Immediate Cause of the War (June 1914 )

The First World War finally broke out in the second half of 1914 because of an accident in
Bosnia.
Sarajevo Assassination
Outbreak of War - July/August 1914

1. The Assassination of Francis Ferdinand at Sarajevo

(June 1914)
The final event which led to the outbreak of the First World War took place on June 28,
1914. On that day, the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, and his wife
were shot dead by a young Serbian nationalist of the Black Hand at Sarajevo, the Bosnian
capital .

Why assassinate the Archduke?

The Serbian Black Hand had to assassinate Archduke Ferdinand because he wanted to
convert the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (the Dual Monarchy) into a Triple Monarchy by the
inclusion of Serbia. Although the Serbs might gain a certain degree of autonomy within the
Triple Monarchy, their long cherished wish of creating a united Serbian state would be
dashed to the ground. Francis Joseph, the reigning monarch was eighty-four years old and
expected to die soon. Ferdinand's ideas might have a chance for realization very soon. The
Black Hand thought that they should kill Ferdinand before it was too late. Some members of
the Serbian cabinet knew the assassination plot in advance but did not stop it.

Austrian intention to destroy Serbia

Austria considered the murder of the heir to the throne an open Serbian attack on the
existence of the Dual Monarchy because if Francis Joseph died Austria would be left without
an heir. Although she could not find any evidence that the Serbian government was
connected with the assassination, Austria consciously exploited the occasion to destroy
Serbia as a state to put an end to the Serbian threat to the existence of the Dual Monarchy
for ever. A war with Serbia might lead to a war with Russia. Thus Austria wanted to be
assured of German support.

German support
The German Kaiser decided to support Austria because he regarded Austria as the only ally
of Germany and because he believed that the Russian Czar would not come to help Serbia in
a war involving the death of a future monarch. On July 6, Germany assured Austria that
should there be an Austro-Serbian war, Germany would stand by her (Austrian) side and
give her unlimited support as an ally. This was called the "Blank Cheque".

Ultimatum to Serbia

Having received the wholehearted support from Germany, Austria sent an ultimatum to
Serbia on July 23, 1914. The ultimatum was to be answered within 48 hours. It included the
following demands:
(i) Serbia was to suppress all anti-Austrian (and Pan-Slav) publications, societies and
propaganda.
(ii) Serbia was to dismiss all anti-Austrian officials objected by Austria.
(iii) Austrian police and officials were to enter Serbia and to take part in the Serbian police
force in order to carry out the suppression of anti-Austrian activities and investigations
concerning the Sarajevo murders.

Serbian reply
These demands infringed Serbian sovereignty. Austria expected that Serbia would reject,
thus giving her the excuse to declare war. Serbia accepted the first two demands but

rejected the third. Serbia suggested to submit it for arbitration by the Hague Tribunal.
William II was satisfied with the Serbian reply and did not feel the need to punish Serbia
with a war. He declared, "a brilliant diplomatic triumph, no excuse for war."

2. Outbreak of War - July 1914

War declared
Austria was still determined to destroy Serbia. After declaring the Serbian reply
unsatisfactory, the Austrian government declared war on July 28. The bombardment of
Belgrade began on July 29.

Russian mobilization

The Serbian ally, Russia, learnt of the ultimatum on July 24. On July 26 the Czar reassured
the Serbian crown prince that "Russia will in no case be indifferent to the fate of Serbia."
Russia certainly could not bear humiliations from Germany any more; if she failed to defend
Serbia again and again, Russia could no longer set her foot on the Balkans as the leader of
the Slav nations. The Russian Czar was probably encouraged by the French to take a firm
stand against Germany, for France had learnt of the Schlieffen War Plan . France urged
Russia to mobilize for fear of an immediate German attack. After the bombardment of
Belgrade on July 30, the Czar was persuaded by his ministers and Chief of staff to order full
mobilization.

German declaration of war

Germany feared that she would face attacks from both Russia and France. Germany
demanded Russia to stop her mobilization at once. Russia refused. Germany at once
declared war on Russia on August 1.
According to the Schlieffen Plan , Germany had to attack France at once. Germany sent an
ultimatum to France demanding her to be neutral. After receiving a French reply that France
would side with Russia, Germany lost no time and declared war on France on August 3.

Schlieffen War Plan

After the formation of the Dual Alliance between Russia and France in
1893, Germany feared attack on two fronts--France in the west and Russia
in the east. The result was the Schlieffen Plan (this was the war plan for
Germany during the First World War). The Chief of the German General
Staff, Count Schlieffen drew up his military plan on the theory that Russia
would need at least six weeks to mobilize before she could be ready to
attack. In the meantime, Germany could concentrate her military forces
against France, which might be subjugated within six weeks by an
overwhelming attack through neutral Belgium. Germany could then turn to
attack Russia.
Britain joined the war
On August 4, according to the Schlieffen Plan, the German troops crossed the Belgian
frontier. On the same day the British government declared war on Germany. There were two
reasons which prompted Britain to take action at once. Firstly, German invasion of Belgium
had aroused British opinion against Germany because the country had been guaranteed as a
neutral state by all great powers in 1839 in the Treaty of London. Now the German invasion
had treated the treaty as a scrap of paper and so committed a moral crime. Secondly, no
British government would tolerate the domination of Belgium by any powerful continental
nation because it directly endangered the security of Britain. (Belgium was separated from
Britain by a narrow channel only.)

Results of the First World War

The First World War lasted for four years and three months. It began on August 4, 1914 and
ended on November 11, 1918. It involved sixty sovereign states, overthrew four Empires
(German Empire, Hapsburg Empire, Turkish Empire, Russian Empire), gave birth to seven
new nations, took ten million combatant lives (another 30 million were wounded), and cost
about 35,000 million.
Paris Peace Conference 1919
The Peace Treaties
Criticism of the Versailles Settlement
General Effects of the First World War

Paris Peace Conference 1919

Although representatives of thirty-two states attended the Peace Conference at Paris in
January 1919 to write the peace treaties, three men stood out above others: Woodrow
Wilson, President of the United States, Clemenceau, the Prime Minister of France, and Lloyd
George, Prime Minister of Britain. These came to be known as the Big Three, for they
eventually made all the decisions of the Conference.
The decisions of the Big Three were influenced by five factors:
(1) Secret Treaties: While the war was being fought, there were a series of agreements
made among the Allies for dividing up the spoils. In March 1915, France was promised
Alsace-Lorraine, control of the left bank of the Rhine and German colonies in Africa while
Britain was allowed to take over German colonies in Africa and the Pacific. In April of the
same year, Italy was tempted to join the war on the side of the Allies by promises of
Austrian and Turkish territory. In August 1916, Rumania was promised territories in
Transylvania and Bukovina. The Big Three had to respect these treaties when they were
making the territorial settlement after the war.
(1) New States: Before the Conference opened in January 1919, the Russian and the
Austro-Hungarian Empires had collapsed. Within these empires, there arose many new
statesYugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland. The Big Three had
to accept the existence of these new states when they were making the territorial
settlement after the war.
(2) Communist Russia: Since November 1917, there was a communist government in
Russia. The Big Three wanted to strengthen the neighbouring states of Russia so that they
could form a "cordon sanitaire" to protect Europe against the spread of Communism.
(3) After-war bitterness: During the war, the Allied governments had done their best to
arouse the patriotism of their own people. Immediately after the war, the people of the
Allied countries still had a fierce hatred against the enemy nations. Because they had
suffered so much during the war, they brought pressure on their governments to exact
heavy compensation from the losers.
(4) Conflict between the objectives of the Big Three. Woodrow Wilson was an idealist,
a theorist and a pacifist. As a pacifist (the horrors of the American Civil War had made him a
pacifist), he hoped that there would be no war for mankind. As a theorist (he was an exprofessor of history and political economy), he liked to apply his academic theory and
knowledge to solve the problem of war. As an idealist (he was a man of good intentions), he
was able to produce his blueprint for peace in the future in his Fourteen Points in January
1918. >> Back to Top

(i) Wilson
(ii) Clemenceau
(iii) Lloyd George
Wilson's Fourteen Points

(1) The first main theme of Wilson's Fourteen Points was the granting of national
independence to all the 'oppressed peoples!'. In practice this involved the following points.
(a) Impartial adjustment of colonial claims: the settlement of colonial problems with
reference to the interests of colonial peoples (point five);
(b) Germany's surrender of her past conquests:
Evacuation by the Germans of all Russian territory (point six).
Evacuation by the Germans of all Belgian territory (point seven).
Evacuation by the Germans of Alsace-Lorraine (the French territory) (point eight).
(c) The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Turkish Empire and the granting of
independence to all the oppressed nationalities:
Italian frontier to extend northward to recover some land from Austria-Hungary (point
nine).
Autonomous development for the people of Austria-Hungary (point ten).
Rumania, Serbia and Montenegro to be independent (point eleven).
Peoples under Turkish rule to be autonomous (point twelve).
An independent Poland (point thirteen).
In short, Wilson hoped to remove one of the fundamental causes of the First World War,
namely the attempt of the big powers to rule over alien races.
(2) The second main theme was that there should be 'Open Diplomacy' (according to
point one - all diplomacy and negotiation between states should be carried on openly),
'Open Sea' (according to point two - there should be absolute freedom of navigation of the
seas both in peace and war, except in territorial waters), 'Open Trade' (according to point
three - trade conditions for nations should be fair and equal and there should not be any
tariff barriers between them), and 'Disarmament' (according to point four - armaments
should be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety only). In other words,
Wilson wanted to remove 3 root causes of the First World War, namely alliance systems,
economic conflict and armaments race.
(3) The third theme was that an international association of nations should be established
(point fourteen). This association would not only guarantee the independence of all nations
but would also do its very best to further their prosperity by promoting international
cooperation in economic and social spheres. In other words, Wilson wanted to replace
national rivalries by international cooperation.
To sum up, Wilson's ideals of a peaceful world consisted of a removal of all the basic causes
of the First World War (namely armaments race, secret diplomacy, economic rivalry and the
struggle of the oppressed nationalities to get independence) and the formation of an
international organization to promote the political, economic and social progress of the
whole world.

Clemenceau

Clemenceau, Prime Minister of France, was a man of completely different character and aim
as Wilson. Clemenceau was known as 'Tiger'. He was no idealist and pacifist. He did not pay
any high regard to the wishes of the oppressed nationalities to gain independence. His basic
aims when he came to the Conference were to give to France first of all, her two lost
provincesAlsace and Lorraine; secondly, security against any possible German aggression
in the years to come. To realize his second aim, he wanted to weaken Germany permanently
by confiscating all her colonies and her past conquests, by depriving her of armed forces, by
exacting heavy reparations from her and by creating a buffer state between Germany and
France. This might be regarded as a policy of 'realism'. French hatred of Germany was
excusable. France had been defeated by Germany in 1871 and nearly defeated in the First
World War. As France was next to Germany, she always feared another German aggression.

Lloyd George
Lloyd George, the Prime Minister of Britain, stood midway between these two extreme
personalities. He was being pressured by the anti-German public opinion in Great Britain

that Germany must pay for the war and "Hang the Kaiser". In the meantime, he also
understood that if excessively heavy reparations and exceedingly harsh political terms were
imposed on Germany, Germany might think of a war of revenge in the future. Moreover, a
poor and impoverished Germany would also render herself to be a poor customer of British
goods. A settlement with moderate, terms on Germany suited Britain's long-term interests.
As a result, this tactful politician tried his best to smooth over the differences between the
extreme viewpoints of Wilson and Clemenceau.
The outcome of the efforts of Lloyd George was that the Versailles settlement, taken as a
whole, appeared to be a compromise between Wilson's pacifist ideals and Clemenceau's
revengeful attitude. >> Back to Top

The Peace Treaties

The Big Three, first of all, drew up the Covenant of the League of The Nations. They decided
that the Covenant should be included in each of the peace treaties. The peace treaties they
drew up were as follows:
( I ) Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919. (2) Austria signed the Treaty of
St. Germain (September 1919) (3) Bulgaria signed the Treaty of Neuilly (November 1919).
(4) Hungary signed the Treaty of Trianon (June 1920) (5) Turkey signed the Treaty of Sevres
(8/1920) & Lausanne (7/1923).

Treaty of Versailles (1919)

The Treaty reflected chiefly two basic ideas: punishment of the defeated and the
maintenance of the principle of self-determination. These two basic ideas were also reflected
in the other treaties.
(i) Territories:
Germany was to lose all her past conquests. These were to be returned to their own
national units.
In the south-west, Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France. The Saar, the coalproducing area of Germany, was brought under the control of the League of Nations for 15
years. After this time, there would be a plebiscite in the Saar to decide its future. In the
meantime, France was to operate its coal mines so as to compensate the damage done to
the French mines during the war.
In the west, Eupen and Malmedy (after plebiscite) were given to Belgium. In the north,
North Schleswig (after plebiscite) was returned to Denmark.
In the east, Poland was recreated as a state. Poland, in view of the communist threat from
the north, was to be strengthened by: (a) the cession of a large part of East Prussia, (b) the
cession of Posen so that she might have access to the sea (In Posen, there was a strip of
territory which runs from River Vistula to the sea. This was termed as the Polish Corridor. To
safeguard Polish control of the corridor, Danzig was made a free international city under the
League even though the port was predominantly German in population.), (c) the acquisition
of two-fifths of Upper Silesia even though Germans outnumbered the Poles by about five to
three in the area. Memel was given first to the League of Nations, which ultimately passed
the place of Lithuania.
Germany also lost all her colonies in Africa and the Pacific. Most of them were transferred to
the League of Nations which allowed the victorious powers such as Britain, France, Belgium,
South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Japan to rule over them as Mandates.
Germany's territorial losses were severe (about 13% of her land and 7 million of her former
population had to be given up) although these losses constituted chiefly her past conquests.
Moreover, she was forbidden to enter into any union with Austria.
(ii) Disarmament:
Germany was almost totally disarmed. She was allowed an army of 100,000 men to be
recruited by voluntary enlistment and six small battleships of less than 10,000 tons.

Submarines and aeroplanes were strictly forbidden. The Rhineland would be occupied by the
Allied forces for 15 years, during which it would remain permanently demilitarized.
(iii) War-guilt and Reparations:
According to Article 231 of the Treaty "the Allied and Associated Governments affirm, and
Germany accepts, the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the losses and
damages to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been
subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany
and her allies." In other words, the whole blame of provoking the First World War was put
on Germany. This is historically incorrect and so constituted a great hurt to the German
national pride.
This 'war-guilt clause' provided the Allied justification for war trials and reparations. At
Leipzig, 12 Germans were tried, of whom six were convicted of war-crimes. (The Kaiser was
not given a trial, because the Dutch Government refused to pass him to the Allied powers.)
In 1921 the Reparations Commission decided that Germany had to pay 6,600 million in
reparations. This figure was considered too large, for the reparations covered not only direct
loss and damage as a result of the war but also indirect war expenditure such as allowances
paid to families of soldiers, the cost of maintaining Allied occupation in the Rhine and the
war loans of the Belgian government. Part of the reparations was to be paid in annual
instalments, part in ships, coal and other kinds of goods.
Germany clearly paid a heavy price for her defeat. The war-guilt clause and the
accompanying clause concerning reparations were clearly made in a spirit of revenge. The
German resentment of the Treaty helped the rise of Hitler in the 1930's. >> Back to Top
Treaty of St. Germain (September 1919)
Like the treaty-settlement with Germany, Austria was punished for provoking World War I
and much of her territory was given up to the newly-created states which were formed as a
result of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the end of the War.
Her territorial losses included: Trieste, Istria, and part of Tyrol were given to Italy, Bohemia
including the Sudetenland, Moravia and part of Silesia to Czechoslovakia, Bukovina to
Rumania, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Dalmatia to Yugoslavia, and Galicia to Poland. In most of
the cases, the subject peoples of the Hapsburg Empire were now returned to land of the
same nationality. The principle of self-determination was asserted once more.
The principle of severe punishment was at the same time meted out to Austria. Firstly, in
the vast territories lost by the Austrians, there lived millions of Austrian Germans. There
were 3 million Germans in the Sudetenland and 250,000 in Tryol. Secondly, the much
reduced Austria was forbidden to unite with Germany. This was a severe blow to the survival
of Austria because Austrian goods had always depended upon the German market. Thirdly,
Austria had to pay reparations and had to be disarmed to the lowest limit. All in all, the
Austrian portion of the Dual Monarchy was deprived of 3/4 of her former area and 3/4 of her
people. She became a land-locked state with little economic resources. Thus the Austrians
had ill-feeling towards the Treaty of St. German.
Treaty of Trianon (June 1920)
Hungary was similarly treated. Under the principle of national independence and freedom,
Hungary lost 3/4 of her territory and 2/3 of her people. Croatia was given to Yugoslavia,
Transylvania to Rumania, and Ruthenia and Slovakia to Czechoslovakia.
Punishment was also a bit too much for Hungary. Firstly, much of the land ceded by
Hungary contained many Hungarians. About 3 million Hungarians (Magyars) lived in the
neighboring states as a result of the Treaty. In Transylvania and in some other places, more
than half of the population were Hungarians. Secondly, a severe blow was dealt to her
economic progress because most of her industrial areas were lost and her concessions to
Yugoslavia deprived her of access to the Adriatic and the Mediterranean Sea. Like Austria,

she became a landlocked state. Thirdly, she had to pay her reparations and limit her armed
forces.
Treaty of Neuilly (November 1919)
Bulgaria had to give up western Macedonia to Yugoslavia, western Some Thrace to Greece,
and Dobruja to Rumania. These territorial losses were by no means severe. But the
Bulgarians were not satisfied with the Treaty. Firstly, the reparations and loss of western
Thrace to Greece not only deprived Bulgaria of her only access to the Mediterranean Sea but
placed many Bulgarians under the rule of the Greeks (because western Thrace was
inhabited by many Bulgarians). Secondly, like the other defeated powers, Bulgaria needed
to pay her reparations and limit her armed forces.
Treaty of Sevres (8/1920) & Lausanne (7/1923)
The Treaty of Sevres met with immediate failure because the Big Three had almost
completely discarded the principle of nationalism in making this treaty. They partitioned
Turkey as a colony. Besides granting independence to Saudi Arabia and Armenia, the victors
almost divided up Turkey among themselves as spoils. Syria and Lebannon were mandated
to France, while Palestine, Trans Jordan and Iraq were mandated to Britain. Rhodes and the
Dodecanese were given to Italy. Eastern Thrace, Adrianople and Smyrna were obtained by
Greece. Even the Straits of Dardanelles and Bosporous were put under international control.
All that remained of the former Ottoman Empire consisted of the city of Constantinople and
the northern and central portions of Asia Minor.
Soon after the Sultan had signed the treaty, a nationalist military leader, Mustapha Kemal
immediately led a nationalist movement to overthrow the Sultan's government. In
November 1922 the Sultan was deposed. Kemal demanded a new treaty. He also began a
war to reconquer the land occupied by the powers. The powers were tired of war, and only
Greece was intent on holding her territorial acquisitions. Greece fought with the Turks but
after a short while she was defeated.
The resulting new Treaty of Lausanne was signed on July 24, 1923. Unlike all the abovementioned treaties, it was decided not by the Big Three. Russia, Italy, Greece, Rumania,
Yugoslavia and, most important of all, Turkey also participated in the drafting of the treaties.
By the new treaty, Turkey gave up her claims to non-Turkish territories. They became
mandates according to the Treaty of Sevres. But Turkey recovered purely Turkish territories
(i.e., eastern Thrace). She retained Constaintinople, Adrianople and the land lying between
them. Moreover, she had no need to pay reparations and limit her armed forces.
The Treaty of Lausanne turned out to be the most successful treaty because it was the only
negotiated peace treaty and Turkey was treated as a nation but not as a defeated enemy.
>> Back to Top

Criticism of the Versailles Settlement

The makers of the Versailles Settlement had contradictory viewpoints in making the peace
treaties but, in general, they did agree to reconstruct Europe on the principles of democracy
and nationalism. Before the war, there had been 19 monarchies and 3 republics. After the
war, 15 out of 27 states were republics with an elected president. The number of
independent states in Europe also increased from 20 in 1914 to 27 in 1919. The Serbs,
Poles, Croats, Czechs, Letts and Finns had all formed their national states.
Some of the criticism which has been made against the Versailles Settlement deserves
mentioning. First of all, the peace settlement was made by the Big Three and the defeated
states were never allowed to discuss the terms. Secondly, the punishment on Germany was
somewhat excessive, since a democratic government had come to power. Thirdly, there was
the existence of many national minorities in the new states of Europeabout 17 millions.
Fourthly, the victorious powers did not disarm, even though the defeated powers had been

disarmed to the lowest level. Fifth, there were many cases in which the Big Three
abandoned the principle of nationality when they were making the territorial settlement
for example, Italy obtained South Tyrol which contained 250,000 Austrian Germans and
Rumania obtained Transylvania where more than half of the population were Hungarians.
Thus the defeated powers were suspicious of the intentions of the victorious powers and had
deep resentment against the Versailles Settlement. >> Back to Top

General Effects of the First World War

The First World War had far-reaching repercussions on the political and economic
developments of Europe.
After the First World War, there was little political stability in Europe. In eastern Europe, the
new states, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania and Finland were
always threatened by the rapid increase in national strength of communist Russia. In central
Europe, the Germans always longed for a revision of the Treaty of Versailles. They would
give full support to a government which advocated a strong foreign policy. In southern
Europe, the Italians also harboured ill-feeling towards the Versailles Settlement because the
Big Three failed to realize the territorial ambitions of Italy as were promised in the Treaty of
London of 1915. There were only two states in Europe which hoped to preserve the
Versailles Settlement. They were Britain and France. As both Britain and France were
gravely weakened by the war, it is doubtfu1 that they would be willing to make a costly war
against any aggressors who were determined to revise the Versailles Settlement.
The First World War left crushing economic burdens on all the European countries. It has
been estimated that the European victors owed an aggregate of $10 billion to the U.S.. The
economic burdens of the European governments were multiplied when they had to
rehabilitate devastated areas, to pay pensions to the wounded and to the relatives of the
dead and to pay the interest due on the public and foreign debts. To add to the economic
burdens of the European governments, trade and industry did not revive after the war.
There was mass unemployment in Italy, Germany, Britain and France shortly after the war.
The immediate result was that in Italy the people were so discontented with their
government that they overthrew it. The long term result was that in order to solve their
economic problems, most of the European nations tried to become economically selfsufficient and to keep out the products of other countries by building high tariff walls.
Economic nationalism was a bad omen for the peace of Europe.
There was one hopeful sign for the peace in the futurethe League of Nations was born in
1920. The League had a noble ideal. It advocated open diplomacy, economic co-operation
and peaceful solution of international disputes

Colonial Rivalries
After 1870, the European nations began to acquire colonies in Asia, Africa and the Pacific.
Their imperialistic activities accelerated from 1880 onwards. Between 1895 and 1905
imperialistic expansion reached its climax.
Colonial rivalry was a cause of the First World War.
First of all, colonial rivalry led to strained relations among the European powers. In Africa,
all the European powers except Austria and Russia had colonies there. Thus there were
many clashes among France, Britain, Germany and Italy. For example, France rivalled with
Italy over Tunis and with Germany over Morocco.

Secondly, colonial rivalry led indirectly to the formation and strengthening of alliances and
ententes. Italy turned to Germany and Austria when she lost Tunis to France in 1881. Russia
and Britain could patch up their differences and form an entente in 1907 as a result of their
mutual fear of Germany's expansionist activities in the Balkans. Russia, Britain and France
could become firm friends after 1907 partly because of aggressive attitude of Germany in
both the first and the second Moroccan crises.
Thirdly, colonial rivalry led to an intensification of the arms race. As mentioned earlier, in
1896 Dr. Jameson made a raid into the Dutch Republic of Transvaal in South Africa.
Germany found that, without a navy, she could not send much military help to the Dutch.
Shortly after the event, Admiral von Tirpitz, the German Minister of Marine, proclaimed the
need of a strong navy. From 1898 onwards, Germany built more battleships.
Fourthly, colonial rivalry led to much hostility among the powers. In the first and the second
Moroccan crises, war nearly resulted. France and Britain nearly came to war over their
rivalry in the Sudan in 1898.

A Minor Cause
But after 1905 colonial issues became less important as the powers turned back to Europe
and Europe remained their centre of rivalry. As stated earlier, from 1904 to 1907, Britain,
France and Russia were able to settle their colonial disputes by the Anglo-French Entente
and the Anglo-Russian Entente. By 1914 colonial disputes had greatly diminished. Thus
colonial rivalry had little to do with the outbreak of the First World War

National Rivalries
Two Kinds of Nationalism
There were two kinds of nationalism in 19th Century Europe:
(i) the desire of subject peoples for independence It led to a series of national struggles for independence among the Balkan peoples. Other
powers got involved and caused much instability.
(ii) the desire of independent nations for dominance and prestige As the powers try to dominate each other in Europe, their rivalries may be regarded as one
of the causes of the First World War.

Nationalism in Germany
Germany was united in 1871 as a result of the Franco-Prussian War, and she rapidly became
the strongest economic and military power in Europe. From 1871 to 1890, Germany wanted

to preserve her hegemony in Europe by forming a series of peaceful alliances with other
powers. After 1890, Germany was more aggressive. She wanted to build up her influence in
every part of the world. German foreign policy in these years was best expressed by the
term 'Weltpolitik' (World Politics). Because German ambitions were extended to many parts
of the globe, Germany came into serious conflicts with all other major powers of Europe
(except Austria-Hungary) from 1890 to 1914.

Nationalism in Italy
Italy was unified in 1870. She was barely powerful enough to be counted as a great power.
Her parliamentary system was corrupt and inefficient. Her industrial progress was slow. But
Italy had great territorial ambitions. She wanted Tunis and Tripoli in northern Africa. This
brought her into conflicts with France because Tunis was adjacent to the French colony,
Algeria, and was long regarded by France as French sphere of influence. Italy also wanted
Italia Irredenta--Trieste, Trentio and Tyrol. Although the majority of the people in these
places were Italians, they were kept under the rule of the Dual Monarchy . Thus Italy came
into serious conflicts with Austria-Hungary.

Nationalism in Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary was established as the Dual Monarchy in 1867. The Dual Monarchy ruled
over a large empire consisting of many nationalities, but only the Austrians (racially they
were German) and the Hungarians had the right to rule. The other nationalities Czechs,
Slovaks, Serbs, Croats, Rumanians and Poles resented their loss of political freedom. They
desired for political independence. Thus the policy of the Dual Monarchy was to suppress the
nationalist movements both inside and outside the empire. The particular object of the Dual
Monarchy was to gain political control over the Balkan Peninsula, where nationalist
movements were rife and were always giving encouragement to the nationalist movements
within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The centre of the nationalist movements in the Balkans
was Serbia. Serbia always hoped to unite with the Serbs in the Austro-Hungarian Empire so
as to create a large Serbian state. Therefore the first enemy of Austria-Hungary from 1871
to 1914 was Serbia. Besides Serbia, Austria-Hungary also hated Russia because Russia,
being a Slav country, always backed up Serbia in any Austro-Serbian disputes.

Nationalism in Russia
Russia was the largest and most populous country in Europe. It extended from the shores of
the Arctic Ocean to those of the Black Sea and from the Baltic Sea eastwards to the Pacific
Ocean. Two thirds of her people were Slavs. She was still territorially ambitious. She wanted
to expand in all directions. In 1870, Russia broke the Treaty of Paris (see below) and
renewed her aggression in the Balkans. Thus, her territorial ambitions clashed with the
interests of Austria-Hungary and Britain. However, Russia did not retreat. Being a
'landlocked' state, she wanted to acquire warm water ports in the Balkans (e.g.
Constantinople). Moreover, as most of the Balkan peoples were of the Slavic race, Russia
could claim to be the protector of her brother races in her expansion.

Note: Treaty of Paris and Russia

In 1856, Russia was defeated by Britain and France in the Crimean War. She was forced to
sign the Treaty of Paris, which stopped her expansion into the Balkans from 1856 to 1870.
Britain wanted to establish her influence in the Balkans because the Balkan area borders the
Mediterranean Sea. lf Russia controlled the Balkan area, British naval power and trade in
the Mediterranean Sea would be threatened.

Nationalism in France
France had been the dominant power in Europe for centuries. Napoleon I and Napoleon III
had attempted to dominate Europe. In 1871, France was defeated by Germany. She had to
lose two provinces: Alsace and Lorraine. She also needed to pay heavy indemnities. From
1871 onwards, France's greatest ambition was to recover Alsace and Lorraine from
Germany. She also wanted to prevent another defeat by Germany, to recover her national
prestige by acquiring overseas colonies (e.g. Morocco) and to make diplomatic alliances with
other important powers in Europe.

Nationalism in Britain
In 1870 Britain was the most industrially advanced country in Europe. She also possessed
the largest overseas empire and the largest navy in the world. She did not want to trouble
herself with the continental affairs of Europe. Her main concern was to preserve her
overseas empire and her overseas trade by maintaining a large navy. Before 1890, her chief
enemies were France and Russia. The colonial interests of France often clashed with those of
Britain . (Britain and France had colonial rivalries in Asia and Africa--for example, India,
Burma, Thailand, Egypt.)
Russia's interest in the Balkan area also alarmed Britain, as British naval interests in the
Mediterranean Sea would be immediately threatened. After 1890, as Germany went on
increasing her naval strength and threatened British naval supremacy and the British
overseas interests, she became Britain's chief enemy.

Economic Rivalries
There were economic conflicts between Germany and Britain from 1890 onwards. Since
1871 Germany had been experiencing a period of rapid industrialization, and by 1890 the
products of her industry were competing with British manufactures everywhere in the globe
and German merchant ships threatened Britain's carrying trade.
There were also economic struggles between Germany and France. In 1870 France had
already lost two of her coal producing provinces--Alsace and Lorraine to Germany. From
1871 onwards, France had to import coal from other countries. Thus France had to compete
with Germany in Morocco because the place was rich in mineral resources.

Germany and Austria also rivalled with Russia in the Balkans for commercial privileges. As
early as 1888 Germany began to build a railway in the area. Austria regarded the area as a
field for profitable investment and as a big market for her manufactured goods. Russia also
hoped to control the area because half of her exports passed through this area.

A Minor Cause
Undoubtedly economic rivalries played a considerable part in creating international tensions
in the 43 years before the First World War. As a matter of fact, the economic rivalries have
been much exaggerated. The commercial rivalry between Germany and Russia in the
Balkans was not keen, for Russia was not yet a fully industrialized nation with a surplus of
products to be sold abroad. The trade rivalry between Britain and Germany had also eased
off in the ten years before the war because they developed their markets in different parts
of the world -- Britain within her own Empire, and Germany on the continent of Europe.
Thus economic rivalries played a minor part in causing the First World War.

Militarism
Militarism denoted a rise in military expenditure, an increase in military and naval forces,
more influence of the military men upon the policies of the civilian government, and a
preference for force as a solution to problems. Militarism was one of the main causes of the
First World War.

Increase in military control of the civilian government

After 1907, there was an increase in military influence on policy making. This could be
reflected particularly in Germany and Russia. The German Army at this period was called a
"State within the State". The parliament and the politicians had to follow the General Staff.
They had no say in the army's design to preserve the Fatherland. Even though the
Schlieffen Plan would incur the anger of Great Britain and bring the latter into a war, it was
accepted by the German civilian government as the war plan. In 1914, the Russian generals
were also able to force the Czar to accept full mobilization. They threatened him with the
danger of defeat if he acted contrarily.

Arms race
After 1871, the war atmosphere engendered by the secret alliances led to an armaments
race among the powers. The race was particularly serious between 1900 and 1914, as the
international situation became much worse than before. There was a significant rise in the
army and naval estimates of the European powers in these years.

Rise in Military Expenditure

The Total Defence Expenditure of the Powers (in million )
(Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Britain, France and Russia)

1870
94

1880
130

1890
154

1900
268

1910
289

1914
398

It is also important to take notice of the fact that from 1910 to 1914, while France increased
her defence expenditure by 10%, Britain by 13%, Russia by 39%, and Germany was the
most militaristic as she increased by 73%. Increased war expenditure enabled all the
powers to raise more armies and improve their battleships.

Military Rivalry
Army conscription

All the Continental European powers had adopted the conscription system since 1870.
France had conscription since the Revolutionary Wars, Austria-Hungary since 1868,
Germany since 1870, Italy since 1873 and Russia since 1874. Only Britain did not have
conscription. After 1890, the deteriorating diplomatic relations among the powers
accelerated their military expansion programme.
From 1913 to July 1914, Germany increased her standing forces by 170,000 men. France
lengthened her period of military service from two to three years. Russia lengthened her
term of service from three to three and a half years. Britain did not introduce conscription
but had prepared her armed forces for both European expedition and for home defence. In
general, all the powers increased their stocks of arms, produced more modern weapons of
war and built more strategic railways.

Naval Race Between Germany and Britain

Britain and Germany were the chief rivals at sea. Under Admiral Tirpitz, State Secretary of
the Imperial Naval Office from 1897, a long-term shipbuilding programme began. The
German Navy Law of 1898 increased the German battleships from nine cruisers to twelve.
In 1900 Germany passed a Navy Law which doubled the German battle fleet.
In the meantime, Britain produced her first Dreadnought (literally, the word means fear
nothing). Dreadnoughts were large, fast and heavily armed battleships with 12inch guns.
They set a new standard in naval armaments and rendered all previous battleships obsolete.
The naval race became intense. Between 1909 and 1911 Germany built nine Dreadnoughts
while Britain completed 18 Dreadnoughts. In 1913, Germany widened the Kiel Canal to
allow the easy passage of her Dreadnoughts from the Baltic to the North Sea while Britain
built new naval bases for the Dreadnoughts in northern Scotland.

Effects
Increased military and naval rivalry led not only to the belief that war was coming (The
German ruling group felt that only through a war could Germany become a world power.
Military preparations strengthened this belief.) and increase in military control of the civilian
government (particularly in Germany and Russia) also increased cooperation among the
military staff of the countries of the same camp. For example, all the three Entente powers
held secret military talks. The British and the French naval authorities agreed that the
French navy should be concentrated in the Mediterranean and the British in the North Sea.
Germany and Austria also had military agreements. When the First World War was fought, it
was to be fought by all powers because they had made the military plan cooperatively.
As a result of the armaments race, all the European powers were prepared for a war by
1914.

Pre-war Crises
International Crises (1905-1913)

1.
2.
3.
4.

Early in the twentieth century, the European powers had formed themselves into two rival
groups: the TRIPLE ENTENTE versus the TRIPLE ALLIANCE. The policies of these groups
began to clash in many parts of the world. Altogether there were four important clashes
from 1905 to 1913: two arising out of the Moroccan question, and two concerning disputes
in the Balkans. Whenever a clash arose, the two groups seemed to be on the point of war.
First Moroccan Crisis 1905-06
Bosnian Crisis 1908-09
Second Moroccan Crisis 1911
Balkan Wars 1912-13

1. First Moroccan Crisis 1905-06

Franco-German rivalry
Morocco on the northern coast of Africa was rich in mineral and agricultural wealth. Both
Germany and France coveted the place. By her entente with Britain in 1904, France was

given a free hand in Morocco. Kaiser William II, angry at France's influence and at
Germanys exclusion, decided to intervene. In March 1905, the Kaiser landed at Tangier
where he made a speech greeting the Sultan of Morocco as an independent sovereign and
promising him German protection if France attempted to colonize his state. The German
government followed this up by demanding an international conference to clarify the status
of Morocco.
Germany's aim of calling a conference was to humiliate France and to split the Entente
because from the point of view of international law, Morocco was an independent state and
the French claim to Morocco was illegal. France was prepared to fight but at last she agreed
to settle her conflict with Germany at a conference.

The Algeciras Conference

At the conference at Algeciras in 1906, Germany was supported by Austria while France was
supported by Britain, Russia and the United States. In name Morocco was preserved as an
independent state whose trade was to be open to all nations; but in fact France was given
two special privileges: (i) she, in conjunction with Spain, was given control over the
Moroccan police and (ii) she was to control the customs and arms supply of Morocco. Thus
the Entente powers scored a diplomatic victory over the Dual Alliance of Germany and
Austria.

Consequence

The Algerciras Conference could only offer a temporary solution to the Franco-German
conflict. Germany was dissatisfied with the resolutions of the Conference because they
would benefit France more. France also bore ill feeling towards Germany. She remembered
that Germany had tried to browbeat France to give up Morocco by a threat of war. To
prepare for the eventuality of a Franco-German war, France began to hold secret military
conversations with Britain, which finally led to the sending of British army to fight alongside
the French army during the First World War.
>> Back to Top

2. Bosnian Crisis 1908-09

Each succeeding international crisis from 1905 to 1913 threatened the security of all the
powers and thus increased the hostility between the rival camps. If a war broke out in
Europe, it would naturally become an international war involving all the powers.

Background
National struggles
The Balkan area was a trouble spot in Europe. It was ruled by the despotic Turks. By the
late nineteenth century, many of the subject races of the Turks had gained independence
and formed their national states--Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, Romania and Bulgaria; but
these national states were small and many of their fellow nationals still lived in the Turkish
Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Thus the Balkan states were prepared to carry on
a series of struggles against Turkey and Austria-Hungary in order to win back those
territories that were still lived by their fellow nationals. For example, Serbia wanted Austria
to give up Bosnia which had many Serbs.

Intervention of the Great Powers

The national struggles of the Balkan peoples were complicated by the rivalry between the
powers in the area. Of the five great powers, Russia, Austria and Germany were particularly
interested in the area. Russia's interest in the area was based on economic and cultural
reasons. Economically speaking, Russia wanted to find a warm water port in the south
because half of Russian total exports (including nearly all her exports of grains) passed
through this area. Many historians have also pointed out that Russia might need a warm
water port for the construction of naval base.

Russian support and Austrian suppression

Culturally speaking, Russia always regarded herself as a member of the Slav race. As Russia
was the powerful Slavic state, she took it as her duty to support her Slav brothers (e.g.
Serbia) in their national struggles against Turkey and Austria. Pan Slavism (the union of all
Slavs) was always espoused as the policy of the Russian government in the Balkans.
Austria's interest in the Balkans was based on political reason. Austria wanted to suppress
the nationalist movements in the Balkans, particularly that in Serbia. By the early twentieth
century, Austria wanted to extend her rule over Serbia. This brought her into conflicts with
both Serbia and Russia.

German interest
Germany's interest in the area was based on both economic and cultural reasons.
Economically speaking, the control of the Balkans would provide industrial Germany with
abundant supply of cheap raw materials, a populous market and a large field for profitable
investment. From 1888 onwards, Germany began her economic penetration in the area by
building the Baghdad railway, which was ultimately to connect Berlin with the Persian Gulf.
Culturally speaking, the German government believed that the Germans were spiritually and
culturally a superior race and so had a 'historic mission' to dominate both the Balkans, the
Middle East, central Europe and Asia. The inferior races should be forced to accept the
German culture.
Because of the complicated nationalistic movements and the conflicting interests of the
powers in the Balkans, the area was prolific of crises from 1908 to 1914.

Events leading to the Crisis

Count von Aehrenthal, the Austrian Minister of Foreign Affairs, always wanted to extend
Austrian political control over the Serbs in the Balkans. In 1908, three events caused him to
take action at once. First, a new king had ascended the throne in Serbia. The new king,
Peter, was strongly anti-Austrian and he wanted to unite with his fellow nationals in Bosnia,
which had been under Austrian administration since the Congress of Berlin in 1878. Second,
in 1908 a revolution, known as the 'Young Turk Revolution', broke out in the Ottoman
Empire. The Young Turks were liberal reformers and young officers. They demanded the
Sultan to grant a parliament and a modern constitution and to liberalize his despotic rule. In
July 1908, they rose in rebellion and threatened to march to Constantinople. The Sultan
Abdul Hamid II gave way at once and agreed to restore a constitution. Taking advantage of
the chaos at Constantinople, Ferdinand of Bulgaria threw off his last shreds of allegiance to
the Sultan and proclaimed himself King of Bulgaria. Crete proclaimed herself united with
Greece. Austria also wanted to take advantage of this chaotic situation. Third, Russia's
defeats in the Far East had turned her attention back to the Balkans again. In September
1908, the Russian Foreign Minister, Alexander Izvolski made a political bargain with Count
von Aehrenthal: Russia agreed not to oppose Austrian annexation of Bosnia Herzegovina if
Austria agreed to raise no objections against the opening of the Dardanelles to Russian
warships.

Austrain annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina

While Izvolski was trying to gain approval from the other powers about the opening of the
straits, Austria suddenly annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina on October 6. Thus Austria had
strengthened her position in the Balkans without giving the Russians any compensation.
Russia was indignant. The country which was as indignant as Russia over the Austrian action
was Serbia. The inhabitants of Bosnia and Herzegovina were primarily South Slavs; Serbia
had long cherished the dream of creating a Greater Serbia which should include Serbia
proper and all the neighbouring kindred people. The Austrian annexation dashed this dream
to the ground. Serbia was ready for war and asked for support from Russia. War seemed
imminent but Russia was obliged to back down because England and France were unwilling
to become involved in this issue and because Germany promised to give military support to
Austria (The Kaiser said, "a knight in shining armour will be found by her [Austrian side.").

Greater Serbia Movement

All the Serbs in the Turkish Empire, in the Austro-Hungarian Empire and in Serbia and in
fact in southern Europe were to be united together to form an independent country. That
was the dream of the Serbs.

Bosnian Crisis - Consequences

The Bosnian crisis had harmful consequences for the peace of Europe.
Firstly, Russia felt humiliated and was determined that this must not come again.
Immediately after the crisis, the Russian government intensified her armaments programme
and sent Izvolski as ambassador in Paris in order to get more support from France.
Secondly, the annexation of Bosnia Herzegovina made Serbia the irreconcilable enemy of
Austria. Without Bosnia Herzegovina, Serbia could never become a united state and could
not have an outlet to the sea. The Serbian nationalists foamed a secret society, the Black
Hand, in 1911. The society aimed to provoke revolt in Bosnia and war with Austria. Young
Bosnians were trained to assassinate Austrian officials in Bosnia.
Thirdly, as a result of the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Austria had more Serbs
than the Kingdom of Serbia itself . Three fifths of the South Slavs were now under Austrian
rule.
The Slavs were opposed to the annexation, so Austria had great difficulties in ruling these
two provinces. Troubled by the restlessness of the Slavs and encouraged by the German
promises of support (Moltke, the German Chief of Staff, wrote to Conrad, the Austrian Chief
of Staff, "the moment Russia mobilizes, Germany will also mobilize", and "his deepest regret
is that a chance has been let slip which will not soon offer itself again in favourable
conditions!"), Austria wanted to crush Serbia if a new opportunity arose.
>> Back to Top

3. Second Moroccan Crisis 1911

Continued rivalry between France and Germany
The French were not satisfied with their partial control of Morocco since 1906. France
wanted to have complete control of the country. After 1906 France steadily increased her
influence in the country. In 1908, the French installed a pro-French Sultan on the throne. In
May 1911, the French forces occupied Fez, the capital of Morocco, in order to suppress a
rising against the pro-French Sultan.
The Germans responded by sending a gunboat Panther to Agadir, a strategic port on the
Atlantic coast. The British feared that Germany would make Agadir as a German naval base
on the British naval route (the Cape Route). So Britain protested against Germany and
backed up France to fight against Germany. War seemed to be inevitable.
Because of British support of France, Germany gave in. In a negotiated settlement, France
(together with Spain) gained most of Morocco, leaving a small portion opposite Gibraltar to
Spain. Germany was compensated with a strip of the French Congo. (This was a consolation
price to Germany.)

Consequence

The Agadir crisis also had harmful consequences for the peace of Europe.
On the one hand, as Germany had suffered a diplomatic defeat, she was unwilling to suffer
another diplomatic defeat again.
On the other hand, the British, French and Russian governments were alarmed by the
aggressive attitude of the Germans. They remembered that Germany had tried to dictate
the world by force for three times since 1905, firstly in the first Moroccan crisis of 19056,
secondly, in the Bosnian crisis of 1909 and finally in the second Moroccan Crisis of 1911.
After the crisis, the Entente powers exchanged information about the conditions of their
army and navy. In 1912, Britain and France made a naval agreement that in the event of a
war, the British fleet should guard the North Sea and the English channel, while the French
fleet was to be deployed in the Mediterranean.
>> Back to Top

4. Balkan Wars 1912-13

After the Young Turk Revolution, the Turkish government remained weak and inefficient. In
1911 Italy attacked Tripoli. In 1912, by the Treaty of Lausanne, Italy received Tripoli from
Turkey.

First Balkan War 1912

Exploiting the chaotic political situation following the Turkish defeat in 1912, the Balkan
states -- Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro--formed the Balkan League and declared
war on Turkey in October 1912. They aimed to partition the Turkish Empire. From October
1912 to May 1913, the League won series of battles and Turkey could only retain the areas
around Constantinople. The powers watched the victory of the League with great anxiety.
Austria wanted to stop Serbia from becoming too powerful and was determined not to allow
Serbia to get a seaport on the Adriatic. The powers intervened and imposed their own
settlement, the Treaty of London. The most important provision of the Treaty was that, on
Austria's insistence, a new state, Albania, was created to prevent Serbia from getting a
coastline on the Adriatic. To compensate for this, Serbia was given a large part of
Macedonia.

Second Balkan War 1913

Bulgaria had long regarded Macedonia as her possession. Her quarrels with Serbia soon
developed into a war. In the second Balkan War, Bulgaria alone fought against Serbia,

Montenegro, Rumania, Greece and Turkey. The war was soon over. Bulgaria was soundly
defeated. The territorial settlement made after the First Balkan War was largely preserved
except that Turkey and Rumania gained some valuable territory.

Balkan Wars - Consequence

The consequences of the Balkan Wars directly led to the outbreak of the First World War.
Firstly, Serbia was twice victorious in the Balkan wars and was larger than ever--her area
doubled as she got a large part of Macedonia. The desire to make herself larger by including
all fellow nationals in a united Slav state was intensified. This brought her more sharply into
collision with Austria which ruled eight million Serbs and Croats and which prevented Serbia
from getting a coastline.
Secondly, Austria found that the Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina grew increasingly
troublesome. She was determined to attack Serbia before it was too late.
Thirdly, the Kaiser knew that Austria was her only dependable ally in Europe. He assured the
Austrian Foreign Minister that You can be certain I stand behind you and am ready to draw
the sword whenever your action makes it necessary.
Fourthly, the Russian Czar felt that Russia had suffered a diplomatic defeat because she
could not obtain Albania for Serbia due to Austrian insistence. In order to recover her lost
prestige in the Balkans, the Czar declared in February 1914, "For Serbia, we shall do
everything."

Alliance System / System of alliances

The alliance system was started by Bismarck, the German Chancellor from 1871 to 1890.
After the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck held that Germany was a "satiated state" which
should give up ideas of further conquest. Thus Bismarck organized a system of alliances
designed to maintain Germany's hegemony on the European continent. France was
determined to challenge the hegemony of Germany because France had been defeated by
Germany in 1871 and had been forced to cede two provinces (Alsace-Lorraine) to Germany.
Bismarck tried to befriend Austria, Russia, Italy and Britain in order to isolate France.
Dreikaiserbund
Dual Alliance
Second Dreikaiserbund
Triple Alliance
Reinsurance Treaty
Change of German Policy after 1890
Franco-Russian Alliance
End of British Isolation
Entente Cordiale
Anglo-Russian Entente
Alliance System as a cause of the War
Animation showing the formation of the two alliance camps (alliance.avi)

Dreikaiserbund 1872
Also known as the League of the Three Emperors (1872)
Bismarck's aim for forming this League was to isolate France by making friends with Austria
and Russia. The partners were Kaiser William I of Germany, Czar Alexander II of Russia and
Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria. These three rulers agreed: (i) to maintain the existing
territorial arrangements in Europe; (ii) to resist the spread of revolutionary (e.g. socialist)
movements; and (iii) to consult one another if any international difficulties arose.
France was being diplomatically isolated. But the underlying weakness of this personal
understanding between the three emperors was the rivalry between Austria and Russia over
the Balkan Peninsula. Both sought to dominate the Balkans. It was difficult for Bismarck to
keep them in the same camp.

Dual Alliance 1879

The Congress of Berlin 1878
Rivalry between Austria and Russia in the Balkans came to a head in 1877-78. In 1875, five
Balkan states revolted against the Turkish rule. Russia supported the Balkan states and
defeated Turkey. On March 8, 1878, Turkey was forced to sign the Treaty of San Stefano, in
which an independent, Big Bulgaria was created. Seeing that this Bulgaria would be a
Russian puppet, Austria intervened, backed up by Britain, the traditional rival of Russia in
the eastern Mediterranean. Bismarck volunteered to act as an "honest broker" and called
the Congress of Berlin to settle the Balkan problems. At this Congress, Germany sided with
Austria and Britain. Russia had to give up the Treaty of San Stefano and sign the Treaty of
Berlin. The Treaty split Bulgaria into three parts (Bulgarian Proper was to be independent,
Eastern Rumelia and Macedonia were to be ruled under Turkish sovereignty.) and brought
Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian military occupation (but not annexation). Russia felt
diplomatically humiliated. The anger of Russia turned against Bismarck because he chaired
the Congress.

Germany sided with Austria

Unable to maintain friendly relations with both Austria and Russia, Bismarck chose Austria
to be his ally because firstly, Germany preferred a weaker partner which could be more
easily controlled; secondly, alliance with Austria would throw open the Danube valley to
German trade; thirdly, Austria had racial ties with Germany; fourthly, such an alliance would
enable Germany to exercise influence in the Balkans; and fifthly, alliance with Russia would
antagonize Britain as Britain did not like her colonial rival to be supported by a strong
power.

The terms of the Dual Alliance

On October 7, 1879 Bismarck made the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary. The terms
were: (i) each would support the other militarily until the end of the war if attacked by
Russia or by Russia and another power; and (ii) each agreed to remain neutral if her ally
was attacked by a power other than Russia.

Consequence

The Dual Alliance gave Germany a firm military ally but committed her more to the support
of Austrian interests in the Balkans. In the meantime, however, Bismarck still wanted to
keep the friendship of Russia for fear that Russia would turn to the side of France, in which
case Germany would face an enemy on both east and west. >> Back to Top

Second Dreikaiserbund 1881

Also known as The Second Three Emperors' League (1881)
Bismarck still wanted to keep Russian friendship after the signing of Dual Alliance (1879)
with Austria. The year 1881 was particularly favourable for the restoration of the League of
the three conservative Emperors. In that year, Czar Alexander III ascended the Russian
throne after the assassination of Alexander II. The fate of his father made Alexander III
ready for a renewal of the Three Emperors' League of 1872 which promised to suppress the
revolutionary movements.
The terms of the League were: ( i ) the Balkans was to be divided into two spheres of
influence--the western Balkans (Bosnia and Herzegovina) belonged to Austria and the
eastern Balkans (Bulgaria) belonged to Russia; (ii) the three Emperors agreed to consult
one another if there was another Balkan crisis, and (iii) the three Emperors agreed to
preserve benevolent neutrality if any one of them found himself at war with a fourth power.
The League could not last long because Austria and Russia would soon rival over the Balkan
Peninsula again. >> Back to Top

Triple Alliance 1882

Franco-Italian rivalry in Tunis
Bismarck had tactfully encouraged France to expand overseas in the hope of diverting her
attention away from Alsace-Lorraine. French annexation of Tunis in northern Africa in 1881
alienated Italy, which was ambitious to build up an Italian empire in Africa. Italy was thus
driven into Bismarck's camp in anger.

The terms of the alliance

The terms were:

(i) if Italy or Germany was attacked by France, each would aid the other;
(ii) if Austria was attacked by Russia, Italy would remain neutral, although Austria would aid
Italy if she was attacked by France;
(iii) if one of the parties was attacked by two or more powers, the other signatories were to
come to her aid; and
(iv) at Italy's request, both Austria and Germany agreed that in no case would the Treaty
operate against Britain.
Note: Italy and the Triple Alliance
The position of Italy in the Triple Alliance seemed to be rather dubious. It was because the
reasons which had impelled Italy to join the Triple Alliance were no longer important. By
1900, the Italians had resigned themselves to the loss of Tunis. They wanted to conquer
Tripoli with French support. Moreover, by 1900, Italy needed not fear any attempt by the
French monarchist-clericals to intervene in her domestic politics on behalf of the Pope as
the republicans had secured power in France. Thus, in 1900, a secret arrangement was
concluded between France and Italy: France was given a free hand in Morocco, Italy in
Tripoli. In 1902, another secret agreement was made between France and Italy: each
promised to be neutral if either was provoked into declaring war on a third power. This ran
contrary to the terms of the Triple Alliance, by which Italy promised to aid Germany in case
of a Franco-German war. By 1909 Italy made her Racconigi Agreement with Russia. By this
Italy would remain neutral in any Russian attempt to regain the control of the Straits and
Constantinople in return for Russian diplomatic support for the Italian conquest of Tripoli.
These Italian agreements made the Triple Alliance almost null and void.

Consequence: the emergence of the first alliance camp

By this time, a powerful bloc had been formed in central Europe. Germany was now
guaranteed against Russia by Austria, and against France by Italy. Bismarck had
successfully kept the friendship of both Russia, Austria and Italy and kept France completely
isolated. He was indeed a skilful diplomat who was able to handle the European powers for
Germany's advantage. Yet Italy's commitment to the Triple Alliance was doubtful because
the arch-enemy of Italian unity had been Austria which still kept Italia Irredenta; on the
other hand, France was the friend of Italian unity. Once Italy's anger over Tunis cooled off,
she would prefer an alliance with France to that with Austria.
>> Back to Top

Reinsurance Treaty 1887

Austro-Russian rivalry over Bulgaria (see below) led to the collapse of the Second Three
Emperors' League again. Bismarck secretly made a treaty with Russia without informing
Austria. Russia and Germany would observe neutrality towards each other if either became
involved in war with a third power, except if Germany attacked France or if Russia attacked
Austria-Hungary. By making this treaty, Bismarck had been able to prevent his nightmare -a two front war--from being realized.

Austro-Russian rivalry over Bulgaria

According to the terms of the Second Three Emperors' League, Bulgaria was recognized as a
Russian sphere of influence The Bulgarians were experiencing an awakening of national self
consciousness and did not want to be dominated by the Russians. In 1885, in defiance of
the Treaty of Berlin, the Bulgarians united Bulgaria with Eastern Rumelia. Russia objected to
the emergence of a large anti-Russian state but Austria and Britain gave their recognition to
the union of Bulgaria with Eastern Rumelia. Russia hated the Austrians for breaking the
terms of the Second Three Emperors League and allowed the League to lapse in 1887.

Change of German Policy after 1890

Bismarck made no formal alliance with Britain but remained on friendly terms with her. He
did his best to avoid colonial conflicts with Britain and always declared that "Britain was
Germany's old and traditional ally" and "there were no differences between England and
Germany."

Kaiser William II - His ambition

Bismarck was a skillful diplomat. For twenty years, he made Germany the centre of the
diplomatic stage. France was kept isolated, but Austria, Russia, Italy and Britain were on
friendly terms with Germany. Bismarck's alliances were non-aggressive and kept Europe at
peace. Yet after 1890, Bismarck fell from power and the new Kaiser took matters into his
own hands. Kaiser William II was ambitious, rash and aggressive by nature. Rejecting the
idea that Germany was a "satiated state", he wanted to make Germany not only a European
power but a world power. He advocated Drang nach Osten (the drive eastwards into the
Balkans and Middle East), colonial expansion and naval expansion. He was also influenced
by Pan-German feelings to support Austria's expansionist policy in the Balkans. To pursue
his ambitions, he often adopted blackmailing, threats and other unpopular methods. From
1890 to 1907, he succeeded in alienating Britain, France and Russia, and thus helped to
create a rival bloc of anti-German alliances. >> Back to Top

Franco-Russian Alliance 1893

Russo-German friendship ended
When William II came to hold absolute power in Germany, he thought that sooner or later
Germany would clash with Russia; so he allowed the Reinsurance Treaty to lapse. He
stressed Germany's political and military ties with Austria instead. Such a policy, together
with the growing Pan-Germanism, aroused strong Russian suspicion. Russia naturally turned
to the side of France, which was the irreconcilable enemy of Germany.

Russia turned to France

Although at first there seemed little possibility for Czarist Russia to ally with Republican
France, two factors made such an alliance possible: firstly, both felt necessary to form a
military pact to offset the military threat of Germany; and secondly, France had floated
several huge loans to help Russia to industrialise.

Alliance formed

The terms of the alliance were as follows: (i) if France was attacked by Germany or
Germany and her ally (Italy), Russia would aid France; in return, if Russia was attacked by
Germany or Germany and her ally (Austria), France would aid Russia; (ii) if one or more
members of the Triple Alliance mobilized -- they would mobilize to help one another
automatically; and (iii) this agreement would continue as long as the Triple Alliance was in
force.

Consequence

The Dual Alliance ended the isolation of France, created a rival alliance to the Triple Alliance,
and, most serious of all, faced Germany with the threat of a two front war. But William II
failed to sense the danger at the time. He was contented to have Austria as an ally and
continued his drive for power and prestige. >> Back to Top

End of British Isolation

Frantic British Efforts to Win Allies (1893-1902)
After the formation of the Franco-Russian Alliance, Britain found herself diplomatically
isolated. Throughout the 19th century, she had followed the policy of 'splendid isolation', i.e.
to avoid involvement in European affairs. But by the late 19th century, she felt that this
policy was no longer a practical policy, for she could no longer command respect in world
politics. This was illustrated by the following three incidents:
(i) In 1895, the Continental Group forced Japan to hand back Liaotung Peninsula to China.
Britain was excluded. (The Continental Group made up of France, Germany and Russia.
Even though these three powers did not cooperate in Europe, they sometimes cooperated in
the Ear East.)
(ii) In 1896, Dr. Jameson, encouraged and supported by the British Prime Minister of the
Cape Colony, organized a raid into the Dutch Republic of Transvaal in South Africa. (Britain
had long desired to obtain more colonies in Africa. Jameson Raid was one example of the
British colonizing efforts.) The raid failed and Dr. Jameson and his raiders were all captured
by the Dutch (Boers). Public opinion in most of the European countries was strongly antiBritish. Kaiser William II congratulated on the Dutch efforts by sending the famous 'Kruger
Telegram' to President Kruger of Transvaal. The European reactions to the Jameson Raid
suggested that Britain had no diplomatic support in Europe.
(iii) Between 1893 and 1898, in Armenia, the Turkish Sultan slaughtered 200,000 of his
Christian subjects. Britain's suggestion of sending a navy to the Armenian shore to rescue
the Christians went unheeded.

British-German alliance failed

Britain at first sought to make some sort of alliance with Germany, but she failed because:
(i) Germany wanted Britain to join the Triple Alliance, but Britain refused for fear that it
would involve her in European conflicts of no direct concern to Britain,
(ii) Germany's naval expansion after 1898 threatened Britain's naval supremacy, and
(iii) Germany's colonial interests clashed with those of Britain in China and the Balkans.
Note: Germany wanted to divide China into spheres of influence but Britain wanted to keep
an open door for trade for all nations in every part of China. In the Balkans, Germany
wanted to bring Turkey under the economic and political control of Germany. But Britain
tried to maintain the integrity of the Turkish Empire for fear that if Germany controlled
Turkey, she would threaten the British naval and economic interests in the Mediterranean.

Anglo-Japanese Alliance 1902

Consequently Britain concluded an alliance with Japan in 1902. The Alliance was important
in European diplomatic relations in two ways:
(i) Britain had abandoned her policy of isolation, and
(ii) since Britain could make use of Japan to check Russian aggression in the Far East, her
fear of Russian colonial expansion lessened and this helped to pave the way for their future
cooperation.
>> Back to Top

Entente Cordiale 1904

Britain and France needed mutual support
After concluding the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, Britain was still looking for a European ally.
She naturally turned to France, the irreconcilable enemy of Germany. France also wanted
Britain as her ally. France did not want to support Russia in a war in the Far East because it
would mean a war with both Britain and Japan (Britain's ally in the Anglo-Japanese alliance).

Alliance with Britain might absolve France from supporting Russia. In Africa, France wanted
to settle many of her colonial disputes with Britain peacefully and gained the help of the
latter in acquiring Morocco. (Morocco was rich in mineral and agricultural wealth, so France
wanted to take over it as her colony.)
Note: There were many conflicts between Britain and France in Africa. In 1898, the conflict
at Fashoda in North Africa nearly brought them into a war. But France realized that her
greatest foe was Germany. Thus she wanted to settle her conflicts with Britain and
concentrate her efforts against Germany.
Edward VII favoured French co-operation
The last obstacle to the formation of the British and French Entente was removed in 1901.
In that year Queen Victoria died and was succeeded by her son Edward VII. Kaiser William
II was Victoria's grandson, his mother having been the Queen's daughter. Thus Queen
Victoria preferred an alliance of Germany to that of France. But Edward VII did not share his
mother's sentiment towards Germany. His gay, pleasure loving way of life attracted him to
France rather than to Germany. In a visit to Paris in 1903 he made himself highly popular
among the French people. To improve the relations between France and Britain, the French
President Loubet and Foreign Minister, Delcasse paid an official visit to London by the end of
1903.

Terms of the Entente

Consequently Britain reached a series of agreements with France in 1904. These
agreements settled their old colonial disputes in Siam, West Africa, Madagascar, the remote
New Hebrides and fishing rights in Newfoundland. The most important agreement was the
one by which France recognized Egypt and the Sudan as British sphere of influence and
Britain recognised Morocco as French sphere of influence; in addition, both would support
each other if their respective spheres of influence were challenged by a third power.

German reaction
The Entente Cordiale (friendly agreement) was not an alliance in name, but it rapidly
became something like it in fact. Kaiser William II was furious at it, both because it seemed
to shut Germany out of Morocco and because it indicated that British influence would be
used in the interests of France, rather than those of Germany. >> Back to Top

Anglo-Russian Entente 1907

France had a military alliance with Russia and a friendly agreement with Britain. It now
became her concern to draw her two partners together. She finally succeeded in inducing
Britain to settle her disputes with Russia in 1907.

Anglo-Russian rivalry ended

Britain and Russia had been long-timed rivals in colonial and trade questions in the Middle
and Far East. But several factors made possible their agreement. Firstly, both felt greatly
threatened by Germany. The rapid buildup of the German navy challenged Britain's position
as the greatest naval power in the world. The construction of the Berlin-Baghdad railway
meant an extension of German influence into the Balkans and the Turkish Empire, an area
which Russia considered as her sphere of influence. Secondly, both Britain and Russia
resented the aggressive nature of William IIs diplomacy, as shown in the First Moroccan
Crisis 1905-06 . Thirdly, Britain considered that now Germany was a more dangerous rival
than Russia to her commercial interests in the Balkans and the eastern Mediterranean.
Fourthly, the growth of the Balkan states greatly reduced the Russian threat in the Balkans.
This lessened Britain's fear of Russia. Fifthly, in the Far East Britain did not worry about
Russian ambition any more as Russia was defeated by Japan in 1905.

Terms of the Entente

Therefore, in 1907, Britain and Russia agreed to settle their colonial disputes in the
following manner. Firstly, Persia was divided into three parts: the north kept by Russia as

her sphere of influence, the south kept by Britain, and the central was to remain under
Persian control as a buffer zone. Secondly, Russia renounced her interests in Afghanistan.
Russia and Britain were to enjoy equal trading rights in the country. Britain gained control of
the foreign policy in Afghanistan. (This agreement safeguarded the security of India,
relieving one of the major concerns of Great Britain.) Thirdly, both Russia and Britain
recognized China's suzerainty over Tibet. They treated Tibet as a neutral state between
themselves.

Emergence of the second alliance camp

Thus England was bound to France and Russia by Entente and France and Russia were held
together by a firm alliance. This group of three great powers was usually called the Triple
Entente. The European powers had now aligned themselves into two rival camps--the Triple
Entente versus the Triple Alliance. >> Back to Top

Alliance System as a cause of the War

The alliance systems were a cause of the First World War.
Firstly, the alliances were made in secret and so produced much distrust and suspicion
among the European powers. Their general suspicion prevented their diplomats to devise a
suitable solution to many of the crises preceding the war.
Secondly, the alliances were always made on a war-footing and so heightened the war
tension and led to an arms race among the European powers. For example, within four
years after the formation of the Triple Entente in 1907, Germany built nine dreadnoughts
(battleships) and consequently Britain built eighteen. Thus all the European powers were
ready for war in 1914.
Thirdly, since the European powers had made alliances with one another, a small dispute
concerning one power might lead to a war involving all powers.
Fourthly, the alliances were originally strictly defensive but by 1910, many alliances had
changed their character. The Austro-German alliance of 1879 was so modified that it had
become an aggressive alliance after the Bosnian crisis in 1909, the German government
promised to give military aid to Austria-Hungary, if Austria invaded Serbia and Russia
intervened on behalf of the latter. As alliances had become instruments of national
aggression, the chances of war doubled.
Fifthly, after the formation of the Triple Entente, Germany began to feel the threat to her
security. The German press loudly talked about "encirclement", i.e. being surrounded by
enemies on all sides. This induced the aggressive William II to pursue a more vigorous
foreign policy in an attempt to break the unity of the Entente powers. This resulted in a
series of international crises from 1905 to 1914