying

Section

Instruments

Axis
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

Plan
Scale

GPS

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Adjusting screw
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Chapter - 34

Determination of magnetic bearing by compass

Introduction
Coordinates

The fact that a magnetized needle, pivoted so that it can rotate freely in
the horizontal plane, will come to rest in the magnetic meridian has been
used by surveying. Modern surveying instruments can be supplied with
electronic compass.

Surveying
Instruments

Plane survey

Grid North

Datum

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

GPS

tAB

Deutsch

Point A
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Chapter - 35

The angle between the magnetic meridian and grid North varies
from one locality to another and with time.

Determination of true bearing by gyroscope

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

The gyroscope has been used in navigation as a north-seeking device for

a considerable period of time, and surveying instruments are now
available that allow to direct establishment of the meridian by theodolite
(e.g. precise transfer of bearing underground in mining surveying).

Surveying

Plane survey

Grid North

Instruments

Theodolite

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

Gyro axis
tAB
A

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South

North
Point A

Chapter - 36

An optical square
Introduction
Coordinates

The most accurate way to set out a right-angle is to use a theodolite.

An optical square is the best solution for setting out a right-angle in the
near distance where the accuracy requirements are less demanding,
e.g. for small buildings or when determining transverse profiles.

Datum

object point

Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

left
GPS

optical
square

right

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Chapter - 37

The optical square consists of two superimposed pentagonal prisms

with their fields of view facing right and left respectively. Between the
two prisms is an unrestricted view of the object point. The instrument
may be mounted on a short ranging rod.

Distance measurement
Introduction
Coordinates

Navigation
Datum
Surveying

Pedometer

m / 100m

Measuring wheel

dm / 100m

Instruments

Surveying

Plane survey

Surveyor's Band

cm / 100m

Stadia hairs

dm / 100m

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

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Chapter - 38

Electromagnetic
distance measurement

mm-cm / 100m

Mechanical engineering
Micrometer microscope

m / dm

Interference comparator

m / dm

Surveyor's Band
Introduction
Coordinates

The surveyor's band is made of a steel strip, some 6 mm in width, and

is carried on an open frame winder.

Datum
Surveying

type
Instruments

steel
invar

length:

Plane survey

20 m
30 m
50 m
100 m

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

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Handle
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Chapter - 39

Scale

Zero point

Measuring distances optically

Introduction
Coordinates

The reticle carries two stadia lines arranged symmetrically to the

crosshair. Their spacing is such that the distance can be derived by
multiplying the corresponding staff section by 100. Accuracy of
distance measurement is about 0,1 - 0,3 meters.

Datum
Surveying

Stadia hairs
Instruments

Field of vision
Plane survey
Vertical survey

Vertical
staff

Photogrammetry
GPS

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Chapter - 40

telescope
S = 100 b

Electromagnetic distance measurement

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying

Traditionally, accurate distance measurement was the most difficult part

of a surveying operation, but the introduction of electromagnetic
distance measurement (EDM) has completely revolutionized this.
Nowadays most surveyors work with electronic microprocessor
controlled instruments that can measure long distances to within a few
millimeters by simply pressing a button.

Instruments
Plane survey

Sender channel

Reflector

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

Receiver channel

GPS

Distance
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Chapter - 41

Measuring distances without a reflector

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

Modern surveying instruments include not only a conventional infrared

distancer that measures to prisms, but also an integrated laser
distancer that requires no reflector. This arrangement brings many
advantages where points are accessible only with difficulty or not at all,
for example during the recording of frontages.

Surveying
Instruments

Receiver channel

pulse

Plane survey
Vertical survey

object point
Photogrammetry

Sender channel

GPS

S=ct/2

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Chapter - 42

The time that the pulse takes to travel out and back the carrier is
determined. If the pulse velocity is known, the time can be converted
into distance.

Total station (Tacheometer)

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

The most common types of electronic instrument now available are

termed total station instruments. These incorporate a theodolite with
electronic circles and an EDM. The EDM normally works concentric with
the telescope eyepiece and is generally housed in a casting that forms
part of the telescope.

Surveying
Instruments

horizontal
circle

EDM

vertical
circle

Plane survey
Vertical survey

microprocessor

N
X
Y
P
212 132.45 243.01 KD
213 138.97 231.33 Sch

Photogrammetry
GPS

keyboard

software

display

telemetry

PCMCIA

Deutsch

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Chapter - 43

In addition of the functions contained in the onboard microprocessor,

the instrument can interface with data loggers or other computers,
either to store survey data or to retrieve previously prepared setting out
data. The latest generation of total station instruments is the provision
of a removable PCMCIA memory card.

Automatic target recognition

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying
Instruments

Modern total stations are equipped with automatic target-recognition

system. This makes targeting faster and easier. It is enough to point
the telescope approximately at reflector. This technology makes it
possible to carry out fully-automatic measurements with the help of a
computer.
Laser

Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

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Chapter - 44

CCD Sensor

Plane survey
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

Plane surveys are the most commonly practiced method of surveying

and treat the earth as a flat or "plane" surface. Good enough for smallscale surveys in limited areas, the curvature of the earth has no effect on
the results, thus the computations and results can be referenced to a
plane or flat surface.

Surveying

Instruments

Plane survey

Plane survey

3
4

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
9

GPS

Deutsch

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Whs
10

Help

Chapter - 45

Real world

Plane surface

Plane surveys are used for the determination of legal boundaries, for
engineering surveys for the construction of buildings and roads and for
small-scale topographic surveys.

Offset surveying
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying

Offset surveying consists of measuring with the tape the lengths of a

series of straight lines and the locating points on the ground relative to
these lines by measuring offsets at right angles to the main survey
lines. The basic procedures that need to be known for offset surveying
are the marking of points, the aligning, the measurement with tape and
the setting out of the right angles in connection with offsets.

Instruments
2,11

Plane survey

13,8
16,83

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

6,01
GPS

Deutsch

15,09

1
A

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Chapter - 46

13,91
6,21

Marking of points
Introduction

Datum
Surveying

60 - 100 cm

Coordinates

Instruments

Points that need to be more permanently

marked, such as intersection points of
survey lines, are marked by nails set in
the tops of wooden pegs driven into the
ground. In very hard ground steel
dowels are used.

Plane survey

Photogrammetry
GPS

Deutsch

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Chapter - 47

2-3m

Vertical survey

Ranging rods are used for marking any

points that need to be seen. There are
poles of circular section 2 m, 2,5 m or 3
m long, painted with characteristic red
and white bands, which are usually 0,5
m long and tipped with a pointed steel
shoe to enable them to be driven into
the ground. In hard or paved ground a
tripod is used to support the rods.

Aligning
Aligning of Intermediate points

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying

Observer
Intermediate points

Instruments
Plane survey

Extrapolation a straight line

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

Observer
Deutsch

new points
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Chapter - 48

The maximum length of line that can be ranged is normally governed

by visibility. Extended line may have excessive errors due to faulty
alignment during measurement.

Aligning from the mid-point

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying

If intermediate points are to be aligned within a line of measurement

and each of the two end points cannot be seen from the other,
proceed as follows:
- Select two points 1 and 2 from which both end points A and B are
visible.
- From point 1, align point 2 in the straight line 1-A

Instruments
Plane survey

- From point 2, align point 3 in the straight line 2-B and continue in
the same manner until no further lateral deviations are visible at the
two intermediate points.

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

Deutsch

B
A
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Chapter - 49

Measurement the length of a line

Introduction
Coordinates

All measurement in surveying must

either be in the horizontal plane, or
be corrected to give the projection
on this plane.

Datum

A
Surveying

Instruments
Plane survey

Stepping

S1

The measurement is done in short

lengths of 5-10 m, the leader holding
the length horizontal.

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

S2

GPS

Measuring along the slope

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S
h
D

Chapter - 50

The slope is measured either by an

instrument for measurement of slope
angle or by levelling, a procedure
that gives the surface height h at
points along the slope.

Measuring right-angles with optical square

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

You as the observer can position yourself in the survey line by moving
perpendicularly to the line until you see the images of the two rods
exactly superimposed. Then you move yourself along the survey line
until the object point and the two images of the alignment rod all
coincide.

Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey

Photogrammetry
GPS

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A
Chapter - 51

A
B

searched
point

Polar mapping
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

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Chapter - 52

To create e.g. a location plan, the position of a point on the object are
determined by measuring angle and distances. To do this, the
instrument is set up on any prominent point in a local coordinate
system. A second prominent point is selected for the purpose of
orientation; after this has been targeted the horizontal circle is set to
zero.

Setting up the theodolite over a ground point

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying

Place the tripod approximately over the ground

point. Inspect the tripod from various sides and
correct its position so that the tripod plate is
roughly horizontal and above the ground point.
Push the tripod legs firmly into the ground and
use the central fixing screw to secure the
instrument on the tripod.

Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

Look through the optical plummet and turn the

footscrews so that the laser dot or optical
plummet is centred on the ground point.

GPS

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Chapter - 53

Centre the bubble by adjusting the

lengths of tripod legs. Tighten the central
fixing again.

Measuring angles
Introduction

An angle represents the difference between two directions.

Coordinates
Datum
Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey

The horizontal angle between

the two directions to the points
P1 and P2 is independent of
height difference between
those points.

R1 = 4,565

R2 = 169,234

P1

= R2 - R1 =
164,669 gon
P2

Zenit

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

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Chapter - 54

The vertical angle (also termed

the zenith angle) is the difference
between a prescribed direction
(namely the direction of the
zenith) and the direction to the
point under consideration.

82,662

Z = R= 82,662 gon

Traversing
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying

The traversing consists of the measurement of angles between successive

lines and the length of each line. Given the coordinates of the first station
and bearing of the first line, the coordinates of all successive points can
be calculated. If the traverse returns to the starting point or some other
known position, it is a closed traverse, otherwise the traverse is said to be
open.

Instruments

Open traverse
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

Closed traverse
B

GPS

Help

2
1

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Closed traverse
B
2

A
Chapter - 55

Free-station surveys
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

Free stationing has the great advantage, especially for large surveying
projects or staking out, you can choose a favorable positioning for the
instrument. The coordinates can be calculated from measurements to
the points, the coordinates of which are known.

Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey

XB , YB , HB

Photogrammetry
GPS

XA , YA , HA
?,?,?

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Chapter - 56

Many total stations contain software that will give the coordinates of
points following observation of distances and angle onto reflectors.

One-man-survey
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

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Chapter - 57

One-man-instrument includes the incorporation of a control panel at the

prism with a radio link to allow the instrument to be operated remotely.

Vertical survey
Introduction
Coordinates

The purpose of a vertical survey is to establish an elevation in relation

to a reference surface.

Datum
Surveying

6
10,62

10,72

Instruments

11,32

Plane survey
5

10,45

Vertical survey
4

10,33

10,34

Photogrammetry
2

GPS

Whs
10

Whs
10

9,47

9
8

9,40

9,01
9,08

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Chapter - 58

Location plan

Relief representation

Contouring
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

A contour is a line joining points of equal altitude. Contour lines are

shown on the plan as dotted lines, often in distinctive colour, overlaying
the detail. The vertical distance between successive contours is known
as vertical interval, and the value of this depends on the scale of the
plan, and the use to which the plan is to be put.

Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey

Vertical survey

Photogrammetry
GPS

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Chapter - 59

440
430
420
410
400

440
430
420
410
400

Levelling
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying
Instruments

Levelling is the most common methods used to determine the difference

in heights or to establish elevations. This method involves using a
telescope mounted on a tripod, known as a level, which is aligned at
right angles towards the direction of gravity. The elevation is determined
by measuring the difference in readings taken on to graduated rods
similar to very large rulers.
Levelling
Levelling
staff
staff

Plane survey

level

Vertical survey

backsight

Photogrammetry

foresight

v
Dh

GPS

Deutsch

Dh = r - v
Back

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To eliminate systematic errors related to residual line-of-sight error, the

instrument should be about equal distances from the two points.
Chapter - 60

Line levelling
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey

If the points A and B are widely separated, the height difference between
them is determined by line levelling with target distances between 30 and
50 metres. The height difference between A and B is equal to the sum of
the backsight and the foresight.
W2
W3
B
W1
S2
S3
A
S4
S1
Dh2

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

Dh3

Dhi

Dh1

Dh = SDhi

GPS

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Chapter - 61

- Set up the instrument at S1. The distances between the

instrument and the two staffs need to be about the same.
- Set up the staff precisely vertically at point B, read off and
record the backsight.
- Set up the staff at the turning point (ground plate or prominent
ground point), read off and record the foresight .
- Set up the instrument at S2, read off the backsight and continue.

Dh

Equipment for levelling

Introduction
Coordinates

The basic equipment required in levelling is a device that gives a realistic

horizontal line (the level) and a suitable graduated staff for reading
vertical heights (the levelling staff).

Datum
Surveying

circular rod
level

Instruments
Plane survey

levelling
instrument

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

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staff
Chapter - 62

ground plate

tripod

The level
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying

A level essentially comprises of a

telescope ratable about a vertical axis; it
is used to create a horizontal line of sight
so that height differences can be
determined and stakeouts can be
performed.

Circular level

Instruments
Plane survey

compensator
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

line of sight

1,013

GPS

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Chapter - 63

The compensator consists basically of a thread-suspended mirror

that directs the horizontal light beam to the centre of the crosshair
even if there is residual tilt in the telescope.

The digital level

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying

The digital levels are equipped with digital

electronic image processing for the
determination of heights and distances.
The bar code on a staff is read by
electronic means automatically.

Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

The staff reading and the distance are

displayed digitally and can be recorded. The
heights of the staff stations are calculated
continuously.

GPS

1,013
CCD sensor

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Chapter - 64

Setting up the instrument

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey

1. Extend the legs of the tripod as far as it is

required and tighten the screws firmly.
2. Set up the tripod so that the tripod plate is as
horizontal as possible and the legs of the tripod
are firm in the ground
3. Now place the instrument on the tripod and
secure it with the central fixing screw.
4. After setting up the instrument, level it up
approximately with the bull's-eye bubble.

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

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Turn two of the

footcrews together in
opposite directions
Chapter - 65

Now use the third

footscrew to centre the
bubble

To check, rotate the

instrument at 180

The rotation laser

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

If a large number of points at different heights need to be staked out

or monitored, it often makes sense to use a rotation laser. In this
type of instrument, a rotating laser beam serves as reference plane
for staking out or monitoring heights.

Surveying

detector
Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

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Chapter - 66

rotation laser
A detector is slid down a levelling
staff until it encounters the laser
beam; the height can then be read
directly from the staff.

Trigonometric levelling
Introduction

Trigonometric levelling is a technique used for the determination of

differences in height by measuring vertical angles.

Coordinates

SAB

Datum

hAB

ZAB
Surveying

Instruments

t
ZAB
i

A
Plane survey
Vertical survey

hAB = SAB cot(ZAB)

B
HB

HA

HB = HA + hAB + i - t

Photogrammetry
GPS

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Chapter - 67

The theodolite is set up over a point of known elevation (benchmark)

and the height of the centre of the telescope above the reference
point i has to be carefully measured. The vertical angle ZAB and
horizontal distance SAB to the target station is measured and by using
trigonometry the difference in elevation hAB is computed. This
difference is added to the height of the telescope (HA + i) to give us
the height of the target station (HB + t) .

Tacheometric survey
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

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Chapter - 68

XB , YB

?,?,?
XA , YA , HA

Plane survey: To create e.g. a location plan, the position of a point on

the object are determined by measuring angle and distances. To do
this, the total station is set up on prominent point in a local
coordinate system. A second prominent point is selected for the
purpose of orientation; after this has been targeted the horizontal
circle is set to zero.
Vertical survey: Trigonometrical levelling is a technique for the
determination of differences in height by measuring vertical angles.
The vertical angle and distance to the target station is measured and
using trigonometry the difference in elevation is computed.

Tacheometric survey - office work

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

Nowadays most surveys are plotted by computer-based plotters. CAD

(Computer-Aided Drafting) and CAM (Computer-Aided Mapping) are
software programs designed to efficiently and very accurately create
the graphic entities needed in the production of maps.

Surveying

Digital map
Instruments
Plane survey

Total Station

Vertical survey
Whs
10

Photogrammetry
N
X
Y
P
212 132.45 243.01 KD
213 138.97 231.33 Sch

Abschnitt 1
M 1:1000

GPS

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Chapter - 69

Interactive Graphics System

Analogue map

Photogrammetry
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

Photogrammetry can be defined as the method of determining the

shapes, sizes and positions of objects using photographs, and
therefore it is an indirect method of measurements. Photogrammetric
surveying uses photographs taken from an aircraft or from the ground.

Surveying

from an aircraft

from the ground

Instruments

Plane survey

Image

Vertical survey

Photogrammetry

Y
GPS

objects

Deutsch

Z
Y

Back

objects

Help

X
Chapter - 70

Image

Aerial photogrammetry
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

Aerial photogrammetry involves the use of photographs taken in a

systematic manner from the air. They are then controlled by land survey
and measured by photogrammetric techniques. Accuracy of aerial
photogrammetry are comparable with those obtained by land survey,
and in many cases the work is carried out more economically.

Surveying

Overlap
15-25%

Instruments
Plane survey

Flight track

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

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Chapter - 71

Overlap
ca. 60%

Terrestrial photogrammetry
Introduction
Coordinates

Terrestrial photogrammetry employs photographs taken from points

on the earth's surface for measurement purposes, and its principles
are very similar to those of aerial photogrammetry.

Datum

objects

Surveying
Instruments

Overlap

Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

Image 1
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Chapter - 72

Image 3
Image 2

Mono image measurements

Introduction
Coordinates

When photographic process has been completed, measurements can be

taken from the photographs by a number of different methods, which
are dependent upon the required end product.

Datum

Floating mark

Surveying
Instruments

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

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Chapter - 73

Floating
mark

reading x
75,699

Plane survey

Image
reading y
32,453

reading

Image

Stereoscopic measurements
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying

For stereoscopic observation, pairs of photographs must be arranged

so that the left eye observes the left picture and the right eye observes
the right picture only. The two images combine in the brain to give a
single image of common overlap, which gives an impression of relief.
The simplest and most common aid to produce a stereomodel is the
stereoscope.

Instruments

Eye-base

Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

Reflecting system

GPS

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Chapter - 74

Image 1

Image 2

Remote Sensing
Introduction
Coordinates

Remote sensing systems are based on the detection and documentation

of electromagnetic radiation that is emitted or reflected by the earth's
surface.

Datum
Surveying

Satellite based remote sensing sensors

Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey

Airborne remote sensing sensors

Photogrammetry
GPS

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Chapter - 75

Reflection

Remote Sensing
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

The wavelength characteristics of electromagnetic radiation is a

function of the temperature of energy source (for instance, the sun),
and can be detected by spectral sensors that are appropriately
designed to receive the range of spectral values specific to that
material.

Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey

Photogrammetry
GPS

Degree of
reflection (%)

Vertical survey

Ground without Vegetation

Sickly Vegetation
Healthy Vegetation
WaveWater
length (m)

Deutsch
0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0
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Chapter - 76

visible
light

1,1 1,4 1,7 2,0 2,3

infrared

8 10 12 14

Surveying with GPS

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying

GPS surveys use the signals transmitted by satellites having

trajectories such that any points on Earth's surface can be determined
around the clock and independently of weather conditions. Compared
with the use of a total station, GPS surveying offers the advantage that
the points to be measured do not have to be mutually visible.

Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

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Chapter - 77

Geodetic dual-frequency receiver

carrier phase measurement

Hand-held receiver
pseudo-range measurement

GPS segments
Introduction
Coordinates

The space segment is made up of the satellites themselves. The full system has a
total of 28 GPS satellites in orbit around the earth. The satellites are at an altitude of
20200 km and are placed within six near-circular orbital planes at 55 to the equator.

Datum

An on-board oscillator working at a

fundamental frequency of 10.23 MHz
continuously transmits two carrier
signals L1 and L2. These carriers are
phase modulated by binary code
signals: the precise (P) code and the
coarse acquisition (C/A) code.

Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

54 32 43
12 10 11

GPS

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Chapter - 78

The control segment manages all the

satellites. It includes monitoring stations
that are located throughout the world. Each
station tracks the satellites and relays their
position to the master station, where they
are used to determine the precise location to
the satellite constellation.

The user segment consists of an

antenna and receiver. The
transmitted signals are received by
the antenna, processed
electronically, and passed by cable
to the receiver/data logger, where a
microprocessor reduces the data.

Spatial Intersection
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying

A GPS receiver computes it's position using a method called "satellite

ranging". To review, the GPS receiver uses the radio signals sent from
the satellites to measure the distance (satellite ranging) to each of at
least 4 satellites. Using these ranges plus the location of each satellite
(known from the information broadcast from each satellite), the receiver
can figure out its location.

Instruments

(X2, Y2, Z3)

Plane survey

(X1, Y1, Z1)

(X3, Y3, Z3)

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

D1

GPS

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Chapter - 79

D2

(X4, Y4, Z4)

D3
D4

D1 = (X1 - XE)2 + (Y1 - YE)2 + (Z1 - ZE)2

D22 = (X2 - XE)2 + (Y2 - YE)2 + (Z2 - ZE)2

(XE, YE, ZE)

X

D32 = (X3 - XE)2 + (Y3 - YE)2 + (Z3 - ZE)2

Pseudo-range measurement
Introduction
Coordinates

Satellite positioning is an unindirectional method of distance measurement. Two fundamental methods can be used to establish the
distance between the satellite and receiver: pseudo-range and carrier
phase measurement.

Datum
Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey

The satellite continuously transmits its code. In the case of the GPS
C/A-code this repeats every millisecond. The receiver can lock onto it
and establish the pattern. The replica code generated by the receiver is
then compared with the pattern. The phase shift indicates the time of
travel of the signal, which can be converted into a distance by
multiplying by the speed of light.

Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

Pattern code
GPS

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54 32 43
12 10 11

Replica code
Phase shift

Help

t0
Chapter - 80

t1

Carrier phase measurement

Introduction
Coordinates

In principle this measurement process is similar to the operation of

EDM, although the signal is only transmitted one way, satellite to
receiver, and thus the true phase shift is related to the accurate
synchronization of the two clocks.

Datum
Surveying
Instruments

Pattern phase

Plane survey
Vertical survey

Replica phase
Photogrammetry
GPS

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Chapter - 81

- wavelength
N - number of complete wavelengths between satellite and receiver
- part wavelength

GPS Errors
Introduction
Coordinates

Orbital error

Ionospheric and
tropospheric delay

Multipath errors

Datum

Position in orbit
Surveying

prediction

Ionospheric
time delay

Instruments

Tropospheric
time delay

Plane survey
Vertical survey

54 32 43
12 10 11

54 32 43
12 10 11

Photogrammetry
54 32 43
12 10 11

GPS

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Chapter - 82

The positions of the

satellites obtained from the
signal information are really
a prediction of where the
satellite should be at a given
moment, and can differ
slightly from the actual
position.

This occurs when the signals

from the satellite are delayed
in their journey to the
receiver by traveling through
an area of charged particles,
called the ionosphere, above
the earth and through our
atmosphere.

Multipath is mainly
caused by reflecting
surface near the
receiver. As a
consequence, the
satellite emitted signal
arrives at the receiver
via more than one path.

Satellite constellation
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying

The design of the satellite constellations ensures that at least four

satellites are usually visible at any point on the earths surface. The
presence of satellites does not necessarily mean that they will be
useful for accurate survey work. The relative strength of a satellite
arrangement can be expressed quantitatively by a parameter called
the dilution of precision (DOP).

Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS
54 32 43
12 10 11

54 32 43
12 10 11

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Chapter - 83

Good satellite grouping

DOP < 3

Poor satellite grouping

DOP > 5

Relative point positioning

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying

If two receivers are involved, one (the master) being established at a

known point while the other (the rover) is at a point to be fixed, and both
receivers track the same satellites, the technique of relative point
positioning is being invoked. This considerably increases the accuracy,
because any discrepancy between the computed and actual position of
the master can be assumed to be due to system errors, atmospheric
and ionospheric effects.
Position in orbit

Instruments

prediction
Plane survey
Vertical survey

Ractual
Dactual

Receiver 1 D = D true- D actual

Rtrue

Receiver 2 R = R true - R actual

Photogrammetry
GPS

D R

Dtrue

Deutsch
54 32 43
12 10 11

Receiver 1
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Chapter - 84

54 32 43
12 10 11

Receiver 2

Differential GPS (DGPS)

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum

The differential GPS requires a radio link between the master and rover
to transmit corrections. The corrections are transferred to a computer
and special software is used to remove many of the errors in each of
the positions. These differentially corrected positions are accurate to
somewhere between 0.5 m and 5 m.

Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

D1

GPS

D2 D
3

D4

R2

R3

R1

R4

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12 10 11

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Master
Correction = Dtrue - Dactual
Chapter - 85

Rover
Rtrue = Ractual + Correction

Accuracy levels
Introduction
Coordinates

The positioning accuracy depends on the type of GPS receiver and on

the observation and post-processing techniques used.

Datum
Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry

Post-processing

relative
carrier phase
measurement

PDGPS
RTK

relative
pseudo-range
measurement

DGPS

pseudo-range
measurement

GPS

GPS

0,001
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Chapter - 86

0,01
Cadastral and
engineering
survey

0,1

1,0
GIS

10,0
Navigation

Accuracy [m]

Static and kinematic positioning

Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying
Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

Classical geodetic positioning deals with

stationary points (objects). Static positioning
gives the highest precision possible, and
requires both master and roving stations to be
constant for a period from about 5 - 10 min.
While longer base line requiring more time.
Relative distance accuracy in order of 5 mm 1
ppm are possible with this method.
However, in recent times geodetic positioning
has found its role also in positioning moving
objects, such as ships, aircraft and cars. This
application became known as kinematic
positioning, and it is understood as being the
real-time positioning part of navigation.
Initialization with the rover moving, termed "on
the fly", is possible.

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Chapter - 87

In survey practice, it is best to use a mixture of

both methods, which often referred to as stopand-go surveys.

Coordinate transformation
Introduction
Coordinates
Datum
Surveying

Coordinates resulting from GPS measurements are in the system of

satellite datum, which is the World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS 84),
an earth-centred Cartesian coordinate system (X, Y, Z). For practical use
the coordinates have to be transformed to the national grid system, and
this will normally be carried out by software built into receiver or
alternatively in the computer used to process the data.

ZWGS

Instruments
Plane survey
Vertical survey
Photogrammetry
GPS

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Chapter - 88

XWGS

YWGS

Xgrid

Ygrid