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Aristotelianethics
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Aristotlefirstusedtheterm"ethics"tonameafieldofstudydevelopedbyhispredecessorsSocratesandPlato.Philosophicalethicsisthe
attempttoofferarationalresponsetothequestionofhowhumansshouldbestlive.Aristotleregardedethicsandpoliticsastworelatedbut
separatefieldsofstudy,sinceethicsexaminesthegoodoftheindividual,whilepoliticsexaminesthegoodofthecitystate(Greekpolis).
Aristotle'swritingshavebeenreadmoreorlesscontinuouslysinceancienttimes,[1]andhisethicaltreatisesinparticularcontinuetoinfluence
philosophersworkingtoday.Aristotleemphasizedtheimportanceofdevelopingexcellence(virtue)ofcharacter(Greekethikaret),asthe
waytoachievewhatisfinallymoreimportant,excellentactivity(Greekenergeia).AsAristotlearguesinBookIIoftheNicomacheanEthics,
themanwhopossessescharacterexcellencedoestherightthing,attherighttime,andintherightway.Bravery,andthecorrectregulationof
one'sbodilyappetites,areexamplesofcharacterexcellenceorvirtue.Soactingbravelyandactingtemperatelyareexamplesofexcellent
activities.ThehighestaimsarelivingwellandeudaimoniaaGreekwordoftentranslatedaswellbeing,happinessor"humanflourishing".[2]
Likemanyethicists,Aristotleregardsexcellentactivityaspleasurableforthemanofvirtue.Forexample,Aristotlethinksthatthemanwhose
appetitesareinthecorrectorderactuallytakespleasureinactingmoderately.
Aristotleemphasizedthatvirtueispractical,andthatthepurposeofethicsistobecomegood,notmerelytoknow.Aristotlealsoclaimsthat
therightcourseofactiondependsuponthedetailsofaparticularsituation,ratherthanbeinggeneratedmerelybyapplyingalaw.Thetypeof
wisdomwhichisrequiredforthisiscalled"prudence"or"practicalwisdom"(Greekphronesis),asopposedtothewisdomofatheoretical
philosopher(Greeksophia).Butdespitetheimportanceofpracticaldecisionmaking,inthefinalanalysistheoriginalAristotelianandSocratic
answertothequestionofhowbesttolive,atleastforthebesttypesofhuman,wastolivethelifeofphilosophy.

Contents
1 Threeethicaltreatises
2 AristotleasaSocratic
3 Practicalethics
4 Aristotle'sstartingpoint
5 Moralvirtue
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6 FourCardinalVirtues
7 Justice
8 Thehighestgood
9 Influenceonlaterthinkers
10 AslistedintheCorpusAristotelicum
11 References
12 Furtherreading
12.1 Translations
13 Externallinks

Threeethicaltreatises
ThreeAristotelianethicalworkssurvivetodaywhichareconsideredtobeeitherbyAristotle,orfromrelativelysoonafter:
NicomacheanEthics,abbreviatedastheNEorsometimes(fromtheLatinversionofthename)astheEN.TheNEisin10books,andis
themostwidelyreadofAristotle'sethicaltreatises.
EudemianEthics,oftenabbreviatedastheEE.
MagnaMoralia,oftenabbreviatedastheMM.
Theexactoriginsofthesetextsisunclear,althoughtheywerealreadyconsideredtheworksofAristotleinancienttimes.Textualoddities
suggestthattheymaynothavebeenputintheircurrentformbyAristotlehimself.Forexample,BooksIVVIofEudemianEthicsalsoappear
asBooksVVIIofNicomacheanEthics.TheauthenticityoftheMagnaMoraliahasbeendoubted,[3]whereasalmostnomodernscholar
doubtsthatAristotlewrotetheNicomacheanEthicsandtheEudemianEthicshimself,evenifaneditoralsoplayedsomepartingivingus
thosetextsintheircurrentforms.

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TheNicomacheanEthicshasreceivedthemostscholarlyattention,andisthemosteasilyavailabletomodernreadersinmanydifferent
translationsandeditions.SomecriticsconsidertheEudemianEthicstobe"lessmature,"whileothers,suchasKenny(1978),[4]contendthat
theEudemianEthicsisthemoremature,andthereforelater,work.
TraditionallyitwasbelievedthattheNicomacheanEthicsandtheEudemianEthicswereeithereditedbyordedicatedtoAristotle'ssonand
pupilNicomachusandhisdiscipleEudemus,respectively,althoughtheworksthemselvesdonotexplainthesourceoftheirnames.Although
Aristotle'sfatherwasalsocalledNicomachus,Aristotle'ssonwasthenextleaderofAristotle'sschool,theLyceum,andinancienttimeshe
wasalreadyassociatedwiththiswork.[5]
Afourthtreatise,Aristotle'sPolitics,isoftenregardedasthesequeltotheEthics,inpartbecauseAristotleclosestheNicomacheanEthicsby
sayingthathisethicalinquiryhaslaidthegroundworkforaninquiryintopoliticalquestions(NEX.1181b623).Aristotle'sEthicsalsostates
thatthegoodoftheindividualissubordinatetothegoodofthecitystate,orpolis.
FragmentsalsosurvivefromAristotle'sProtrepticus,anotherworkwhichdealtwithethics.

AristotleasaSocratic
SomescholarsregardedAristotleasaSocraticthinker.Aristotle'sethicsbuildsuponearlierGreekthought,particularlythatofhisteacher
PlatoandPlato'steacher,Socrates.WhileSocratesleftnowrittenworks,andPlatowrotedialoguesandafewletters,Aristotlewrotetreatises
inwhichhesetsforthphilosophicaldoctrinesdirectly.Tobemoreprecise,Aristotledidwritedialogues,buttheyunfortunatelysurviveonlyin
fragments.
AccordingtoAristotleinhisMetaphysics,SocrateswasthefirstGreekphilosophertoconcentrateonethics,althoughheapparentlydidnot
giveitthisname,asaphilosophicalinquiryconcerninghowpeopleshouldbestlive.Aristotledealtwiththissamequestionbutgivingittwo
names,"thepolitical"(orPolitics)and"theethical"(Ethics),bothwithPoliticsbeingthenameforthetwotogetherasthemoreimportantpart.
TheoriginalSocraticquestioningonethicsstartedatleastpartlyasaresponsetosophism,whichwasapopularstyleofeducationandspeech
atthetime.Sophismemphasizedrhetoric,andargument,andthereforeofteninvolvedcriticismoftraditionalGreekreligionandflirtationwith
moralrelativism.
Aristotle'sethics,orstudyofcharacter,isbuiltaroundthepremisethatpeopleshouldachieveanexcellentcharacter(avirtuouscharacter,
"ethikaret"inGreek)asapreconditionforattaininghappinessorwellbeing(eudaimonia).Itissometimesreferredtoincomparisonto
laterethicaltheoriesasa"characterbasedethics".LikePlatoandSocratesheemphasizedtheimportanceofreasonforhumanhappiness,and
thattherewerelogicalandnaturalreasonsforhumanstobehavevirtuously,andtrytobecomevirtuous.
Aristotle'streatmentofthesubjectisdistinctinseveralwaysfromthatfoundinPlato'sSocraticdialogues.
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Aristotle'spresentationisobviouslydifferentfromPlato'sbecausehedoesnotwriteindialogues,butintreatises.Apartfromthis
difference,AristotleexplicitlystatedthathispresentationwasdifferentfromPlato'sbecausehestartedfromwhatevercouldbeagreed
uponbywellbroughtupgentlemen,andnotfromanyattempttodevelopageneraltheoryofwhatmakesanythinggood.Heexplained
thatitwasnecessarynottoaimattoomuchaccuracyatthestartingpointofanydiscussiontodowithcontroversialmatterssuchas
thoseconcerningwhatisjustorwhatisbeautiful.[6](Fromthisstartingpointhowever,hebuiltuptosimilartheoreticalconclusions
concerningtheimportanceofintellectualvirtueandacontemplativelife.)[7]
Ratherthandiscussingonlyfour"cardinalvirtues"ofPlato(courage,temperance,justice,andprudence),allthreeoftheethicalworks,
startswithcourageandtemperanceasthetwotypicalmoralvirtueswhichcanbedescribedasamean,thendiscussesawholerangeof
minorvirtuesandviceswhichcanbedescribedasamean,andonlythendiscussesjusticeandtheintellectualvirtues.Aristotleplaces
prudence(phronsis,oftentranslatedaspracticalwisdom)amongsttheseintellectualvirtues.(Nevertheless,likePlatoheeventuallysays
thatallthehighestformsofthemoralvirtuesrequireeachother,andallrequireintellectualvirtue,andineffectthatthehappiestand
mostvirtuouslifeisthatofaphilosopher.)[8]
Aristotleemphasizesthroughoutallhisanalysesofvirtuesthattheyaimatwhatisbeautiful(kalos),effectivelyequatingthegood,at
leastforhumans,withthebeautiful(tokalon).[9]
Aristotle'sanalysisofethicsmakesuseofhismetaphysicaltheoryofpotentialityandactuality.Hedefineshappinessintermsofthis
theoryasanactuality(energeia)thevirtueswhichallowhappiness(andenjoymentofthebestandmostconstantpleasures)are
dynamicbutstabledispositions(hexeis)whicharedevelopedthroughhabituationandthispleasureinturnisanotheractualitythat
complimentstheactualityofhappyliving.[10]

Practicalethics
Aristotlebelievedthatethicalknowledgeisnotonlyatheoreticalknowledge,butratherthatapersonmusthave"experienceoftheactionsin
life"andhavebeen"broughtupinfinehabits"tobecomegood(NE1095a3andb5).Forapersontobecomevirtuous,hecan'tsimplystudy
whatvirtueis,butmustactuallydovirtuousthings.

Wearenotstudyinginordertoknowwhatvirtueis,buttobecomegood,forotherwisetherewouldbenoprofitinit.(NEII.2)

Aristotle'sstartingpoint
TheAristotelianEthicsallaimtobeginwithapproximatebutuncontroversialstartingpoints.IntheNicomacheanEthicsAristotlesays
explicitlythatonemustbeginwithwhatisfamiliartous,and"thethat"or"thefactthat"(NEI.1095b213).Ancientcommentatorsagreethat
whatAristotlemeanshereisthathistreatisemustrelyuponpractical,everydayknowledgeofvirtuousactionsasthestartingpointsofhis
inquiry,andthatheissupposingthathisreadershavesomekindofexperiencebasedunderstandingofsuchactions,andthattheyvaluenoble
andjustactionstoatleastsomedegree.[11]
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Elsewhere,Aristotlealsoseemstorelyuponcommonconceptionsofhowtheworldworks.Infact,someregardhisethicalinquiriesasusinga
methodthatreliesuponpopularopinion(hissocalled"endoxicmethod"fromtheGrk.endoxa).Thereissomedispute,however,aboutexactly
howsuchcommonconceptionsfitintoAristotle'smethodinhisethicaltreatises,[12]particularlysincehealsomakesuseofmoreformal
arguments,especiallythesocalled"functionargument,"whichisdescribedbelow.
Aristotledescribespopularaccountsaboutwhatkindoflifewouldbeahappyonebyclassifyingthemintothreemostcommontypes:alife
dedicatedtovulgarpleasurealifededicatedtofameandhonorandalifededicatedtocontemplation(NEI.1095b1719).Toreachhisown
conclusionaboutthebestlife,however,Aristotletriestoisolatethefunctionofhumans.Theargumenthedevelopshereisaccordinglywidely
knownas"thefunctionargument,"andisamongthemostdiscussedargumentsmadebyanyancientphilosopher.[13]Hearguesthatwhile
humansundergonutritionandgrowth,sodootherlivingthings,andwhilehumansarecapableofperception,thisissharedwithanimals(NE
I.1098b221098a15).Thusneitherofthesecharacteristicsisparticulartohumans.AccordingtoAristotle,whatremainsandwhatis
distinctivelyhumanisreason.Thusheconcludesthatthehumanfunctionissomekindofexcellentexerciseoftheintellect.And,since
Aristotlethinksthatpracticalwisdomrulesoverthecharacterexcellences,exercisingsuchexcellencesisonewaytoexercisereasonandthus
fulfillthehumanfunction.
OnecommonobjectiontoAristotle'sfunctionargumentisthatitusesdescriptiveorfactualpremisestoderiveconclusionsaboutwhatis
good.[14]Suchargumentsareoftenthoughttorunafouloftheisoughtgap.

Moralvirtue
Moralvirtue,orexcellenceofcharacter,isthedisposition(Grkhexis)toactexcellently,whichapersondevelopspartlyasaresultofhis
upbringing,andpartlyasaresultofhishabitofaction.AristotledevelopshisanalysisofcharacterinBookIIoftheNicomacheanEthics,
wherehemakesthisargumentthatcharacterarisesfromhabitlikeningethicalcharactertoaskillthatisacquiredthroughpractice,suchas
learningamusicalinstrument.InBookIIIoftheNicomacheanEthics,Aristotlearguesthataperson'scharacterisvoluntary,sinceitresults
frommanyindividualactionswhichareunderhisvoluntarycontrol.
Aristotledistinguishesthedispositiontofeelemotionsofacertainkindfromvirtueandvice.Butsuchemotionaldispositionsmayalsolieata
meanbetweentwoextremes,andthesearealsotosomeextentaresultofupbringingandhabituation.Twoexamplesofsuchdispositions
wouldbemodesty,oratendencytofeelshame,whichAristotlediscussesinNEIV.9andrighteousindignation(nemesis),whichisabalanced
feelingofsympatheticpainconcerningtheundeservedpleasuresandpainsofothers.[15]Exactlywhichhabitualdispositionsarevirtuesor
vicesandwhichonlyconcernemotions,differsbetweenthedifferentworkswhichhavesurvived,butthebasicexamplesareconsistent,asis
thebasisfordistinguishingtheminprinciple.

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Somepeople,despiteintendingtodotherightthing,cannotactaccordingtotheirownchoice.Forexample,someonemaychoosetorefrain
fromeatingchocolatecake,butfindshimselfeatingthecakecontrarytohisownchoice.Suchafailuretoactinawaythatisconsistentwith
one'sowndecisioniscalled"akrasia",andmaybetranslatedasweaknessofwill,incontinence,orlackofselfmastery.

FourCardinalVirtues
I.Prudence
II.Temperance
III.Courage
IV.Justice
I.Prudence,alsoknownaspracticalwisdom,isthemostimportantvirtueforAristotle.Inwar,soldiersmustfightwithprudencebymaking
judgmentsthroughpracticalwisdom.Thisvirtueisamusttoobtainbecausecouragerequiresjudgmentstobemade.
II.Temperance,orselfcontrol,simplymeansmoderation.Soldiersmustdisplaymoderationwiththeirenjoymentwhileatwarinthemidstof
violentactivities.Temperanceconcerningcouragegivesonemoderationinprivatewhichleadstomoderationinpublic.
III.Courage,theonewewillfocusoninthisarticle,ismoderationorobservanceofthemeanwithrespecttofeelingsoffearandconfidence.
Courageisobservanceofthemeanwithregardtothingsthatexciteconfidenceorfear,underthecircumstanceswhichwehavespecified,and
choosesitscourseandstickstoitspostbecauseitisnobletodoso,orbecauseitisdisgracefulnottodoso.Concerningwarfare,Aristotle
believessoldiersaremorallysignificantandaremilitaryandpoliticalheroes.Warissimplyastageforsoldierstodisplaycourage,andisthe
onlywaycouragecanbeexemplified.Anyotheractionbyahumanissimplythemcopyingasoldierswaystheyarenotactuallycourageous.
IV.Justicemeansgivingtheenemywhatisduetothemintheproperwaysbeingjusttowardthem.Inotherwords,onemustrecognizewhat
isgoodforthecommunityandonemustundertakeagoodcourseofaction.
Vicesofcouragemustalsobeidentifiedwhicharecowardiceandrecklessness.Soldierswhoarenotprudentactwithcowardice,andsoldiers
whodonothavetemperanceactwithrecklessness.Oneshouldnotbeunjusttowardtheirenemynomatterthecircumstance.Onanothernote,
onebecomesvirtuousbyfirstimitatinganotherwhoexemplifiessuchvirtuouscharacteristics,practicingsuchwaysintheirdailylives,turning
thosewaysintocustomsandhabitsbyperformingthemeachandeveryday,andfinally,connectingorunitingthefourofthemtogether.

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Onlysoldierscanexemplifysuchvirtuesbecausewardemandssoldierstoexercisedisciplinedandfirmvirtues,butwardoeseverythinginits
powertoshatterthevirtuesitdemands.Sincevirtuesareveryfragile,theymustbepracticedalways,foriftheyarenotpracticedtheywill
weakenandeventuallydisappear.Onewhoisvirtuoushastoavoidtheenemiesofvirtuewhichareindifferenceorpersuasionthatsomething
shouldnotbedone,selfindulgenceorpersuasionthatsomethingcanwaitanddoesnotneedtobedoneatthatmoment,anddespairor
persuasionthatsomethingsimplycannotbeaccomplishedanyway.Inorderforonetobevirtuoustheymustdisplayprudence,temperance,
courage,andjusticemoreover,theyhavetodisplayallfourofthemandnotjustoneortwotobevirtuous.

Justice
AristotledevotesBookVoftheNicomacheanEthicstojustice(thisisalsoBookIVoftheEudemianEthics).Inthisdiscussion,Aristotle
definesjusticeashavingtwodifferentbutrelatedsensesgeneraljusticeandparticularjustice.Generaljusticeisvirtueexpressedinrelation
tootherpeople.Thusthejustmaninthissensedealsproperlyandfairlywithothers,andexpresseshisvirtueinhisdealingswiththemnot
lyingorcheatingortakingfromotherswhatisowedtothem.
Particularjusticeisthecorrectdistributionofjustdesertstoothers.ForAristotle,suchjusticeisproportionalithastodowithpeople
receivingwhatisproportionaltotheirmeritortheirworth.Inhisdiscussionofparticularjustice,Aristotlesaysaneducatedjudgeisneededto
applyjustdecisionsregardinganyparticularcase.Thisiswherewegettheimageofthescalesofjustice,theblindfoldedjudgesymbolizing
blindjustice,balancingthescales,weighingalltheevidenceanddeliberatingeachparticularcaseindividually.

Thehighestgood
Inhisethicalworks,Aristotledescribeseudaimoniaasthehighesthumangood.InBookIoftheNicomacheanEthicshegoesontoidentify
eudaimoniaastheexcellentexerciseoftheintellect,leavingitopenwhetherhemeanspracticalactivityorintellectualactivity.Withrespectto
practicalactivity,inordertoexerciseanyoneofthepracticalexcellencesinthehighestway,apersonmustpossessalltheothers.Aristotle
thereforedescribesseveralapparentlydifferentkindsofvirtuouspersonasnecessarilyhavingallthemoralvirtues,excellencesofcharacter.
Beingof"greatsoul"(magnanimity),thevirtuewheresomeonewouldbetrulydeservingofthehighestpraiseandhaveacorrectattitude
towardsthehonorthismayinvolve.ThisisthefirstsuchcasementionedintheNicomacheanEthics.[16]
Beingjustinthetruesense.Thisisthetypeofjusticeorfairnessofagoodrulerinagoodcommunity.[17]
Phronesisorpracticalwisdom,asshownbygoodleaders.[18]
Thevirtueofbeingatrulygoodfriend.[19]
Havingthenobilitykalokagathiaofagentleman.[20]

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Aristotlealsosays,forexampleinNEBookVI,thatsuchacompletevirtuerequiresintellectualvirtue,notonlypracticalvirtue,butalso
theoreticalwisdom.Suchavirtuousperson,iftheycancomeintobeing,willchoosethemostpleasantandhappylifeofall,whichisthe
philosophicallifeofcontemplationandspeculation.
Aristotleclaimsthatahuman'shighestfunctioningmustincludereasoning,beinggoodatwhatsetshumansapartfromeverythingelse.Or,as
Aristotleexplainsit,"Thefunctionofmanisactivityofsoulinaccordancewithreason,oratleastnotwithoutreason."Heidentifiestwo
differentwaysinwhichthesoulcanengage:reasoning(bothpracticalandtheoretical)andfollowingreasoning.Apersonthatdoesthisisthe
happiestbecausetheyarefulfillingtheirpurposeornatureasfoundintherationalsoul.
(Thewisepersonwill)bemorethanhuman.Amanwillnotlivelikethatbyvirtueofhishumanness,butbyvirtueofsomedivinething
withinhim.Hisactivityisassuperiortotheactivityoftheothervirtuesasthisdivinethingistohiscompositecharacter.Nowifmindis
divineincomparisonwithman,thelifeofthemindisdivineincomparisonwithmerehumanlife.Weshouldnotfollowpopularadvice
and,beinghuman,haveonlymortalthoughts,butshouldbecomeimmortalanddoeverythingtowardlivingthebestinus.(NE10.7)
Inotherwords,thethinkerisnotonlythe'best'person,butisalsomostlikeGod.

Influenceonlaterthinkers
Aristotle'swritingsweretaughtintheAcademyinAthensuntil529CEwhentheByzantineEmperorJustinianIcloseddownnonChristian
schoolsofphilosophy.
Aristotle'sworkhowevercontinuedtobetaughtasapartofseculareducation.Aristotle'steachingsspreadthroughtheMediterraneanandthe
MiddleEast,wheresomeearlyIslamicregimesallowedrationalphilosophicaldescriptionsofthenaturalworld.Alfarabiwasamajor
influenceinallmedievalphilosophyandwrotemanyworkswhichincludedattemptstoreconciletheethicalandpoliticalwritingsofPlatoand
Aristotle.LaterAvicenna,andlaterstillAverroes,wereIslamicphilosopherswhocommentedonAristotleaswellaswritingtheirown
philosophyinArabic.Averroes,aEuropeanMuslim,wasparticularlyinfluentialinturnuponEuropeanChristianphilosophers,theologians
andpoliticalthinkers.
Inthetwelfthcentury,LatintranslationsofAristotle'sworksweremade,enablingtheDominicanpriestAlberttheGreatandhispupilThomas
AquinastosynthesizeAristotle'sphilosophywithChristiantheology.LaterthemedievalchurchscholasticisminWesternEuropeinsistedon
ThomistviewsandsuppressednonAristotelianmetaphysics.Aquinas'writingsarefullofreferencestoAristotle,andhewroteacommentary
onAristotle'sNicomacheanEthics.AquinasalsodepartedfromAristotleincertainrespects.Inparticular,hisSummaTheologicaarguedthat
Eudaimoniaorhumanflourishingwasheldtobeatemporarygoalforthislife,butperfecthappinessastheultimategoalcouldonlybe
attainedinthenextlifebythevirtuous.AquinasalsoaddednewtheologicalvirtueswereaddedtoArstotle'ssystem:faith,hopeandcharity.
Andsupernaturalassistancecouldhelppeopletoachievevirtue.Nevertheless,muchofAristotle'sethicalthoughtremainedintactinAquinas.

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Inmoderntimes,Aristotle'swritingsonethicsremainamongthemostinfluentialinhisbroadcorpus,alongwithTheRhetoric,andThe
Poetics,whilehisscientificwritingstendtobeviewedasofmorestrictlyhistoricalinterest.Modernsciencedevelopstheoriesaboutthe
physicalworldbasedonexperimentsandcarefulobservationinparticular,onthebasisofexactmeasurementsoftimeanddistance.
Aristotle,ontheotherhand,baseshissciencelargelyonqualitativeandnonexperimentalobservation.Accordingly,hemadesomeinaccurate
claimswhichhavebeenoverturnedsuchastheclaimthatobjectsofdifferentmassaccelerateatdifferentratesduetogravity.
Ontheotherhand,TheNicomacheanEthicscontinuestoberelevanttophilosopherstoday.Infact,VirtueEthicstakesitsinspirationfrom
Aristotle'sapproachtoethicsinparticular,sharinghisemphasisoncharacterexcellence,andethicalpsychology.Somephilosophers,in
particularBernardWilliams,regardAristotle'sethicsassuperiortotheUtilitarianandKantiantraditions,whichhavecometobethedominant
approachestophilosophicalethics.Aristotle'swellknownfunctionargumentislesscommonlyacceptedtoday,sinceheseemstouseitin
ordertodevelopaclaimabouthumanperfectionfromanobservationfromwhatisdistinctiveaboutman.Buttheexactroleofthefunction
argumentinAristotle'sethicaltheoryisitselfamatterofdispute.

AslistedintheCorpusAristotelicum
Key
[?]
Strikethrough

Authenticitydisputed.
Generallyagreedtobespurious.

Bekker
number Work

Latinname

Ethicsandpolitics
1094a
1181a
1214a
1249a
1252a
1343a

NicomacheanEthics
[?]GreatEthics
EudemianEthics
OnVirtuesandVices
Politics
[?]Economics

EthicaNicomachea(http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/nicomachean/)
[?]MagnaMoralia
EthicaEudemia
DeVirtutibusetVitiisLibellus
Politica(http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/a8po/)
[?]Oeconomica

References
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1. "RomanAristotle,"inPhilosophiaTogataII:PlatoandAristotleatRome,OxfordUniversityPress(Oxford:1997),pp.169.
2. NicomacheanEthics,trans.T.H.Irwin,Introduction.HackettPublishingCompany(Indianapolis:1999)xv.
3. ButforanargumentthattheMagnaMoralia'sphilosophicalcontent(ifnotthelanguage)isauthenticallyAristotle's,see:JohnM.Cooper,"TheMagna
MoraliaandAristotle'sMoralPhilosophy,"inTheAmericanJournalofPhilology94.4(Winter,1973):pp.327349.
4. TheAristotelianEthics:AStudyoftheRelationshipbetweentheEudemianandNicomacheanEthicsofAristotle,(Oxford1978).
5. CiceromentionedhiminDeFinibus.
6. NEBookI,EEBookI
7. NEendofBookVIandendofBookX.AlsoseeBurger(2008).
8. Burger(2008)
9. Burger(2008)Sachs(2002)
10. NEBookX
11. SeeM.F.Burnyeat,"AristotleonLearningtobeGood,"inEssaysonAristotle'sEthics,ed.Rorty(1980)pg.7172.
12. MarthaNussbaum,forexample,hasarguedthatAristotle'ssocalledendoxicmethod,describedatNEVII.1145b1ff.isinfactAristotle'sgeneral
philosophicalmethod.SeeNussbaum,FragilityofGoodness(Cambridge:1986/2001)pp.240ff.
13. AsnotedbyRachelBarney,"Aristotle'sArgumentforaHumanFunction,"inOxfordStudiesinAncientPhilosophy34(Summer2008)pg.3.
14. AsnotedbyJenniferWhitinginanarticlethatdefendstheargument.SeeWhiting,"Aristotle'sFunctionArgument:ADefense"AncientPhilosophy8,
pg.35.
15. EEIII.vii.AlsoseeMM.
16. ItismentionedwithintheinitialdiscussionofpracticalexamplesofvirtuesandvicesatBookIV.1123b(http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?
doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abekker%20page%3D1123b).
17. Thisdescriptionoccursforexampleduringthespecialdiscussionofthevirtue(orvirtues)ofjusticeat1129b(http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?
doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abekker%20page%3D1129b)inBookV.
18. Mentionedinthiswayat1144binBookVI.1144b(http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?
doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abekker%20page%3D1144b).
19. BookVIII.1157a(http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abekker%20page%3D1157b)
20. EudemianEthicsBookVIII,chapter3.

Furtherreading
Bambrough,Renford(2003).ThePhilosophyofAristotle.NewYork:
PeguinGroup.
Bostock,David(2000).AristotlesEthics.NewYork:Oxford
UniversityPress.
Broadie,Sarah(1991).EthicswithAristotle.NewYork:Oxford
UniversityPress.
Burger,Ronna(2008).Aristotle'sDialoguewithSocrates:Onthe
NicomacheanEthics.UniversityofChicagoPress.
Cooper,JohnM.(1975).ReasonandHumanGoodinAristotle.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics

Translations
Broadie,SarahRowe,Christopher(2002).AristotleNicomachean
Ethics:Translation,Introduction,andCommentary.Oxford:Oxford
UniversityPress.
Crisp,Roger(2000).Aristotle:NicomacheanEthics.Cambridge
UniversityPress.ISBN0521632218.
Irwin,Terence(1999).NicomacheanEthics.HackettPublishing
Company.ISBN0872204642.
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