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According to va Kovcs: The political efforts behind the introduction of the status of Jewish national
minority were mainly directed to reducing the ratio of the Hungarian national minority in that way, but liberal
intentions and the impact of a reviving Jewish renaissance cannot be neglected, either. Also, a significant number
of Orthodox, unassimilated Jewish population with characteristic ethnic features had lived on the territory of
Krptalja (Transcarpatia) (Podkarpatska Rus) assigned to Czechoslovakia. The concept of a Jewish national
minority included both a distancing from the Hungarian ethnic minorities and a possibility for a Jewish national
revival. va Kovcs: Felems asszimilci, [nitty-gritty assimilation], Dunaszerdahely: Lilium Aurum, 2004,
198.
2
According to the 1921 and 1930 Czechoslovak census, 2.39% or 2.01.% of the population of Slovakia reported
to belong to the Jewish national minority and 4.53%, or. 4.11% to the Israelite denomination. According to the
1930 census, the number of Jews in Slovakia was 136,737 (4.11%). Of that, 44,019 (32.19%) reported to belong
to the Czech or Slovak nationality (a new nation, the Czechoslovak had been crated on the census sheets), 9,945
(7.27%) said they were German and 65,385 (47.81%) said to belong to the Jewish national minority. Naun
slovnk aktualit 1939, Praha: Nakladate L. Maz, 1939, 616. According to the 1930 census at Kosice, 51.2%
of the Jews, i.e. 5,733 people reported to belong to the Jewish national minority, the rest said they were
Czechoslovak or Hungarian. Encyklopdia idovskch nboenskch obc, Bratislava: SNM Mzeum idovskej
kultry, 2009, 207.
1
The Jewish Party formed in 1918 had local organisations in every town with a
significant number of Jewish residents.3 The policy of the Jewish Party was
loyal to the governing regime; it strived for the observation and expansion of the
rights of national minorities and often acted in coalition with the Hungarian
parties. It could mainly rely on the mostly Orthodox communities of the Eastern
territories.4 Although the Czech politicians considered the Jewish Party the
representative of the Jewish national minority, the Jews themselves failed to
share that view (particularly in Slovakia and in the Transcarpatia). In addition to
the Jewish Party, the Jewish National Council and the Czechoslovak Zionist
Organisation were important Jewish organisations. The Jewish national
movement was striving to cover Jews that belonged to several denominational
branches.
Zionism started to gain momentum in the 1930s when anti-Semitism and the
idea of an independent Slovak state came into focus. Zionist organisations could
be located on the left side of the political palette next to Social Democrats and
Communists. It was a Prague-oriented modern movement that was mostly
attractive for the younger generation.5
Thanks to the spread of the liberal and democratic values of Masaryk, you
cannot speak of political anti-Semitism in Czechoslovakia before the mid-1930s.
Stand-alone cases, however, did occur. For instance, there were anti-Semitic
indications in the rhetoric of the Slovak Popular Party, one of the strongest
parties in Slovakia.
In his article Keeping Jewish holidays in Jewish and non-Jewish schools
published in 1938 in the paper Katholikus Lelkipsztor [Catholic Priest],
Klmn Ndai quoted Masaryk, the former President of the Republic Catholics
will have as much right as they can obtain for themselves; and then he
continued expressing his opinion: It is a fact we are pushed back in that regard,
we are to stand against the wall and we can hardly gain anything. Although, as it
is correct that the educational authorities take into account the Jewish holidays
and schoolchildren of the Jewish faith, it should act in the same way regarding
the spiritual needs of Catholic children. In Jewish schools there are 36 days, in
other schools 13 days of holidays for Jewish children in addition to the normal
holidays! We, Catholics are much interested how they were exempted from
attending classes. And in addition they enjoy our state-recognised holidays, e.g.
The Jewish Party established in Pstyn (Piestany) in 1918 had been unable to be nationally accepted by
Slovak Jews, it only played a minor or major part in local public administration.
4
va Kovcs : Disszimilci, zsid azonossgtudat, regionlis identits Szlovkiban (19201938),
[dissimilation, Jews identity and regional identity in Slovakia] Regio. Kisebbsgtudomnyi Szemle 2, 1991/2, pp.
1-5.
5
Op.cit., p. 3.
Data of 1939.
According to 1930 statistical figures, 50% of lawyers were Jews, 34% of medical and healthcare services were
provided by Jews and over 30 thousand Jews worked in public administration. Hegeds, Roman: Protiidovsk
politika v obdob slovenskej autonmie (www.pravespektrum.sk/article.php?); Letz, Robert: Pomoc
prenasledovanm idom na Slovensku v rokoch 19391945, Viera a ivot 9, 1999/3, 181.
10
Quoted from Juraek, Dalibor: idovsk kdex (Bakalrska prca, Bratislava, 2009)
(http://diplomovka.sme.sk/praca/3564/zakaz-popierania-holokaustu-v-slovenskej-republike-a-jehodosledky-naakademicku-slobodu.php).
9
The originators of anti-Jewish measures did not at all hide they had adopted
them to prevent the spread of Bolshevism as a top priority. On the day autonomy
was announced, on 6 October 1938, the politicians of the Popular Party (the
udks) stated in their publication titled The Manifesto of the Slovak nation: we
shall take sides with the nations that fight against Marxist-Jewish subversive and
violent ideology.11
The following can be read in a report of the Topolcsny (Topolcany) District
Office (8 November, 1938) on the expulsion and relocation of 93 Jews: Since
the Jewry, particularly the younger generation, had been engaged in Communist
political activities already under the Czechoslovak government, the measures
introduced were very good to attenuate the Communist atmosphere.12
3. In a national context, the Jews were considered an instrument of anti-Slovak
(Magyarizing) efforts in the hands of the Hungarian government. Even after the
collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, the Slovak population held the
view that the Jews had been the force behind the deprivation of the poor and the
Magyarization of Slovaks. Karel Klal, a contemporary Czech author combined
the Magyarization of Slovaks with the Jewish issue: The Jews were the capital
and spirit of Magyarization. () The Jews served Magyarization in return for a
big price: for unlimited freedom, in addition, they enriched themselves unfairly
depriving families and whole villages.13
The paper Nrodn noviny wrote the following in 1933: Before the change of
the regime, the Jews had been the most devoted and most effective means of
Magyarization and after the change of the regime we can see them as the
enemies of the nation. Even at present, Jews are supporters of the Hungarian
spirit; Jews are the most committed subscribers to Hungarian papers. () It is a
historical fact that our towns had become Magyarized so quickly, because
Hungarians had found in the Jews a social instrument that had promoted
Magyarization linguistically, economically and culturally with tenacious and
silent efforts and not in our interests.14
In October 1938, after the Munich Resolution, the head of the Bratislava Jewish
community handed over the Hungarian consul a petition signed by 15,000
Bratislava Jews to re-annex Bratislava to the Hungarian Kingdom.15 The
ilinsk dohoda. Druh svetov vojna: obasnk o modernch dejinch Slovenska, 1. oktbra 2006
(www.druhasvetova.sk/view.php?cisloclanku=2006090006).
12
Hlsenie Okresnho radu v Topoanoch Prezdiu krajinskho radu v Bratislave z 8. 11. 1938 o priebehu
deportci. Cited by Niansk, Eduard. (ed.): Holokaust na Slovensku 1 (Dokumenty), Bratislava, 2001, 307.
13
Klal, Karel: Karla Klala spisy slovkofilsk, Zvzok V. 1928. Cited by Juraek, op. cit., 14.
14
tefnek, A.: Zklady sociografie Slovenska. 1944, 94. Idzi Juraek, op. cit., 14.
15
urica, M. S.: Dejiny Slovenska a Slovkov v asovej nslednosti faktov dvoch tiscro, Bratislava: L,
2003, 375.
11
American diplomat George F. Kennan made a note of the event as follows: the
Slovaks were immediately informed about the petition and considered it a proof
inciting hatred that supported their view that Jews were not loyal with
Slovaks.16
4. Christian anti-Semitism, in fact, originated from classical anti-Judaism and
was built on it.
leaders regularly published in both media;21 and they took part at each others
events.22 The concord is fairly supported by the fact that Felvidki Ujsg
published hardly any news about the third anti-Jewish law not voted for by the
ecclesiastical leaders in the Upper House (Act No XV of 1941 on the addition
to and amendment of Act No XXXI of 1894), since that racist act clearly
contradicted Christian matrimonial law.23 At the same time, it introduced the
criminal act of miscegenation.24 After the law was adopted, however, Dr
Sndor Pohl city mayor ordered the Jewish Sabbath rope surrounding Kosice to
be removed immediately.25
This shop-window Christianity voiced all the time, however, had much more
formality than actual and deep faith. That is supported by an angry address to
the Catholic society of Kosice by bishop Madarsz when he had a shock to
face an empty church. The Basilica is almost deserted during a mass. There
were no more than a hundred believers at the mass held on the anniversary of
the Popes coronation, which is one of the major holy events both from a
Catholic and a Hungarian point of view. And but for our noble soldiers, some
office heads and high school youth, the ceremony would have been celebrated
among almost empty walls. On Easter Sunday, the greatest holiday of the
church, the Catholic intelligentsia was totally absent, the reserved seats were
empty, and only the good religious people of Kosice saved the honour of the
church! Where was the parish whose strict and holy duty it is to appear in the
church in a great mass on such occasions? Where were the Catholic societies,
the Credo, the Emericana, the Boy Scouts, the Congregations, the members of
the Catholic Action, etc.? This is not Catholic or Hungarian self-esteem! It is the
holy duty of the Catholic Hungarian society of Kosice to confess their Catholic
faith and patriotic spirit on such occasions () I am deeply saddened and
a change of spirit as well! Address by Jzsef Kzi-Horvth MP at the Kosice ceremonial assembly of Catholic
workers, Felvidki Ujsg 24 April, 1942, p. 3.
21
Cf.e.g. Dr Sndor Pohl, mayor of Kosice, Katolikus nrzet [Catholic self-esteem], Vol. XXII, Issue 11,
November 1942, pp. 1-3. Address to the 30th National Catholic Congress. Jen Sinyei Merse minister of culture,
Let religion be the foundation of public education in Hungary and let public education built on faith and moral
strengthen the religious spirit of Hungarians, op.cit. p.4. Dr Istvn Madarsz, bishop of the Kosice diocese,
Who is led to the infant Jesus by true love, Felvidki Ujsg 24 December, 1941, p. 1. Parents are
responsible for their children. Pastoral letter by Istvn Madarsz Dr, bishop of the Kosice dicese on parents
sacred and responsible duties, Felvidki Ujsg 21 February, 1942, p. 5. Dr Istvn Madarsz, The example of
the Bethlehem Holy Family, Felvidki Ujsg 24 December, 1942, p. 1. Dr Istvn Madarsz bishop of Kosice,
The Lord of Peace, Felvidki Ujsg 24 December, 1943, p. 1.
22
The Jewish issue on the agenda of the Board of the local organisation of the United Party, Felvidki Ujsg
31 December, 1938, p. 3. The meeting was opened by no other than Barna Tost prelate-parish priest.
23
Settling the Jewish issue. Who is considered a Jew. Marriage between Christians and Jews banned, Felvidki
Ujsg, 9 June, 1941, p. 2; The execution order of the race protection act published, Felvidki Ujsg 4 October,
1941, p. 3.
24
Cf e.g. Felvidki Ujsg 24 January, p. 3; 14 February, p. 6; 28 April, p. 4; 7 September, p. 5;2 October, p. 6;
28 October, 1942, p. 4; 12 February, 1943, p. 4.
25
Felvidki Ujsg 26 July, 1941, p. 8: According to Jewish law, the Sabbath rope borders the area within which
devout Israelites may leave their apartments on Saturday without committing an act of violance to their religious
laws.
of betraying the Hungarian cause under the Czechoslovak regime,28 that was
described as captivity and occupation.29 Also, Jews were considered in
relation to liberalism and Bolshevism in general i.e. the greatest enemies of
Catholicism and, of course, blamed for everything.
The Felvidki Ujsg was clearly a political daily; its first issue was published on
Sunday, 25 December, 1938. At the beginning Dr Jnos Brczay MP was the
editor-in-chief and Dr Mikls Pajor MP then the vice president of the Catholic
Action was its chief correspondent. Jen Pusks became managing editor from
17 August, 1940 (Volume III, issue 187). His post was taken over by Zoltn
Kassai from 1 March, 1943 (Volume VI, issue 48). At the same time Gza
Forgch became chief correspondent. In 1943 the daily was owned by Kosice
Hungarian Life Publishers. According to its own self-identification: it fought
for the prevalence of Christian masses and Christian ethics in every of its
lines.30 The same was reiterated by Zoltn Nyisztor31 describing the Felvidki
Ujsg as its every line is permeated by the spirit of true Christianity.32
Implicitly it also meant that obvious anti-Jewishness was an organic part of true
Christianity.
The start of the paper was welcomed by prelate Barna Tost, a decisive figure of
Catholicism at Kosice: Felvidki Ujsg will again be the new daily of liberated
Kosice. I welcome it with pleasure. I wish Gods blessing on its path and I wish
from my heart it should trumpet the Hungarian truth and stand on the
foundations of Christian moral incessantly.33 It was mainly national and
Christian in its drive, which was perfectly suitable for the contemporary
Catholic clerics of Kosice. You could say the two had been completely
interwoven in a national-Christian ideology. Already in its first issue the paper
reported on both the 1938 anti-Jewish law extended to cover the Upland, which
was assessed as a new chapter of saving the nation,34 and the order of
Christmas holy masses and church services.35
To interpret and understand the sources it must be noted that between the two
World Wars the Jewry of Kosice was one of the largest and most important
Aladr R.. Vozry, Frankly and openly on the Jewish issue, Felvidki Ujsg 5 January,1939, p. 5. Cf. Also:
Felvidki Ujsg 1 March, 1939, pp. 1-2; 10 March, 1939, p. 1; 23 March, 1939, p. 5; The Magyar nature of
the Jewry of the Upland, Felvidki Ujsg 6 June, 1942, p. 3.
29
Address by prelate Barna Tost parish priest at the Kecskemt Lyce. Barna Tost spoke about the history of
twenty years of Czech occupation of Kosice. The Hungarians of Kecskemt gave the prelate-priest of Kosice a
thunderous applause, Felvidki Ujsg 13 January, 1939, p. 4.
30
Why is the opinion of Felvidki Ujsg unusual for Hungarians?, Felvidki Ujsg 30 April, 1940, p. 3.
31
An important figure of Catholic journalism between the two World Wars (cf.
http://lexikon.katolikus.hu/N/Nyisztor.html).
32
Zoltn Nyisztor: Our enemy the pseudo-Christian press, Felvidki Ujsg 26 January, 1942, p. 3.
33
Felvidki Ujsg 25 December, 1938, p. 2.
34
Felvidki Ujsg 25 December, 1938, p. 2.
35
Felvidki Ujsg 25 December, 1938, p. 5.
28
10
the Czech era most of them stood by the Hungarians in the years of hardship
when remaining a Hungarian meant the adoption of the bitter fate of a national
minority. But they took it upon themselves and therefore old Kosice-dwellers
honoured and loved them. But not so the majority of those from the mother
country, particularly Arrow Cross Party supporters that were many at Kosice,
the birthplace of their leader Szlasi. Before he took power, Szlasi had visited
Kosice several times and the Arrow Cross Party supporters of Kosice considered
it their main objective to clear the birthplace of their leader from Jews
completely. Thus, fierce agitation was started against the Jews who had nowhere
to flee in 1943. There remained one option to find refuge: to convert to the
religion of Christians. Although the more rational knew it was no real refuge,
Fascism would find, segregate and kill them anyway. But there were many who
hoped the church of Christ would spread its caring wings above them and they
can at least save their lives if no more. Those people asked to be accepted into
the Christian church not out of conviction but because they feared annihilation.
Many Jewish converts applied to be accepted in all Christian churches. In our
church of Kosice there were many who had become followers of the Protestant
faith before Fascism, out of conviction. Most of them had become good
Christians, devout and generous members of the Church...41
The above memories of the parson are, however, significantly modified by the
image provided in the contemporary press. It was probably due to the high
number and social weight of the Jews at Kosice that all news items relating to or
impacting the Jewry (domestic and foreign but mostly local) were among the
unavoidable topics (e.g. different front reports or local crimes) of Felvidki
Ujsg.42 In that way, the daily favourably assessed and positively reported for its
readers the 2nd anti-Jewish law debated in 1939.43 In January, it reported at
Lajos Szab, Last straw, Budapest: Magyar Egyhztrtneti Enciklopdia Munkakzssg Kazinczy Ferenc
Trsasg, 2000, 125. Szab became the pastor of the Kosice Protestant church in August 1942. Cf: Felvidki
Ujsg 17 August, 1942, p. 5.
42
For instance: The Italian state expropriates Jewish property, Felvidki Ujsg 16 February, 1939, p. 4;
Traitor Jews are executed in masses in towns along the Pruth, Felvidki Ujsg 5 July, 1941, p. 4; The
business life of the [Czech] Protectorate is completely free of Jews. How the economic power of Jews was
broken on the territory of the Protectorate?, Felvidki Ujsg 2 September, 1941, p. 4. The Slovak Jewish
code, Felvidki Ujsg 19 September, 1941, p. 3. Visit in a Jewish quarter [i.e. in the Warsaw ghetto] where
citizens of the future Jewish state are learning to work, Felvidki Ujsg 19 January, 1942, p. 4. Jnos Darvas,
A walk in Kiev where there are no Jews living. Felvidki Ujsg 24 January, 1942, p. 7; The houses of Jews
are marked with a star in Slovakia, Felvidki Ujsg 17 March, 1942, p. 7. No more Jews will be on the
territory of Slovakia in a few months time. The Slovak minister of the interior on the Jewish issue, Felvidki
Ujsg 30 March, 1942, p. 6. Expropriation of Jewish properties completed in Slovakia, Felvidki Ujsg 28
May, 1942, p. 4. How do the European Jews live in their newly settled areas in the East?, Felvidki Ujsg 11
November, 1942, p. 6. Italian Jews placed in collection camps, Felvidki Ujsg 1 December, 1943, p. 5.
43
The whole Hungarian nation uniformly wishes a quick settlement of the Jewish issue. New sections included
in the proposal?, Felvidki Ujsg 22 January, 1939, pp. 1-2. The article was placed immediately before
reporting on the Sunday schedule of church service. Vitz Jen Rcz, Settling the Jewish issue is for our
existence, Felvidki Ujsg 24 January, 1939, p. 2. It is quite clear for the retired minister of defence that Jews
are a (separate) race, and it is not helped by their adopting the sanctity of Baptism, as Baptism cannot change
41
11
length about an address made by Prime Minister Bla Imrdy in Pcs with its
main message of the necessity of the fight against the Jewish spirit combining
it with the land policy with its future goal of the expropriation of Jewish
property.44 At Kosice the Christian social strata, particularly the lite or middle
classes expected the new law to facilitate their rise, the significant improvement
of their positions, although they were clearly aware that they were ungrateful to
the local Jewish community without which the leaders of Kosice could not have
preserved the Magyar nature of the city.45 They hoped to achieve the economic
and social restructuring in favour of the so termed original Christians by law,
the redistribution of trade licences. It was not by accident that the applications
had to include the surname and given name, age, religion, nationality and
address of the person wishing to engage in the trade and in attachment their
birth certificate (certificate of Baptism), their parents birth certificates
(certificates of Baptism) or marriage certificate, finally their potential spouses
birth certificate (certificate of Baptism).46 It is quite clear that religion was one
of the major criteria of evaluation. The centrally organised change of the
guard47 was implemented by the Kosice group of the national Baross Society,
which strived to organise the local Christian society and to protect the business
interests of Christians.48 Christians could regard it as a natural process, since
prince primate Jusztinin Serdi had clearly stated in the debate of the antiJewish law in the Upper House that pushing back the expansion of the Jewry is
the race. In his opinion: We Magyars only can be the masters in the Carpathian Basin, Felvidki Ujsg 31
January, 1939, pp. 1-2.
44
Felvidki Ujsg 17 January, 1939, pp. 1-2.
45
Kosice and the Jewish assimilation. Data of Jzsef Szent-Ivny on the behaviour of the Upland Jews,
Felvidki Ujsg 4 February, 1939, p. 5.
46
Trade licences in the Upland lose effect as of 1 July. New applications must be submitted by 15 March,
Felvidki Ujsg 8 February, 1939, p. 3
47
Cf. Ferenc Huba, Economic change of the guard in Kosice trade. Interesting statistics on the trade revision
implemented, Felvidki Ujsg 23 March, 1940, p. 6. Attempt to prevent illegally the implementation of the
economic change of the guard in the Kosice District, Felvidki Ujsg 13 April, 1940, p. 5. Certified Christian
timber merchants only can participate in the distribution of firewood, Felvidki Ujsg 24 August, 1940, p. 4.
The Kosice shoe trade in Christian hands, Felvidki Ujsg 4 September, 1941, p. 3. Textiles worth 800,000
Peng blocked in the Kosice chamber district, Felvidki Ujsg 17 September, 1941, p. 3. Jewish merchants
may not sell radios from 1st October, Felvidki Ujsg 20 September, 1941, p. 7. The first arms shop of Kosice
in Christian hands opens, Felvidki Ujsg 16 October, 1941, p. 4. Christian merchants urge allocation of the
ready-to-wear trade in the hands of Jews, Felvidki Ujsg 15 November, 1941, p. 6. Christians only may apply
for wholesale trade licences, Felvidki Ujsg 21 November, 1941, p. 7. Christian-owned plants and Christian
merchants only will be provided with goods, Felvidki Ujsg 19 February, 1942, p. 7. Wholesale trade
licences for alcoholic drinks to be reviewed. After the review, Jews may not engage in the wholesale trade of
spirits, wine or beer, Felvidki Ujsg 18 March, 1942, p. 4. The stocks of Jewish iron merchants not provided
with goods to be taken over by Christian merchants. Iron merchants able to certify their origin will be provided
with goods only, Felvidki Ujsg 9 May, 1942, p. 5. The sale of salt must be taken out of the hands of Jews.
Salt constituting a state monopoly is still mainly distributed to consumers via Jewish hands, Felvidki Ujsg 20
October, 1942, p. 7.
48
The Kosice group of the Baross Society launched a big fight to protect the interests of Christian merchants
and tradesmen. Over 3000 merchants and tradesmen arrive to the Baross congress in May the Kosice group
already has 250 members, Felvidki Ujsg 16 February, 1939, p. 3. Shop with the members of the Baross
Society, Felvidki Ujsg 11 June, 1939, p. 11.
12
the just self-defence of the nation,49 which, in fact, exempted them from having
any pangs of conscience. Not to mention that neighbouring Catholic Slovakia
had implemented similar anti-Jewish laws.50
The anti-Jewish laws in Hungary drove a minute minority of Kosice Jews to get
Baptised. It had immediately triggered disquiet in the Christian society of the
town as it turned out from a March 1939 issue of Felvidki Ujsg. The topical
issues of our times are the pure race and the Aryan issue the author wrote
and they represent a lot of extra work for both clerical and civil authorities. We
talked to the administrative head of the Kosice Roman Catholic parish office and
he advised that over 200 Jews had converted to the Catholic denomination at
Kosice since 1 January, 1939. They had become Catholics following sound and
clean intentions. The converts do not only include bank managers, doctors,
lawyer and clerks but also simple workmen and domestic helps who cannot be
suspected of simulation since settling their religion has not been of importance
for them. In the present situation the Roman Catholic Church received those
candidates with natural and justified reserve. Each and every case is investigated
with more than standard care, they are submitted to the bishops office and an
opinion is given about each candidates awareness of the faith, the soundness
and cleanliness of his or her intention. To establish the above with due care,
Istvn Cselnyi the Popes chamberlain and teachers of religious studies Dr Bla
Suhaj, Bla Bartk and Jen Listyk deal with the spiritual life of individuals
wishing to convert, with their introduction into the precepts of the Roman
Catholic religion, and to establish the soundness and cleanliness of their
intentions dividing them into smaller homogeneous groups considering their
high numbers. The best result of their work has been the favourable opinions
that have led to an increase of the Catholic congregation at Kosice by 200
followers.51
Following the adoption of the second anti-Jewish law (3 May, 1939), Felvidki
Ujsg regularly informed its readers on how the Jews were trying to stretch the
law.52 Another topic returning repeatedly was the issue of Christian dupes
helping Jews.53 The Catholic j let, katolikus szocilis s vilgnzeti havi
49
13
szemle [new life, Catholic social and ideological monthly review] also edited at
Kosice wrote about it the following: Thanks to the anti-Jewish law, a new caste
is being born: the caste of screens. The resourceful people of Israel, in fact, are
not much hit by the anti-Jewish laws: using exquisite sense, they always find
their rescuers in certain groups of sporting citizens with the right strings who
rarely refuse being their screen in return for the proper price. Life goes on
undisturbed, Jewish capital still has power, workers are still exploited as in the
past and simple people suffer in the same way only the caste of screens is
better off. () Incapable Magyars feel giddy in the storm of that miraculous
transformation , they understand that while the anti-Jewish laws have already
fattened the class of people acting as screens, a simple entrepreneur must suffer
humiliation to obtain a trading licence unless his humour and ambition is
crushed at the beginning between the grindstones of Hungarian bureaucracy.
() Hungarian leaders should accept as their greatest duty to give back the
disillusioned, lethargic masses their faith and confidence.54
Despite all efforts by the authorities, the system of dupes/screens could not be
eradicated till the end. In fact, it was only solved by the deportations in 1944.
That has two explanations. One is that the interests of the Jewry pushed to the
peripheries both socially and existentially55 and the strata of poorer people that
were only bound to the church formally or sociologically had met.56 The other
one is that part of Christians had remained loyal to their Jewish employers to a
certain extent.
Although Catholic clerical leaders never commented on the Jewish issue in the
columns of Felvidki Ujsg, the feelings of bishop Madarsz fully in harmony
with those of the city leaders are well reflected in an address entitled
Christian culture and Hungarians given at the Kazinczy Society at Kosice in
mid-March 1940. According to the bishop: the Patrona Hungariae was the
ideal for the Hungarian nation and the example of Hungarian family life. The
beneficial impact of the example can be seen as an erotic spirit was never
dominant in Hungarian fiction or plays; adultery, divorce or artificially caused
childlessness never occurred in Hungarian families in the old times or occurred
only as an exception. According to the bishop: If in that regard we can find
Ujsg 25 June, 1943, p. 2. Also: Felvidki Ujsg 14 April, 1944, p.3: Domestic help sentenced for covering up
for Jews. Jewish house and garden properties transferred to dupes names to be confiscated, Felvidki Ujsg
22 May, 1944, p. 4; 8 July, 1944, p. 3.
54
j let [new life], 1940/2 (issue 84, p. 52.
55
E.g. Government Decree No 4800/1939 on the review and termination of the mandates of Jewish members of
legislative committees and city municipalities, Felvidki Ujsg 24 August, 1939, p. 4. Cf also the struggle of
Christian merchants united in the extreme right-wing Turul Society to push the Jews out of the Kosice
Merchants Body: Felvidki Ujsg 18 March, 1940, p.3; 1 April, p. 3; 8 April, p. 3; 10 April, p. 4; 10 May, p. 4;
1 June, p. 5; 17 June p. 4; 27 July, 1941 p. 7.
56
A poor market-stall holder collaborated with a Jew; using his trading licence his associate lacking a licence
purchased waggonloads of apples, Felvidki Ujsg 27 November, 1940, p. 7.
14
It is a Hungarian honour to act bravely and to suffer bravely Address by Dr Istvn Madarsz bishop of the
diocese at the Kazinczy Society, Felvidki Ujsg 18 March, 1940, p. 3.
58
For instance, Felvidki Ujsg 17 May, 1941, p. 5; 28 October, 1941, p. 4; 24 December, 1941, p. 5; 28
February, 1942, p. 8; 13 March, 1942, p. 4; 25 April, 1942, p. 9; 1 July, 1942, p. 6; 15 July, 1942, p. 4; 23 July,
1942, p. 4; 4 September, 1942, p. 6; 18 September, 1942, p. 6; 29 October, 1942, p. 7; 5 May, 1943; 5 June,
1943, p. 9; 19 June, 1943, p. 11.
59
Felvidki Ujsg 25 September, 1942, p. 4.
60
Rumour mongering - treason!, Felvidki Ujsg 3 July, 1941, p. 2. Also in Felvidki Ujsg 13 August, 1942,
p. 6; 21 October, 1942, p. 3; 6 November, 1942, p. 4.
61
Title to 893 major properties owned by Jews have been ordered to be transferred so far, Felvidki Ujsg 18
December, 1941, p.2. The expropriation of Jewish-owned vineyards started in Tokaj-Hegyalja, Felvidki
Ujsg 2 March, 1942, p.6. Properties owned by Jews blocked. Sequestration refers to vineyards and orchards of
more than 5 acres, and agricultural properties of more than 500 acres, Felvidki Ujsg 20 March, 1942, p. 3.
Jews have not always acquired land in the way it is allowed by Christian morals. Address by Dr Jnos Brczay
secretary of state at Storaljaujhely, Felvidki Ujsg 30 March, 1942, p. 5. The fate of one-and-one-quarter
million acres of Hungarian land, Felvidki Ujsg 26 May, 1942, p.2. In Abauj-Torna County 11,000 cadaster
acres to be transferred from Jews to Hungarians, Felvidki Ujsg 18 July, p. 4 and 20 July, p.7. New decree by
57
15
destitute to serve on the front! Later on, however, it turned out that most of that
had been just empty talk.62 The members of the Order of Vitez [valiant], mainly
the officers had been the actual beneficiaries.63 It is clearly seen from the
following: 20,000 acres had been set aside for war veteran farmers with many
children (they were granted areas of less than 5 acres) while the Seat of the
Vitez received 130,000 acres to award homesteads of 5-100 acres to officers and
soldiers of the Vitez.64
Following the deprivation of rights and property as well as expulsion from social
life,65 the conflict was transformed into a kind of existential struggle of selfdefence for an internal lebensraum. It was expressed by Pter Schell, sheriff
of Abaj-Torna County66: When we want to push the Jews out of economic life
he said at a meeting of the Party of Hungarian Life it does not mean hate or
anti-Semitism. It means self-defence we have to take to protect our own
interests. If we do not want to be destroyed, we must adopt this fight and finish
it completely. () We, Christians have major responsibilities regarding the
Jewish issue so that we can fill the place of Jews in the positions of the
economy. It, however, does not mean that getting ahead should be easier for us
or we should get more profit with less work; it means we must work, go without
[goods] and learn so that we could get on life and succeed in places where the
Jews could get on. The anti-Jewish laws cannot be options for Christians to
make money without work. We must educate our youth to respect and love the
occupation of merchants and artisans.67
the minister of agriculture grants over 700,000 cadaster acres of Jewish-owned land to the simple men,
Felvidki Ujsg 16 September, 1942, p. 5.
62
Fifteen major homesteads in Abaj owned by Jews to be let by lease to Christian farmers. Candidates with
proper qualifications and having capital should submit bids to the economy supervisor of the county, Felvidki
Ujsg 30 January, 1943, p. 3. Another 13,000 acres of Jewish properties to be granted to families with many
children, Felvidki Ujsg 21 April, 1943, p. 3. All Jewish properties to be used urgently. Decree published on
grants of land to war heroes and their male descendants, Felvidki Ujsg 2 September, 1943, p. 3. Handing
over Jewish properties of less than 5 acres started in Abauj-Torna County. The County Cooperative for Public
Good granted land to 48 families in 26 settlements, Felvidki Ujsg 1 December, 1943, p. 7.
63
Jewish properties larger than five cadastral acres but less than 100 acres and vineyards of less than 20 acres to
be granted to Hungarian Vitez, Felvidki Ujsg 26 September, 1942, p. 2. Also, Felvidki Ujsg 10 October,
1942, p. 2; 27 November, p. 2. The Vitez plots created from Jewish properties in Abauj-Torna County are
waiting for the new vitez [valiants] of World War II, Felvidki Ujsg 23 December, 1943, p. 6.
64
The distribution of expropriated Jewish properties, Felvidki Ujsg 28 June, 1943, p. 1.
65
Early in November 1942 an unknown correspondent was indignant why is it that there are still 75% Jews
among the telephone subscribers at Kosice, when the new Christian companies cannot get a telephone?,
Felvidki Ujsg 6 November, 1942, p. 4. See also The Jewish dental technicians of Kosice are banned as of
today, Felvidki Ujsg 29 September, 1942, p. 5.
66
The Fhrer awarded the cross of merit of the Order of the German Eagle to vitez baron Pter Schell sheriff,
Felvidki Ujsg 17 September, 1943, p. 2.
67
Sheriff Pter Schell spoke about topical Hungarian issues at the party meeting held at Sziksz, Felvidki
Ujsg 17 March, 1942, p.3.See also Hungarians are not led by hate in the Jewish issue but by self-defence
Address by Istvn Boda college professor on the scientific and practical implications of the Jewish issue,
Felvidki Ujsg 20 April, 1942, p. 4.
16
68
Cf Felvidki Ujsg 1942, 21 March, p.5; 17 April, p.2 and p.6; 18 April , p.5; 23 april, p.3; 24 June, p.2 and
p.6;17 September, p.3; 22 September, p.4; 23 September, p.5; 24 September, p.3; 3 October, p.4; 20 October,
p.7;30 October, p.11; 24 December, p.6; 1943, 12 January, p.5; 10 March, p.6; 11 March, p.4; 16 March, p.6; 24
April, p.4 and p. 9; 25 May, p.3; 7 June, p.6; 16 July, p.5; 17 July, p.6; 3 August, p.5; 14 August, p.3; 14
September p.7; 15 September, p.5; 1 October, p.4; 3 November, p.6; 25 November, p.6; 26 November, p.6; 30
November, p.4; 11 December, p.11; 30 December, p.7; 1944, 12 January, p.3; 11 February, p.7; 15 February,
p.6; 17 February, p.6.
69
The deportation of Slovakian Jews, Felvidki Ujsg 21 May, 1942, p.7; 60,000 Jews have been deported
from Slovakia so far. The evolution and settlement of the Jewish issue in Slovakia. Statement by Dr Antal Vaek
senior councillor to foreign correspondents, Felvidki Ujsg 4 November, 1942, p.6.
70
This is supported by the fact that during the deportations, in line with legal provisions, the Universal Reformed
Convent ordered the literary works by Jewish authors to be scrapped. Felvidki Ujsg 1 June, 1944, p.5.
17
defended that exceptional right in the past in the most difficult circumstances
and it would not be limited in that regard in the future, either.
2. The same defines the stance of the Catholic church regarding the conversion
of Jews. Some Jews had been Baptised at a time when it had offered no
advantages for them, on the contrary, the Jews and sometimes even state
administration had persecuted them for it. We regard those Jews to be our
followers just like the others and we are obliged to accept responsibility for
them. We do mediate in the interest of such converted Jews that fulfil their
religious responsibilities.
3. As regarding other Jews and the relevant measures taken, our opinion is the
following:
The tragedy of the Jewish nation is that it did not acknowledge the Saviour; on
the contrary, it crucified Him. The Saviour himself shed tears for the obstinacy
of the Jewish people and prophesied their punishment and dispersal all over the
world.
That did occur after the destruction of Jerusalem and the Jews have been living
in smaller and larger groups among the sons of other nations all over the world
for over two thousand years. During that long time, they have not become
assimilated into the other nations. They have never changed their antagonistic
approach to Christianity; on the contrary, Jews took part in the bloody
persecution of Christians in Russia and Spain. That is the reason why the nations
sometimes give rise to their bitterness against the Jewry using extreme rigor and
cruelty that is contrary to Christian morals. The influence of Jews has been
harmful in our case, too. Within a short time, they have acquired almost all our
businesses and finances to the detriment of our nation. They have had a
damaging impact on our nation not only economically but also culturally and
morally.
The church, therefore, cannot make any objections against the legal measures of
the state aiming to terminate the damaging impact of the Jews.
On the other hand, it must not be forgotten regarding the settlement of the
Jewish issue that Jews are also humans and they must be treated in a humane
way. Special care must be taken not to offend the prevailing law and not to
violate the laws of nature and God. Every man has a natural right to acquire
private property with honest work and to enjoy it in accordance with the
principles of Christian ethics. It is every mans natural right to establish a
family. And if he has decided in favour of a family life, he does not only have to
fulfil the obligations of family life but he can also enjoy its rights in accordance
with Christianity. We considered it necessary to declare the above (), so that
the Catholic community should also learn the opinion of responsible
ecclesiastical groups.71
An interesting opinion of Slovak Catholic ecclesiastical groups on the Jewish issue, The church may not
have any objections against the legal measures taken by the state, Felvidki Ujsg 1 May, 1942, p.4.
71
18
In line with the above, an initiative of the mayor in March 1942 (7958/1942) has
shed interesting light on the Christian spirit of city administration implementing
or taking a series of anti-Jewish measures72. Funnily, it was not reported in
Felvidki Ujsg but in Katolikus Tudst [catholic reporter] proving, in effect,
that political and ecclesiastical areas at Kosice were mixed and overlapping at
that time.
An appeal to the citizens of Kosice!
Let us stop in the turmoil of flying life for a short meditation on Good Friday,
the day when the Saviour of the world died on the cross, the 3rd of April of this
year at 3 oclock p.m. every kind of manual or spiritual work should stop in
the offices, workshops, shops, factories and plants as well as at home in the
households. With a short, one-minute repentance, with our hearts raised, let us
remember and meditate on the Greatest, the Holiest, the Saviour of the world
who sacrificed his life and shed his blood for us; in whose hands we are for all
times; who is the origin of all good, happiness, power and glory. Let us make
this elevating sacrifice and let us place it under the cross to the Holiest Sacrifice!
Kassa, 10 March, 1942
Dr Sndor Pohl, mayor in his own hands73
The spirit of the times is also illustrated by the New Year greetings of 1943 by
prelate-parish priest Barna Tost: Love your home country and in the New Year
be the advocates of a uniform internal front without complaints. Our superiors in
the church and the lay world urge this on every occasion! I cannot forget the
charming example of a ten-year old German boy who had come to Pest for
vacations and when he was first offered coffee, cake, butter, fruit and biscuits
for breakfast, he said thank you modestly but he only wanted a glass of milk
with bread because the Leader also has that for breakfast. That discipline, that
endurance of the war situation without complaint, that we must be satisfied with
what we have for the sake of our country and not to complain for every trifle,
that is the real love of your country. Start the New Year in the holy name of
Jesus74
For instance, The mandate of Jewish members of the municipality was terminated at Kosice too, Felvidki
Ujsg 15 January, p.2. The measure personally affected Dr Bla Halmi and Dr rmin Wirkmann. Dr Sndor
Brkk, Lszl Rnai and Pl Vende were called upon to verify within 60 days they are not Jews. The mandate
of Jewish members of Kosice municipality was finally terminated. The Public Administration Court rejected the
complaints submitted against the decision of the certification committee, Felvidki Ujsg 2 May, 1942, p.10.
There is something surrealistic in what care was taken to make everything according to law and the rules while
anti-Jewish measures followed each other. It can be assumed that was exactly what had left the law abiding and
law respecting Jewry totally unprotected and at the mercy of the processes.
73
Kassai Katolikus Tudst [kosice catholic rporter], Volume XXII, issue 3, 7 March, 1942. mrcius, 7.
74
Kassai Katolikus Tudst Volume XXIII, issue 1, 2 January, 1943.
72
19
Looking back many decades later and in the knowledge of the events of those
times it is really telling that a leading personality of the church of a ripe age75 set
a German boy idolising and following chancellor Adolf Hitler in everything as
an example for his Catholic readers/followers!
An article entitled In the drift of ideologies by Istvn Madarsz the bishop of
Kosice, in which he warned about the danger of atheism, was in all probability
related to the tragedy of the 2nd Hungarian army at the Don River that had
become practically impossible to conceal by that time.76 His circular for Lent, in
which he discussed patriotism and faith, is also telling: Real patriotism means
you are willing to make a sacrifice.77 Those articles indicate the uncertainty and
anguish78 that had started to take control of Kosice society.79 The issue of the
necessity of an internal front had been in focus. All the more so, as bad news
arrived from the different fronts: the Axis Powers had lost North Africa,80 the
Allied Forces landed in Sicily in July, Mussolini resigned and then Italy
capitulated (September, 1943) and declared war on Germany (October). Not to
mention that following the lost tank battle at Kursk (July 1943) the Soviet troops
were pushing back the Germans to the West incessantly. 81 In such circumstances
Kosice inaugurated the Altar of Patriotism and Sacrifice, where donations were
collected weekly. It was both a church and political event with the bishop of the
diocese and the sheriff present under the signs of the cross and the tin hat.82 At
the same time, Hungary had to face the news that the tri-lateral conference in
Moscow had decided to continue the war until unconditional capitulation so that
Fascism should be annihilated.83 To which Germany, naturally, responded by
perseverance till the end.84 Hungary did not really perceive that its playing field
had ceased to exist. It is proved by a remark by Prime Minister Mikls Kllay
75
He celebrated 25th anniversary of being the parish priest at the time. Cf, Kassai Katolikus Tudst Volume
XXIII, issue 2, 2-7 February, 1943.
76
Felvidki Ujsg 20 February, 1943, p.3.
77
Felvidki Ujsg 10 March, 1943, p.3.
78
All that could be felt nation-wide as well. Cf, Jusztinin Serdi: Promulgate the historical merits and truth of
the Hungarian nation everywhere! The sermon of the Cardinal Prince Primate at the Esztergom Basilica on
Assumption Day, Felvidki Ujsg 16 August, 1943, p.3; Lszl Ravasz Reformed bishop preached on Sunday
about war, peace and the threat against Budapest. Christs Chuch raises its voice for peace and conciliation,
op.cit, p.4. The Prince Primate called on foreign Catholics not to be indifferent to the fate of Hungary,
Felvidki Ujsg 13 December, 1943, p.3.
79
Hungarians will defend the stronghold of Kosice with all their strength also in the future, Felvidki Ujsg
20 September, 1943, p.3. Kosice has been and will be Magyar, said Prime Minister Kllay; Felvidki Ujsg 11
November, 1943, p.1. Ken Ghyczy, European peace may not be built on the ruins of the small nations,
Felvidki Ujsg 27 November, 1943, p.3.
80
In Berlin, the Tunis campaign executed to gain strategic time is considered to be finished, Felvidki Ujsg 8
May, 1943.
81
Felvidki Ujsg termed continuous retreat as seceding manoeuvres
82
Felvidki Ujsg 13 June, 1943,p. 3.
83
Felvidki Ujsg 2 November, 1943, p.1.
84
No matter how long the war takes, Germany will not capitulate. The address of Chancellor Hitler in Munich
to the German nation, Felvidki Ujsg 9 November, 1943, p.1. Hitler: this war forced on us can only be ended
in victory, Felvidki Ujsg 30 November, 1943, p.1.
20
The fate of the Kosice Jewry after the German occupation of Hungary
85
21
After the German occupation on 19 March, 1944 Felvidki Ujsg almost had no
issues without reports on the stringency measures affecting the Jewry. As if a
dam had been broken over. News items relating to Jews had overwritten
everything else for the daily; they almost fill some issues.88 On the other hand, it
is also clear that there was complete understanding between the German military
and the Hungarian authorities: the Germans collected a million Pengs of
bail from Kosice Jews, the stocks of some Kosice shops were appropriated,
Jewish persons were arrested and the apartments of those persons were
emptied and appropriated. () the measures by the German authorities of public
security were applied at all times in agreement with the Hungarian government
authorities and are to be considered as security measures to protect public
security. () All citizens of the state should keep in mind all the time that
they must take full responsibility for what they say. () The German army
staying in Hungary and the German organisation of public security serves
Hungarian interests as well and they fight for the Hungarian future in the same
way as our soldiers fighting on the front 89
Exemptions were stopped,90 and the public of Kosice supported devotedly in
the implementation of its goals,91 and the municipality of the city assured the
Sztjay government of its enthusiastic confidence.92 The radical solution of the
Jewish issue was expected of it.93 It is telling that in the period of April-June
1944 while a number of reports were published on Jews not a word was said
about the deportations and transports, nor was there any mention of the
circumstances the Kosice Jews found themselves in in the ghetto established in
the brick factory. The silence of the representatives of the Catholic church about
the facts and keeping silence in general is most striking. The daily only
published an address full of pathos by Kosice bishop Istvn Madarsz on the
birthday of the Governor.94 Although more and more decrees were published of
which the church could not only have an opportunity to object but it should have
felt obliged to do so.
88
Felvidki Ujsg 1944, 27 March, p.2; 29 March, p.1; 30 March; 31 March; 3 April; 11 April; 17 April.
Rumours and responsibility, Felvidki Ujsg 8 April, 1944, p.3.
90
The dependents of Jewish lost are obliged to wear the yellow star, Felvidki Ujsg 13 April, 1944, p.2.
The terms war widow and war orphan only apply to the war dead recognised in the register. Certificates of
exemption by themselves will not exempt Jews from the obligation to wear the yellow star, Felvidki Ujsg
20 April, 1944, p.2.
91
Felvidki Ujsg 14 April, 1944, p.3.
92
Felvidki Ujsg 18 April, 1944, p.1.
93
Gyrgy Olhs Kosice report on the political situation. The real great work of reforms will only start now
after the Jewish issue has been liquidated, Felvidki Ujsg 22 April, 1944, p.3. Vitez Andor Jaross satement:
The government will terminate the parasite role of the Jewry once and for all, Felvidki Ujsg 25 April, 1944.,
p.1; Lszl Baky secretary of state: All Jews will be deported from this country, Felvidki Ujsg 17 May,
1944, pp. 1-3.
94
Felvidki Ujsg 19 June, 1944, p. 3.
89
22
In the April issue of Kassai Katolikus Tudst Mtys P. Fehr, librarian to the
bishop expresses his opinion unambiguously in his paper Triumphant life:
The liberals of the past century nailed the holiest ideals onto a wall of shame.
They made a mockery of Gods tomb; Christianity became but a tolerated
servant in its own home and had to endure to be shut into a tomb in the name of
enlightenment and progress as the enemy of all progress and culture. The
Christian spirit was suffering in parliaments and university departments as
Cinderella, because it was not even allowed to remember its old glory for
consolation. And now, a century later, when the ashes of the henchmen of the
past are gone with the wind in all directions, it looks as dawn was near. The
present life of this generation is really the dawn of Easter. In effect, a long
period of torpor has been replaced by self-conscious will to be brave. The
Christian spirit has risen, or rather it has woken up, because the girl is not dead,
it is simply asleep. As some giant that has shaken off the chains of small
unscrupulous climbers and is stretching himself after a deep slumber it starts for
life. Now we can see the astonishment of the gravediggers of Christianity. We
have a chance to watch the bewilderment of those having crucified Life. Faith
that has been thought to be dead and done with for ever appears among us. It is
here now and it demands its right and it can stamp its feet if it finds unbelieving
faces.95 The text is quite surrealistic. It seems as if Christianity were to achieve
its well-deserved freedom after a long period of suffering. As if the whole
Horthy era had not been permeated with the idea of nationalism and
Christianity!
In April 1944 the Kosice captains office of the Hungarian Royal Police
published more and more decrees affecting and limiting the free movement of
Jews at Kosice. They called attention on 17 April that all Jews should wear the
sign of segregation on a place easily seen and not only in public spaces but
always and everywhere if they leave their apartments. Those violating the
decrees were strictly punished. ...the Police Captain will use the measure of
internment on those that collaborate in hiding any belongings of Jewish origin
whether they are Christians or individuals of the Jewish race. () Jewish
women are particularly clever in covering the yellow star: with books, music
notes but especially with modern huge handbags 96 The following day,
Felvidki Ujsg reported several Kosice residents were fined for not wearing the
yellow star.97 The fine was 300 or 400 Pengs, or if it was not paid, a
confinement of 20-30 days. Later not wearing the yellow start resulted in even
harder consequences; violators were interned by the police.
95
23
24
double goal: to deprive the Christian masses of the basic foodstuffs and prime
necessities to demoralise in that way the people of the state, to incite
dissatisfaction among the Christian masses and the damage the buying value of
the Peng. The Jews could exert their harmful influence by means of their
disproportionately better economic positions. That had to be terminated to make
them impossible.103
The isolation, of course, led to new problems, that were continuously reported
in the following weeks: partly, hidden Jewish property,104 and partly the deserted
Jewish apartments. Those were regularly looted;105 on the other hand, the city
administration seemed to be unable to solve their allocation.106
At the same time the following questions were raised, what will happen to those
married into Jewish families?107 who of a mixed race is deemed Jewish and
who is not Jewish?.108 It shows what dramatic situations had arisen in reality
for the families to face.
Desertions, of course, became more numerous as ghettoization started. The Jews
having arrived from the territory of Slovakia earlier in the course of 1942-43
tried to return after Hungary had been occupied by the Germans. Felvidki
Ujsg reported almost daily about arresting Jews on the Slovak-Hungarian
border that wanted to flee to Slovakia without any passports but with twohundred-Peng worth certificates of Baptism according to the daily.109 The
Jews caught were handed over to the police. There were some that according
to the daily had found Christians with guts, who had pretended to hide them
but had informed the police secretly.
The Csatry file and ghettoization110
Jews have been isolated, prices are dropping., Felvidki Ujsg 27 April, 1944, p.2. See also Sdost Echo
on the settlement of the Jewish issue in Hungary, Felvidki Ujsg 5 May, 1944, p.2. According to Otto Braun,
the chairman of the Hungarian Committee of the Imperial Wholesale and Foreign Trade Economic Team,
Hungary is now going to create its really European economic life
104
Felvidki Ujsg 1944, 27 April, p.6; 28 April,, pp.3-4; 29 April,, p.3; 1 May, p.3 and p.8; 3 May, p.5; 4 May,
p.5; 5 May, p.4; 20 May, p.2 and p.9; 24 May,, p.2; 25 May, pp.3-4; 30 May, p.3; 13 June, p.5; 24 June, p.7; 6
July, p.6; 7 July, p.6; 20 July, p.7; 27 July, p.6; 17 August, p.7; 30 August, p.4.
105
Felvidki Ujsg 1944, 29 April, p.9; 20 June, p.6; 28 June, p.5; 3 July, pp.5-6; 5 August, p.6; 8 August, p.4.
106
Felvidki Ujsg 1944, 29 April, p.6; 1 May, p.3; 4 May, p.3 and p.5; 10 May, p.4; 13 May, p.4; 10 June, p.7;
22 June, p.3; 28 June, p.3.
107
Felvidki Ujsg 1 May,1944, p.5.
108
Felvidki Ujsg 4 May,1944, p.2.
109
Felvidki Ujsg 1944, 26 April, p.5; 29 April, p.4; 5 May, p.6; 11 May, p.4; 12 May, p.6. A Polish woman
fled from Poland to Slovakia and from there to Hungary, but wanted to return to Slovakia after Hungary had
been occupied by the Germans. See also, Felvidki Ujsg 26 May, 1944, p.4; 13 July, 1944, p.4.
110
Cf, Zoltn Balassa, Lszl Csatry a cold-hearted Kosice police officer
(www.felvidek.ma/nezopont/publicisztika/33980-egy-koszivu-kassai-rendortiszt); dm Gellrt, The 1944
Kosice deportations, let s Irodalom [life and literature] Volume 66, issue 33, 17 August, 2012.
103
25
Felvidki Ujsg 3 May, 1944, p.2. Lszl Csatry is named at the bottom of the announcement as responsible
editor, assistant clerk to the police and ghetto commander.
112
Felvidki Ujsg 29 April, 1944, p.6.
113
Felvidki Ujsg 17 May, 1944, p.5.
26
keys to boxes and chests of drawers from a small wall-cabinet, opened them and
took inventory of everything.114 Clothes, porcelain, Persian rugs, cutlery; the
pictures were taken off the walls and they selected those they wanted to take to
the City Hall.115
As the Jewish merchants of Kosice were collected in the brick factory, about
300 shops remained unmanaged.116 Many of them were food stores where
perishable goods were stored. The trade authority of Kosice and the public
supplies office made efforts to allocate perishable goods to Christian merchants,
and a few days later the collection of perishable goods from Jewish shops was
started. Christian merchants that wish to obtain such goods may take over
foodstuffs stockpiled in Jewish shops against cash payment, the daily wrote.117
270 minor or major plants were closed down in the city. Since their Jewish
owners had left, work in those plants had come to a halt for the time being. As a
result, many Christian workers had been temporarily left without work. The
trade authority of the city of Kosice is now making efforts to allot Christians
both the closed down shops and the Jewish plants, Felvidki Ujsg 118wrote.
Over six thousand people from Kosice and its neighbourhood had applied to
take over the Jewish industrial plants and shops at Kosice by the end of April
1944.119 The trade authority realised the number of applications was so high that
only a few of them could be settled favourably, therefore it suspended the
evaluation of the applications. It was also supported by a decree of the minister
ordering inventories to be taken in the shops confiscated from Jews. They may
not be transferred or allocated to Christians.120 In the same way, you could not
apply for a trading licence and for a closed down Jewish shop at the same time.
A commentary published in Felvidki Ujsg is a good illustration of the
situation: The title is Everybody feels a merchant at Kosice. The author called
attention that people lacking expertise and proper capital should not apply for
the closed down Jewish plants, since all and sundry are submitting claims for
shops and plants confiscated from the Jews. However, it is not enough if you
114
Report on the hand-over of the moveables of Jewish apartments. Inventory: remaining for the Germans.
AMK, Koice muncip. mesto 1939-1945, rok 1944, inv. . 125, krab. 177. (Cf, Annex 2).
115
Inventory taking in a Kosice Jewish apartment, Felvidki Ujsg 17 May, 1944, p. 5.
116
Felvidki Ujsg 29 April, 1944, p.8. Tenders announced for the pharmacies owned by Jews at Kosice. Three
such pharmacies were operating: Megvlt [saviour], Pduai Szent Antal [saint antal of padova] and Rkczi.
Cf. Felvidki Ujsg 19 July, 1944, p.3.
117
Felvidki Ujsg 5 May, 1944, p.3.
118
Felvidki Ujsg 29 April, 1944, p.8.
119
Felvidki Ujsg 29 April, 1944, p.8.
120
Felvidki Ujsg 3 May, 1944, p.6. See also, According to official information, no Jewish businesses, stocks
or shops may be applied for for the time being. Business managers will not be appointed, either, for some time.,
Felvidki Ujsg 13 May, 1944, p.2. Jewish shops with furniture and stocks may not be claimed. War veterans
are to be granted the stocks of Jewish businesses, Felvidki Ujsg 1 June, 1944, p.2; Information by the
Merchants Association regarding claims for Jewish shops, Felvidki Ujsg 28 June, 1944, p.5.
27
spoke of the stinking Jews in the past; you need much more than that: expertise
and money. () Because lacking those two criteria the allotment to Christians
without expertise and capital would become a wasted gift to the nation. We must
not breed new drones because we may trigger an economic crisis by such a rush
step that could only be survived and corrected with grave difficulties. The
author of the article (Gyula Vrtes) remarked many people submitting
applications have never been seen working in earnest, people that belong to
the social class that turns up where one can obtain something easily, possibly
without work.121
Kosice became sadly famous for organising the first ghetto in Hungary there,
wrote Lajos Szab.122 Ten thousand Jews from Kosice and the neighbourhood
were crowded together in the old brick factory of the town under terrible
conditions. Most of them were either very old or very young as men had been
selected previously and taken to the front for labour service. There was not
enough water at the factory and even the most basic facilities were missing.
At the time the organisation of the Hungarian National Socialist Party in AbajTorna County and Kosice found it necessary to turn to the Hungarian society of
the city of Kosice with the following appeal: Brothers! The first step has been
taken! Jews, our greatest enemies are in the ghetto! We want social justice, a
new spirit free of Judaism! We have expressed our no-confidence with the
representatives of the old regime and we maintain our no-confidence
unchanged! National Socialist leaders to the foreground! Line up under the flag
of the Hungarian National Socialist Party! Perseverance! The time for double
dealing is over; the time is over for some to look backwards in new masks.
Everybody must understand that the first very important step will have to be
followed by determined and firm steps to create a true Hungarian National
Socialist work-state. Those who are in the way will disappear from Hungarian
life.123
In the brick factory Christian Jews were given a separate barrack, number six.
The difference was that a priest visited them every day, they could confess and
receive the Holy Communion, wrote Mrta Klmn who had been confined to
the ghetto in the brick factory in April 1944, in her autobiographical novel
rksg [heritage].124 There are documents for that also in the Kosice State
Archives proving that Paszkl Hamay, a Franciscan father responsible for the
southern parish of Kosice requested to be allowed to deliver religious service
121
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for the Christians staying in the Jewish camp.125 Istvn Madarsz, bishop of the
Kosice diocese forwarded the request to the police captain.
Everybody knew that the Hungarian Jewry is collected in the first Jewish
ghetto in Hungary for death. But who are brave enough to speak up? What is
more, there were many that gloated over such inhuman acts. There was but one
man in the whole big city of Kosice who dared to speak and to act: grand
provost Mikls Pfeiffer.126 He organised an ecumenical delegation of Christian
priests that wanted to mediate in the issue of the spiritual care of Christian
Jews.127 Initially, bishop Istvn Madarsz should have led the delegation but he
declined. He thought he was too hot tempered and in the course of the expected
debate he believed would have been harmful for the cause. So the delegation
was led by Mikls Pfeiffer. On behalf of all Christians at Kosice he requested to
be allowed to perform their Christian mission among the Christian Jews. The
number of Christian Jews in the ghetto had to be established and the roomy head
office of the Catholic Maidens Society was offered to them. Pfeiffer did not
only speak for Jewish-Christians but for all residents of the ghetto.
On 9 May, 1944 the Kosice Jewish Council submitted a request to the Mayors
Office to be allowed to take part of the Torahs and Hebrew books to the camp
and the ghetto and to place those we do not need either in the library of the
Kosice Roman Catholic chapter or at another place appointed for the purpose by
the honourable Mayors Office.128
Some people (mostly women) tried to smuggle food for the Jews isolated in the
brick factory that was why the police launched criminal proceedings against
several Kosice residents. It is to be condemned to feel pity for the ancient
enemies of Christian Hungarians and to provide help to them despite the strict
order and ban by the authorities. If Christians want to make use of their
inclination for charity, they should exercise that noble act for the Christian
destitute.129 A woman disguised as a doctor wanted to get into the brick factory
to take food, but she was caught and placed under police surveillance. Mrta
Klmn also recalled a few helpers: The Pfiszter family helped everybody as
much as they could. They took for preservation Daddys double-lid gold watch
and a gold amulet with five tiny diamonds in it... Gyula Pfiszter somehow found
his way to the ghetto and asked the acquaintances one after the other what he
could help, what they needed.130
125
State Archives, Kosice, Royal Hungarian Police Command 19381944, file no. 4747/1944.
Lajos Szab, op. cit., p.131.
127
Op.cit, p.132.
128
AMK, Koice muncip. mesto 1939-1945, rok 1944, 19711-20700, inv. . 125, krab. 177. (Cf, Annex 4).
129
Felvidki Ujsg 9 May, 1944,p. 6.
130
Mrta Klmn, op. cit., p.261.
126
29
30
31
exempted from wearing the yellow start so far.143 A few days later a warning
was published: Exempted individuals of the Jewish race who had failed to
report would be arrested.144 At the same time, the daily informed its readers
Fifty-seven Jewish lawyers had been excluded from the Kosice Chamber.145
Some days after the last train deporting the Jews of Kosice and the neighbouring
villages had left the city (3 June), the Kosice Police Captain published an appeal
in mid-June 1944 to report any Jews hiding in the houses. The Kosice Captain
of the Hungarian Royal Police has learnt that Jews having escaped the isolation
or having evaded it are hiding and are also hiding goods in houses, civil defence
cellars, attics and other places on the territory of the city. The Police Captain
therefore is calling on house owners, janitors or house custodians to examine the
houses, the attics and civil defence cellars belonging to them without delay but
not later than in two days time and report to the police if they find there Jewish
properties or Jewish persons.146 If they fail to do so, they will be taken
responsible.
Although the Jewry of Kosice and the neighbourhood had been deported,
Felvidki Ujsg still felt obliged to publish Jews-related news items (mostly in
the context of Budapest).147 It published an appeal in mid-June that at Kosice
the historic houses liberated from Jewish ownership should be taken into public
ownership!148 The daily also informed readers that the city, already fully freed
from Jews would again be offered to the Heart of Jesus in a ceremony on 25
June following the practice of earlier years.149 The following day, however, the
Roman Catholic parish informed readers that the offering procession already
organised would be cancelled.150 It can be assumed that somebody within the
church felt that went beyond all limits! In the end, offering Kosice to the Holy
Heart of Jesus did take place on 18 June: on the birthday of the Governor,
Sunday, when the 9 oclock ceremonial mass is attended in the Basilica by the
whole representation of the city, the military, the heads of all authorities and
offices, the offering of Kosice and of our country to the Holy Heart of Jesus will
be repeated at the end of the Mass in front of the Holy Sacrament. That offering
is to replace the offering planned to take place at the great procession that may
not be held this year due to the permanent danger of air raids. The leaders of the
143
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parish call on all members of the church council and the assembly as well as
Catholic societies to appear at the Holy Mass carrying their flags.151
Although Felvidki Ujsg failed to report that Governor Horthy had had the
deportations stopped at the beginning of July, it considered it important to report
that Jews are Baptised after three months of religious education,152 and that
Jews of a Christian religion receive special interest representation.153 It did not
forget to inform its readers both about the official German statement regarding
the treatment of Jews,154 and the stance of the Hungarian authorities. According
to the latter, in Hungary the solution of the Jewish issue will be executed in the
spirit of humanity and in a way that corresponds to the gravity and importance
of the problem.155 Except for Budapest, the solution of the problem had taken
place all over the country weeks earlier!
It is bewildering and rather telling that in October 1944, after the deportation of
the Kosice Jews, an article was published in Kassai Katolikus Tudst denying
that thousands of Jews would be Baptised. Obviously, it was about Jews in
Budapest; but the editors of the Catholic paper thought it was important to call
attention to it at Kosice as well so as to remove scruples. Although there were no
more Jews at Kosice at the time.
Crowds of Jews populated the streets of Pest in front of parish churches that
is how most of our dailies watching the events through coloured glasses - were
scandalised for weeks. They felt obliged to call on the conscience of our
bishops, guard our dogmas and watch over the honour of our sacraments. By
unscrupulous mud-slinging, spreading slander and lacking the basic knowledge
of theology, they had succeeded in undermining the trust of people in their
ecclesiastical leaders or even their faith in some cases. Although although It
is not true that the Church Baptises thousands of Jews these days! The
competent guards of the Sacraments who administer them know very well that a
high number of the Jews applying to be Baptised only want Baptism for political
advantages. Just because of that, the Church has set very hard criteria and has
been looking into the eligibility of the candidates very strictly. First of all, those
who failed to learn how to behave in the church with piety and respect and be
disciplined have been excluded. It has also excluded those who only wanted to
participate in religious education formally, and came late or only attended every
second or third class. Finally, it has excluded those who after six months of
151
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education did not show sufficient knowledge of the religion, or if they showed
their knowledge, they treated the dogmas of the faith disrespectfully or offhanded. On the contrary, it is true that at a parish church only one person out of
group of 160 was allowed by the priest to be Baptised. At another parish church
five out of 200 and so on. And if there was thoughtlessness, lenience or
favourism in the selection by one or another undiscriminating or partial priest,
the ecclesiastical leaders acted and punished them without mercy. That was the
practice of the Church regarding the Baptism of Jews.156
Finally, the autobiographical novel by Mrta Klmn shows us that there was no
Church stance. There were people who helped and people who did not; whether
or not they were priests, nuns or Christians. The young woman from the brick
factory was taken to the Kosice hospital with suspicion of suicide. In the
evening a priest wearing a brown cassock and glasses I had seen with aunt
Fnyes several times came into ward. He stopped by my bed and asked if he
could help me. Yes, I said, please Baptise me. He left and then returned with a
nun with a horrified face and a bowl. In nomine patri et spiritui sancti, amen,
and I was a Christian. In periculo vitae157, nothing else was required. () The
ward sister was an old nun with glasses. I could not make her out. I asked the
father. Be careful with her, he said. And do not flee before I tell you to.158 The
young woman succeeds to reach Budapest but she must again ask for the help of
the Kosice father, Jusztinin Katona. The following day at noon there were two
short knocks and the father was standing in the room. As if nothing had been
more natural, as if he had just come from Kosice in answer to my request, as a
fairy in a fairy tale.159
Summary
The historical example of Kosice is a clear illustration of how the press read by
and published for the local lite in a significant city of Hungary shaped and
mediated the picture of the Jewry, which was negative in its totality. Looking
back from a historical distance it seems the Jewish issue was the most
important problem to be solved for the Hungarian society of the time.160 A
156
Kassai Katolikus Tudst Volume XXIV, issue, 4. szm, October, 1944, pp.2-4.
IN THREAT OF LIFE.
158
Mrta Klmn, op. cit., p. 284.
159
Mrta Klmn, op. cit., p.293.
160
Ferenc Sink, The bases of the Jewish issue, j let. Az ifj katolicizmus szocilis s vilgnzeti folyirata
[new life. The social and ideological journal of young Catholicism], Volume 8, 1939/2 (issue 72), pp. 83-86. The
author considers the essence of the issue in the unsaved Jewish spirit has been fighting God and Christianity
for two thousand years. The problem, in fact, is meant by being different, life according to different rules. He
thinks the Jewish issue will be finally solved if that people learns to live in the same way as Christ lived. The
Holocaust of Baptised Jews, however, shows that the Hungarian Christian society lacked a real willingness for
inclusion.. Kllay: The ethics of the nation must play a part in the solution of the Jewish issue, Felvidki Ujsg
157
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continuous adverse publicity campaign and expulsion from all areas of social
life161 combined with an existential anxiety and fear, in effect, immunised the
society identifying itself as Catholic/Christian against the sufferings and ordeal
of the Jews. They took physical isolation (ghettoization162 then deportation) for
granted; all the more so as they hoped to reap its material benefits. But it can be
assumed that another factor of social psychology also played a part. It was
obvious in the spring of 1944 that the war had been lost as the German army had
been continuously retreating since summer 1943. At the time (in May 1944) the
front line was in the anteroom of the Carpathian mountains and got closer and
closer to the borders of the country. Even if the population at large (the lower
strata of society) were not aware, the leading controlling strata (the so termed
Christian middle class of gentlemen163), which was the actual beneficiary of
the anti-Jewish laws, might have and should have realised they would have to
account for the years of the past (since 1938). Instead of facing the problem and
taking responsibility, they opted for the only solution that seemed rational for
them: the physical annihilation of the Jews deprived of their rights and
properties. The German occupation offered the scope for the political will (since
there had been a demand164), and provided coordination for the operation.
The initial analysis of the sources, which needs to be continued in-depth, also
illustrates that getting Baptised in Hungary in the period from 1938 to 1944 did
30 April, 1942, p.2. Since Hungarians have a strong love of people of a different race, of a different religion or
wearing different clothes. Great address by Prime Minister Mikl Kllay in Ungvr on Saint Stevens thoughts,
Felvidki Ujsg 19 October, 1942, p.3; Bla Lukcs: The Jewish issue is on the path to solution both in its
moral and economic implications, Felvidki Ujsg 25 January, 1943, p.2.
161
For instance, Jews may not be members of Hungarian sports clubs, Felvidki Ujsg 3 February, 1942, p.7.
162
The demand had already been there in 1942: The city of Kosice received a memorandum of the municipality
of Bihar County on the institutional deportation of the Jews. The Low Assembly is to deal with the memorandum
on 15 May, Felvidki Ujsg 8 May, 1942, p.4; The municipality of Ungvr proposes blocking all Jewish
properties, relocation to closed residential areas and total isolation of the Jewry. The General Assembly adopted
the proposal unanimously., Felvidki Ujsg 9 May, 1942, p. 5; The Low Assembly of the city of Kosice
unanimously adopted the proposal of the mayor, Dr Sndor Pohl regarding the latest settlement of the Jewish
issue. The city public demands the definition of Jewish on a racial basis. The preparation of the deportation of
the Jews. The necessity of blocking Jewish properties or those of Jewish origin. The termination of exceptions
and exemption is demanded. Total isolation from the Christian social and economic life, Felvidki Ujsg 16
May, 1942, p.3. The proposal No 14.511/1942-II by mayor Pohl practically adopted the resolutions of Bihar
County (NO 82/1942) and the city of Ungvr (No 40/1942). The whole thing came to nothing in the end because
the political will of the Kllay government in Budapest was not there. However, it should be noted that the new
Hungarian Catholic Encyclopedia considers Sndor Pohl mayor of Kosice a positive figure.
(http://lexikon.katolikus.hu/P/Pohl.html).
163
The Yearbooks of the Roman Catholic Girls High School and Lyce of the Girls Educational Institute
Angelinum operated by the Order of St Ursula from the 1938-39 to the 1943-44 school years provide interesting
data relating to the Christian middle class, especially to how their children particularly girls were educated to
become conscious Magyars and devout lady-patriots. It turns out from them that religious moral education
focused on participation at the Holy Mass and frequent receipt of the sacraments (confession, communion).
Social education included charity work and household management. Although there had been Jewish students in
every first grade earlier (the highest number in the 1939-40 school year), no Israelites could be found in the first
grade in 1943-44. At that time, no more than 4 Israelite students attended the high school classes (1 in grade two,
2 in grade three and 1 in grade four). The Lyce had no Israelite students in any year.
164
The time of the final solution of the Jewish issue is not far away. Address by Lajos Remnyi-Schneller,
Felvidki Ujsg 10 March, 1941, p.3.
35
not mean much in itself; in fact, it hardly improved the position of individuals
categorised as Jews or of the Jewish race.165 Since, due to his descent,
because his ancestors beyond a given generation had been inevitably Jews, he
remained a Jew (of the Jewish race) in the eyes of the authorities.166 The
Christian church Baptising him shared the above racial categorisation and
provided him with spiritual consolation and salvation only. In his life on
Earth, a converted Jew could not hope for a relief from his sufferings and
tribulations or for protection; in the best scenario, he could rely on some kind of
compassion. Help was individual in every case whether the driving principle
was material or moral. Helpers, however, had to reckon with a high chance of
being denounced. All issues of Felvidki Ujsg bear witness to that!
The Kosice sources clearly allow the conclusion and support the fact that
Christian in Hungary in the period investigated, and particularly in 1944, was
not a religious but a racial category, the opposite of Jewish. Therefore, it had
no spiritual content or depth.167 It had deteriorated into a form with no content.
The political and ecclesiastical leaders, in fact, united under the concept of
national and Christian self-identification. It was due to the fact that they were
the members of the same ruling class organising and controlling the society. In
the social order carrying the features and structure of feudalism even their
adversaries were the same: liberalism, Socialism, Bolshevism and democracy.168
And they spotted the Jewry behind all the above.169 They even blamed the war
on them.170
It is proved by a telling case Gza Kulcsr, a 39-year old farmer had been converted already in 1915. He
married a Christian woman and his children are all members of the Roman Catholic church. Despite all that,
Gza Kulcsr is considered a Jew according to the anti-Jewish laws and as such is obliged to perform labour
service. Because all his friends knew him as Christian, he somehow got hold of a grey certificate form, filled it
with his personal particulars, and wrote ensign for his rank. The trick, however, came to light, so Gza Kulcsr
was tried at court for his action. He was sentenced to six weeks in prison. He forged the document out of
shame, as he wanted to hide from his friends he was in labour service, Felvidki Ujsg 24 Novembr, 1942, p.5.
166
Cf Annex 5.
167
This was already clearly expressed in 1938 by the unknown author of the article After the events in
Austria. We should not raise false hopes if we can see a large crowd in our churches that we could carry out
major changes in the society. The crowds in the churches simply mean that the majority of people openly confess
they would like to live on after death, they believe in God and the spirit. But you would be mistaken to believe
that such faith and desire influence their behaviour in public life or even in business life., j let Volume 7,
1938/4, April, p.146.
168
Anti-European unity front has come into being between the English plutocracy and Bolshevism, Felvidki
Ujsg 14 July, 1941, p.2; The failure of democracy, Felvidki Ujsg 22 July, 1941, p.3; The fight of
Chiristianity against Bolshevism, Felvidki Ujsg 29 July, 1941, p.3; The municipality of Kosice dealt with
the crimes of democracy, Felvidki Ujsg 18 September, 1942, p.3.
169
Jnos Darvas, The Jew and the Soviet. A sincere image of the Jewish issue in Galitsia and the Ukraine,
Felvidki Ujsg 17 February, 1942, p.6. According to the author: The Jewry has become part of the power in
the Soviet to an extent unprallelled in the world. Therefore, the Soviet has become a special point for the Jewry
living in the Soviet Union, they are defending their own privileged social position, their own lines of power and
rank if they fight fanatically for the Soviet. A series of articles by Dr Frigyes Marjay: World Bolshevism
world Jewry, Felvidki Ujsg 1943: 13 March, p.8; 16 March, p.4; 17 March, p.4.
170
Fighting till the ultimate victory! Chancellor Hitler announced in a great speech that Germany would
continue the war it has been forced into until the ultimate victory. () Hitler is convinced that the Jewry are
165
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fighting against him!, Felvidki Ujsg 9 November, 1940, p.1; Dr. F. P. Krger, The Jews of the world have
prepared the war, Felvidki Ujsg 20 June, 1942, p.2.
171
Felvidki Ujsg 17 May, 1944, p.2.
172
Felvidki Ujsg 11 September, 1944, p.4: You can only buy Jewish goods in possession of an ID card in
your name. Cards must not be transferred to others.; 23 September, p.8: On Monday, an auction of Jewish
leather goods blocked will be held. The sale of furniture is continued; 28 September, , p.4: The sale of the
stocks of goods and materials of Jewish businesses is started; 29 September, p.3: On Monday the sale of
Jewish pianos blocked will be started.
37