UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

KNT4133
OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

ASSIGNMENT 1
NAME: SITI NUUR ANISNADIA BINTI MD. NOR
MATRIC NO.: 28320
LECTURER: MDM. SAKENA ABDUL JABBAR
DATE OF SUBMISSON: 24th OF SEPTEMBER 2013

2.1

Optical Fiber is comprised of a light carrying core surrounded by a cladding which traps the light
in the core by the principle of total internal reflection. At angles of incidence greater than the
critical angle the light is reflected back into the originating dielectric medium with high
efficiency. Hence, total internal reflection occurs at the interface between two dielectrics of
differing refractive indices when light is incident on the dielectric of lower index from the
dielectric of higher index, and the angle of incidence of the ray exceeds the critical value. Light at
a sufficiently shallow angle (less than 90 c) may be considered to propagate down an optical
fiber with low loss. Figure below illustrates the transmission of a light ray in an optical fiber via a
series of total internal reflections at the interface of the silica core and the slightly lower
refractive index silica cladding. The ray has an angle of incidence at the interface which is
greater than the critical angle and is reflected at the same angle to the normal.

Since the optical fiber works on the principle of total internal reflection only the rays with an
angle greater than the critical angle at core-cladding interface will be transmitted, the particular
angle of incidence at which it can transmit a light ray is called the acceptance angle.

Figure above illustrates a meridional ray A at the critical angle c within the fiber at the core
cladding interface. This ray enters the fiber core at an angle a to the fiber axis and is refracted at
the aircore interface before transmission to the corecladding interface at the critical angle.
Hence, any rays which are incident into the fiber core at an angle greater than a will be
transmitted to the corecladding interface at an angle less than c, and will not be totally
internally reflected. The incident ray B at an angle greater than a is also refracted into the
cladding and eventually lost by radiation. Thus for rays to be transmitted by total internal
reflection within the fiber core they must be incident on the fiber core within an acceptance cone
defined by the conical half angle a. Hence a is the maximum angle to the axis at which light
may enter the fiber in order to be propagated, and is often referred to as the acceptance angle for
the fiber.

Assuming the entrance face at the fiber core to be normal to the axis, then considering the
refraction at the aircore interface and using Snells law given by:
n0 sin 1 = n1 sin 2

Considering the right-angled triangle ABC indicated in figure above:

=

- 2

where is greater than the critical angle at the corecladding interface.

n0 sin 1 = n1 cos
Using the trigonometrical relationship sin2 + cos2 = 1, it may be written in the form:
n0 sin 1 = nl (l sin2 )1/2
When the limiting case for total internal reflection is considered, becomes equal to the critical
angle for the corecladding interface and also in this limiting case 1 becomes the acceptance
angle for the fiber a. Combining these limiting cases into equation above gives:
n0 sin a = (n12 n2 2)1/2
Hence the numerical aperture (NA) is defined as:
NA = n0 sin a = (n12 n2 2)1/2

a)

NA=0.20, no=1.33
No sin a = NA
sin a =

0.20
1.33

a = sin-1 0.15
a =8.6

0.20 = 1.59 (2 )1/2

2

= 0.0158

= 7.9 x 10-3

= (n1-n2)/n1

= 1- (n2/n1)
n2/n1 = 1-

b)

NA = n1 (2 )1/2

= 0.9921

sin c = n2/n1
c = 82.8o
(n2 / n1) = (1 - 2)(1 / 2)

2.2

n1sinc = n2 sin90o

0.9848 = (1 - 2)(1 / 2)

(n2 / n1) = sinc = 0.9848

0.98482 = 1 - 2

n2 = n1(1 - 2)(1 / 2)

2 = 0.0317

NA = n1(2)(1 / 2) = (1.49)(2 x 0.0151)(1 / 2) = 0.259

= 0.0151

NA = no sina

v = c / n1

a = sin-1 (NA / no) = sin-1 (0.259 / 1) = 15.01o

n1 = c / v = (2.998 x 108) / (2.01 x 108) = 1.49

2.3

NA=

The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the
velocity of light in the medium. A ray of light travels more slowly in an optically dense medium
than in one that is less dense. The numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber is the sine of the
maximum angle of an incident ray with respect to the fiber axis, so that the transmitted beam is
guided in the core. The NA is determined by the refractive index difference between core and
cladding more precisely by the relation:

1 2
n coren 2cladding

n0

This can be derived from the requirement that the transmitted beam at the core/cladding interface
propagates with the critical angle for total internal reflection. Hence, n o is the refractive index of
the medium around the fiber which is close to 1 in case of air.

Numerical aperture

a=sin1 NA
22=sin 1 N A
NA=sin 22
NA=0.37

Critical angle

n1n 2
n2
=1
n1
n1

n2
=10.03
n1
n2
=0 97
n1
sin 1 0.97=75 93

2.4

= 0.115 rad
= 0.9%
= (NA)2
NA =

n1 = speed of light in vacuum/ speed of light in core

Speed of light in core = 3.0 x 108/n1
= 3.0 x108/1.42606
= 2.1 x 108 ms-1

0.115/

= 0.191326
For

NA = n1 (2) 1/2
n1 = NA/ (2)1/2
= 0.191326/[2(0.9%)]1/2
= 1.42606
2.5

Figure 2.5 (i) The Meridional skew ray path down the fiber.

Figure 2.5 (ii) (a) The Skew ray paths down the fiber. (b) The cross-sectional view of the optical
fiber of the skew ray path.

Figure 2.5 (iii) The ray path within the fiber core for a skew ray incident at an angle
normal at the air-core interface.

s to the

Figure 2.5 (i),

The light is transmitted to the axis of the fiber in transmitting the ray path. The light propagation
down the fiber undergoes the total internal reflection where is greater than

c .

Figure 2.5(ii)
The light from the does not transmitted through the fiber axis. The light travels helically down the
fiber and give the change in direction of 2.

Figure 2.5 (iii)

The ray path AB is at the core radius at point B. The ray is lie on a plane.
T

To resolve

cos , sin is multiplied by cos .

Hence,

cos

sin

cos

sin = cos

(1)

Using trigonometrical relationship sin2 + cos2 = 1,

sin2 + cos2 = 1
cos = [1-sin2 ]1/2

(2)

Substitute (2) into (1),

cos

sin = cos

cos

sin = [1-sin2 ]1/2

= [1-sin2 ]1/2 (1)

(3)

cos

Considering the limiting case for total internal reflection, becomes equal to the critical angle,

for the core-cladding interface.

n2
n1

sin

c =

cos

sin

n
sin c = [1-( 2 )2]1/2
n1

cos

sin

sin

(4)

Substitute (4) into (3),

(3)

n2
c = [1-( 22 )]1/2 (5)
n1

Applying Snells law at the point A

n0 sin a=n 1 sin

(6)

n22 12
)]
n21
cos

(7)

From (5),

[1(
sin =
Substitute (7) into (6),

n 22 12
[1( 2 )]
n1
n0 sin a=n 1
cos
The angle

(6)

a is representing the acceptance angle for meridional ray. For the skew ray the acceptance

angle is represented by

as . Hence,
2

n2 2
)]
2
n1
cos

[1(
n0 sin as=n1

(8)

n
[1( 22 )] 2
n1
n0 sin as cos =n1
1
Squaring both sides of the equation

n1 [1(

n 22
)]
n 21

1 2
[ ]
2
[n0 sin as cos ]2=
2

n n
[n0 sin as cos ] =n 1 2 2
n1
2

2
1

as cos =[ n21n 22] 2

n0 sin
Therefore the acceptance angle in terms of NA and

as cos = NA
n 0 sin

is

(9)

The inequality in (5) is no longer necessary as the terms in (8) are specified for the limiting case.

Given the step index fiber :

as=sin [

2
1

1
2 2
2

[ n n ]

n0 cos

n1=1.44, n2=1.42, =

150o
2

as=sin1 [

[(1.44)2(1.42)2 ] 2
(1)cos 75o

75o ; n0=1

as
2.6

67.53o

For skew ray,

For meridional ray,

The acceptance angle :

2.7

Electromagnetic modes in relation to a planar optical waveguide in which a slab of dielectric with
refractive index n1 sandwiched between two regions of lower refractive index n 2 to obtain an
optical propagation by considering the interference of plane wave components within this
dielectric waveguide, as shown below.

When the total phase change after two successive reflections at the upper and lower interfaces
(between the points P and Q) is equal to 2m radians, where m is an integer, then constructive
interference occurs and a standing wave is obtained in the x direction, as shown below.

Nevertheless, the optical wave is effectively confined within the guide and the electric field
distribution in the x direction does not change as the wave propagates in the z direction.
Light is described as an electromagnetic wave which consists of a periodically varying electric
field E and magnetic field H which are orientated at right angles to each other. The transverse
modes shown in figure below illustrate the case when the electric field is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation and hence Ez = 0, but a corresponding component of the magnetic field
H is in the direction of propagation. In this instance the modes are said to be transverse electric
(TE). Alternatively, when a component of the E field is in the direction of propagation, but Hz =
0, the modes formed are called transverse magnetic (TM). The mode numbers are incorporated
into this nomenclature by referring to the Tem and TMm modes, as illustrated for the transverse
electric modes shown in figure below. When the total field lies in the transverse plane, transverse
electromagnetic (TEM) waves exist where both Ez and Hz are zero.

Modifications that may be made electromagnetic mode theory in planar waveguide in order to
describe optical propagation in a cylindrical fiber is that planar wave guide, TE (where Ez = 0)
and TM (where Hz = 0) modes are obtained within the dielectric cylinder. The cylindrical
waveguide, however, is bounded in two dimensions rather than one. Thus two integers, l and m,
are necessary in order to specify the modes, in contrast to the single integer (m) required for the
planar guide. For the cylindrical waveguide we therefore refer to TElm and TMlm modes. These
modes correspond to meridional rays traveling within the fiber.

2.8.1

a) the evanescent field

Figure 1: The exponentially decaying evanescent field in the cladding of the optical waveguide.
The phenomenon of interest under conditions of total internal reflection is the form of the electric
field in the cladding of the guide. Before the critical angle for total internal reflection is reached,
and hence when there is only partial reflection, the field in the cladding is of the form given by
Eq. (2.45). However, as indicated previously, when total internal reflection occurs, x2 becomes
imaginary and may be written as j2.
Substituting for x2 in Eq. (2.45) gives the transmitted wave in the cladding as:

Thus the amplitude of the field in the cladding is observed to decay exponentially* in the x
direction. Such a field, exhibiting an exponentially decaying amplitude, is often referred to as an
evanescent field. Figure 2.13 shows a diagrammatic representation of the evanescent field. A field
of this type stores energy and transports it in the direction of propagation (z) but does not
transport energy in the transverse direction (x). Nevertheless, the existence of an evanescent field
beyond the plane of reflection in the lower index medium indicates that optical energy is
transmitted into the cladding.
b) GoosHaenchen shift;
The phase change incurred with the total internal reflection of a light beam on a planar dielectric
interface may be understood from physical observation. Careful examination shows that the
reflected beam is shifted laterally from the trajectory predicted by simple ray theory analysis, as
illustrated in Figure 2.14. This lateral displacement is known as the GoosHaenchen shift, after
its first observers.
The geometric reflection appears to take place at a virtual reflecting plane which is parallel to the
dielectric interface in the lower index medium, as indicated in Figure 2.14.

Utilizing wave theory it is possible to determine this lateral shift [Ref. 14] although it is very
small (d

0.06 to 0.10 m for a silvered glass interface at a wavelength of 0.55 m) and

difficult to observe. However, this concept provides an important insight into the guidance
mechanism of dielectric optical waveguides.

Figure 2: The lateral displacement of a light beam on reflection at a dielectric interface (Goos
Haenchen shift)
c) mode coupling.
Waveguide perturbations such as deviations of the fiber axis from straightness, variations in the
core diameter, irregularities at the corecladding interface and refractive index variations may
change the propagation characteristics of the fiber. These will have the effect of coupling energy
traveling in one mode to another depending on the specific perturbation.
Ray theory aids the understanding of this phenomenon, as shown in Figure 2.20, which illustrates
two types of perturbation. It may be observed that in both cases the ray no longer maintains the
same angle with the axis. In electromagnetic wave theory this corresponds to a change in the
propagating mode for the light. Thus individual modes do not normally propagate throughout the
length of the fiber without large energy transfers to adjacent modes, even when the fiber is
exceptionally good quality and is not strained or bent by its surroundings. This mode conversion
is known as mode coupling or mixing. It is usually analyzed using coupled mode equations which
can be obtained directly from Maxwells equations. However, the theory is beyond the scope of
this text and the reader is directed to Ref. 17 for a comprehensive treatment. Mode coupling
affects the transmission properties of fibers in several important ways, a major one being in
relation to the dispersive properties of fibers over long distances.

Figure 3: Ray theory illustrations showing two of the possible fiber perturbations which give
mode coupling: (a) irregularity at the corecladding interface; (b) fiber bend

2.9

The normalized frequency is a dimensionless parameter and refers to the square root of the sum
of the squares of the eigenvalues in the core and cladding, U and W. It can be used to determine
the number of guided modes propagating using the formula:

Ms

V2
2

Calcualtions:

NA=0.16 ,n 1=1.45 , a=30 m, =0.9 m

V=

2
a ( NA )

2
( 30 m ) ( 0.16 )
0.9 m

33.51
2

M s=

V
2

33.51
2

561
2.10

a) Multimode step index fiber

Above shows multimode step index fiber (core diameter 50m) , large enough to allow
propagation within the fiber core. Thus, large enough allowing many modes to propagate within
the fiber core as many different possible ray paths through the fiber as shown in figure above. It
allow the propagation of finite number of guided modes along the channel as the number of
guided modes is dependent upon physical parameters such as core radius and refractive index
difference. b) Single mode step index fiber

Single mode step index fiber allowing propagation of one transverse electromagnetic mode and
having diameter core of 2 to 10 m. The propagation is corresponding to a single ray path only
through the fiber thus having advantage of low intermodal dispersion (transmitted light pulse
broadening as one mode only is being transmitted)
For lower bandwidth applications, multimode have advantages than single mode such as the use
of spatially incoherent optical sources, large numerical aperture and core diameters and also have
low tolerance requirements in fiber connectors. Modes guided number depend on the physical
parameters but mode propagations does not entirely cease below the cutoff as mode may
propagates as guided/leaky modes travelling in a considerable distance along the fiber. The
optical power is launched into large guided modes number having different spatial field
distributions and propagation constants. There is no mode coupling in ideal multimode step index
fiber with properties as it is distance independence. Its optical power is thus launched into the
other guided modes and these majority guided modes operate far from cutoff and are well
confined to the core fiber. Most optical power is carried in core region not in the cladding as
cladding thickness not affects the modes propagations.

Ms

V2

Ms

= total number of guided modes

frequency

2.11

MS = 1100, = 1.3m, n1 = 1.5, = 0.01

M S=

V2
2

1100=

V2
2

V 2=2200
V =46.904

normalized

0.5

2 a(1.5)(2 x 0.01)
46.904=
1.3
46.904=

1.333 a
1.3

Radius , a=4.574 x 105 m

Diameter , d=2(4.574 x 105 )m
d=9.15 x 105 m
d=92 m

2.12

In fiber optics, a graded-index or gradient-index fiber is an optical fiber whose core has
a refractive index that decreases with increasing radial distance from the optical axis of the fiber.
Because parts of the core closer to the fiber axis have a higher refractive index than the parts near
the cladding, light rays follow sinusoidal paths down the fiber. The most common refractive index
profile for a graded-index fiber is very nearly parabolic. The parabolic profile results in continual
refocusing of the rays in the core, and minimizes modal dispersion.
Multi-mode optical fiber can be built with either graded index or step index. The advantage of the
graded index compared to step index is the considerable decrease in modal dispersion.
Multimode Fiber (Multi Mode Fiber)

Fibers that carry more than one mode are called multimode fibers. There are two types of
multimode fibers. One type is step-index multimode fiber and the other type is graded-index
multimode fiber.
The following illustration shows the differences between these two types of multimode fibers on
refractive index profile and how they guide light.

Index Profile Difference Between Step-Index Multimode Fiber and Graded-Index Multimode
Fiber

Light Transmission in a Step-Index Multimode Fiber and a Graded-Index Multimode Fiber

Step-index multimode fibers are mostly used for imaging and illumination. Graded-index
multimode fibers are used for data communications and networks carrying signals moderate
distances - typically no more than a couple of kilometers.
Graded-Index Multimode Fibers Solves the Problem of Modal Dispersion
Graded-index fibers refractive index decreases gradually away from its center, finally dropping
to the same value as the cladding at the edge of the core. The change in refractive index causes
refraction, instead of total internal reflection, which bends light rays back toward the fiber axis as
they pass through layers with lower refractive index. No total internal reflection happens because
refraction bends light rays back into the fiber axis before they reach the cladding boundary.

Different light modes in a graded-index multimode fiber still follow different lengths along the
fiber, as in step-index multimode fiber. However their speeds differ because the speed of guided
light changes with fiber cores refractive index.
So the farther the light goes from the center of the fiber, the faster its speed. So the speed
difference compensate for the longer paths followed by the light rays that go farthest from the
center of the fiber. This equalizing of transit times of different modes greatly reduces modal
dispersion.
The bandwidth of a typical off-the-shelf graded-index multimode fiber with a 50 m core may
approach 1 GHzkm or more. Multimode graded-index fibers having bandwidths approaching
3 GHzkm have been produced.

2.13

Refractive index difference,

= 0.7% = 0.007

Refractive index at core axis, n1= 1.45

a

n1n 2
n1

n1-n2 = n1
n2 = 1.45 (0.007) (1.45)
= 1.44
NA = (n1 n2) ^ (1/2)
= (1.45 - 1.44) ^ (1/2)
= 0.171

2.14

given : a = 8
n1 = 1.52
find
NA = no sin a
NA = 1 sin 8 = 0.139
NA = n1 (2)1/2
0.139 = 1.52 (2)1/2
0.091 = (2)1/2
2 = 8.361 10-3
= 4.18 10-3 = 0.42%

2.15

b) NA = n1(2

) ^ (1/2)

= 1.45 (2 0.007) ^ (1/2)

= 0.172

Equation (2.91) does, allow us to consider the mode number plane spanned by the radial and azimuthal
mode numbers m and l. This plane is displayed in Figure below.

The mode boundary which separate the guided modes from the leaky and radiation modes is
indicated by the solid line in Figure Above. It depicts a constant value of following Eq. (2.91) and occurs
when =n2k.Therefore, all the points in the mode number plane lying below the line =n2k are associated
with guided modes, whereas the region above the line is occupied by leaky and radiation modes. The
conceptof the mode plane allows us to count the total number of guided modes within the fiber. For each
pair of mode numbers corresponding mode field can have azimuthal mode dependence cos l or sin l
and can exist in two possible polarizations. Hence the modes are said to be fourfold degenerate.* If we
define the mode boundary as the function m=f(l), then the total number of guided modes M is given by:

2.16

Mg =

V2
4
V
4

742 =

V = 54.47
V=

54.47 =

= 1.2

a (NA)

(35 10

106 m

) (0.3)

a = 2 n1
V

0.02

2 1.5
2.4 1.2 106

= 2.2 m
Thus, the maximum core diameter is 4.4 m

2.17

N1 = 1.5

= 1.9

d= 40m

a=20 m

= 1.5m

= 1.3 %

Cut off value of normalized frequency:

( )

Vc=2.405 1+

Vc=2.405 1+

= 3.445
Cut off wavelength:

2 aN 1
c=

Vc

2
1.9

1
2

1
2

2 x 0.013

2 (20 m)(1.5)
c=

3.445

c=8.823 m

V=

c=

V
2.405

c=

V
2.405

2.405 x 8.823 m

V =13.69

Mode volume:

V2
Mg=
4
13.69
Mg=
4

2.18

= 47 guided modes.

Given d = 7 m, a = 3.5m, n1 = 1.49, = 1%=0.01

NA=nr 2
NA=1.49(2 x 0.01)1 /2
NA=0.21
max value of normalize frequency single mode operation

=2

1/ 2

2
V =2.4 (1+ )

1/ 2

2
V =2.4 (1+ )
2
= 3.39

V=

2 a( NA)

3.5 106 (0.21)

2
=
=1.36 m .

2.20

For Single-mode fiber

V
=
2 n 1(2 )

(1)

For Single-mode step index fiber

V 2
=
2 n 1(2 )

(2)

Equation (1) divide by equation (2), shows that the single mode fiber is
of

on the step index fiber.

increased by factor

2.21

usingthe formulaof refractive difference ;

n12n22
=
2 n12

(1.447 )2( 1.442 )2

=
=3.4495 103=0.34495
2
2 ( 1.447 )
normalized frequency for fiber for single modetransmission should be ;
0 V < 2.405
1

V=

2
a (2 )2

2
( 3.6 m ) ( 2 3.4495 mm ) 2
1.3 m

1.4452

since the value of V now valid range , therefore the fiber will permit single modetransmission

estimate the range of wavelengthwe use thecutoff wavelength formula

(use V c =2.405) ;
1
2 a n 1
(
)
c =
2 2
Vc

1
2 (3.6 m )( 1.447 )
( 2 3.4495 mm ) 2

2.405

1130.39 nm, therefore the range is 1130.39 nm

2.22

n1 = 1.498

n2 = 1.495

v = 2.4ms-1

n12 n 22
=
2 n12

1.4982 1.4952
21.4982

= 2 x 10-3
When = 1.48m

When = 1.30m

a=

v
1 /2
2 n1(2 )

a=

v
1 /2
2 n1(2 )

a=

(2.4 )(1.48 m)
1 /2
2 ( 1.498 ) [2(2 mm)]

a=

(2.4 )(1.30 m)
1 /2
2 ( 1.498 ) [2(2 mm)]

= 5.967m
The core diameter required is 12.0m

= 5.241m
The core diameter required is 10.5m

2.23

Figure 1: A design characteristic of relative refractive index difference against core radius for
the fiber to operate at a wavelength of 1.30m.
A single-mode fiber employs a step index profile design and the dispersion optimized in the
1.3m wavelength region. This fiber is either a matched-cladding (MC) or a depressed-cladding
(DC) design. MC fiber employs a segmented core as shown in Figure 1. It provides conventional
single-mode dispersion optimized performance at a wavelength around 1.3m but is multimode
with a few modes in the shorter wavelength region around 0.8m. Therefore, at 0.85m; fiber is
not remains as a single-mode.

2.24

Given from Example 2.9,

The normalized propagation constant is

W(V) _ 1.1428V 0.9960

2

b(V) = 1

(V W )
V2

W2
2
V

b(V)

( 1.1428 V 0.9960 )2
V2

(1.1428 0.9960
V )

Constant Vc = 2.405

Vc
V

From example 2.9, we take b(V) = (1.1428 -

1.1428
We can find

Vc
V

c
2.25

0.9960
V

2.405

The relative error on this approximation for

0.9960
)2 as V
V

is 0.2% for 0.8

1.0 and 2% for 1.6

2.4
Given that the Gaussian functions for the electric field distribution of the fundamental mode in a
single mode fiber Eq. (2.117) takes the form:
E(r) = E0 exp (-r2/02)
Where E(r) and E0 are shown in figure 2.31, use the approximation of Eq. (2.125) to evaluate and
sketch E(r) /E0 against r/a over the range 0 to 3 for values of normalized frequency V = 1.0, 1.5,
2.0, 2.5, 3.0.
MFD or mode field diameter = 2 0
0 / a = 0.65 + 1.619V -3/2 + 2.879V -6

From figure above the 0 can be assume as 2.5 m thus the value a can be find using this
equation:
0 / a = 0.65 + 1.619V -3/2 + 2.879V -6
Substitute the value of V normalized = 1
a = 0 / 0.65 + 1.619(1) -3/2 + 2.879(1) -6
= 0.49 m or 0.5 m

For voltage normalized at 1.5V

a = 0.49 m and 0 =???
Use
0 = a (0.65 + 1.619(1.5) -3/2 + 2.879(1.5) -6 )
= 0.87 m or 0.9 m
For voltage normalized at 2V
a = 0.49 m and 0 =???
Use

0 = a (0.65 + 1.619(2) -3/2 + 2.879(2) -6 )

= 0.62 m or 0.6 m

For voltage normalized at 2.5V

a = 0.49 m and 0 =???
Use
0 = a (0.65 + 1.619(2.5) -3/2 + 2.879(2.5) -6 )
= 0.52 m or 0.5 m

For voltage normalized at 3 V

a = 0.49 m and 0 =???
Use
0 = a (0.65 + 1.619(3) -3/2 + 2.879(3) -6 )
= 0.47 m

2.26

Sketch w/a vs V
3
2
w/a

1
0
1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.2

2.4

2.6

The magnitude of

o
a

increases as the normalized frequency reduces significantly below 2.4.

As the normalized frequency is reduced, significant proportion of modal power is propagated in the
cladding region.
Light is well distributed as the power propagates at the cut-off value.
As nearing the cut-off value, the power transmission of the step index fiber approaches unity.
2.27

o = 11.0 m
= 1.55 m
c = 1.22 m
SOLUTION:
Effective Normalized Frequency, Veff = 2.405(c / ) = 2.405(1.22 m /1.55 m) = 1.893
(o / aeff) = 0.6043 + 1.755 Veff(-3/2) + 2.78 Veff(-6)
aeff = o / (0.6043 + 1.755 x 1.893(-3/2) + 2.78 x 1.893(-6)) = (11.0 m) / (1.34) = 8.218 x 10(-6)

aeff = 8.218 m
aeff = (3.832) /( k sin min) = (3.832 ) / (2 sin min)
sin min = (3.832 ) / (2 aeff)
min = sin-1 ((3.832 ) / (2 aeff))
min = sin-1 ((3.832 x 1.55 m) / (2 x 8.218 m))
min = 6.605o

2.28

ESI relative index difference, ESI = 0.30%

0.293

0.003
0.02374220121 )
Spot size, 0 = 4.6 m

2 = 2.318821652

Cutoff wavelength, c = 1.29 m

= 2.318821652

Using ;

= 1.5227 @ 1.53

2aESI = 1.820 0
2aESI = 1.820 x (4.6 m)
2aESI = 8.372 m
Then subtitute 2aESI into :
ESI =

0.293
c 2
(
)
2 aESI
2

0.293 1.29 m 2
(
)
2
8.372 m

0.003 =

0.003 =

(0.02374220121)
( 0.293
)
2

0.003
2 = ( 0.293 )
0.02374220121

2.29

Photonic crystal fibers (PCF) rely on inhomogeneous regions of refractive index in order to
provide the guidance mechanism. The fundamental mechanism that traps light is the coherent
scattering of electromagnetic energy between the regularly spaced air holes in a silica (or other
base material) substrate. Light is rejected from the cladding region, by two different mechanisms
known as modified total internal reflection and the photonic band gap (PBG) and trapped and
guided in the core. As one might expect the chromatic response of the cladding structure is
somewhat different to a homogeneous block of material.
Modified total internal reflection and the fibers are referred to as index guided. Principles of
guidance and the characteristics of index-guided PCFs are similar to those of conventional fiber,
there is greater index contrast. Physical difference between index-guided PCFs and conventional
fibers arises from the manner in which the guided mode interacts with the cladding region. Two
common index-guided PCF designs are shown diagrammatically in figure below:

Two index-guided photonic crystal fiber structures. The dark areas are air holes while the white
areas are silica.
In both cases a solid-core region is surrounded by a cladding region containing air holes. The
cladding region in Figure (a) comprises a hexagonal array of air holes while in Figure (b) the
cladding air holes are not uniform in size and do not extend too far from the core. It should be
noted that the hole diameter dand hole to hole spacing or pitch are critical design parameters
used to specify the structure of the PCF.
Photonic bandgap (PBG) fibers are a class of microstructured fiber in which a periodic
arrangement of air holes is required to ensure guidance. This periodic arrangement of cladding air
holes provides for the formation of a photonic bandgap in the transverse plane of the fiber. As a
PBG fiber exhibits a two-dimensional bandgap, then wavelengths within this bandgap cannot
propagate perpendicular to the fiber axis (i.e. in the cladding) and they can therefore be confined
to propagate within a region in which the refractive index is lower than the surrounding material.
Two important PBG fiber structures are displayed in figure below:

Photonic bandgap (PBG) fiber structures in which the dark areas are air (lower refractive index)
and the lighter area is the higher refractive index: (a) honeycomb PBG fiber; (b) air-guiding PBG
fiber
The honeycomb fiber design shown in Figure (a) was the first PBG fiber to be experimentally
realized in 1998 and adaptations of this structure continue to be pursued. A triangular array of air
holes of sufficient size as displayed in Figure (b), however, provides for the possibility, unique to
PBG fibers, of guiding electromagnetic modes in air. In this case a large hollow core has been
defined by removing the silica around seven air holes in the center of the structure. These fibers,
which are termed air-guiding or hollow-core PBG fibers, enable more than 98% of the guided
mode field energy to propagate in the air regions. Such air-guiding fibers have attracted attention
because they potentially provide an environment in which optical propagation can take place with
little attenuation as the localization of light in the air core removes the limitations caused by
material absorption losses.

2.30

Index-guided PCFs

Compare and
Contrast
Performance
attributes

Photonic bandgap fibers

Wavelength dependence results in a

large number of unusual optical
properties which can be tailored. It
is possible to produce very high
optical nonlinearity per unit length
in which modest light intensities
can induce substantial nonlinear
effects.

Potential
drawback

PBG fiber exhibit a two dimensional

bandgap, then wavelengths within this
bandgap cannot propagate perpendicular
to the fiber axis and can be confined to
propagate within a region in which the
refractive index is lower than the
surrounding material.

Index-guided PCFs is particularly

significant
for
broadband
application such as wavelength
division multiplexed transmission.
Index-guided PCFs display an
interesting range of dispersive
properties which could find
application
as
dispersion-

Possible
applications

The PBG fibers displayed grater bending

sensitivity than conventional single
modes which could provide for potential
applications in the optical sensing of
curvature and stress. Beside, its use
within fiber lasers and gyroscope
applications.

The effective cladding index of

Index-guided PCFs dependent of
wavelength. For short wavelengths
the effective cladding index is only
slightly lower than the core index
and hence remains tightly confined
to the core, At longer wavelengths,
the mode samples more of the
cladding and the effective index
contrast is larger. The index-guided
PCFs
solid-core
region
is
surrounded by a cladding region
containing air holes. The cladding
region can be comprises a
hexagonal array of air holes and the
cladding air holes are not uniform in
size and do not extend too far from
the core. The hole diameter d and
hole to hole spacing or pitch are
critical design parameters used to
specify the structure of the PCF.

Photonic bandgap (PBG) fibers are a

class of microstructured fiber in which a
periodic arrangement of air holes is
required to ensure guidance. This
periodic arrangement of cladding are
holes provides for the formation of a
photonic bandgap in the transverse plane
of the fiber PBG fibers only guide in
certain wavelength bands and it is
possible to have wavelengths at which
higher order modes are guided while the
fundamental mode is not. Structure of
PBG fiver provide environment in which
optical propagation can take place with
little attenuation as the localization light
in the air core removes the limitation
caused by material absorption losses.

compensating
or
dispersioncontrolling fiber components.