The Torch Is Passed: Neocolonialism in Belize

THE TORCH IS PASSED: NEOCOLONIALISM IN BELIZE
Author(s): J. C. EVERITT
Source: Caribbean Quarterly, Vol. 33, No. 3/4, BELIZE (SEPTEMBER & DECEMBER, 1987), pp. 4259
Published by: University of the West Indies and Caribbean Quarterly
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40654133
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42
THE TORCH IS PASSED: NEOCOLONIALISMIN BELIZE

by
J.C. EVERITT
haj becomeincreasingly
and processesofdevelconcernedwiththeproblems
Geography
issue duringthe past decade.1
opment,and thishas becomea particularly
significant
as to what development
meansin a globalcontext,
Althoughthereis littleagreement
and even less agreementas to how this changemightbe effectedin areas and/
or
countriesthatneed developing,
a considerable
numberof scholarsnow agreethatthe
tiedto theconceptof dependency.2
is inextricably
conceptofdevelopment
to dependency
According
theory,ThirdWorldcountriesare underdeveloped
as a consequenceof their
dependenceon developedcountries.Underdevelopment,so the proponentsof thisdependencythesis
tell us, is not a conditionor stage,but a process.
This process,sometimesreferred
to as the developmentof underdevelopment,
was setinmotionduring
the colonialera, and is beingcontinuedtodayat an
increased
pace byvariousneocolonialpractices.**
these'neocolonialpractices'makeup a lessdirect,less
As Galtungdemonstrates,
'concrete'formof control,thatofteninvolvesnot a physicalpresencebut rathermore
subtlelinkssuch as those of international
whichcan take a varietyof
organisations,
in type.Althoughsometimes
less
forms,and may be both privateand governmental
obviousthanthecoloniallinksof the past,theseneocolonialrelationships
maybe every
bit as powerful,and may tend to perpetuatethe disharmony
betweenthe related
nations.4
to be
As a consequence,the 'peripheral'couatriesof the worldare continuing
withthe resultthatthe gap betweentheserichand
exploitedby the 'core' countries,
and underdevelopment
are dialecpoor countriesis increasing."In brief,development
ticallyrelatedphenomena:theycauseone another;theybothareproductsoftheprocess
of capitalistexpansion(or imperialism);
the oppositesidesof the same
theyrepresent
coin;one is notpossiblewithoutthe other."6
Since WorldWarTwo a greatnumberof stateshave gainedtheirpoliticalindependencefromtheirimperialcentresof the past. Althoughmost of thesenew states
are to be foundin Africaand Asia, a significant
existin LatinAmericaand
minority
the Caribbean.7In mostcasesthesenewlyindependent
stateshaveretainedmeaningful
economicand social ties to theirformercolonialpowers,and theseneocolonialcon-
43
onlybecome partof Belize by the effortsof the Britishduringthe 1830s. Eventually

of freeholdlandwithinthe
led to themonopolisation
theprocessof land consolidation
countryin the hands of a veryfew companiesand mostparticularly
(what in 1875
became) the Belize Estateand ProduceCompanyLimited(BEC). "Fromits inception
TABLE 1
Land Ownershipin Belize, 1891-1939-1981
1891
Ownership
Government
Private
44.9%
55.1%
1939
47.3%
52.7%
1981
49.7%
50.3%
Source: Davidson,W. V. PersonalCommunication1983.

TABLE 2
Land Classificationin Belize 1981
GovernmentLands
Forest Reserves
National Lands
Indian Reserves
%
25.8
22.7
1 .2
(49.7)
PrivateLands
Belize Estate Company
Belize Sugar Industries
Others35. 8
13.8
.7
(50.3)
100
Source: Davidson,W. V. PersonalCommunication1983.
of
dominatedtheprivateownership
untilthepresentday,thiscompanyhas completely
in
land in Belize",21and has "succeededin becomingthe mostpowerfulorganisation
and dominated
thelegislation
the country"as evidencedby "the way it has influenced
the economyof Belize".22 This and other such companieswere also increasingly
characterised
by an elementofabsenteeownership.
The interestsof this companyhave been arguablyagainstthe development
of
Belize in manyinstances,but the extentof its powercannotbe disputed.Thispower
includedby thelatenineteenth
theownership
ofaboutone-fifth
ofthecountry's
century
landwhichconstituted
mostofthelandheldas privateproperty
in Belize- thesouthern
partof thecolonybeingforthemostpartCrownLand. The powerof theBelizeEstate
in successful
to resisttaxation,andin thepreCompanyhas also been reflected
attempts
ventionof thegrowthof agriculture
on morethana subsistence
basis."The monopolisation of Belizeanland by a handfulof absenteeownerswas maintained
the
throughout
of the CrownColonyin) 1871 and existsat present.
centuryfollowing(the formation
That monopolisation
has survivedthe varioussocial,economic,and politicalchanges.
44
nectionsseem likelyto endurein the foreseeablefuture,as thesenewlyindependent

nationswillremainin whatKonetzkehastermed"planetary
empires". Galtungsuggests
withinstantcommunicathatthesetieswilleventually
developintoneo neocolonialism
tionreplacing
theinternational
Thisnewpattern
wouldbe "highlyadjustorganizations.
able to externalcircumstances",
beingable to "formand dissolve"contactsin rapid
in a morepermanent
network
"frozentogether
succession,withouthavingparticipants
thatdevelopsitsownrigidities".
In some instances,however,the old colonialties werenot the onlyconnections
of the historiesof these new states.The
of significance
that were characteristic
to theHispanicCaribbean,
in markedcontrast
Britishand DutchCaribbean,forinstance,
in the growthof new culturalidentities"
"lacked all of those forcesmostimportant
such as a missionizing
religion,strongoverseascontrolover local decisionsaffecting
werethusmoreopento a
the slaves,and a local, settled,planterclass.10Such countries
these
and
of
non-British
helpedthemto becomesomeof
(or Dutch) influences,
variety
the most westernizedsocietiesin the modernworld.11But 'westernized'was never
with 'British'or 'Dutch', and independencehas led to, or
completelysynonymous
withnew
ofmanyCaribbeancountries
made
more
obvious,a realignment
perhapssimply
the
than
colonial
more
be
centrenations.Thustheneo-colonical
may
complex
patterns
more
involved.
to
be
even
to
are
the
neo-neocolonial
and
ties,
patterns likely prove
thatcanbe
one exampleof thisprocessof neocolonialism
Thispaperwillillustrate
of
nationsof theworld:thecase study Belize,Central
viewedin theemerging
currently
an instancewhere
valuableone as it illustrates
America.This exampleis a particularly
the UnitedStates(probablythe centrenationin thecontemporary
world)has become
dominated
the neocolonialpower in a countrythatwas previously
by whatwas the
theUnitedKingdom.1
centrenationof thenineteenth
century,
Belize gained its politicalindependencein September1981 fromthe United
Kingdomto becomethe 156thmemberoftheUnitedNations,a separatememberofthe
memberof whatBuchanan
of Nations,as well as an individual
BritishCommonwealth
a
of poverty"- the ThirdWorld.13Belize is definitely
termsthe "commonwealth
"Caribbeansociety"as definedby Lowenthal,14
althoughitslocationon themainland
with
of CentralAmericahas meantthatthe country's
historyis verymuchinterwoven
thislandmassas well.
facts"aboutthecontemporary
thattwo ofthe"mostglaring
It has been suggested
and
betweennationsin almostall
within
world are: (a) "the tremendous
inequality,
of this inequalityto
"the
resistance
of
human
and
conditions"
living
(b)
aspects
has
been
well documented
the
which
not
detail
first
This
will
fact,
change".15
paper
elsewhere.The second fact,the 'resistanceto change',it will be shownresultsfrom
nations
of emerging
whichis not abatingwiththepoliticalindependence
neocolonialism,
the
world's
from
to
emanate
which
continue
but is ratherbeingreinforced
influences
by
centrenations.
In the presentexamplethisprocessis mademorecomplicatedbecausetheUS is
takingoveras a socialand economicforcein BelizefromtheUK. This'takeover'which
45
appearsto be unopposed- and perhapsevenencouraged- by Britaincanbe seenfrom
in Belize.
a studyofa variety
of socialandeconomicpatterns
andpotenthreephases(past,present,
by Galtung,15
Followinga modelsuggested
be
A
and
will
tial future)and two typesof imperialism
emphasised.
social)
(economic,
as
in
this
is
situation
stresswill be placed on the contemporary
Belize,
(neo-colonial)
arelacking.
wherealternative
sourcesof documentation
ContemporaryImperialistPatterns
forcesfromoutsideof Belizecanbe seento haveaffected

Althoughtheimperialist
all elementsof the country,a numberof majorthrusts
can be identified,
in particular
theimperialist
with
and
the
its
effects
the
social
realm.
economy
relationship
upon
The problemof exactlywhat development
is and how it shouldbe attainedhas
neverbeen agreedupon but withinBelize the commonwesternviewwhichis defined
"in termsof degreesof urbanisation,
commercialisation,
industrialisation,
modernisation,
and per capita productionand consumption"has been adopted.17In otherwords,
Belize has followeda model of 'developmentfromabove' which has its roots in
neoclassicaleconomictheoryand whichhas led to the growthof a dual economy.18
thisdual economywas made up of thewood exploitation
systemand
Originally
of
the
cultivation
burn
the
slash
and
thatof thetraditional
Maya.In
waysof lifesuchas
first
is the
The
two
in
recentyearsthispatternhas been supplemented partby
changes.
within
the
countries
advanced
of themoretechnologically
economy
significance
changing
of the UnitedStates.
characterised
of Belize - particularly
by the increasedvisibility
on thepartof theindigenous
The secondis theincreaseof subsistence
populafarming
and land settlement
tions - as a resultof government
policies.This
encouragement
albeit
latterdevelopmentmay be viewedas an attemptby the Belizeangovernment,
from
below'whichis a relatively
new
somewhatweak and late,to promote'development
in
of
these
recent
both
studies.19
in
changes the
Although
paradigm development
of a heartland
theimposition
as theyrepresent
Belizeaneconomyare important
upona
done
This
will
be
a
brief
addressed.
the
former
will
be
hinterland,
by
analysisof a
only
thefinancial
numberof sectionsof theeconomyof thecountry- landownership,
sector,
trade,andtheproduction
process.
Land ownership
in Belizewas
Priorto theearlynineteenth
centurythequestionof landownership
was not
a thornyone - as Spanishclaimsto theland meantthatactualland ownership
had gone
Land occupationand de facto ownership
allowedby the Britishgovernment.
to exert
on forsometime,however,and by thetimethattheBritishofficials
attempted
but entrenched,
somecontrola confused,
alreadyexisted.20*
patternoflandholding
Whenthe cuttingof"timbershiftedfromlogwoodto mahoganyextraction,
the
land ownership(as it had thenbecome)
economicsof thislatterprocessconcentrated
intothehandsof a fewwealthycutters.Thispatternof land ownership
onlyheld true,
of
for
the
third
much
of
the
southern
northern
the
sectionhaving
however,
country
46
The basic change away froma forestry-dominated
economyhas not affectedit
nor have the constitutional
to
changesfromCrownColonythroughselfgovernment
constitutional
independence.
Whathas changed,however,is the home countryof the absenteeowners- and
been thecase sincetheend of WorldWarII. Sincethistimemany
thishas particularly
of the big landownersof the 1930s have disappeared- to be replacedby speculators
fromthe USA.Partlyas a consequenceof this,in 1971 "foreigners
owned93.4 percent
of all privatelandsover100 acres"in size24and at least90 percentofall freehold
land
in the country.In addition,thisland is the mostagriculturally
usefulin Belize,being
of generally
good qualityand withgood access,in contrastto thegovernment-owned
land.
Since 1971, the BhC has been sellingmuchof its land offto us speculators
or
to the Belizeangovernment
in lieu of taxes (Table Three).The companystillhas the
power to controlprice (by controlling
supply) but has been uncertainabout the
affected
politicalfutureof thecountryand has been adversely
by a law on landholdings
TABLE 3
Belize Estate Company,Land Sales 1970-1980.
Year
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
Totals
Acresto
U.S. Citizens
1.50
1,963.00
49,891.00
18,469.94
7,499.00
32,095.00
Acresto Belizean
Government
2,730.00
6,309.00
4,430.17
42,291.40
78,571.00
2,400.00
28,975.00
1,200.00
112,319.44
164,506.57
Acresto U.K.
Citizens
OtherSales*
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
1,545.00
1,020.00
2,565.00
*The1971 salewasto a Mennonite

as were970 acresofthe1973sale.Thebalanceof50 acres
settler,
wassoldto a German.
4 August1980.
Source:BelizeEstateCompanyRecords,
deon 31 December1973. This law was specifically

byaliens that was implemented
and
aliens
land
to
and
land
to
by
development
encourage
speculation
signed discourage
a new attitudeby the Belizean
alien-controlled
companies,25and as such represents
in this area of imperialism.
and
is
to
what
as
unacceptable
acceptable
government
withthispatternof 'use'
Clearlyland use is beingemphasisedabove land ownership,
continuingto encourage'developmentfromabove' as a primeforcein the Belizean
economy.The Belize EstateCompanyhas chosento giveup land ratherthanpay the
on theland.
taxesand thepriceofdevelopment
In 1980 the processof sales took yetanotherturnwhentheBelizeEstateComwas sold
conglomerate)
pany (by this time a subsidiaryof a Britishmultinational
47
en bloc to MinierNaval Stores,whichis domiciledin Georgia.This sale includedthe

balance of BEC land in Belize,thentotallingsome 708,450 acres.Consequently,
the
No Britishcitizenshave
privateland in Belize is now largelyownedby US interests.
boughtland in the country- on any largebasis - for manyyears.The country's
economicorientation
hasnoticeably
changed.
The Financial Sector
The monetarysituationin Belize has alwaysbeen somewhatconfused,because

"duringthe earlypartof its historyBelize used any currencythatwas available,and
ratesofexchangewereendless".26At
different
overtherelative
arguments
(consequently)
timesBritishpounds,SpanishAmericanpesos and realesand US dollarswereused.
As the influenceof the UnitedStates increased,however,relativeto the country's
theUS dollarbecamemoredominantwithinBelizeand in 1894
othertradingpartners,
was declaredthelegalunitin thecolony.27Significantly,
thisformof currency
however,
In 1904 the Belizeandollarwas
the exchangerate was linkedto the pound sterling.
but it too was peggedto sterling.
introduced
By thelate 1940s itwas evidentthatthere
withthe dollararea,but despitethisthe
economicrelationship
was a close traditional
Belizeandollarwas devaluedin December1949 to followthe poundwhichhad been
devaluedthreemonthsearlier.This sparkeda majorcrisisin Belizewhichbrought
up the
in
orientadifference
revealed
the
and
UK
ties
on
of
US
versus
manyoccasions,
question
tion of many of the people of Belize (who leaned towardsthe US) and the colonial
administration
(withitsobvioustiesto theUnitedKingdom).28
The Belizean dollar remainedfixed to sterlingcurrencyuntilMay 1976 and
consequentlyfluctuatedin relationto the US dollar.29By 1976 Belize had internal
controloverits own affairsto a muchgreaterdegreethanhad beentruein thepost-war
at thistimethatmostof thecountry's
externaltradewaswith
period.It was recognised
- andin particular
notdealingin sterling
countries
theUS andCanada- andconsequentwas peggedat thattimeto the us unit - a situationwhich
ly the Belizeancurrency
remainsthe case today.This swingto the US is also reflectedin thebankingsystem.
late date of
The firstBank of BritishHonduraswas foundedat the surprisingly
but in 1912 thisbank was boughtby the Royal
1904 by a groupof local financiers,
a major Britishcolonialbank,
Bank of Canada.30 In 1948 BarclaysInternational,
opened its doors, to be joined by the Bank of Nova Scotia (Canadian)in 1968, and
thenby the AtlanticBank in 1971. The latteris one of the Chase Manhattangroup
of Belize's state of development
and growingNorth
and was set up "in recognition
financialorientations
Americanorientation". The banks have, of course,different
but for all, the NorthAmericanshare of theirservicesis growingwiththe Atlantic
- havingthestrongest
Bank- with90 per centof itsbusinessbeingUS-oriented
leaning
businessinterests.
in thisdirection.Its arrivalin Belizewas welcomedby the country's
As withmostemerging
countriesBelize has a problembalancingits budgetand
the deficitis usuallyfilledin partby overseasaid - and thishas also recently
assumed
a greaterorientationtowardsNorthAmerica,althoughbilateralagreements
are still
beingenteredintoby theUnitedKingdomand Belize. A numberofCanadianprojects
48
are helpingthe country,3^and duringthe pastfewyearsBelizehas been the recipient
In fact,
of more than $7 millionin US aid througha specialassistanceprogramme.
between 1976 and 1982 Belize receivedan increasein ExternalAssistancefrom
US$8.5 millionto US$23.1 million.34It seemsmostlikelythattheamountof aid will
be evenmoredramatically
increasedin the futureas theUS willlook evenmorekindly
on an independentBelize, and a recentagreement
foreconomicco-operation
signed
with USAID is probablythe firststep in such a pattern.The KissingerCommission's
suggestionfor the formationof a CentralAmericanDevelopmentOrganizationthat
would includeBelize also indicatesthateconomicaid fromtheUS is onlylikelyto infromBelizemakeit quiteclearthatany
creasein thefuture.35
Government
publications
suchincreaseswillbe extremely
welcomeas theywillhelpto closethecountry's
balance
last
of
the
GDP
the
13
cent
about
of payments
which
has
during
quinaveraged
per
gap,
quennium.
Trade
In recentyearsthepatternof Belizeanexportsof homeproducedgoodshas seen

over56 per
dominance
theriseof sugarto greatest
(Table Four). In 1977 it contributed
centof exportvalue,and in morerecentyearsit has reachedover60 per centof the
total. The secondmostvaluableexportis garmentmakingwhichis an Offshore
inand
avoids
dustry'"that does both itsbuyingand its sellingof outputentirely
abroad,
are of debatablelongwithcustomsand exciseduties".38Such industries
complications
termvalueto Belize,but exportsof garments
madeup 21.5 percentof exportvaluein
1977 and close to one-fifth
in 1980. Fruitsand vegetablescame thirdin 1977 with
7.3 per cent(c.12 per cent in 1980) of value,followedby seafoodswith6.7 percent
is unknown
(c.2.5 per cent in 1980), meat productswith2.5 percent(the proportion
for1980), and wood productswith2.2 percent(c.2.4 percentin 1980). The exportof
secondor thirdin exportvaluebutthereis no official
data on this
marijuanais reputedly
it
of
and
is
uncertain
economic
value
to
Belize.
topic,
TABLE4
MajorDomesticExports(millionBZ$) 1978-1981
1978
65.9
18.8
3.6
8.3
3.5
2.1
2.1
0.3
1979
62.9
21.7
8.8
8.9
6.7
4.9
3.9
0.4
1980
95.4
28.8
8.1
12.7
7.0
3.6
4.3
0.5
1981_
85.3
Sugar
22.1
Garments
14.4
FishProducts
13.0
CitrusProducts
4.3
Bananas
2.6
Timber
2.4
Molasses
0.5
Honey
Source: BelizeinFigures1981and 1982 (Belmopan:Government
Printery)
Sugaris sold mostlyto the US (over 50 percentin 1981) and thiscountryalso

takesall of themolassesoutput.BothhaveenteredtheUS dutyfreesince1976 under
the
the generalized
(GSP) whichhas had the effectof relieving
systemof preferences
49
pressureon Britainto take all of the produceof Belize.The balanceof thesugarhas,
wentto the
however,stillbeen sentto the UK Sixty-four
per cent of the garments
UnitedStatesin 1978 withthebalancebeingexportedto WestGermany(22 percent)
andtheUnitedKingdom(14 percent).The meatexportshaveprincipally
goneto Central
Americaand the Caribbeanin the past,40but themajorityof the seafood(principally
to Florida),withthebalancebeingexportedto
lobsters)goes to the US (via airfreight
CentralAmerica.The wood exportshave also gone to the US (again underthe GSP),
whichheld secondplace in 1978 afterJamaicaand beforethe UK whichwas thethird
The citrusexportsare producedby two companies,one locallyowned
largestimporter.
and principally
and one a branchof a US multinational,
go to the Caribbeanas concentrates.Bananas,however,are whollyexportedto the UK whereBelize enjoysa
protectedmarket- by Fyffes,a companywhichis a subsidiaryof UnitedFruit,an
AmericanCorporation.UnitedFruit also providestechnicalassistanceto the Belize
a local subsidiary.
BananaControlBoardthrough
In 1960 the US was themarketfor11 percentof BelizeanexportswiththeUK
had soaredto 53
taking59 per cent (see alsoTable Five). By 1981 theUS proportion
UK's
to
the
share
had
27
and
dropped
percent.Thischangeincluded,of course,
percent
a largertotalpackageof exportsbutalso a largerproportionate
share- from70 percent
of
of
the
total Belizeanexports.41
to 80 percent
TABLE 5
Belize Value of Domestic Exportsby PrincipalTradingAreas, 1978-81*
(In Thousands of BZ $)
1981
1980
1979
1978
Total Domestic
Exportsf.o.b.
SterlingArea
110,640
121,456
164,120
149,472
57,040
53,534
61,761
54,499
53,302
3,734
4
47,264
6,153
177
52,354
9,150
257
46,037
7,799
663
48,102
48,096
8
54,138
53,559
579
95,955
95,846
109
91,840
90,879
961
EEC - ExcludingUK
2,277
3,123
3,118
2,039
Rest of World
2,373
2,416
3,286
1,094
UK
CARICOM
Others
Total NorthAmerica
USA
Canada
*Details
may not add to totals due to the latestrevisionof the total domesticexports.
Source: Belize: Economic Report (Washington,D.C.: The WorldBank) 1984, p. 76.
Again the swingto the UnitedStates has become quite clear,and will undoubtedly
increasewiththe adventof the "CaribbeanBasin Initiative".It is estimatedthatsuch
a changewouldparticularly
affectexportsofcitrusconcentrates
of
for,witha reduction
US tariffs,
Belize will undoubtedlyincreaseits fruittradewiththatcountry.42
Many
of thesechangescan be seen to be inevitable
in thelightofgeneralworldtradepatterns,
but theiracceptabilityto both Belizeansand Britonsis stillperhapssurprising
when
viewedin thelightof traditional
colonialties.
50
The realmof imports,upon whichBelize reliesheavily,has also steadilyswung

conditionssuchas cominternational
away fromthe UK - in partbecauseof changing
in
of
to
Market
whichled to the
because
the
Common
Britain's
entry
petition, part
of
in
themovement
of
severenceof somepreferential
because
tradingarrangements,part
Belizeto thedollarblockfromsterling,
relative
and in partbecauseofchanging
distances
due to bettercommunications
withNorthAmerica.Thismovement
hasbecomeparticuin
even
the
two
decades.
a
1970
Belize
As
obtainedonly
result,
by
larlypronounced
past
25 percentof itsimportvaluefromthe UK, comparedto almost3 percentofitsvalue
fromthe USA. By 1981 the Britishproportion
had droppedto 14 per centwhereasthe
increasedto over35 percent.The
shareof importsfromtheUnitedStateshad slightly
itsshare,to 35 percentas well,butat theexpense
'Rest of theWorld'had also increased
of the UK and not the USA (Table Six). Some of the majorimporting
companiesin
the
Britishprowith
Belizeclaimthat75 percentof theirtradeis nowinUS-origin
goods
down
to
10-15
cent
do
not
seem
to
their
be entirely
although
portion
per
perceptions
consistent
withthepublisheddata. Nevertheless,
once thisswinghad begun,an orientationto US electricvoltageappliances,NorthAmericanpapersizesand othersuchstandcan noweffectively
ardskeptit going,and fewBritish
goods(otherthanScotchWhisky)
marketforthe
Thereis also a newlydeveloping
competein theBelizeanmarketplace.43
video industry,
and althoughthe hardwareis Japanese,it oftenis importedfromthe
ofthemovement
to goods
software
is dominant.44
The strength
US, and NorthAmerican
fromtheUnitedStatesis so greatthatnow NorthAmerican
have
often
become
imports
thenorm,and thosefromtheUnitedKingdomthesurprising
exception.
TABLE 6
Belize - Value of Importsby PrincipalTradingAreas, 1978-81
(In Thousands of BZ $)
1978
1979
1980
1981
Total Imports,c.i.f.
SterlingArea
UK
CARICOM
Others
212,991
61,352
37,288
4,125
19,939
263,754
58,520
46,885
6,488
5,148
299,509
58,373
47,265
4,662
6,446
323,934
59,217
45,789
6,409
7,019
NorthAmerica
USA
Canada
EEC - ExcludingUK
91,543
82,751
8,792
102,624
93,900
8,724
111,396
104,319
7,077
121,567
114,682
6,885
17,151
22,034
11,108
28,315
Rest of World
42,945
80,576
118,632
114,835
Source: Belize: Economic Report (Washington,D.C.: The WorldBank) 1984, p.77.
The ProductionProcess.
Belizehasalsobecomeincreasingly
attractive
to overseasproducers
whichMattelart
5 Thus
termsthe"IdeologicalApparatuses
of Imperialism".
foods
are shipping
Hershey
cacao to Pennsylvania,
Plants
to
an
Maya Tropical
shipshouseplants Miami, Americanborndoctorgrowsand sellsmangoesto theUS and a numberof Canadianand US in-
51
touristfacilities.
Thereis also the
terestsoperatemanyof thecountry'smostsuccessful
aforementioned
and
a
numberof US"offshore",US-owned,garmentmakingindustry
owned cattlebusinesses(one with5,000 head on 25,000 acresof landwhichalso prowas recently
established
in
duceshoneyand lumberas sidelines). A newmatchfactory
of
Finance
the
aid
but
with
a
as
of
a
result
loan,
Development
Corporation
largely
part
of W.F. Belote, the Americanownerof MinierNaval
the initiativeand investment
Stores- thecompanythatrecently
boughttheBelizeEstateCompany.47The Belizean
is
to
committed
Government
a widerrangeof suchimportsubstituting
inestablishing
to
their
contribution
the local economyis, at best,debatable.49
dustries, although
In additionto these (and manyothersimilaroperations),the most significant
- originally
intoBelize in recentyearshasbeenofMennonites
fromCanada
immigration
whitepopulation.50The Mennonite
themajorityof the country's
and now constituting
coloniesproduceover 80 per cent of Belizeanbroilersand eggsas well as cornand
sorghum.
is rifein Belize despiteindependence,
It is clear thateconomicimperialism
and
the economywhichalso sells its produceto the UnitedStates.
rangesthroughout
It is also evidentthatwiththe exceptionof marijuanagrowing- whichthe governmentis attempting
to stampout with US assistance- theincreasing
NorthAmerican
influenceis generally
welcomedwithinBelize. In factthe strengthening
ties withthe
US (in particular)
are in manycasesactivelypromotedby theBelizeanauthorities
andat
least tacitlysupportedby the Britishgovernment
officials.The resultis that the
economicforcesthatfurther
havebeen able to maintain
a stronghold
underdevelopment
on Belize - albeit with different
hands 'holdingthe reins'.But it is not just in the
influence
canbe seen.
economythata changing
Social Imperialsmin Belize
can be seenin Belizeis thesocialrealm,

The othermajorarea in whichimperialism
of thisinfluencewill be given.Once againthetrendhas
and a numberof illustrations
and a corresponding
decreasein
been towardan increasing
patternof Amricanisation
in favour
Thischangeis goingto continueas thereare"too manythings
Britishinfluence.
of the US forthebalanceto swingback".52In the socialarea,however,thechangein
influenceshas usuallybeen more subtleand the processof Americantakeoverless
obviously'official'.It will be demonstrated
by a discussionof communications,
migraandeducation.
tions,military
support,and religion
Communications
The only air routesout of Belize to the English-speaking

worldare to the US
New
and
and
of
several
the
sea
routes
reinforce
thispattern.
Orleans, Miami),
(Houston,
the
land
connection
Mexico
has
become
an
Similarly
through
increasingly
important
channelforthemovement
of bothtemporary
and permanent
in and out of the
migrants
country.Most vehiclesin Belize are now Americanmade,and mosthave been driven
downfromtheUnitedStateseitherby Americans
to sellthemformorethantheir
trying
US value,or by Belizeanswho cannotfindsuitablevehiclesin Belize.As a consequence
52
in partby
in the urbancentres,is characterised
the Belizeanlandscape,particularly
Americancarsand trucks.The onlyBritishvehiclenow sold in Belizeis theLand Rover
(or similarvehiclesmadeby thesamecompany).Its cost putsit beyondthereachofall
of Belizeans.
buta smallminority
formailfromBelize - often
The US is now thebiggestsourceof and destination
containingchequesforthe family'back home' fromBelizeansnow residentin North
America(Table Seven). Stavrakisand Marshallindicatethat in the mid-1970sthe
to Belizevaluedat about
estimated30,000 Belizeansworkingin theUS sendremittances
indicatedto the presentauthorthatpay
US$10 millioneach year.53The postmaster
days in NorthAmericacould be accuratelygaugedby thesurgein thevolumeof mail
fromtheUSA a fewdayslater.54
TABLE 7
Sources and Destinationsof Belizean Letters(1979)
Major Sources
U.S.
U.K.
Mexico
Panama
29,252 kilograms
17,500 kilograms
695 kilograms
130 kilograms
Major Destinations
U.S.
U.K.
Panama
18,000 kilograms
14,000 kilograms
97 kilograms
Source: Belize Post OfficeRecords, 1980.
As withmanyothercountriesof the world,the mediaof Belize,are verymuch

dominatedby Americaninfluenceswhich are a majorworldwideforceof cultural
has a noticeableAmerican(and
imperialism.55For instance,radio programming
TV network,the aforementioned
there
as
no
is
and
although
yet
Caribbean)leaning
the
in
elite
certain
affected
has
video boom
countrywith US programming
groups
thatare readilyavailable
non-Belizean
The
the
screens.
newspapers
only
dominating
hail fromMiami(the Heraldand the News), and Newsweekand Time are amongthe
most popular of the magazinessold. The local newsmagazinewhich outsold its
- Brukdown- recentlywent out of business.During
NorthAmericancompetitors
existenceit was edited - and largelywritten- by an American-born
its four-year
expatriate.
Even for the poorer
The Americancommunications
barrageis overwhelming.
communication
aids, the
classes who cannot affordmany of the more expensive
a status
are
decks
and
is noticeable
tape
ghetto-blaster
processof Amricanisation
conof
social
the
life,smoking,
symbolforthe young.In consequence patterns dress,
US
and
imitate
sumergoodsin general,and evenstreetlanguagecommonly
particularfornew
ly theblack US - experience.At presentsome US oil companiesare exploring
It
under
is
that
what
of
clear
this
transformation
all
sourcesof crudeto keep
way.56
Ionisareco
"cultural
is
decolonisation":
calls
"cultural
by
Constantine
beingparalleled
fromtheUSA.57
tion"in theformof neo-colonialism
53
Migrations
of the populacereinforce
The movements
thispatternfurther.
One ofthemajorsources
of immigrants
and as tourists)is NorthAmericaand thisis also the
(both permanent
mostimportant
foremigrants.
destination
At least 1 percentof Belizeansare probably
as theywereborn(and oftenstillreside)in theUnitedStates.
eligibleforUS citizenship
to the US has been small(as thecountry
Althoughthequota of Belizeanemigrants
just
filledpartof the UK's allocationuntilindependence)
thereareprobablybetween35,000
and 50,000 Belizeansin the US at present- at least two-thirds
of whomare 'out of
status' or illegal.They are attractedthereboth by the economicsituationand the
culturebut also by the ease of movementby air, sea, and land. Manysimplydo not
returnaftera tripto a relativeor froma NorthAmerican
vacationwhichitselfis a status
these
are
not
in the UnitedStates
welcomed
illegalimmigrants
symbol. Although
not
have
been
and
in
activelydeported,
they
potentialchanges US regulations
may
them
is
that
official
status.
It
this
is at leastunofficially
welcomed
give
migration
likely
in Belize as it has considerably
relievedthe populationpressures
withinthe country.
Military
Belize has had fullinternalself-government

since1964, but the BritishArmyhas
continuedto be a factorin the country'sexternalrelationsparticularly
becauseof the
problemswithGuatemala.For manyyearsthe BritishArmyhas,in fact,beenthemost
noticeableBritishpresencein thelandscapeas well as a valuableeconomicaddition(the
severalthousandsoldiersare a notableaid to the country's
budget).Withindependence,
thissituation
willeventually
but
it
is
clear
that
theBritish-trained
Belize
however,
change,
DefenceForceis currently
of
its
mission.
incapable fulfilling
One consequenceof this is that the US is now assuminga positionin Belize's
which
defencepolicy,ironicallyperhapsliningup againstthe Guatemalangovernment
of the USA agreedin 1981 to provide
The government
itselfis not freeof US influence.
forthe Forcein
forthe Belize DefenceForce. This will includebothtraining
training
in
teamsfortraining
the US and/orPanama,and the visitingof Belize by US military
Belize.60 It is clear that the UnitedStates'CaribbeanBasin Policydoes not exclude
democratic
evenBelize,and thateveryattemptwillbe madehereto protectthecurrent
contentiousarea of military
process.It is also clear even in thisquite internationally
aid thatBritainis welcominga US influence,and is hopingto reduceand eventually
itsowninvolvement.
eliminate
Religionand Education
Outsideinfluences,
and particularly
those fromtheUnitedStates,are clearlyalldominatedby people fromthe
pervadingin Belizean society.Religionis increasingly
USA.Nearlysixty-twoper cent of Belize are RomanCatholics,and since 1851 this
churchhas been drawingits priests,policies and fundsfromthe United States.61
Beforethistimethe EnglishJesuitswerethe sourceforRomanCatholicmissionaries
in
Belize.The AmericanJesuitshavehad a considerable
influenceuponBelize,particularly
themediumof education.
through
54
and
Methodists
numbers
overtheyears,although
TheProtestants
havedeclinedin relative
of the populationof the country.Recently,
Anglicansstill make up nearlyone-fifth
however,a numberof smallgroupshaveenteredBelizefromtheUnitedStates,including
the Churchof God, the Mormons(Latter Day Saints)and
SeventhDay Adventists,
AmericanMennonites,63
(Table Eight).TheChurchof God hasprobablyhad thegreatest
but the Mennonitesare havingconsiderable
impactof thesesmallerdenominations,64
successin someruralareas.65
TABLE 8
ReligiousPreferencesin Belize, 1980 Census
Per cent
RomanCatholic
Anglican
Methodist
Mennonite
SeventhDay Adventist
Pentecostal
Nazarene
Witnesses
Jehovah's
Baptist
notstated
Others/
|61.7
11.8
6.0
3.9
3.0
2.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
8.4
100
Source:BelizeCensus,1980
Education,a commonprimary
agentof changein a society, has had a major
of Belize - in largepartbecauseof itsrelationship
influenceupon the socialorientation
withreligion- forthe schoolsin Belizeare mostlydenominational
and thuscontrolled
or Roman
Thus mostschoolsare Anglican,Methodist,
by the religiousinstitutions.67
Each schoolhas
Catholic,witha fewnow beingopenedby theAmericanMennonites.
tendedto "imposewhateversocialand politicaloutlookit wantedupon itsstudents"68
and as the majoritywere RomanCatholic,the viewsof theseNorthAmericanpriests
werethe mostwidespread.Thus the "exceptionally
favourable
imagein Belize" of the
UnitedStates is to a considerableextent"the outgrowthof the Belizeaneducation
trueof the RomanCatholicrunSt John'sCollegein
system". This was particularly
Belize City,arguablythebesthighschoolin Belize,whichat a criticaltimein Belizean
history,in the 1930s and 1940s,put its students"underthe influenceof a political
education that was anti-colonialand anti-British
in content". Several of these
studentslaterbecamevocallyanti-colonial.
The anti-British
feelingsof thistimehave
morerecentlybeen translated
into pro-American
oneswhichare now themostnoticeable. "The contributing
of theRomanCatholicclericsto thisAmerican
influence
outlook
forthepresentorientation
canhardlybe over-estimated",anditwas largelyresponsible
of the country.As Grantputs it, "the people tendedto see AmericathroughJesuit
eyes".72
Conclusion
NorthAmerica,in particularthe UnitedStates,has alwayshad the advantageof
closerto Belizethanis theUnitedKingdombutwhatmaynowbe seen
beingphysically
55
was not alwaysso clear.Whatis clearis thattheNorth

as a 'natural'pathfordiffusion
on Belizewhichhasalwaysbeenpresentto someextenthasincreased
Americaninfluence
and thisinfluencehas been,
in recentyearsand has becomemuchmore US-oriented,
forthe mostpart,encouragedby the UnitedKingdom.As a resultthe US is now the
dominantcountryin termsof economicand social imperialism
althoughthe British
influencehas by no meansdisappeared.One consequenceof thisis thattheinequality
betweenBelize and the richernationsof the worldwill continueto exist,as political
in
has simplyled to a shiftin the forcesthatfurther
underdevelopment
independence
fromBritainto the USA.
thecountry
As mentionedearlier,some imports,partof the bankingsystem,some exports
to the UnitedKingdom.The
and the BritishArmedForces stillrevealan orientation
afterthosein Britain,
are
and
and
the
force
police
patterned
legislative judicialsystems,
and Britishaid is stillgivento Belize (for instancethe telephonesystemwas recently
signs
upgradedand extendedby a Britishcompany).73Thereare also manyremaining
of the Britishinfluencein theculturallandscape,and this'end of the earth',as Aldous
Huxleyonce unfairly
typifiedit,74is stilla fairlyBritishplace. But as Belizebecomes
eventsin theCaribbeanand CentralAmerica,
morerecognizedas centralto the current
seemsinevitable.The
are
and
whose continuation
are
that
obvious
changes
occurring
last Britishvehicleswill no doubt soon disappearand thelast Britishmailbox willbe
removed.Atlasesmay continueto colourthe countrypinkforsome timeand some
people may stillfindBritishHondurasa morerecognizablename thanBelize but the
been finallyextendedto all of the AmericanlandMonroeDoctrinehas undoubtedly
on theworldscene.
hasarrived
and
a
new
American
masses,
neo-colony
Acknowledgements
Fieldworkthatled to thisresearchwas conductedin 1969 and 1980. The author
forfundingthe initial
thanksthe GeographyDepartmentat SimonFraserUniversity
the mostrecent
ResearchCommitteeforfunding
research,and the QrandonUniversity
at UCLA and California
fieldtrip.I would like to thankthe GeographyDepartments
of this
thataided in thepreparation
at Fullertonforproviding
facilities
StateUniversity
paper.I would like to thankDr G. Hale of the GeographyDepartmentat UCLAfor
thatwerevaluableto thisresearch.
comments
NOTES
1.
2.
3.
4.
and theCapitalist
-JanReitsma,A. 'Development
Hendrik
Relations,
Dependency
Geography,
34, May1982,p. 125.
Geographer,
Scapegoat'TheProfessional
de Souza,Anthony
R. andFoust,J.Brady,WorldSpace-Economy
Ohio:CharlesE.
(Columbus,
Merrill)
1979,p. 13.
Reitsmaop cit.p. 126.
inVogeler,Ingolfandde Souza,Anthony
JohanGaltung, Structural
TheoryofImperialism'
New Jersey:Allanheld,Osmun)
(eds.) Dialecticsof ThirdWorldDevelopment(Montclair,
arewellknownforfivetypesof imthattheseorganizations
1980, p. 278. Galtungsuggests
andcultural.
communication,
economic,
military,
perialism:
political,
56
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
de Souza andFoustop. cit.p. 466.

Reitsmaop. cit.p. 126.
MichaelKidronand Ronald Segal,The State of the WorldAtlas (New York: Simonand
Schuster)1981,Map.2.
RichardKonetzke,El ImprioEspanol(Madrid)1946,p. 9 quotedin Mintz,SidneyW. 'The
Caribbeanas a Socio-Cultural
Area' in Horowitz,M. M. (ed.) Peoplesand Culturesof the
Caribbean
(GardenCity,NewYork:The NaturalHistory
Press),1971,p. 17.
cit.
278.
This
author
thus
identifies
and NeoGaltungop.
p.
Colonialism,
Neo-colonialism,
neocolonialism
as threephasesof imperialism
inhistory,
eachhaving
but
quitedifferent
forms,
oftenquitesimilar
results.
Mintzop. cit.p. 35.
Ibid.p. 37.
Thisis notto implythatthisUS influence
is a newphenomenon
inBelize.NorthAmerican
connectionshavealwaysexistedandat timeshavebeenofmajorimportance.
Thispaper,however,
documents
a majorrecentupsurge
in thisinfluence
thatgreatly
exceedsthescopeofwhathas
gonebefore.
KeithBuchanan,"Delineationof the ThirdWorld'in Vogelerand de Souza, (eds.) op. cit.
p. 29.
DavidLowenthal,'The Rangeand Variationof CaribbeanSocieties'in Wagner,
P. L. and
M. W. (eds.) Readingsin CulturalGeorgraphy
ofChicagoPress)
Mikesell,
(Chicago:University
1962,pp. 187-194.
Galtung
op. cit.p. 261.
fivetypesof imperialism
Galtung
op. cit. pp. 274-281. Galtungsuggests
(see note4), butfor
thepurposesof thispaper,political,military,
andcultural
willbe
communication,
imperialism
considered
undertheheadingofsocialimperialism.
B. J. L. Berry,E. C. Conkling
and D. M. Ray,The Geography
of EconomicSystems(EnglewoodCliffs,
NewJersey:
Prentice
265.
Hall) 1976,p.
The questionof howdevelopment
shouldtakeplaceis discussedin a seriesofessaysinStohr,
W. B. and Taylor,D. R. FraserDevelopment
fromAboveor Below:TheDialecticsof Regional
in Developing
Countries
Planning
(NewYork:JohnWileyand Sons) 1981.Development
from
aboveis discussedin Hansen,Niles.M. 'Development
fromAbove:TheCentre-Down
DevelopmentParadigm',
ofthevariousdevelopment
pp. 15-38 in thisvolume.A discussion
paradigms
can be foundin Freeman,D. B. 'The Geography
of Development
and Modernization:
A
Surveyof PresentTrendsand FutureProspects'DiscussionPaperNo. 22 (YorkUniversity:
of Geography)1979. A Belizeancase studyillustrating
Department
thebenefits
and pitfalls
arisingfromthe westernmodelof development
C. T. 'Changein Northern
is, Brockmann,
Belize: EconomicDevelopment
and Socio-Cultural
Changein OrangeWalk'NumberEight
in Evans, D. K. (ed.) Wake Forest UniversityDeveloping Nations MonographSeries (Winston-
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
Salem: OverseasResearch
WakeForestUniversity)
1979.
Centre,
Walter
B. Stohr, "DevelopmentfromBelow: The Bottom-Upand Periphery
InwardDeinStohrandTaylorop. cit.pp. 39-72.
velopment
Paradigm"
O. NigelBalland,and Shoman,Assad,Land in Belize 1765-1871 (Law and
Societyin the
CaribbeanNo. 6: University
of Westindies:Institute
of Socialand EconomicResearch)1977
p. 119.
ibid.pp.77-8.
ibid.p. 81.
Ibid.p. 102.
Ibid.p. 104.
W.FordYoung,BelizeReal Estate(BelizeCity:Angelus
Press)1980,pp. 23-24. A newLand
Tax Actwas passedin 1982 to rationalize
andstreamline
theLandTax System,
butitsimplicationsarenotyetfullyclear.See TheNewBelize,XII, 11,November
1982 (Belmopan:GovernmentInformation
Service)pp.5-6.
57
26.
A. R. British
Honduras(London:H.M.S.O.)1968,p. 128.
Gregg,
28.
inCentral
of ModernBelize.Politics,
Colonialism
Grant,C. H.,TheMaking
Society,andBritish
"meantthat
America(Cambridge:
Press)1976,pp. 117-20. Devaluation
University
Cambridge
Belize has had close tradingties
goods importedfromthe USA costmore. Traditionally
withthe UnitedStatesof America,and manypeopleobjectedto thedevaluation
because
it forcedthemto trademorewiththe sterling
area and less withthe dollar area. Besides,
the changewas madein London,by the ColonialOffice,againstthewishesof the elected
of theLegislative
and nominated
members
P. Belize:A JuniorHistory
Council".Sherlock,
(London:Collins)1978,p. 100.
29.
30.
D.C.: TheWorldBank)1984,p. viii.

Belize:EconomicReport.(Washington,
Prior
to
cit.
128.
1912,
bankinghad been a privatefunctionin the colony,
Greggop.
p.
exercised
bytheleadingmerchants.
Stanley,Roberto,AtlanticBank Manager,also, Hunter,J. Managerof BarclaysBank,and
oftheBankofNovaScotia,personalcommunications,
1980.
Turrell,
.,Manager
Information
1981 (Belmopan:Government
The NewBelizeXI, 11, November
Service)p. 11.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
Leslie, Alec, CanadianInternational

Agency(CIDA) representative,
Development
personal
1980.
communication,
The New Belize XI, 5, May 1981 (Belmopan:Government
Information
Service)p. 14.
Belize.EconomicReport(Washington,
D.C.: TheWorldBank)1984,p. 84.
The New Belize XIV, No. 1, January1984 (Belmopan:Government
Information
Service)
p. 12.
Completedata wereonlyavailablefor1977,but partialdatawereobtainedfor1978-1980.
The value of sugarin the worldmarketsfluctuates
the
greatlyat times,and consequently
relativevaluesof theotherexportsis affected.
See Abstract
of Statistics
(Belmopan:Central
Information
Unit)1977 and BelizeinFigures(Belmopan:Government
Planning
Service)1981.
to June1978,seeTradeReportforMidYear 1978
ExportlocationswereavailableforJanuary
Government
Information
(Belmopan,
Service).
JohnOffshore
6 and7, 1980,p. 56.
Wyeth,
Industries',
Brukdown,
Number1, 1980,p. 3; TheNewBelizeXI, 4, April1981,pp. 8-9, TheNewBelize
Brukdown,
Information
XII, 10, October1982; pp. 4-5 (Belmopan:Government
Service).A morerecent
estimate
thatmarijuana
by "foreign
maynowbe thebiggestexportcrop
diplomats"suggests
from'pot' "). Winnipeg
FreePress16 Novem(Campbell,M. "BelizeFarmers
reaprichreturns
ber1983,p. 21.
In theperiodfromJanuary
to June1978,Martinique
tookall of the'meatofbovineanimals'
andMexicoandGuatemalaimported
thepoultry
andpoultry
products.
41.
42.
The New Belize XII, 9 September
Information
Service)p. 11.
At the timeof writing
theCaribbeanBasinInitiative
had just won HouseApproval,
but its
potentialeffecton Belizewas stillunclear,Los AngelesTimes,July15, 1983,pp. 1 and 24.
43.
Personalcommunications
withmanagement
at BelizeEstateCompany,Brodie's,HofiusHardofgovernment
ware,AngelusPressLtd.anda variety
officials.
Stewart
Krohn, 'TelevisionMania!' Brukdown,
6, 1981, pp. 15-21. See also 'The TV Issue
A Weak Wicketfor Someting(sic) Illegal',The New Belize, XII, 11, November,1982,
Information
(Belmopan.Government
Service),
pp. 2-4.
Armand
and the Controlof Culture:The Ideological
Mattelart,Multinational
Corporations
of Imperialism
Humanities
Apparatuses
(NewJersey:
Press),1979.
TheNewBelizeVIII, 10,October1978 (Belmopan:Government
Information
Service)pp. 5-6;
andpersonalcommunication
withtheManager,
1980.
44.
45.
46.
58
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
TheNewBelize,XI, 10,October1981,(Belmopan:Government
Service)p. 15.
EconomicPlanofBelize1980-83 (Belmopan,
CentralPlanning
Unit)p. 22.
Sometimesit gets stuck',Brukdown,
6 and 7 1980,
JohnWyeth,'ImportSubstitution:
pp.54-55.
J.C. Everitt,"Mennonites
in Belize",Journalof CulturalGeography,
Vol. 3, No. 2, Spring/
Summer1983,pp. 82-93.
November
8, 1980,p. 8.
Brukdown,
CarlTroy,US ConsulateOfficer,
1980.
personalcommunication,
53.
O. Stavrakisand M. L. Marshall,
in theMayaLowand Development
"Women,Agriculture
lands:Profitor Progress"
inProceedings
on Women
andPapersoftheInternational
Conference
and Food January
forInternational
8-11, 1978 VolumeIII (Tucson,Arizona,Consortium
1978,, pp. A31-2.
Development)
54.
R. Bradley,
1980.
personal
communication,
55.
mediain the world(London:

Tunstall,The Media are American:Anglo-American
Jeremy
in Latin
Constable),1977; Burton,Julianneand Franco,Jean'Cultureand Imperialism'
American
Issue16,V, 1,Winter
1978,pp.2-12.
Perspectives
56.
Oil was discoveredin 1981 in "encouraging"

but not "commercial"quantities.The New
Information
Belize,XI, 5, May1981 (Belmopan:Government
Service)p. 6.
Renato NeocolonialIdentityand CounterConsciousness:
Constantino,
Essay on Cultural
Decolonization
(London:Merlin
Press),1978.
CarlTroy,op. cit. The significance
of thesenumbers
becomeapparentrecently
whenthe
It
questionof local and absenteeballotsin nationalelectionswas discussedin thecountry.
was concludedthatthemanyUS citizensof Belizeanorigincouldnotvotewithout
jeopardizingtheirUS citizenship.
9, 1979,p. 30. A recentWorldBankstudyputsthenumBrukdown,
ber of migrants
to the USA at 20,000 but it is not clearif thisincludesillegalimmigrants
Belize.EconomicReport(Washington,
D.C.: TheWorldBank)1984.
J.C. Everitt,"Small in numbers,
but Greatin Impact:The RefugeeMigrations
of Belize,
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63.
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of
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inthecensus
op.
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64.
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66.
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68.
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The Torch Is Passed: Neocolonialism in Belize

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THE TORCH IS PASSED: NEOCOLONIALISM IN BELIZE

THE TORCH IS PASSED: NEOCOLONIALISMIN BELIZE

onlybecome partof Belize by the effortsof the Britishduringthe 1830s. Eventually

Source: Davidson,W. V. PersonalCommunication1983.

Source: Davidson,W. V. PersonalCommunication1983.

nectionsseem likelyto endurein the foreseeablefuture,as thesenewlyindependent

forcesfromoutsideof Belizecanbe seento haveaffected

*The1971 salewasto a Mennonite

deon 31 December1973. This law was specifically

en bloc to MinierNaval Stores,whichis domiciledin Georgia.This sale includedthe

The monetarysituationin Belize has alwaysbeen somewhatconfused,because

In recentyearsthepatternof Belizeanexportsof homeproducedgoodshas seen

Sugaris sold mostlyto the US (over 50 percentin 1981) and thiscountryalso

Source: Belize: Economic Report (Washington,D.C.: The WorldBank) 1984, p. 76.

The realmof imports,upon whichBelize reliesheavily,has also steadilyswung

Source: Belize: Economic Report (Washington,D.C.: The WorldBank) 1984, p.77.

can be seenin Belizeis thesocialrealm,

The only air routesout of Belize to the English-speaking

Source: Belize Post OfficeRecords, 1980.

As withmanyothercountriesof the world,the mediaof Belize,are verymuch

Belize has had fullinternalself-government

was not alwaysso clear.Whatis clearis thattheNorth

de Souza andFoustop. cit.p. 466.

D.C.: TheWorldBank)1984,p. viii.

Leslie, Alec, CanadianInternational

mediain the world(London:

Oil was discoveredin 1981 in "encouraging"

Grantop. cit.p. 94.

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