Lecture

5
Fall 2015
BSC203/BIO132
By

M. Jawad Khan, PhD

Course Outline
General chemistry including atomic nature of matter,
molecules, principles of chemical reactions, stochiometry,
acids and bases, oxidation-reduction, water as a solvent, pH,
and buffers.
Structure and function of biomolecules, including structure and
function of proteins (amino acids, peptides and, enzymes
including classification and how it works), protein conjugates,
carbohydrates and glycol-conjugates, nucleosides, nucleotides
and nucleic acids, lipids (triglycerols, phospholipids, waxes,
sphingolipids, glycolipids, steroids) and nature of biological
membranes (lipid bilayers), prostaglandins, leukotrienes,
vitamins, hormones, co-enzymes, co-factors.


Holoenzyme and

Apoenzyme

 Holoenzyme
Complex of protein and prosthetic groups
Catalytically active

Apoenzyme
The enzyme without the prosthetic groups
Catalytically inactive

Types of cofactors
Some enzymes require cofactors for activity
(1)

(2)

Essential ions (mostly metal ions)

Coenzymes (organic compounds)

Apoenzyme
+ Cofactor
( protein only
)

Holoenzyme
(active)

(inactive)

Types of cofactors

Cofactors and Coenzymes

Cosubstrates:
- Altered in reaction and regenerated to original structure in

subsequent reaction
- Disassociated from active site
- Shuttle chemical groups among different enzyme reactions.

Prosthetic groups:

Cofactors and Coenzymes

- Remains bound to enzyme
- Must return to original form

Both cosubstrates and prosthetic groups supply reactive groups not

present on amino acid side chains

Examples:
1) Metabolite coenzymes synthesized from common
metabolites
2) Nucleoside triphosphates (ATP) can donate
phosphates, pyrophosphates, adenosyl grroups
3) S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) donates methyl
groups

Cofactors and Coenzymes

4) Nucleotide sugars (uridine diphosphate glucose =
UDP-glucose) - transfer sugars in carbohydrate
metabolism

Many Enzymes Require Inorganic Cations

Enzymes requiring metal ions for full activity:
(1)

Metal-activated enzymes

(2)

Metalloenzymes

Cofactors and Coenzymes

Example: Carbonic anhydrase
A metalloenzyme
Zinc ion promotes the ionization of bound H2O.
Resulting OH- attacks carbon of CO2

Vitamin-Derived Coenzymes
Animals rely on plants and microorganisms for vitamin
sources (meat supplies vitamins also)
Must be obtained from diet
Synthesized by microorganisms and plants
Most vitamins must be enzymatically transformed to the
coenzyme
Vitamin deficiencies lead to disease state

Vitamin-Derived Coenzymes
Vitamin

Coenzyme

Ascorbic acid (C)

not a coenzyme
NAD(P)+/NAD(P)H

Niacin (B3)
Riboflavin (B2)
Thiamin (B1)
Pyridoxal (B6)
Biotin (B7)
Folate (B9)
Cobalamin (B12)
Vitamin A
Vitamin K
Pantothenate (B5)

FMN & FAD

Thiamin-pyrophosphate
Pyridoxal phosphate
Biotin
Tetrahydrafolate
adenosyl-and methylcobalamin
Retinal
Vitamin K
Coenzyme A

Vitamins: Definition

Organic compound found in foods

Required in small amounts
Required in the diet (dietary essential)
Proven to be required for health, growth, and reproduction
Deficiency syndrome identified

Vitamin Nomenclature
Fat soluble A & Water soluble B
Vital amines
vitamines = vitamins

Vitamin B complex

Collection of water soluble vitamins that function as enzyme cofactors

Vitamin C
Vitamins D and E
Mistaken Vitamins

Fat and Water Soluble Vitamins

Fat Soluble Vitamins
(A, D, E, K)
Soluble in lipids and
solvents
Excess stored and not
excreted
Excess may be toxic
Deficiency slow to
develop

Fat and Water Soluble Vitamins

Water Soluble Vitamins
B vitamins, C

Soluble in water
Excess excreted in urine,
little stored
Generally less toxic
Deficiency develops
quickly

General Functions of Vitamins

Hormones

Vitamin D
Calcium homeostasis

Vitamin A
Cell division and development

General Functions of Vitamins

Non-specific chemical reactions

Vitamin E
Antioxidant

Vitamin C
Chemical reducing agent

General Functions of Vitamins

Coenzymes or Cofactors
Chemicals that assist enzymes to
function as catalysts
B vitamins
Vitamin C, A, K