You are on page 1of 166

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.

com/fyp/
SWAMI PARMANAND COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
SIX MONTHS INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT
ON
NETWORKING (MCSE & CCNA)
AT
JETKING
SEC 34 , CHANDIGARH
SUBMITTED AS A PART OF COURSE CURRICULUM
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Under the Guidance of
Mr. Baljit singh
Mr. Inder Gulati
Submitted To:
Er. Harpreet Kaur (HOD)
Submitted By:
Saroj Dogra
(697041917)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS &
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
SWAMI PAMANAND COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY, DERA BASSI, MOHALI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
I feel deeply indedted to Mr. Baljit Singh, Microsoft trainer who delivered valu
able
lesson on MCSE, his indepth knowledge about the subject helped me understand the
subject in better way. His method of teaching the minute details helped me a lot
to
acquire the insight into the subject.
I am also grateful to Mr. Inder Gulati, CCNA trainer for giving best knowledge a
bout
CCNA.the way he instilled knowledge of the subject was undoubtly praise worthy a
nd
valuable.
I am also thankful to Jetking institution as a whole that is doing yeomans servic
e by
teaching the learner avreast with the computer , networking and hardware knowled
ge that
is the need of the day.
I will be failing in my duty if I do not acknowledge my husband Mr. Nardev Singh
Rana
who always stood by my side during my studies. I am indepted to my sons Anirudh
Rana and Romil Rana who never clamed my time and get bore by my long absence rat
her
silent.
Last but not the least, I thank all my classmates at Jetking for extending kind
co-operation.
SAROJ DOGRA
List of Figures

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Figure No.
Name of Figure
Page No.
1
Computer network
6
2
Local Area Nework
9
3
LAN Classification
9
4
Campus Area Network
10
5
Metropolitan Area Network
11
6
To find location of a computer using FQDN
24
7
Tree structure
25
8
Structure of domain forest and domain tree
36
9
Multi-Master Mode

37
10
Parent child relationship model
40
11
Direct Sharing Scenario
43
12
ICS scenario
44
13
Scenario of win proxy server
45
14
NAT Server
46
15
VPN server
48
16
LAN routing
52
17
Static routing
53

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
18
Architecture of router
60
19
Variable Subnet Mask
75
20
Scenario of Telnet
76
21
Scenario of Static Routing
81
22
Routing table
86
23
Routing table of covered networks
86
24
Routing loops
87
25
OSPF Scenario
99
26
VLAN Operation
105
27
VTP Configuration
110

28
VTP Pruning
111
29
IEEE 802.11 Standard
114
List of tables

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Table No.
Name of table
Page No.
1
Difference between Workgroup & Domain
7
2
Comparison between IPv4 and IPv6
12
3
Address Classes
13
4
Category and Speed of UTP cables
17
5
Colour Coding for straight Cable
18
6
Colour Coding for Crossover cable
19
7
Colour Coding for Rollover Cable
20
8
Operating Systems
21
9
Difference between Workgroup and Domain

34
10
Exchange Server with different operating systems
56
11
Router interfaces and connectors
62
12
Router Ports
63
13
Default address mask in binary & dotted decimals
71
14
Decimal and Binary values of subnet mask
72
15
Subnet mask, valid hosts, broadcast address
74
16
Routing table
86
17
Difference between RIPV1 & RIPV2
90
18
Difference between IGRP and RIP
91
CONTENTS

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Sr. No.
Topic
1
INTRODUCTION
Company Profile
LITERATURE RIEVIEW
NETWORKING
1.1
2
3
3.1
6
3.1.1 Models of Networking
6
3.1.2 Categories of network
8
12
3.2.2 MAC Addressing
15
NETWORKING MEDIA
Ethernet Cabling
3.4 OPERATING SYSTEM
3.4.1 Types of Operating Systems
DNS SERVER
3.5.1
PARTS OF DNS SYSTEM
3.5.2 DNS Zone
3.6 DHCP SERVER
3.7
3.8
12
3.2.1 IPAddressClasses
3.3.1
3.5
1
1

5
6
Introduction to networking
3.2 IP ADDRESSES and MAC Addresses
3.3
Page No.
15
17
20
20
22
23
26
28
3.6.1 Working of DHCP Server
29
3.6.2 InstallationStepsofDHCPServer
31
ACTIVE DIRECTORY
33
3.7.1ActiveDirectoryServices
34
3.7.2
40
CHILD DOMAIN
INTERNET SHAREING
42

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
3.8.1 Direct Sharing
42
3.8.2 ICS (Internet Connection Sharing)
43
3.8.3 Win Proxy Server
45
3.8.4 NAT (Network Address Translation)
45
3.9 VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK (VPN)
3.9.1
VPN components
48
3.9.2
Types of VPN
49
3.10 ROUTING
3.10.1
51
Types of Routing
3.11 EXCHANGE SERVER
51
56
3.11.1 Elements of Exchange Server
56
3.11.2
Exchange Version
56
3.11.3
Requirements for Exchange Server
57
3.12 Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model
3.12.1 Description of Different Layers

3.13 ROUTERS
3.14
47
57
58
60
3.13.1 Router Architecture and its Key Component
60
3.13.2 Router Interfaces & Ports
3.13.3 Modes of Router
62
63
3.13.4 Configuring Password
65
3.13.5 Managing Configuration
66
SUBNETTING
3.14.1
Advantages of subnetting
3.14.2 Types of Subnetting
3.15 TELNET
70
70
73
75

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
3.15.1 To Access the Device Remotely
75
3.15.2 Commands to assign IP addresses to the interfaces 76
3.16 ROUTING
79
3.16.1 TYPES OF ROUTING
79
3.16.2 Routing Protocol Basics
84
3.1.3 R IP (Routing Information Protocol)
88
3.1.4
91
IGRP ( Interior Gateway Protocol)
3.1.5 EIGRP(Enhanced Interior Routing Protocol)
93
3.1.6 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
95
3.17 LAN SWITCHING
100
3.17.1 SWITCH
3.18
100
3.17.1.1
VLAN (Virtual LAN)
103
3.17.1.2
Vlan Trunking Protocol (VTP)
108
Wi-Fi (WIRELESS FIDELITY)

113
3.18.1 Wireless LAN
113
3.18.2 Wireless Standards
114
3.18.3
115
Wireless Security
4
CONCLUSION
117
5
REFRENCES
118

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
1. INTRODUCTION
This project report pertains to six months industrial training that I had underw
ent
at JETKING, Chandigarh as part of curriculum of degree in Bachelor of technology
in
Electronics and Communication engineering as required by Swami Parmanand College
of
engineering and technology (affiliated to Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar
) .
I learnt a lot from professional managers and skilled engineers. I had a great
learning experience as trainee in this firm. I learnt a lot about how different
networks are
controlled in the industry or any department with the help of networking process
es, under
MCSE and CCNA.
I have learnt about different type of servers like DHCP Server, DNS Server, NAT
Server. Also I have learnt how to control the LAN and MAN networks under MCSE
(Microsoft Certified System Engineers) and how to control MAN and WAN networks
under CCNA (CISCO Certified System Engineers).
Justification cannot be done to whatever I have learnt in these six months withi
n a
few pages but I have still tried my best to cover as much as possible in this re
port. In this
report I have tried to sum up the technical knowledge I have gained in my six mo
nths of
training.
1.1
Company Profile
Jetking is an organization came into establishment in1947. Jetking is Indias
number one Computer Hardware and Networking Institute.
Birth and Evolution
It took a lot of failure before mankind tasted technological success. Jetking ev
olved in
tune with the changing face of technology. During 55 years in the field of elect
ronic
technology. Jetking successfully trained thousands of students to overcome failu
re for
high paying careers.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
1947
Birth
1962
Pioneered Do-It-Yourself Kits in India
1972
Introduced Asia- 72, Fairchild and Wildcat transistors
1986
Became a Public Limited Company and also introduced
entertainment electronics product-T.V sets, Two-in-ones and
amplifiers.
1990
Launched Jetking School of Electronics Technology
1993
Network of Jetking training centers spread all over India
1994
Opening of Jetking, Chandigarh
1995
Tie-up with Heath kit Educational System (U.S.A.)
1996
Introduced advanced courses on Pentium, Notebooks, Modems,
Email/Internet, LAN 4.X
1997
Novell Education Academic Partner
1998
Representative for International Correspondence School (ICS),
USA in India
1999
Added cyber technology to the curriculum
2003
ISO 9001-2000 company and Authorized Microsoft online testing
centre (VUE) for MS, CISCO, MCSA, MCSE, CCNA, A+ etc.
Mr. Suresh G. Bharwani is the CHAIRMAN and MANAGING Director of

Jetking Infotrain Ltd. Indias leading Computer Hardware and Networking Institute.
With
the vision to promote and the conviction to deliver the widespread propagation o
f computer hardware and networking education across the nation, Mr. Bharwani was
the first to
set up an training institute offering innovative courses in computer hardware in
1990.
Jetkings core competency lies in providing complete training and developing hardw
are
engineers and professionals with sound technical knowledge. It focuses on the ov
erall
development of personality of an individual with emphasis on personality develop
ment,
presentation and communication skills, leadership skills etc.
Jetking has established more than 125 operational centers and 250 faculties acro
ss
the country and has trained over 3,50,000 students who have move onto the crave

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
success- full career. With its alumni placed in the best of organizations in Ind
ia and some
abroad,
Jetking,s vocational training and placement promises has helped build the career
prospects of many young boys and girls.
The company has been awarded the ISO 9000:2000 certification in 2003.The
company has been awarded the Maharashtra IT Award for a key role in manpower
activities in year 2006-07,it was felicitated with Franchise Award as Best Franc
hisor for
the year 2007-08.Also,ranked 4th in the list of 26th hot franchises as per outlo
ok money
magazine.
Mr. Suresh Bharwani was awarded with Pikes Peak Award by the Bob Pike
Group USA for effective implementing smart lab plus for making technical trainin
g fun,
faster and easier for non- technical person.
Across all the sectors, industries are upgrading their information technology
system. Industries ranging from plastics, chemicals, textiles and power to the a
utomotive
and telecom sector are now IT savy. Government and public sectors are going hi-t
ech
with EDI and computer networks. The IT industry, software companies, data center
s, ITenabled services providers are all equipped with advance IT system and netw
orks. The
increasing number of call centers, BPOs etc., have given a further boost to the h
ardware
and networking industry.
The courses in jetking comprises lecture and theory session, with a great focus
on
active participation through smart lab plus ,that focuses on audio visual and le
arning with
hands-on training and equips students with an in depth domain knowledge that is
technical; it also equips students with soft skills ,to face the multi-faceted c
hallenges of
corporate world.
PLACEMENT: Jetking is the first and only institute that promises the 100%
jobs guarantee to its students. The companies that have recruited jetkings stude
nts
include:
Samsung, Sun Micro system, IBM, Canon, Siement, reliance, TATA, Compaq HP
invent, IT-T solutions, Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited, D-Link, Novell, Dell, Wipr
o, LG,
ICIC Infotech and several other MNCs.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Any student who has qualified his or her HSC/SSC examination is eligible to take
up a course at jetking. The one year program Jetking certified hardware and netw
orking
professionals give 680 hours of in-depth knowledge to a student in Basic electro
nics and
computer applications. Computer hardware and peripherals, window 2003 administra
tor
and network administrator (soon it will be replaced with window server 2008).Apa
rt
frame technical knowledge there are personality development sessions which groom
the
students personality, their ability to perform better.
Jetking, Indias leading hardware and networking training institute has trained
over 3,00,000 students from its 125 centers spread across India. With its alumni
placed in
the best of organizations in India and some abroad, Jetking vocational training
and
placement promises has helped build the career prospects of many young boys and
girls.
Jetking has partnered with some of the worlds most renowed names in networking
to provide you with cutting edge courses and technologies. With academic partner
ships
with Microsoft, Comp TIA,LINUX, NOVELL, and person VUE .
Jetking Chandigarh is a division of Hi-Tech point. Hi-Tech point is an ISO 90012
000 IT company. It was established in year 1993 and run by a company of IT
professionals. Jetking Chandigarh branch is considered to be the best centre amo
ng all
centers. It has bagged number 1 center award consecutively for last 7 years. Her
e training
on various fields is going on like Basic Electronic, Hardware, Networking, JCHNP
Analog and Digital electronics and Hardware, RHCE, RHCSS, MNA, MCSE (Microsoft
System Engineers), MCITP, MNA, CCNA (CISCO Certified Network Associate),
CCNP(CISCO Certified Network Professional).
Partnership with industry leaders like Microsoft and Red Hat Jetking ensure its
students authentic courseware and technology.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
2.
LITERATURE RIEVIEW
Computer Networking is a very vast project in the present developing era of elec
tronics
and communication. Now a days, computers are used in a wider range. All the
organizations are using multiple computers within their departments to perform t
heir day
to day work. Computer network allows the user to share data , share folders and
files with
other users connected in a network. Computer Networking has bound the world in a
very
small area with it wide networking processes like LAN, MAN, WAN.
The courses in jetking comprises lecture and theory session, with a great focus
on active
participation through smart lab plus ,that focuses on audio visual and learning
with
hands-on training and equips students with an in depth domain knowledge that is
technical; it also equips students with soft skills ,to face the multi-faceted c
hallenges of
corporate world.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
3. NETWORKING
3.1
Introduction to networking
Networking is a practice of linking of two or more computing devices such as
PCs, printers, faxes etc., with each other Connection between two devices is thr
ough
physical media or logical media to share information, data and resources. Networ
ks are
made with the hardware and software.
Cable/media
Fig 1: computer network
3.1.1 Models of Networking
Model means the connectivity of two computers. We have many types of
networking models.
(i)
Client Server Model
(ii)
Peer to Peer Model (Workgroup Model)
(iii)
Domain Model

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
(i)
Client Server Model
In a Client server model we have one server and many clients. A Client can share
the resources of server, but a server cannot share the resources on clients.
On the point of view of administrator its very easy to control the network
because we combine with the server also at security point of view. It is very us
eful
because it uses user level security in which users have to remember only one pas
sword to
share the resources.
(ii) Peer to Peer Model (Workgroup Model)
In Peer to Peer networking model all computers are in equal status, that is we
cannot manage centralization, administration secutity. In Peer to Perr networkin
g client
use operating system like Window 98, Window XP, Window 2000, Window Vista.
(iii) Domain Model
It is a mixture of client server and peer-to-peer model. In this clients can sha
re
their resources as peer-to-peer but with the permission of the server as in clie
nt server
model therefore it is commonly used model because in this security is more as we
can put
restriction on both server and clients.
Difference between Workgroup & Domain
Table 1
Workgroup
1. It is a peer to peer networking model.
Domain
1. It is a server based networking model.
2. There is no client and no server. All the 2. There is a centralized dedicated
server
computers are in equal status.
computer called domain controller which

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
controls all other computers called clients.
3. This model is recommended for small 3. This model is recommended for large
networks, upto 10 computers.
networks.
4. There is no centralized administrated 4. There is centralized administration
and
separately.
each PC can be administrated and managed
from the server.
5. In this model, low grade OS like 5. in this model high grade OS like WIN
2000/XP professional, WIN 98 etc. can be 2000/2003 Server can be used.
used.
6. Users accounts are created in each PC 6. Users accounts are created on the se
rver
and are called as Local Users.
side and are called Domain Users.
3.1.2 Categories of network
Networks can be categorized as per geographical area to be covered by the
network. Computer network are divided into four categories includes: Local Area
Network (LAN), Campus Area Network (CAN), Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) and
Wide Area Network (WAN).
3.1.2.1
Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN is a computer network that is used to connect computers and work station to
share data and resources such as printers or faxes. LAN is restricted to a small
area such as home, office or college. Devices used in LAN are : HUB and switch.
Media for LAN is UTP cables. Figure 1.2 shows how all work stations, server and
printer are interconnected with the help of the network device.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Fig 2: Local Area Network
Types of LAN
In LANs, data can be transferred using techniques like token passing. As per
techniques used for data sharing, LANS are classified into Ethernet, Token Bus,
Token
Ring and Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).Figure 3.3 shows LAN classifica
tion.
Fig 3: LAN classification

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Advantages of LAN
a). Provides communication in smaller networks, easy to install and configure.
b). many users can share data or network elements at the same time which results
in fast work.
Disadvantages of LAN
a). limited number of computers are connected in a LAN.
b). LAN cannot cover large area.
c). Network performance degrades as the number of users exceeds.
3.1.2.2 Campus Area Network (CAN)
Campus Area Network is a computer network made up of two or more LANs
within a limited area. It can cover many buildings in an area. The main feature
of
CAN is that all of the computers which are connected together have some
relationship to each other e.g. different buildings in a campus can be connected
using different CAN. It will help to interconnect academic departments, library
and computer laboratories. CAN is larger than LAN but smaller than WAN.
Figure 3.4 shows a CAN network.
Fig 4: Campus Area Network
Devices used in CAN are : HUB, Switch, Layer-3 switch, Access Point .And the med
ia
used for CAN is Unshielded twisted pair of cables and Fiber Optics Cable.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
3.1.2.3
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
MAN is the interconnection of networks in a city. MAN is not owned by a single
organization. It act as a high speed network to allow sharing resources with in
a
city. MAN can also be formed by connecting remote LANs through telephone
lines or radio links. MAN supports data and voice transmission. The best example
of MAN is cable T.V network in a city.
Fig 5 : Metropolitan Area Network
3.1.2.4
Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN covers a wide geographical area which include multiple computers or
LANs. It connects computer networks through public networks like, telephone syst
em,
microwave, satellite link or leased line.
Most of the WANs use leased lines for internet access as they provide faster dat
a transfer.
WAN helps an organization to establish network between all its departments and o
ffices
located in the same or different cities. It also enables communication between t
he
organization and rest world.
Devices used in WAN is only Router

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
3.2 IP ADDRESSES and MAC Addresses
It is also called as logical addresses. IP is a 32 bit long and it is divided in
to 4
octets and dot (.) is used to separate one octet from another. It is represented
in the
form of decimals. There are two versions of IP addresses:
IPv4
IPv6
Table 2
Comparison between IPv4 and IPv6
IPv4
IPv6
It is 32 bit long.
It is 128 bit long.
It is divided into 4 octets.
It is divided into 16 octets.
Ipv4 performs broadcasting,
IPv6
doesnt
it
support
multicasting and unicasting.
broadcasting,
performs

IPv4 is divided into 5 classes:


multicasting and unicasting.
A to E.
Ipv6 doesnt support classes.
IPv4 is in decimal form.
IPv6 is in hexadecimal form.
3.2.1 IP Address Classes
IP address is a 32 bit address. It is divided into various classes namely Class
A, Class
B, Class C, Class D and Class E. TCP/IP defines Class D for experimental purpose
.
TCP /IP address contains two addresses embedded within one IP address; Network
address and host address as shown in figure 3.1
NETWORK
HOST ADDRESS
ADDRESS
0 bits
31 bits

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Class A consists of 8-bit network ID and 24-bit host ID. Class B consists of 16b
it network ID and 16-bit of host ID. And Class C consists of 24-bit of network
ID and 8-bit of host ID.
Address Classes
Table 3: Address Classes
Addres
Starting
Range of First Mask Value
s
Bits
Octet
Class
(first-byte)
Class A 0
1to 127
255.0.0.0
Valid Hosts
256*256*256-2=
16,777,214
Class B
10
128 to 191
255.255.0.0
Class C
110
192 to 223
255.255.255.0 256-2
Class D 1110
224 to 239
Reserved for multicasting
Class E
240 to 255

Reserved
1111
development
`
256*256-2=65,534
for
research
and

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
3.2.1.1 How to Assign IP Address to Computer
An IP address assigned to a computer may either be permanent address or address
that is assigned to a computer on a time lease or for temporary basis. Hence, th
e address
granted to computers is divided into two categories Dynamic IP addresses and Sta
tic
addresses.
Dynamic IP Addresses
Dynamic IP addresses are assigned to the devices that require temporary
connectivity to the network or non-permanent devices such as portable computer.
The
most common protocol used for assigning Dynamic IP address is DHCP also called

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. The DHCP grants IP address to the computer
on
lease basis.
Static IP Addresses
Static IP addresses are assigned to the device on the network whose existence in
the network remains for a longer duration. These static IP addresses are semi-pe
rmanent
IP addresses which remain allocated to a specific device for longer time e.g. Se
rver.
3.2.1.2 How to Configure IP Address in window 2003

Right click on My Network Places- properties

right click on working LAN card- properties

select internet protocol (TCP/IP) -properties

Tick on- Use the following IP addresses - now fill the IP address e.g
10.0.0.1

Tick on Use the following DNS server address

Fill the preferred DNS server 10.0.0.1

Ok

Close
Now check the connectivity of computer with itself with command
Start-run-cmd-ping 10.0.0.1
3.2.2 MAC Addressing
MAC address is a hardware address that is embedded in the NIC card. It is also k
nown
as hardware address or physical address. Every NIC card has a unique MAC address
assigned by IEEE. MAC address is used to identify the nodes at lower levels of O
SI
model. The MAC address operates at the data link layer of the OSI model.
MAC address is a 12 digit hexadecimal number (48 bit address). It is made up of
numbers from 0-9 or a letter from A-F. MAC address can be written in any one of
the
formats:


MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/

MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS
T o identify the MAC address in window:

Click Start Run

Enter cmd in the Open text book

Type ipconfig /all

Press Enter
The 12 digit MAC address will be shown as say 00:11:11:EA:8D:F6
3.3
NETWORKING MEDIA
To do networking we need to use some type of media. There are many types of medi
a.
(i)
Coaxial Cable
(ii)
Fiber optic cable
(iii)
Twisted Pair of Cables
(iv)
Micro- wave
(iv)
Satellite
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable consists of an insulated copper conductor surrounded by a tube
shaped copper braid outer copper tune and the inner conductor have the same axis
of
curvature hence it called coaxial cable. It is basically of two types:
(i)
Base Band Cable (RG 59)

(ii)
Broad Band Cable (RG 58)
We used Base Band signal cable in Networking of Computers, It is so called becau
se
it carries single frequency. Its speed is 10 Mbps and impedance is 50 . here as
Broad

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Band Cables carries multiple frequencies. Connector used for Coaxial cable is
BNC(British Novel Connector) connector. ARCnet uses RG-62 coaxial cable. It has
an
impedance of 93 and has a comparatively lesser attenuation, hence yield greater
distances. These cables are expensive and provide high propagation factor.
Fiber Optical Cable
Fiber optic cable consists of a very fine fiber made from two types of glass, on
e for the
inner core and the other for the outer layer. Here signal is transmitted in the
form of light.
Different varieties of fiber optics is used depending on the size of the network
. Single
mode fiber optics is used for networks spanning longer distance. Fiber Optics ha
s lower
propagation factor than coaxial cable. It is a costly but more secure transmissi
on media.
Twisted Pair Cable
There are two wires, which are twisted with each other to avoid EMI (Electro
Magnetic Induction).these cables are easy to terminate. However they have a slig
htly
higher value of attenuation value and hence have limited distance covering capac
ity.
Connector used for Twisted Pair of Cable is (Registered Jack) RJ-45 and RJ-11. T
here
are two types of twisted pair of cables:

STP (Shielded Twisted Pair):


In this an extra wire which is called shielded wire is wrapped over the inner
cover which holds copper in pairs. This protection is used to protect signal fro
m
external noise.

UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)


In this type of wire no shielded cover is there for extra protection from noise.
There are different categories of UTP cables:
Categories of UTP Cables
Table 4: Category and Speed of UTP cables

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Category
CAT-1
Speed
56 Kbps
4 Mbps
CAT-2
CAT-3
CAT-4
CAT-5
10 Mbps
16-20 Mbps
100 Mbps
CAT-6
CAT-7
3.3.1
Ethernet Cabling
There are three types of Ethernet cables:

Straight cable

Crossover cable

Rolled cable
3.3.1.1 Straight cable
It is used when we have to connect

PC TO Switch

PC to Hub

Hub to Router

Switch to Router
Colour Coding for straight Cable
TABLE 5

1Gbps
1Gbps

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
568A
568B
(one end)
(other end)
(one end)
Green/white
Green/white
Orange/white
Orange/white
Green
Green
Orange
Orange
Orange/white
Orange/white
Green/white
Green/white
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue/white
Blue/white
Blue/white
Blue/white
Orange
Orange
Green
Green

Brown/white
Brown/white
Brown/white
Brown/white
Brown
Brown
Brown
Brown
3.3.1.2 Crossover Cable
It is used when we have to connect:

PC to PC

Hub to Hub

Switch to switch

Router to Router

PC to Router

Hub to Switch
Colour Coding for Crossover cable
Table 6 Colour Coding for Crossover cable
(one end)
(other end)
(other end)

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Orange/white
Green/white
Orange
Green
Green/white
Orange/white
Blue
Blue
Blue/white
Blue/white
Green
Green
Brown/white
Brown/white
Brown
Brown
3.3.1.3 Rollover Cable
Rollover cable isnt used to connect any Ethernet connections together, but
Rollover cable can be used to connect a host to a router console serial communic
ation
(com) port.
NOTE: Straight cable and Cross cables are used for data transfer but Rollover
cables are not used for data transfer.
There are two methods for manufacturing Rollover cables:
Table 7 Colour Coding for Rollover Cable
568A
(one end)
568B
(other end)
(one end)
(other end)

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Green/white
Brown
Orange/white
Brown
Green
Brown/white
Orange
Brown/white
Orange/white
Orange
Green/white
Green
Blue
Blue/white
Blue
Blue/white
Blue/white
Blue
Blue/white
Blue
Orange
Orange/white
Green
Green/white
Brown/white
Green
Brown/white
Orange
Brown

Green/white
Brown
Orange/white
3.4 OPERATING SYSTEM
3.4.1 Types of Operating Systems
(i) DOS (Desktop Operating System)
(ii) NOS (Network Operating System)
Table 8: Operating Systems
DOS
NOS
1. It is a desktop operating system.
1. It is a network operating system.
2. It is used in small networks.
2. It is used for large networks.
3. In this OS, there is less security.
3. In this OS, there is more security.
4. In this OS, all computers are clients.
4. In this OS, there are servers and
5. In this OS, MS-DOS, GUI package clients.
in
3.1, in 95, in 98, in ME comes.
5. In this OS in NT, in 2000, in
2003, LINUX, UNIX, Novell and
MAC comes.
3.4.1.1 Introduction to

indow 2003 Server

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
indow server 2003 (also referred to as IN 2k3) is a server operating system pr
oduced
by Microsoft. Introduced in 24th April 2003 as the successor to window 2000 serv
er, it is
considered by Microsoft to be the corner stone of its window server system line
of
business server products. An update version indow Server 2003 R2 was released
manufacturing on 6th dec, 2005. its successor window 2008 was released on 4th fe
b, 2008.
According to Microsoft, window server 2003 is more scalable and deliver better
performance than its predecessor window 2000.
Features of indow 2003
(i)
A significant improved version of Internet Information Service (IIS)
(ii)
Increased default security over previous version due to the built in firewall
and having most services disabled by default.
(iii)
Manage your server-a role management administrative tools that allow an
administrator to choose what functionality the server should provide.
(iv)
Improvement to Active Directory.
(v)
Improvement to Group Policy handling and Administration.
(vi)
Provides a Backup system to restore lost files.
(vii)
Improved disk management, including the ability to Backup from shadows of
files, allowing the Backup of open files.
(viii)
Improved security and command line tools which are part of Microsoft
initiative to bring a complete command shell to the next version of window.
(ix)
Support for a hard based atch Dog Timer, which can restart the server if
the operating system does not suspend with in a certain amount of time.
Removed Features

The ability of creating server disk automated system recovery (ASR) is used
instead .

Edition of indow 2003


indow server 2003 comes in a number of editions, each targeted towards a
particular size and type of business. In general, all variant of window server 2
003

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
have the ability to share files and printers, act as application server and host
message queue, provide email services, authenticate users, act as an X.509
certificate server, provide LDAP (Light eight Directory Access Protocol)
services, serve streaming media, and to perform other server-oriented functions.
3.5
DNS SERVER
DNS stands for domain name system. DNS system is a standard technology
for managing the names of websites and other internet domains. DNS techniques al
lows
you to type names into your web browser like computer networking, about computer
and
allow your computer to automatically find that address on internet. DNS is the r
esolution
mechanism used by indow Server 2003 clients to find other computers and service
s
running on those computers for computers in a window 2003 network infrastructure
to
talk to one another, one of the key ingredients is the DNS server .Host name alo
ne do not
communicate globally but communicate locally, but if domain name is added along
with
it then the host name can communicate globally. DNS is use for name reservation
i.e. to
convert IP address to host name and host name to IP address or the function of D
NS is to
resolve host name such as www.yahoo.com to an IP address. User identify only use
r
friendly name and all computers and technologies identify IP address and MAC add
ress
DNS is use to solve this problem because DNS is used to convert host name FQDN (
fully
qualified domain name) to IP address and IP address to host name .
3.5.1 PARTS OF DNS SYSTEM
(i)
Host name
(ii)
Domain name

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
(iii)
FQDN
(iv)
Namespace
(v)
DNS server
3.5.1.1 HOST NAME
Host name is a computer name and is also called is NetBIOS (network basic
Input/ output system) name. NetBIOS is actually an application layer protocol th
at can
use the transport services of TCP/ IP when used in routed network. A NetBIOS nam
e is
16- byte addresses that identify a NetBIOS resource on the network.
3.5.1.2 DOMAIN NAME
Domain name is used to identifies the internet site one can identifies the locat
ion
without having to remember the IP address of every location e.g. yahoo.com or
gmail.com
3.5.1.3 FQD
FQDN means fully qualified domain name which represents a hostname appended to t
he
parent name space in hierarchy. Also in fully qualified domain name different le
vels of
namespace are visualize as in fig below this hierarchy is visualized the root lev
el
namespace, top level domain, and so on, in use throughout the internet today. Lef
t most
portion of the FQDN is the host portion of the name. A host name is alias we giv
e to an
IP address.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Fig 6:To find location of a computer using FQDN
FQDN is a unique name in the computer on the network. e can identify host id an
d
location of a computer as in fig above. Suppose we want to find location of pc1
with
IP address 20.0.0.1, which is in lab2, 2nd floor in the organization center. The
FQDN
for this is
Pc1.row3.lab2.floor2.center.com
But this address is very lengthy to locate pc1 so to simplify this we use c name
technique as:
Pc1.center.com=20.0.0.1
3.5.1.4 Domain Namespace
DNS operates in what is known as DNS namespace. The DNS namespace is an
organized, hierarchical division of DNS names. Domain namespace enable users to
easily
locate the network services and resources. The domain namespace include the root
domain, the top level domain of the organization and organize these domain in a
hierarchical tree structure. Namespace works on the hierarchical tree structure
of root
domain. There are total 13 root domain working in the internet, they are A, B, C
, D, E, F,
G, H, I, J, K, L and M. There is one root domain, which acts as the starting poi
nt of the

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
fully qualified domain names. This root domain is designated with a dot (.). Fig
6.2
shows the tree structure or domain namespace.
Fig 7: Tree structure or Domain Namespace
3.5.1.5 DNS server
Any computer providing domain namespace is a DNS server. DNS server is used to
convert host name FQDN into IP address and IP address into host name FQDN. To st
ore
the name-to-IP-addresses mappings so crucial to network communication, name serv
er
uses zone files.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
3.5.2 DNS Zone
Zone is the part of DNS database that contain record of domain or multiple domai
n.
If the domains represents logical division of the DNS namespace, zones represent
s the
physical separation of the DNS namespace. In other words information about recor
ds of
the resources within DNS domain is stored in a zone files, and this zone files e
xist on
hard drive of server. Zone files are divided into one of two basic types:
3.5.2.1

Forward lookup zone: Provides host-name-to-IP-address resolution

Reverse lookup zone: Provides IP-address-to-host-name resolution


Resource record stored in a zone file
Each record stored in a zone file has a specific purpose. Some of the records se
t the
behavior of the name server, others have the job of resolving a host name or ser
vice into
an IP table.
(i)
NS (Name Server):
These specify the name servers that are authoritative for a given portion
of DNS namespace. These records are essential when DNS servers are performing
iterative queries to perform name resolution.
(ii)
SOA (Start of Authority):
This resource record indicates the name of origin for the zone contains the name
of the server that is the primary source for information about the zone. The inf
ormation in
an SOA record affect how often transfer of the zone are done between servers
authoritative for the zone. It is also used to store other properties such as ve
rsion
information and timings that affect zone renewal or expiration.
(iii)
CNAME (Canonical Name):
CNAME can be used to assign multiple names of a single IP address.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
For example, the server hosting the site www.abc.com is probably not named www,
but a
CNAME record exist resolution of www to an IP address all the same. The CNAME
record actually points not to an IP address, but to an existing A record in the
zone.
3.5.2.2 Steps to Install and configure DNS server

Start control panel add and remove program

Add remove window components

Select networking services and click on detail button

Check box of DNS server

Ok and finish
3.5.2.3 Creating a Forward Lookup Zone

Statically fill the IP address

Start administrator tools

DNS right click on forward lookup zone

New zone next

Select primary zone next

Enter zone name (abc.com) next

Tick Allow both secure and non secure updates and secure dynamic
updated

next next

now click on created zone (abc.com)

new host enter host name for global level (i.e by entering www) fill IP
address of the web server , click on add button

enter another host name, a blank host with same IP i.e do not fill its host name
steps to change SOA and NS records

Right click on SOA records properties

Fill primary server e.g (www.abc.com) responsible person

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/

host master.abc.com apply ok

right click on NS records

click on add button enter FQDN www.abc.com

resolve ok apply ok
Now go to start menu
ping abc.com
On Client Side To access DNS server fill IP address of server then use ping comm
and
e.g
ping www.abc.com
3.5.2.3
Creating a Reverse Lookup Zone

Right click on reverse lookup zone

New zone next select primary zone next

fill Network ID next next

Select allow both non secure and non secure dynamic updates

Finish

Right click on created reverse zone new pointer

enter host IP number e.g (50.0.0.50)


enter FQDN (www.chd.com)
3.5.2.4 Some DNS Commands
(i) c:>tracert www.yahoo.com
command is used to check the path , a data packet follow from one router
to another router.
(ii) c:>nslookup
command display the domain name with IP (works only when reverse lookup
zone is set up).
(iv)
c:>ipconfig /all
This command display FQDN, IP address, MAC address.
(iv) c:>ipconfig /flushdns

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
This command flush or clear all the information in the cache that is retrieved
from DNS server.
(v) c:>ipconfig /displaydns
Display the current contents or entries in the cache.
(vi)
c:>ip config /register
register any DNS name
3.6 DHCP SERVER
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a protocol that allocates IP addre
ss to
computer on a network. DHCP centralized the management of IP address allocation
and
reduces human error associated with manual IP configuration. DHCP server supplie
s all
the necessary networking param-eters. Two things are always handed out as a part
of
DHCP configuration: IP address and subnet mask. Further DHCP will frequently
configure clients with optional values, such as a default gateway, DNS server ad
dress,
and the address of a indow Internet Naming Server, if one is present. Scenario
showing
DHCP server IP address allocation.
3.6.1 orking of DHCP Server
(i)
DHCP Scope
(ii)
DHCP Super Scope
(iii)
Exclusion IP Range
(iv)
DHCP Lease Time
(v)
IP Reservation
DHCP Scope
Scope having the range of IP address for providing dynamic IP address to other
computer. A group of IP address within a scope is called as DHCP scope.
DHCP Super Scope
A super scope is used to combine two or more scopes each serving different subne
ts, and
can make the administration of several scopes on window 2003 DHCP server more
manageable. Using super scope you can group multiple scopes as a single administ
rative

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
entity that allows the client to lease from either one. ith this feature, a DHC
P server
can:

Support DHCP clients on a single physical network segment where multiple


logical IP networks are used. hen more than one logical IP network is used on
each physical subnet or network, such configuration is called multinets.

Support DHCP clients located on the far side of DHCP and BOOTP relay agent.

In multinet configuration, DHCP superscope can be used to group and activate


individual scope ranges of IP addresses used on your network. In this way , a
DHCP server computer can activate and provide leases from more than one scope
to clients on a single physical network.
Exclusion IP range
If you want to reserve some IP for any computer i.e if we want that from the ser
ies of
192.168.0.2 to 192.168.0.100 if we want that a series of IP addresses must not b
e
assigned automatically then at can be done using exclusive IP range.
DHCP Leased Time
DHCP lease time is validity of IP address. By default DHCP lease time is 8 days
minimum,1 day maximum 999 days, 23 hours to53 day.
ith in 8 days:After 80% of day clients demand new IP some times server refuse t
he client request.
After 87.5% of days it will retry, and if the server did not give the new IP add
ress then
the client will receive APIPA address (Automatic Private IP Address).
hen a DHCP client is unable to locate a DHCP server, the client picks out a ran
dom IP
address from the private APIPA address range of 169.254.*.*, with a subnet mask
of
255.255.0.0. The 169.254.*.* IP range is private because that network number is
not in
use on the internet, it is random because the client generates an arbitrary host
number for
that network.
The significance of APIPA is that DHCP client computers that cannot find a
DHCP server can still be assigned an IP address and communicate with other compu
ters
on the same subnet mask that also cannot find DHCP server. It allows communicati
on

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
when DHCP server is down or just plain not there. Note that APIPA does not assig
n a
default gateway, and therefore it cannot communicate with any computer that live
s on the
other side of a router.
IP Reservation
There are some DHCP clients that you want to be the DHCP clients, but you will a
lso
want to make sure that they get same IP address every time. This can be done by
statically filling the IP address. e can reserve IP address with the help of MA
C address
for a particular computer.
Installation Steps of DHCP Server
3.6.2

start control panel

add and remove program add and remove window components

select networking services and click on detail button

check box of DHCP server

ok finish
3.6.2.1
Steps To Configure DHCP Server

start program administrative tool

select DHCP

create new scope in action menu new scope next

give scope name next

give IP address range next

add exclusion name next

check lease duration next finish


After DHCP server is configured, it is required to be authorized and DHCP scope
should be active. For that select DHCP server and click on authorize in action m
enu.
Then right click on scope name and click on active.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
3.6.2.2
On Client Side

Go to LAN card properties select TCP/IP protocol properties

Select obtain IP address automatically

Go to command prompt (cmd)

Give command
3.6.2.3
Backup of DHCP Server
e can take backup of all the configuration in DHCP server with the help of
administrator. Backup means to export the DHCP database to another system, as it
is
helpful in case due to any reason our data is corrupted or deleted, we can take
our
database from the place where it is stored. Steps of taking backup :

Stop the DHCP server and disable the DHCP server services

Copy the DHCP server directory to a temporary location, say pen drive or
on a new DHCP server.
3.6.3 DHCP Relay Agent
The DHCP relay agent is a software that listen DHCP discover packet and forward
to
DHCP server. In window 2003 server system the DHCP relay agent can be enabled as
a
part of Routing and Remote Access (RRAS).
3.6.3.1 Steps To Configure DHCP Relay Agent

Set the network, fill the IP address and select two LAN cards

Open Routing and Remote Access enable Routing and Remote Access

Right click on general new routing protocols


Select DHCP relay agent

New interface

Select LAN card which is to be connected to the cross cable i.e L1

Ok

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/

Right click on relay agent properties

Enter IP address of DHCP server

add apply ok
3.7
ACTIVE DIRECTORY
ith the release of indows 2000, Microsoft introduced Active Directory, a scala
ble,
robust directory service. Active Directory is used to create server based networ
king.
Active Directorys job is to store and make available a Directory database i.e inf
ormation
about the user, its class, name, address, mails, phone numbers, location.
Active Directory is a technology created by Microsoft that provides a variety of
network services like Directory Services, DNS based naming and other network
information. Active Directory also allows administrator to assign policies, depl
oy
software and apply critical updates to an organizations. Active Directory was pr
eviewed
in 1999, released first with window 2000 server edition and revised to extend fu
nctionally
and improve administration in indow 2003. Additional improvements were made in
indow server 2003 and indow server 2008.
The fundamental building block of Microsofts Directory services continues to be a
domain. A domain is logically grouping of network resources, including shares, p
rinters,
groups and users accounts. The user account represents the individual to domain,
and
allows for different type of access and different types of tasks. Every users ac
count is
unique. It has uniqueness of the user account that allows administrator to contr
ol access
for every member of domain.
There are two types of users accounts: local account and domain account. Local
accounts are maintained in the local database of a computer and cannot be used t
o grant
access to network resources. Local users are primarily used to administer a comp
uter or
to allow several people to share a single computer that is not a member of a dom
ain.
hereas domain users accounts are much more widely used in organizations that lo
cal
user accounts because they allow for central administration and user can log ont
o any
computer in the domain. Domain users accounts are stored in Active Directory.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
3.7.1 Active Directory Services
A computer network can be divided logically into two networking models.

orkgroup

Domain
Difference Between
Table 9
orkgroup

orkgroup and Domain

Domain
1. It is a peer-to-peer networking 1. It is a server based networking model.
model.
2.there is a centralized dedicated server
2. There is no client and no server. computer
called
domain
controller
(DC)which controls all other computers
All computers are in equal status.
called clients.
3.This model is recommended for
3. This model is recommended for large
small networks (upto 10 pcs).
networks.
4. There is no centralized Administration
and
each
PC
is 4. There is centralized administration
administrated separately.
and each PC can be administrated and
managed from the server.
5.In this model, low grade operating
system like 2000/xp professional, 5.In this model high grade operating
win 98 etc can be used.
system ,like win2000/2003 server are

used.
6. orkgroup can be given names
like sales, HR, accounts etc.
6. Domain can also given names like
abc.com, xyz.com etc.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
7 Users accounts are created in each
PC and are called as Local Users.
7.Users accounts are created on sever
side DC and are called as Domain
Users.
Active Directory uses domain to hold objects, each domain has security boundary.
Users must authenticates to the domain in which their users account resides befo
re they
can access resources, such as a shared folders. Active Directory also links rela
ted
domains in a hierarchical structure and users can access resources in any of the
domain in
which their user account resides. The hierarchical structures of related domain
is called a
tree, and all domains in the tree share the same Domain Name System (DNS) namesp
ace.
All the domains and the trees in a single organization are called a forest. All
domains in
the forest share same schema.
3.7.1.1
Types of Domain

Domain Forest

Domain Tree

Organization unit
Domain Forest
A forest is created when window 2k3 server computer is configured as a domain
controller. A forest is a collection of multiple domain link together and relati
onship
between the domains.
Domain Tree
A domain tree is made up when there is a parent child relationship between the d
omain
in the forest. The child domain includes the complete parent domain name. a tree
is a set
of two or more domains sharing common namespace e.g we can create a parent domai
n
and then child domain like mail.yahoo.com; where mail- child domain, yahoo- pare
nt
domain.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Fig 8: Structure of domain forest and domain tree
Organization Unit (OU)
Organization unit is the smallest unit in a domain network that can contain user
s,
computer groups, shared folders, printers and group policy object in simple word
s. OU
means department like sale department, accounts department like sales, accounts
in a
company OU can be used to apply different security policies to computer and user
s in
different department. OU also helps in dividing administration among different
administrator of managing only computer and users of sales department.
3.7.1.2
Types of Domain Controller
(i)
PDC : Primary domain controller
(ii)
ADC : Additional domain controller
(iii)
BDC : Backup domain controller

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Primary Domain Controller (PDC)
This is the first domain controller, in this domain all entries are created in i
t like
users account, group policy, Organization unit etc. All FSMO role are done in PD
C.
Additional Domain Controller (ADC)
It is a domain network, it is important to have more than one DC so that if one
DC fails, the other DC will continue serving the client. There is also load bala
ncing of
Active Directory Service if we have more than one DC.
The first DC we create is simply called PDC and if we create an extra DC then
that DC is known as ADC. ADC has same configuration of AD as primary domain
controller.
All domain controllers in a domain networking are masters. e can make a
change in the active directory of any domain controller and that change is repli
cated to all
other domain controllers. Replication takes place among all the domain controlle
rs and it
is controlled automatically. If we create a user in the first domain controller,
it is
automatically created in the ADC because of replication.
All the domain controllers in the domain networking are peers and this model is
called as multi- master model .
Fig 9: Multi-Master Model
3.7.1.3 Requirements of Active Directory
(i)
indow 2000/2003 server computer.
(ii)
Atleast one NTFS partition.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
(iii)
Static IP address
(iv)
Atleast 1GB free hard disk space
(v)
LAN card enabled and connected to the network
(vi)
Install DNS, if not installed of Active Directory and configure it.
It should be noted that active directory cannot work without DNS.DNS is
automatically installed and configured during the Active Directory installation.
3.7.1.4 Installation of Active Directory
First of all fill the static IP address, then install DNS service into it and af
ter that
install the Active Directory

start run dcpromo

Ok

elcome to active directory next next

Select domain controller for a new domain e.g (gmail.com)

Next

Domain NETBIOS name (gmail.com)

Next

Data folder, folder new tech directory service next (SYS VOL)

Next


Click on install and configure the DNS server on this computer to use this
DNS server as its preferred DNS server.

Tick on permission compatible only with window server

Next

Enter the restore mode and the password

next next finish

now restart computer


Command used for the removal of Active Directory

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
start run dcpromo
This command is also used to remove active directory, if after this command the
active directory is not removed then type

startrun

cmddcpromo /forceremoval

Ok
How to identify Active Directory installation

Start administrator tool


After that if three options specified if come, it means that Active Directory
has been
Active
Active
Active
Open DNS

installed
Directory domain and trusts
Directory sites and services
Directory users and computer
console by

Administrator toolsDNS

Forward lookup zone


msdcs.exam.edu
start of authority (SOA)
name server (NS)
Now ping active directory with domain name like

start run ping gmail.com


Backup of Active Director
Active Directory backup come in use when there is some problem in active directo
ry. If
there is any problem in active directory then remove it and restore the backup.

Start runntbackupok

Select advance mode and untick that is already ticked

Select backup

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/

Selsct system state

Change backup path browse keep in your hardware and then send it to the
pen drive

D:\adbackup
3.7.2 CHILD DOMAIN
A domain is created say xyz.com. this domain is known as parent domain or the
root domain. Now chd.xyz.com will be the child domain or the sub domain of xyz.com
.
Fig 10 : parent-child relationship model
A child domain is created to ease administration in a very large domain network.
e can
create the parent domain in the head office of the company and the child domain
in the
branch offices.
Each branch office will have its own administrator to manage the users of the
child domain present in the branch office.
A true relationship is automatically created between the parent domain and the
child domain. This means users in the child domain can access the file server of
the

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
parent domain. Moreover users of either domain can use clients of either domain
for
logging in the domain but a user can always logon only in the domain in which hi
s
account resides, though he physically can use client pc of parent or client doma
in. Users
of either domain can logon its own domain from either side but only when it use
its own
domain name. users of parent domain can communicate with child domain but he has
to
use its domain name for that.
3.7.2.1
Steps to create child domain
First of all install the active directory on pc1 i.e on the parent domain. Now m
ake Tom
user on it. On pc2 create the child domain, then make users on it, user- Ram
Below are the steps to cerate child domain.

Fill the IP address in the child domain

Now ping to the parent domain with the domain name (xyz.com)

Run dcpromo ok

next select domain controller for a new domain

next select child domain and existing domain name (mcse.com)

next

enter username, password and domain name

enter user parent domain name also enter child domain name

enter complete DNS name i.e xyz.mcse.com

next next next next

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
it should be noted that parent domain can logon into child domain but on the oth
er
hand child domain cannot logon to the parent domain. Also parent domain can appl
y
policies or security on the child domain.
Make the client member by entering particular user with its domain name.

First right click on My Computer

Properties

Computer name

Change

rite domain name ok


Now logoff start and then write user name - Tom
Domain name - mcse.com
Again logoff and check the other user
Start-user name- abc
Domain name mail.mcse.com
3.8
INTERNET SHAREING
e can share a single internet connection to multiple computers with the help of
networking or internet sharing. There are four ways to share internet.
(i)
Direct sharing
(ii)
ICS Internet connection sharing
(iii)
in Proxy
(iv)
NAT Network Address Translation
3.8.1 Direct Sharing
Internet sharing can be done between computers directly, just by taking internet
connection directly from ISP (Internet Server provider), then it is provided to
ADSL

model, ADSL modem is connected to the ISP through RJ-11 connector. Then it is

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
connected to the switch with RJ-45 connector. Switch, further connects computers
those
have to be provided with internet connection. The scenario for direct sharing is
as shown
in figure:
Fig: 11: Direct Sharing Scenario
ADSL modem has IP address 192.168.1.1. All the PCs are assigned with a DNS
(Domain Name Server) and G (gateway) -192.168.1.1. Also DHCP (Dynamic Host
Communication Protocol) is enabled which will provide IP addresses to the PCs
automatically.
3.8.2 ICS (Internet Connection Sharing)
Internet Connection sharing provides an alternate way to provide Internet Sharin
g.
ICS requires a server with two network interfaces, one for the private internal
network
configured with IP 192.168.0.1 address and an adapter for public connection. ICS
requires two connections in order to work: one public and one private i.e. ICS s
erver

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
requires two LAN cards, Internal (Private) and External (Public). Internal LAN c
ard uses
Local LAN card (L2) and External LAN card (L1) is used by Internet. ICS is desig
ned to
be as simple as possible. ICS works on following windows: XP, Vista, 2K3 Server,
2k3
Server SP1.it doesnt work on the server in which AD+SP1 is present. The scenario
for
ICS is shown below:
Fig 12: ICS scenario
Note:- hen we configure ICS then the local card detect 192.168.0.1 address
automatically.
How to configure ICS

Open network and sharing center

Network- Properties

Click on Manage network connections

Right click on LAN Card which is used for internet- Properties

Click on sharing

Enable ICS

Ok

yes

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
3.8.3 in Proxy Server
in Proxy is a third party software which is used for sharing internet and we ca
n
also block the web site with the help of win proxy. IN Proxy supports all the t
hree
classes A, B, C also it is supported by all operating systems. The scenario for
IN proxy
is shown below:
Fig 13: scenario of win proxy server
In win proxy as shown in the scenario above we can share internet. First of all
a ADSL
modem is connected to the ISP (Internet Service Provider) by a RJ-11 connector a
nd
other end of ADSL modem is connected to the PC1 through RJ-45. Assign IP address
192.168.1.1 to the ADSL modem also enable the DHCP server and set the start IP
address of 192.168.1.2 and end IP address of 192.168.1.254. Then after ADSL mode
m
connect PC1, assign G 192.168.1.1 and
3.8.4 NAT (Network Address Translation)
If we have to connect many computers with a single IP address then we will use N
AT.
NAT exchange IP packet between local network and internet. The routing and remot
e
access server of window 2K3 server provide us with a component known as NAT. By
enabling NAT on a Server 2003 system, you allow connected users on a private sys
tem to

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
share a single connection to access a public network such as the internet i.e. N
AT enable
multiple client computer to connect the internet through a single publicly regis
tered IP
address. A NAT server translate private IP address to public addresses. NAT elim
inates
the need for large number of IP addresses by mapping externally assigned IP addr
esses.
Fig 14: NAT server
hen deploying NAT, it is needed to configure setting on both the client side
and the server side. On the server side of NAT fill the IP address statically.
3.8.4.1 Steps to enable NAT server
.

Open internet Tools Internet options

connections LAN settings

untick the IP and port address

ok ok give site name


On the client side of NAT, client side is configured to obtain IP addresses
automatically and then restart the client system. Assuming NAT is used for addre
ss
assignment, the client system will receive TCP/IP information from the NAT serve
r. The
client information includes:

IP address from 192.168.0.0 private addressing range

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/

Subnet mask (255.255.255.0)

DNS server address, which would be the address of the NAT interface
on the server.
ith the client side configured, there are few things to do on NAT server:
The first step to configure NAT server is to actually install the Routing and Re
mote
Access Services. To do this, start the Routing and Remote Access Service Setup
izard.

Start administrator tools Routing & Remote Access

Right click on My Computer right click on computer name

Select option Configure and enable routing & remote access

elcome to routing next next

Select NAT next

Select LAN card which is to be connected to internet

next next
From any of the four methods of internet sharing only method is used at a
time to remove the other method

go to start setting

add & remove

change/ remove, tick on remove.


3.9 VIRTUAL PRIVATE NET ORK (VPN)
A virtual private network is used to convert public network address to private

network. All the clients of VPN dial to public IP address of VPN server and rece
ive
private IP from virtual VPN dynamic host protocol (DHCP).in VPN one can have
multiple virtual connections to a single IP address. This way ,one network card
can host
several inbound connections, rather than require a modem and telephone line for
each
simultaneous remote user.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Fig 15 : scenario of VPN server
Using VPN server we can connect many private networks to internet services i.e t
he
remote connection. e can create a private network through public network, we ca
n use
firewall for security and data encryption in VPN server.
3.9.1 VPN components
(i)
VPN server
(ii)
VPN Clients
(iii)
AN Option
(iv)
Security Options
VPN Server
VPN server, serve as the end points of a VPN connection. hen configuring a
VPN server, you can allow access to just that server, or pass traffic through VP
N server
so that the remote user gain access the resources of the entire network.
VPN Client
VPN clients establish connection to VPN server. They can also be routers that
obtain the router-to-router secure connection. VPN client software is included i
n all the
modern window operating systems, including indow 2003 server. Router-to router
VPN connection can be made from computers running server2003 and indows 2000

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
running Routing and Remote Access. Additionally, any client that support PPTP or
L2TP connections can be VPN clients of a window server 2003 system.
AN Options
These provide the physical mechanism for passing data back and forth. These
connections typically include such similar network technologies such as T1or fra
me
relay. In order for VPN connections to be successful, the VPN client and VPN ser
ver
must be connected to each other using either permanent AN connection or by dial
ing
into an internet server provider (ISP).
Security Options
Since a VPN uses a network that is generally open to the public, it is important
that the data passed over the connection remain secure. To aid with secure
communication routing and remote access supports such security measure as logon
and
domain security, data encryption, smart cards, IP packet filtering and caller ID
.
3.9.2 Types of VPN
(i)
PPTP (Point to Point Tunneling Protocol )
(ii)
L2TP (Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol) according to CCNA.
Point to Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP)
PPTP is Microsofts legacy protocol for supporting VPN. It was developed in
conjunction with other communications companies such as Robotics as an extension
to
the PPP protocol. PPTP encapsulates IP or IPX packets inside of PPP datagrams. Th
is
means that you can remotely run programs that are dependent upon particular netw
ork
protocols. One of the keys to remember about PPTP is that the protocol provides
encryption capabilities, making it much safer to send information over nonsecure
networks.
Layer Two Tunneling Protocol (L2TP)
L2TP is a standard based encapsulation protocol with roughly the same
functionality as a Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP). One of the key diff
erences

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
between indows server 2003 implementation of L2TPand it cousin PPTP is that
L2TPis designed to run natively over IP networks only. This implementation of L2
TP
does not support native tunneling over X.25, frame relay, or ATM networks. Like
PPTP,
L2TPencapsulates Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) frames, which then encapsulate IP
or
IPX protocols, allowing users to remotely run programs that are dependent on spe
cific
network protocols . But unlike the PPTP protocol, L2TP does not provide encrypti
on of
the data. For data security L2TPrelies on the services of another standards- bas
ed
protocol, IPSec.
3.9.3
How to configure VPN

startadministrative tools

Routing and Remote access

Right click on computer name configure and enable Routing and Remote
access

next select remote access (dial up or VPN)

next VPN next

select LAN card which is connected to internet (172.15.15.50) public IP

disable enable security next

from a specific range of address nextnew

enter the required range

oknext no radius

next finish
3.9.4
Create users in VPN server

open user properties dial in allow access

apply ok
3.9.5
orking on Client Side

Right click on My Network Places properties

Double click on New Network izard next

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/

Connect to network at my work place next

Virtual private network connection next

Enter company name (abc) next

Enter public IP address of VPN server next

Any one use next

finish
3.10
ROUTING
It is a process of transferring information through an inter network i.e from on
e
network to another. Routing connect different networks having ID help in process
of
routing. The dial-in properties also allow for specific IP address to be assigne
d to a user.
This is the only way in indow Server 2003 that you can assign a specific IP to
a user.
To assign a specific IP to a user, check the box next to assign A Static IP Addr
ess and
enter a valid IP in the space provided. Static routing can also be specified as
per user. By
defining static routes, users can be limited to only specific parts of networks.
In an internetwork a router must then about all the networks present in the for
effort websites, there are hardware routers like CISCO. Even win 2003 server com
puter
configured as router. In simple words Router is a computer with two network card
s.
These two network cards, then, are attached to two different logical IP networks
. The
routing table helps direct traffic that is passed through the router.
Now when there is a router, also there is a routing table, there is a need to
configure the router in order for that router to pass along traffic to the prope
r network.
There are two ways the routing table can be built and modified: either manually
or
automatically.
3.10.1 Types of Routing
(i)

Static Routing
(ii)
Dynamic Routing

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
3.10.1.1 Static Routing
In this routing information required for routing is manually entered into the ro
uter
by administrator.
How to configure LAN routing

Enter the static IP in the router

Administrator tools

Routing and Remote access

Right click on computer name (pcc1)

Configure and enable routing and remote access

next custom configuration

select LAN routingnext finish

yes and logon to see IP table route


Enable LAN routing
Interface AN
IP 172.15.0.0
SNM 255.255.0.0
G 20.0.0.2
enable LAN routing
Interface AN 10.0.0.0
IP 10.0.0.0
SNM 255.0.0.0
G 20.0.0.1
Fig 16 : scenario for LAN routing
How to configure static routing

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
At Router R1:

enable LAN routing

right click on static route

interface AN

destination 172.15.0.0

mask 255.255.0.0

G 20.0.0.2
At Router R2:

Enable LAN routing

Right click on static route

Interface AN

Destination 10.0.0.0

Mask 255.0.0.0

G 20.0.0.1
Fig 17 : static routing
3.10.1.2 Dynamic Routing

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
The other way to manage a router routing tables is to let the computer do it
for you. Just like DHCP allocate IP addresses, configuring the dynamic routing
protocol usually means less errors due to human error, and less administrative
overhead.
In dynamic routing, routing information is automatically entered in the
router using protocols like RIP AND OSPF. These routing protocols used by
indow Server 2003 use one of two kinds of algorithms to determine the best
possible path for a packet to get to its destination, either distance vector or
link
state. RIP is used for small networks where as OSPF is used for large networks.
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
The distance vector protocol in use on indow 2003 is called Routing
Information Protocol (RIP) for IP. This protocol was designed for the exchange o
f
the routing information within a small to medium size IP network.
hen Router is enabled on indow 2003 machine, the routing table includes
entries only for the networks that are physically connected. hen RIP is enabled
for an interface, the router will periodically send an announcement of its routi
ng
table to inform other RIP routers of the networks it can reach. RIP version1 use
s
broadcast packets for its announcement. RIP version2 offers an improvement and
can be configured to use either multicast or broadcast packets when
communicating with other routers. Also, RIP version2 offers more flexibility in
subnetted and classless inter domain routing (CIDR) environments.
The biggest advantage of RIPis its simplicity. ith a few clicks in the Routing
and Remote Access Server and MMC console, you can deploy RIP. ith the RIP
dynamic routing protocol installed on indows Server 2003, you get the
following features:
(i)
RIP version1 and version2, with the ability to configure individual
network cards with separate versions.
(ii)
Calculations used to avoid routing loops and speed recovery of the
network whenever topology changes occur.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
(iii)
Route filters; you can configure RIP to except information from
only certain networks, and also choose which routes will be shared
with RIP routers.
(iv)
Peer filters, which allow control over which router announcements
are accepted.
(v)
Simple password authentication support.
But there are significant drawbacks, which makes RIP a poor, if not unusable
solution for large networks. For example, the maximum hop count used for RIP rou
ters
is15, making network 16 hops away (or more) unreachable where RIP is concerned.
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
here RIP is built to work to work in smaller networks, the Open Shortest Path
First (OSPF) routing protocol is designed for large or very large networks. The
goal is the
same: information about connection to other networks is shared from one router t
o
another. It offers several advantages over RIP, especially significant in large
networks:
(i)
Routes calculated with OSPF are always loop free.
(ii)
OSPF can scale much more easily than RIP.
(iii)
Reconfiguration for network topology changes is faster.
The biggest reason OSPF is the choice in large networks is its efficiency; inste
ad
of changing routing table via broadcast the way RIP does, OSPF configured router
s
maintain a map of the network. The mapping is called the link state database, OS
PF
routers keep the link state database up to date. Once changes have been made to
link state
database, an OSPF routers link state database is recalculated.
As the networks start to multiply, the size of the link state database increases
, and
a corresponding hit on router performance results. To combat this, OSPF sub divi
de the
network into smaller sections, called areas. Areas are connected to each other t
hrough a
backbone area, with each router only responsible for the link state database for
those
areas connected to the routers. Area Border Routers (ABRs) then connect one back
bone

area to another.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
The biggest drawback of OSPF is its complexity; OSPF requires proper planning
and is more difficult to configure and administer.
3.11 EXCHANGE SERVER
Exchange server is a mail server, we can send and receive mail from one user to
another
user. Exchange server is the mail server of Microsoft.
3.11.1 Elements of Exchange Server
Mail Server
A server which helps to the users to send and receive mail is called mail server
.
Mail Box
A storage place where senders and receivers mails are stored.
3.11.2
Exchange Version
Table 10: Exchange Server with different operating systems
Exchange Version
Operating System
Exchange Server 5.5
IN NT or 2000 server (without SP).
Exchange Server 2000
IN NT or 2000 server (SP3,SP4)
without (SP).
Exchange Server 2003
IN 2000 Server or IN2003 server
(SP4) without SP.
Exchange server 2007
IN2003 server or R2/ IN 2008
server with SP1.
here SP stands for Service Pack. Service Pack are the services which are loaded
externally to remove some bugs that come during installation of server CD.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
3.11.3 Requirements for Exchange Server
Protocols Required

POP3 (Post Office Protocol)


This protocol is used for receiving e- mails.

IMAE4 (Internet Messaging Access Protocol)


This protocol is advance version of POP, this is also used to receive mail.

LMTP (Local Mail Transfer Protocol)/SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)


This protocol is used to send mails.

NNTP (Network News Transfer protocol)


This protocol is used for transferring messages on internet.
Hardware Requirements

Processor: min. 133MHz Rec. 733MHz

RAM:
min. 256MB
Rec. 512MB
Other Requirements

OS: 2k or 2k3 Server

NTFS partition

Static IP address

Active Directory

DNS installation with AD zone

IIS installed with ASP.net, SMTP, NNTP and www service


3.12 Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model
OSI model is the layer approach to design, develop and implement network. OSI
provides following advantages: (i)
Development of new technology will be faster.
(ii)
Devices from multiple vendors can communicate with each other.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
(iii)
Implementation and troubleshooting of network will be easy.
3.12.1 Description of Different Layers
Application Layer
Application layer accepts data and forward into the protocol stack. It creates u
ser
interface between application software and protocol stack.
Presentation Layer
This layer decides presentation format of the data. It also able to performs oth
er
function like compression/decompression and encryption/decryption.
Session Layer
This layer initiate, maintain and terminate sessions between different applicati
ons.
Due to this layer multiple application software can be executed at the same time
.
Transport Layer
Transport layer is responsible for connection oriented and connection less
communication. Transport layer also performs other functions like
(i)
Error checking
(ii)
Flow Control
Buffering
indowing
Multiplexing
(iii)
Sequencing
(iv)
Positive Acknowledgement
(v)
Response
(vi)
Network Layer
This layer performs function like logical addressing and path
determination. Each networking device has a physical address that is MAC
address. But logical addressing is easier to communicate on large size network.
Logical addressing defines network address and host address. This type of
addressing is used to simplify implementation of large network. Some

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
examples of logical addressing are: - IP addresses, IPX addresses etc.
Network layer has different routing protocols like RIP, EIGRP, BGP, and
ARP etc. to perform the path determination for different routing protocol.
Network layer also perform other responsibilities like defining quality of servi
ce,
fragmentation and protocol identification.
Data Link Layer
The functions of Data Link layer are divided into two sub layers

Logical Link Control

Media Access Control


(i)
Logical Link Control defines the encapsulation that will be used by the
NIC to delivered data to destination. Some examples of Logical Link
Control are ARPA (Ethernet), 802.11 wi-fi.
(ii)
Media Access Control defines methods to access the shared media and
establish the identity with the help of MAC address. Some examples of
Media Access Control are CSMA/CD, Token Passing.
Physical Layer
Physical Layer is responsible to communicate bits over the media this
layer deals with the standard defined for media and signals. This layer may also
perform
modulation and demodulation as required.
3.13 ROUTERS

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
13.13.1 Router Architecture and its Key Component
LAN
Processor
I/O
Controller
Memory
Controller
RAM
BIOS
ROM
AN
Ports
Flash
RAM
O/S
Incomplete
IOS
IOS
NVRAM
Startup Configuration
Fig 18 : Architecture of router
Processor
Speed: - 20 MHz to 1GHz
Architecture: - RISC
Reduce Instruction set computer
Manufacturers: - Motorola, IBM, Power PC, Texas, Orion, Intel.
Flash RAM
Flash memory is just like a hard copy of the computer. Flash RAM is the
permanent read/write memory. This memory is used to store one or more copies
of router O/S. Router O/S is also called IOS (Internetwork Operating System).The
size of Flash RAM in the router is 4MB to 256MB. This memory is Electrically
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM).
NVRAM
NVRAM is a Non Volatile Random Access Memory. It is used to store
the startup configuration of the Router. It is on chip RAM, its size is 32kb.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
RAM (Random Access Memory)
It is a volatile memory. All the activities we do are stored in RAM,this means t
hat
it holds the running configuration. RAM of the router is divided into two logica
l
parts.

Primary RAM

Shared RAM
Primary RAM
Primary RAM is used for: (i)
Running copy of IOS.
(ii)
Running configuration
(iii)
Routing table
(iv)
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) table (IP address to MAC
address)
(v)
Processor & other data structure
Shared RAM
Shared RAM is used as a buffer memory to shared the data received from
different interfaces. Size of RAM in a router may vary from 2 MB to 512 MB.
The types of memory that may be present in a RAM are:
(i)
DRAM -> Dynamic RAM
(ii)
EDORAM -> Extended Data Out RAM
(iii)
SDRAM -> Synchronous Dynamic RAM
ROM (Random Access Memory)
It has four components:

POST (Power on Self Test)


It performs hardware testing.


BOOT Strap
Boot strap specifies from where and which inter operating system is to be
loaded.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/

Mini IOS
Cisco 2500, 1600

ROM MO
333333
Router Interfaces & Ports
Interface is used to connect LAN networks or wan networks to the router.
Interface will use protocol stacks to send/receive data. Ports are used for the
configuration of routers. Ports are not used to connect different networks. The
primary
purpose of port is the management of router.
33333333
Router Interface
Table 11: Router interfaces and connectors
AUI Attachment Unit Interface
EPABX Electronic Private Automatic Branch
PSTN Public Services Telephone Network
3.13.2.2 Router Ports
Table 12: Router Ports

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
333333
Modes of Router
hen we access router command prompt the router will display different modes.
According to the modes, privileges and rights are assigned to the user.
User mode
Router>
In this mode, we can display basic parameter and status of the router we can tes
t
connectivity and perform telnet to other devices. In this mode we are not able t
o change
and save router configuration.
Privileged mode
Router#
In this mode, we can display all information, configuration, perform administrat
ion task,
debugging, testing and connectivity with other devices. e are not able to perfo
rm here
configuration editing of the router.
The command to enter in this mode is enable. e have to enter enable
password or enable secret password to enter in this mode. Enable secret has more
priority

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
than enable password. If both passwords are configured then only enable secret w
ill
work.
Global configuration
Route(config)#
This mode is used for the configuration of global parameters in the router. Glob
al
parameters applied to the entire router. All the changes are performed in this m
ode. But
here we cannot see and save the changes.
For e.g: - router hostname or access list of router, password, Banner, Routing,
Security.
The command to enter in this mode is configure terminal
Line configuration mode
In this mode we can set the password of the user mode, i.e to set user mode
password .This mode is used to configure lines like console, vty and auxiliary.
There are
main types of line that are configured.
(i)
Console
Router(config)#line console 0
(ii) Auxiliary
Router(config)#line aux 0
(iii) Telnet or vty
Router(config)#line vty 0 4
Interface configuration mode
In this mode we can set ip addresses of the interfaces. This mode is used to
configure router interfaces. For e.g:- Ethernet, Serial, BRI etc.
Router(config)#interface <type> <number>
Router(config)#interface serial 1
Routing configuration mode
This mode is used to configure routing protocol like RIP, EIGRP, OSPF etc.
Router(config)#router <protocol> [<option>]

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Router(config)#router rip
Router(config)#router eigrp 10
333333
Configuring Password
There are five types of password available in a router
Console Password
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line console 0
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit
To erase password do all steps with no command.
Vty Password
router>enable
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line vty 0 4
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit
Auxiliary Password
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line Aux 0
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit
Enable Password
router>enable
router#configure terminal

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
router(config)#enable password <word>
router(config)#exit
Enable Secret Password
Enable Password is the clear text password. It is stored as clear text in
configuration where as enable secret password is the encrypted password.
Router>enable
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#enable secret <word>
Router(config)#exit
Encryption all passwords
All passwords other than enable secret password are clear text password. The
command to encrypt all password are
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#service password-encryption
3.13.5 Managing Configuration
There are two types of configuration present in a router
(i)
Startup Configuration
(ii)
Running Configuration
Startup configuration is stored in the NVRAM. Startup configuration is used to
save settings in a router. Startup configuration is loaded at the time of bootin
g in to the
Primary RAM.
Running Configuration is present in the Primary RAM wherever we run a
command for configuration, this command is written in the running configuration.
To save configuration
Router#copy running-configuration startup-configuration
Or
Router#write

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
To abort configuration
Router#copy startup-configuration running-configuration
To display running-configuration
Router#show running-configuration
To display startup configuration
Router#show startup-configuration
Configuring Host Name
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#hostname <name>
<name>#exit or end or /\z
Router#config terminal
Router(config)#hostname r1
R1(config)#
Configuration Interfaces
Interfaces configuration is one of the most important part of the router
configuration. By default, all interfaces of Cisco router are in disabled mode.
e have to
use different commands as our requirement to enable and configure the interface.
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface <type> <no>
Router(config-if)#ip address <ip> <mask>
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config-if)#exit
To display interface status
Router#show interfaces (to show all interfaces)
Router#show interface <type> <no>
This command will display following parameters about an interface
(1)
Status

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
(2)
Mac address
(3)
IP address
(4)
Subnet mask
(5)
Hardware type / manufacturer
(6)
Bandwidth
(7)
Reliability
(8)
Delay
(9)
Load ( Tx load Rx load)
(10)
Encapsulation
(11)
ARP type (if applicable)
(12)
Keep alive
Configuring optional parameter on AN interface
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interfac <type> <no>
Router(config-if)#encapsulation <protocol>
Router(config-if)#clock rate <value>
Router(config-if)#end
Command displaying history of Router
To display commands present in history
Router#show history
To display history size
Router#show terminal

To change history size


Router#config terminal
Router(config)#line console 0
Router(config-if)#history size <value(0-256)>
Router(config-if)#exit

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Configuring Banners
Banners are just a message that can appear at different prompts according to the
type.
Different banners are:
Message of the day (motd)
This banner appear at every access method

Login
Appear before login prompt

Exec
Appear after we enter to the execution mode

Incoming
Appear for incoming connections
Syntax:Router#config terminal
Router(config)#banner
<type>
<delimation
char>Text
Massage
<delimation char>
Router(config)#
Example
Router#config terminal
Router(config)#banner motd $ This router is distribution 3600 router
connected to Reliance $
Router(config)#
To set time in router
e can configure router clock with the help of two methods:
(i)
Configure clock locally
(ii)
Configure clock on NTP server (Network Time Protocol)
Router does not have battery to save the clock setting. So that clock will reset
to the
default on reboot.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
To display clock
Router#show clock
To configure clock
Router#clock set hh:mm:ss day month year
Router#clock set 7:15:10 9 June 2009
To configure clock from NTP server
Router#config terminal
Router(config)#ntp server <IP address>
Router(config)#exit
C:\>ping pool.ntp.org
To get ntp server ip from internet
C:\>route print
3.14
SUBNETTING
Subnetting is a process or a technique to divide large and complex networks into
smaller parts or smaller networks and each network is called as subnet. Subnetti
ng is
done to reduce the wastage of IP addresses ie instead of having a single huge ne
twork for
an organization smaller networks are created within a given huge network. Subnet
ting
allows the user to create multiple logical networks within a single Class A, B o
r C based
networks.
In subnetting, the IPv4 address is broken into two parts; network id and host id
.
This process borrows bits from the host id field. In this process, the network s
ize does not
shrink but the size of hosts per network shrinks in order to include sub-network
s within
the network.
333333
Advantages of subnetting

Size of the physical networks is reduced and hence easy to manage.

Reduce network traffic.

Easy to troubleshoot.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/

Reduce the wastage of IP address.


Subnet Mask
A subnet mask specifies the part of IP address that is to be used for identifyin
g a
sub network. A subnet mask when logically ANDed with IPaddress provides a 32- bi
t
network address. This binary address gives the first address in the subnet block
specified
in the large network.
Default Mask
Classfull addresses consists of three classes; Class A, Class B, Class C used fo
r
subnet.Each class has a default subnet mask C lass A consists of eight 1s in the
network
address field and 24 0s in remaining field, Class B consists of 16 1s in network
address
field and 16 0s in remaining field, and Class C cointains 24 1s in the network a
ddress
field and remaining 8 bytes as 0s. the default address mask in binary and dotted
-decimal
is shown in the table
To Calculate the Subnet Mask
1. Identify the class of address assigned. For this example the class of IP addr
ess
is Class B.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
2. check the default address mask for the appropriate class and convert it to
binary format .for this example the default address mask is 255.255.0.0 and
the equivalent binary format is; 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
3. check the no. of 1s in the default mask. E.g this address contains 16 1s in c
lass
B, 16 bits 2 octat are for net id and the last 16 bits 2 octates are for host id
.
4. now if we need 9 subnets. This no. 9 is not a power of 2. the next no. that i
s
power of 2 and greater than 2 is 16. So, we require 4 extra 4 extra 1s in the
network field which has to be borrowed from the host id field.
5. the total no. of 1s is 16+4=20, as 16 1s are from network id and 4 1s are of
additional bits required for subnetwork. The no. of 0s in the n/w is 32-20=12.
which defines whole address.
6. hence address is given as 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000 and in
decimal format can be given as 255.255.240.0
Table 14: decimal and binary values of subnet mask
Decimal
Binary
00000000
0
128
192
224
240
248
252
254
255
10000000
11000000
11100000
11110000
11111000
11111100
11111110
11111111

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
333333
Types of Subnetting

Fixed Length Subnet Mask (FLSM)

Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)


Steps of Subnetting for FLSM
For IP address 192.168.10.0 (Class C)
Step 1:

Identify the total no. of subnets 2^n = no.of subnets

here n are the no.s and borrowed bytes from host ID portion. Let we are given
that we have to make 4 subnets. Therefore 2^n =4 i.e n=2
Step 2:

To idettify the total no. of the valid hosts for each subnet.

2^m-2= no.of valid hosts. here m are the remaining no. of bits in host ID 2^62=
62
Step 3:

Calculate the subnet mask and range

Subnet
mask
for
n/w
192.168.10.0/26
11111111.11111111.11111111.1100000000 ie 255.255.255.192

range=> 256-192=64
step 4:

Identify the total no of subnets, no. of valid hosts and the broadcast address.
is

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Table 15: showing subnet mask, valid hosts, broadcast address
Subnetwork
Valid Host
192.168.10.0
192.168.10.1
Broadcast Address
to
192.168.10.63
192.168.10.64
192.168.10.65
192.168.10.63
to
192.168.10.126
192.168.10.12
192.168.10.129
8
192.168.10.190
192.168.10.193
192.168.10.19
192.168.10.254
192.168.10.127
to
192.168.10.191
to
192.168.10.255
2
VLSM
In VLSM to allocate IP addresses to subnets depending upon the no. of hosts. The
network having more no of hosts is given priority and the one having least no of
host
comes at last and for each network the subnet is assigned separately. As in the
scenario
given:

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Fig 19: variable subnet mask
3.15 TELNET
Telnet stands for terminal network, telephone network, terminal encapsulation on
the network. Purpose of Telnet is to access the remote device in order to config
ure it. It
provides textual access of the remote device. It uses the services of TCP. Telne
t service is
used where small bandwidth is low. It provides textual access of the remote devi
ce. Port
number of Telnet is 23.
3.15.1 To Access the Device Remotely
For this purpose we have to assign the IP addresses to the PCs and the interface
s.
For Telnet the Routers are to be configured with RIP version1 , so that the devi
ce can
ping each other. Also DCE cable is used to connect the Routers. The serial link
should
have the speed of 64K also apply vty password and enable secret password. Set up
the
Routers so that they can manage via Telnet.
First of all select the PCs and the routers connect the ports to the router, dou
ble
click on router, switch off the router if it is on. Then select the serial port
according to the
routers, switch on the router. Select the cable to connect the Routers. Router t
o Router
connections are made by the serial cable, so go on first Router select the seria
l port as
s0/1/0 in the scenario, then go to the other Router and connect the serial cable
at interface
s1/0. Accordingly connect the third Router with interfaces s1/1 and s1/2.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Now connect the PCs to the routers, to do this first select the console cable, c
lick on the
PC select RS232 option, then connect it on the Router and select console cable.
Now
select cross- over cable on the PC select Fast Ethernet option and on the Router
select
f0/0 option now as the PCs and Routers are connected to each other assign IP add
resses
to the PCs and the Routers. According to the fig set the IP addresses of the PCs
double
click on the PC choose the option of desktop IP configuration. Now set the IP
address, subnet mask, and the default gateway. Like wise set the IP address of a
ll the
PCs. Now set the IP address of the interfaces of router.
3.15.2 Commands to assign IP addresses to the interfaces:
At Router1:
Router>
Router>enable
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface f0/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Fig 20: scenario of Telnet

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Router#
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface s0/1/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 40.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config)#interface s0/1/0
Router(config-if)#clock rate 64000
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Now to check the assigned IPaddresses to the interfaces the command used is
Router#show ip interface brief
At router 2:
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface f0/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 20.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router#
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface s1/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 40.0.0.2 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface s1/1
Router(config-if)#ip address 50.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config)#interface s1/1
Router(config-if)#clock rate 64000
Router(config-if)#no shutdown

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
At router 3:
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface f0/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 30.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router#
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface s1/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 50.0.0.2 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
To Telnet a device from Router
At all the Routers use these commands
Router(config)#line vty 0 4
Router(config-line)#password cobra
Router(config-line)#login
Router(config)#enable password cobra
Router(config)#enable secret cobra1
To telnet a device from router
Router#telnet <IP>
Or
Router>telnet <IP>
To exit from telnet session
Router#exit
To exit from a hanged telnet session
Ctrl+shft+6
Or

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Router#disconnect
To display connected session
Router#show sessions
This command shows those sessions, which are created or connected by us.
If we want anyone can telnet our router without password then on the line vty ty
pe
command No Login.
3.16 ROUTING
Routing is a process or technique to identify the path from one network to
another. Routers dont really care about hoststhey only care about networks and the
best path to each network.
To route the packet the router must know the following things:

Destination network

Neighbour device from witch it can learn about remote Networking.

Possible number of routers to reach the destination.

Best route to reach the destination.

How to maintain & verify the routing information.


3.16.1 TYPES OF ROUTING

Static routing.

Default routing.

Dynamic routing.
3.16.1.1 STATIC ROUTING
In static routing an administrator specifies all the routes to reach the destina
tion.
Static routing occurs when you manually add routes in each routers routing table.
By default,
Static routes have an Administrative Distance (AD) of 1

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Features
There is no overhead on the router CPU.
There is no bandwidth usage between routers.
It adds security, because the administrator can choose to allow routing access t
o certain
networks only.
Advantages of static routing
(1) Fast and efficient.
(2) More control over selected path.
(3) Less overhead for router.
(4) Bandwidth of interfaces is not consumed in routing updates.
Disadvantages of static routing
(1) More overheads on administrator.
(2) Load balancing is not easily possible.
(3) In case of topology change routing table has to be change manually.
Syntax for Static Routing
Router (config)# ip route <destination N/w> <Subnet mask> <Next
Hope- address or exit interface> [<administrative distance>Permanent].
To check the routing table of router
Router # show ip route

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Fig 21: scenario of static routing
Static routing of router (R1)
Router(config)#ip route 20.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 40.0.0.2
Router(config)#ip route 30.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 40.0.0.2
Router(config)#ip route 50.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 40.0.0.2
Router(config)#interface so/1/0
Router(config)# clock rate 64000
Router # show ip route
Static routing of router (R2)
Router(config)#ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 40.0.0.1
Router(config)#ip route 30.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 50.0.0.2
Router#show ip route
Router(config)#interface s1/0
Router(config)# clock rate 64000
Router(config)#interface s1/1

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Router(config)#clock rate 64000
Router#show ip route
Static routing of router (R3)
Router(config)#ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 50.0.0.1
Router(config)#ip route 20.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 50.0.0.1
Router(config)#ip route 40.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 50.0.0.1
Router(config)#interface s1/0
Router(config)# clock rate 64000
Router#show ip route
3.16.1.2
DEFAULT ROUTING
Default routing is used to send packets with a remote destination network
not in the routing table to the next-hop route.
Default routing is also a type of static routing which reduces the routing
overhead & default routing is also used with stub networks. Stub networks are th
ose
having a single exit interface. Default routing is also used for unknown destina
tion.
A special address is used to perform the default routing ie 0.0.0.0
The scenario for default routing is same and but the commands used at the router
s
having single exit interface like R1 and R3 have different commands.
At Router (R1)
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 40.0.0.2
Router#show ip route
At Router (R3)
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 50.0.0.1
Router#show ip route

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
3.16.1.3
DYNAMIC ROUTING
Dynamic routing is when protocols are used to find networks and update
routing table on routers.
A routing protocol defines the set of rules used by router when it communicates
routing information between neighbor routers. In dynamic routing, we will enable
a
routing protocol on router. This protocol will send its routing information to t
he neighbor
router. The neighbors will analyze the information and write new routes to the r
outing
table.
The routers will pass routing information receive from one router to other
router also. If there are more than one path available then routes are compared
and best
path is selected. Some examples of dynamic protocol are: RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF
There are two type of routing protocols used in internetwors:
Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs)
IGPs are used to exchange routing information with routers in the same
Autonomous System(AS) number. Routing which is performed within a single
autonomous system is known as interior routing. The protocol that are used to pe
rform
this type of routing are known as IGP(Interior Gateway Protocol).
These protocols are:(i)
RIPv1 (Routing Information Protocol Version 1)
(ii)
RIPv2 (Routing Information Protocol Version 2)
(iii)
EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)
(iv)
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
(v)
IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System)
Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs)
EGPs are used to communicate between different Autonomous System.
Protocol that used to do this type of routing are called exterior gateway protoc
ols.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Autonomous System:- An autonomous system is a collection of networks under a
common administrative domain, which basically means that all routers sharing the
same
routing table information are in the same AS.
3.16.2 Routing Protocol Basics

(i)
Administrative Distances
(ii)
Routing protocol
(iii)
Routing Loops
Administrative Distances
The Administrative Distance (AD) is used to rate the trustworthiness of routing
information received on a router from a neighbor router. An Administrative Dista
nce is
an integer from 0 to 255, where 0 is the most trusted and 255 means no traffic w
ill be
passed via this route.
If a router receives two updates listing he sane remote network, the first thing
the router
checks is the AD. If one of the advertised routes has lower AD than the other, t
hen the
route with the lowest AD will be placed in the routing table.If both advertised
routes to
the same network have the same AD, then routing protocol metrics (such as hop co
unt or
bandwidth of the lines) will be used to find the best path to the remote network
. The
advertised route with the lowest metric will be placed in the routing table.
But if both advertised routes have the same AD as well as the same metrics, then
the
routing protocol will load-balance in the remote network.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Route Source
Default AD
Connected interface
0
Static Route
1
EIGRP
90
IGRP
100
OSPF
110
RIP
120
External EIGRP
170
Unknown 255
This route will never be used
3.16.2.1
Classes of Routing Protocols
There are three classes of Routing Protocol
(i)
Distance vector protocol
(ii)
Link state protocol
(iii)
Hybrid protocol.
Distance vector protocol
The Distance-vector protocols find the best path to remote network by
judging distance. Each time a packet goes through a router, thats called a hop. T
he route
with the least number of hops to the network is determined to be the best route.

The
vector indicates the direction to the remote network. They send the entire routi
ng table to
directly connected neighbors.
Ex: RIP, IGRP.
The distance-vector routing algorithm passes complete routing table contents to
neighboring routers.
A router receiving an update from a neighbor router believes the information
about remote networks without actually finding out for itself.
Its possible to have network that has multiple links to the same remote network,
and if thats the case, the administrative distance is checked first. If the AD is
the

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
same, the protocol will have to use other metrics to determine the best path to
use
to that remote network.
Fig 16: Routing table
Converged Network
Fig 23 : Routing table of covered networks

Routing Loops

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Distance-vector routing protocols keep track of any changes to the internet work
by broadcasting periodic routing updates out all active interfaces. This broadca
st includes
the complete routing table.
Routing loops can occur because a every router isnt updated simultaneously.
Routing Loops Example
Router B
Router A
Router C
Network 3
Router E
Network 4
Network 5
Router D
Fig 24: Routing loops
The interface to Network 5 fails. All routers know about Network 5 from Router
E. Router A, in its tables, has a path to Network 5 through Router B.
hen Network 5 fails, Router E tells Router C. This causes Router C to stop
routing to Network 5 through Router E. But Routers A, B, and D dont know about
Network 5 yet, so they keep sending out update information. Router C will eventu
ally
send out its update and cause B to stop routing to Network 5, but Routers A and
D are
still not updated. To them, it appears that Network 5 is still available through
Router B
with a metric of 3.The problem occurs when Router A sends out its regular 30-sec
ond
Hello, Im still herethese are the links I know about message, which includes the
ability to reach Network 5 and now Routers B and D receive the wonderful news th
at
Network 5 can be reached from Router A, so Routers B and D then send out the

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
information that Network 5 is available. Any packet destined for Network 5 will
go to
Router A, to Router B, and then back to Router A. This is a routing loop.

Link state protocol


Also called shortest-path-first protocols, the routers each create three
separate tables. One keeps track of directly attached neighbors, one determines
the
topology of the entire internet work, and one is used as the routing tables. Lin
k state
routers know more about the internet work than any distance-vector routing proto
col.
Link state protocols send updates containing the state of their own links to all
other
routers on the network
Ex: OSPF

Hybrid protocol
Hybrid protocol use aspects of both distance-vector and link state protocol.
Ex: EIGRP
3.16.3
RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
Routing Information Protocol is a true distance-vector routing protocol. It
is an IGB (Inter Gateway Protocol). It sends the complete routing table out to a
ll active
interfaces every 30 seconds to its immediate neighbour. This is slow convergence
means
that one router sends a request to other about its route or network get networks
which are
not assigned to it after all thee three routers have same networks, this process
is repeated
to send and receive request so it is called slow convergence
RIP only uses hop count to determine the best way to remote network, but
it has a maximum allowable hop count of 0-15 by default, meaning that 16 is deem
ed
unreachable.
RIP version 1 uses only class full routing, which means that all devices in
the network must use the same subnet mask.
RIP version 2 provides something called prefix routing, and does send
subnet mask information with the route updates. This is called classless routing
.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/

Hop Count
It is a way of measurement. Hop count limit is15.This routing supports only 15
routers, if there is one more router in the network then this routing will fails
.

Default administrative distance (120)


Timers of RIP
(i)
Update timers.
(ii)
Hold timers.
(iii)
Invalid timers.
(iv)
Flush out timers.
Route update timer
Router update timer sets the interval 30 seconds between periodic routing
updates, in which the router sends a complete copy of its routing table out to a
ll
neighbors.
Router invalid timers
A router invalid timer determines the length of time that must elapse 180 second
s
before a router determines that a route has become invalid. It will come to this
conclusion
if it hasnt heard any updates about a particular route for that period. hen that
happens,
thee router will send out updates to all its neighbors letting them know that th
e route is
invalid.
Hold-down timer
This sets the amount of time during which routing information is suppressed.
Routers will enter into the hold-down state when an update packet is received th
at
indicated the route is unreachable. This continues until entire an update packet
is received
with a better metric or until the hold-down timer expires. The default is 180 se
conds.
Route flush timer
Route flush timers sets the time between a route becoming invalid and its interva
l
from the routing table 240 seconds. Before its removed from the table, the router

notifies
its neighbors of that routes impending demise. The value of the route invalid tim
er must
be less than that of the route flush timers.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Difference between RIPV1 & RIPV2
Steps to do routing (version 1)
At router 1
Router(config)# router rip
Router(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0
Router(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Router#show ip route
At router 2
Router(config)# router rip
Router(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0
Router(config-router)# network 40.0.0.0
Router(config-router)# network 50.0.0.0
Router#show ip route
At router 3
Router(config)# router rip
Router(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0
Router(config-router)# network 50.0.0.0
Router#show ip route
3.16.4 IGRP ( Interior Gateway Protocol)
Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) is a Cisco-proprietary distance-vector
routing protocol. To use IGRP, all your routers must be Cisco routers. IGRP has
a
maximum hop count of 255 with a default of 100. IGRP uses bandwidth and delay of
the
line by default as a metric for determining the best route to an internetwork. R
eliability,
load, and maximum transmission unit (MTU) can also be used, although they are no
t
used by default.
Table 18 : Difference between IGRP and RIP
IGRP
RIP
Can be used in large internetworks
orks best in smaller networks
Uses an autonomous system number for Does not yse aytibiniys system numbers
activation
Gives a full route table update every 90 Gives full route table update every 30
seconds
seconds

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Has an administrative distance of 100
Has an administrative distance of 120
Uses bandwidth and delay of the line as Uses only hop count to determine the bes
t
metric (lowest composite metric),with a path to a remote network, with 15 hops
maximum hop count of 255
being the maximum
IGRP Timers
To control performance, IGRP includes the following timers with default settings
:

Update timers
These specify how frequently routing-update messages should be sent. The
default is 90 seconds.

Invalid timers
These specify how long a router should wait before declaring a route invalid if
it
doesnt receive a specific update about it. The default is three times the update
period.

Hold down timers


These specify the hold down period. The default is three times the update timer
period plus 10 seconds.
Flush timers
These indicate how much time should pass before a route should be flushed from
the routing table. The default is seven times the routing update period. If the
update timer
is 90 seconds by default, then 7 90 = 630 seconds elapse before a route will be
flushed
from the route table.
At Router 1
R1(config)#router igrp 10
R1(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0
R1(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0
R1#show ip route

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
At Router 2
R2(config)#router igrp 10
R2(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0
R2(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0
R2(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0
R2#show ip route
At Router 3
R1(config)#router igrp 10
R1(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0
R1(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0
R1#show ip route
3.16.5
EIGRP(Enhanced Interior Routing Protocol)
Enhanced IGRP (EIGRP) is a classless, enhanced distance-vector protocol
that gives us a real edge over IGRP. Like IGRP, EIGRP uses the concept of an
autonomous system to describe the set of contiguous routers that run the same ro
uting
protocol and share routing information. But unlike IGRP, EIGRP includes the subn
et
mask in its route updates. The advertisement of subnet information allows us to
use
VLSM and summarization when designing our networks.
EIGRP is sometimes referred to as a hybrid routing protocol because it has
characteristics of both distance-vector and link-state protocols. It sends tradi
tional
distance-vector updates containing information about networks plus the cost of
reaching them from the perspective of the adverting router. EIGRP has a maximum
hop count of 255.
Powerful features that make EIGRP a real standout from IGRP

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/

Support for IP, IPX, and AppleTalk via protocol-dependent modules Considered
classless (same as RIPv2 and OSP

Support for VLSM/CIDR

Support for summaries and discontiguous networks

Efficient neighbor discovery

Communication via Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP)

Best path selection via Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL)


Cisco calls EIGRP a distance vector routing protocol, or sometimes an
advanced distance vector or even a hybrid routing protocol. EIGRP supports diffe
rent
Network layer protocols through the use of protocol-dependent modules (PDMs). Ea
ch
EIGRP PDM will maintain a separate series of tables containing the routing infor
mation
that applies to a specific protocol. It means that there will be IP/EIGRP tables
,
IPX/EIGRP tables, and AppleTalk/EIGRP tables.
Neighbor Discovery
Before EIGRP routers are willing to exchange routes with each other, they must
become neighbors. There are three conditions that must be met for neighborship
establishment:
Hello or ACK received
AS numbers match
Identical metrics (K values)
To maintain the neighborship relationship, EIGRP routers must also continue
receiving Hellos from their neighbors. EIGRP routers that belong to different
autonomous systems (ASes) dont automatically share routing information and they d
ont
become neighbors.
The only time EIGRP advertises its entire routing table is when it discovers a n
ew
neighbor and forms an adjacency with it through the exchange of Hello packets.
hen
this happens, both neighbors advertise their entire routing tables to one anothe
r. After

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
each has learned its neighbors routes, only changes to the routing table are prop
agated
from then on.
EIGRP maintains three tables containing information about the internetworks.
(i) Neighbor Table
Records information about routers with whom neighborship relationships
have been formed.
(ii) Topology Table
Stores the route advertisements about every route in the internetwork received
from each neighbor.
EIGRP Metrics
Another really sweet thing about EIGRP is that unlike many other protocols that
use a single factor to compare routes and select the best possible path, EIGRP c
an use a
combination of four:
3.16.6

Bandwidth

Delay

Load

Reliability
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is an open standards routing protocol thats been
implemented by a wide variety of network vendors, including Cisco. This works by
using
the Dijkstra algorithm. First, a shortest path tree is constructed, and then the
routing table
is populated with the resulting best paths. OSPF converges quickly, although per
haps not
as quickly as EIGRP, and it supports multiple, equal-cost routes to the same des
tination.
But unlike EIGRP, it only supports IP routing.
OSPF is an IGP protocol. It is a link state routing protocol. It is supported by
many operating systems. Its default AD is 110, hop count limit is unlimited.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
It is classless routing protocol, supports VLSM/CIDR. By default the highest IP
address
of interface will be elected as Router id.
OSPF provides the following features
Consists of areas and autonomous systems

Minimizes routing update traffic

Allows scalability

Supports VLSM/CIDR

Has unlimited hop count

Allows multi-vendor deployment (open standard)


OSPF is supposed to be designed in a hierarchical fashion, which basically means
that you can separate the larger internetwork into smaller internetworks called
areas. This
is the best design for OSPF.
The reasons for creating OSPF in a hierarchical design include:

To decrease routing overhead

To speed up convergence

To confine network instability to single areas of the network


Each router in the network connects to the backbone called area 0, or the
backbone area. OSPF must have an area 0, and all routers should connect to this
area if
at all possible. But routers that connect other areas to the backbone within an
AS are
called Area Border Routers (ABRs). Still, at least one interface must be in area
0.
OSPF runs inside an autonomous system, but can also connect multiple
autonomous systems together. The router that connects these ASes together is cal
led an
Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR).

OSPF Terminology

Link

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
A link is a network or router interface assigned to any given network. hen an
interface is added to the OSPF process, its considered by OSPF to be a link.

Router ID
The Router ID (RID) is an IP address used to identify the router. Cisco chooses
the Router ID by using the highest IP address of all configured loopback interfa
ces. If no
loopback interfaces are configured with addresses, OSPF will choose the highest
IP
address of all active physical interfaces.

Neighbors
Neighbors are two or more routers that have an interface on a common
network,such as two routers connected on a point-to-point serial link.

Adjacency
An adjacency is a relationship between two OSPF routers that permits the direct
exchange of route updates. OSPF is really picky
n
unlike EIGRP, which directly shares routes with
SPF
directly shares routes only with neighbors that
s. And not
all neighbors will become adjacentthis depends
the
configuration of the routers.

about sharing routing informatio


all of its neighbors. Instead, O
have also established adjacencie
upon both the type of network and

OSPF Topologies database


The topology database contains information from all of the Link State
Advertisement packets that have been received for an area. The router uses the
information from the topology database as input into the Dijkstra algorithm that
computes
the shortest path to every network. LSA packets are used to update and maintain
the
topology database.
A Link State Advertisement (LSA) is an OSPF data packet containing link-state
and routing information thats shared among OSPF routers. There are different type
s of
LSA packets. An OSPF router will exchange LSA packets only with routers to which
it
has established adjacencies.
A designated router (DR) is elected whenever OSPF routers are connected to the
same multi-access network. A prime example is an Ethernet LAN.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
A backup designated router (BDR) is a hot standby for the DR on multi-access
links The BDR receives all routing updates from OSPF adjacent routers, but doesnt
flood LSA updates.
OSPF areas
An OSPF area is a grouping of contiguous networks and routers. All routers in th
e
same area share a common Area ID.
Broadcast (multi-access)
Broadcast (multi-access) networks such as Ethernet allow multiple devices to
connect to (or access) the same network, as well as provide a broadcast ability
in which a
single packet is delivered to all nodes on the network. In OSPF, a DR and a BDR
must be
elected for each broadcast multi-access network.
Non-broadcast multi-access
Non-Broadcast Multi-Access (NBMA) networks are types such as Frame Relay,
X.25, and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). These networks allow for multi-acces
s,
but have no broadcast ability like Ethernet. So, NBMA networks require special O
SPF
configuration to function properly and neighbor relationships must be defined.

Point-to-point
Point-to-point refers to a type of network topology consisting of a direct
connection between two routers that provides a single communication path. The po
int-topoint connection can be physical, as in a serial cable directly connecting
two routers, or it
can be logical.

Point-to-multipoint
Point-to-multipoint refers to a type of network topology consisting of a series
of
connections between a single interface on one router and multiple destination ro
uters. All
of the interfaces on all of the routers sharing the point-to-multipoint connecti
on belong to
the same network. As with point-to-point, no DRs or BDRs are needed.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
SPF Tree Calculation
ithin an area, each router calculates the best/shortest path to every network i
n
that same area. This calculation is based upon the information collected in the
topology
database and an algorithm called shortest path first (SPF)
OSPF uses a metric referred to as cost. A cost is associated with every outgoing
interface included in an SPF tree. The cost of the entire path is the sum of cos
ts of the
outgoing interfaces along the path.
Cisco uses a simple equation of 108/ bandwidth.The bandwidth is the configured
bandwidth for the interface. Using this rule, a 100Mbps Fast Ethernet interface
would
have a default OSPF cost of 1 and a 10Mbps Ethernet interface would have a cost
of 10.
An interface set with a bandwidth of 64,000 would have a default cost of 1563.
Benefits of OSPF
(i)
Minimum routing updates.
(ii)
Priorities on all the CISCO routers the priority is 1.
(iii)
The routers having highest IP address become BRD(Border Destination
Router)
Steps to apply OSPF
Syntax:
Router(config)#router ospf <ospf process id>
Router(config-router)#network <network address> <wild card mask> area
<area number>

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Fig 25: OSPF Scenario
At Router r1
Router(config)#router ospf 1
Router(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config)#interface s0/1/0
Router(config-if)#clock rate 64000
Router#show ip route
At Router r1
Router(config)#router ospf 2
Router(config-router)#network
20.0.0.0
0.255.255.255
Router(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config)#interface s0/1/0
Router(config-if)#clock rate 64000
Router#show ip route
At Router r3
Router(config)#router ospf 1
Router(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router#show ip route
area
0

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
3.17 LAN S ITCHING
3.17.1 S ITCH
Switches are generally used to segment a large LAN smaller segments. Smaller
switches such as the Cisco Catalyst 2924XL have 24 ports capable of of creating
24
different network segment for the LAN. Larger switches such as the Cisco Catalys
t 6500
can have hundreds of ports. Switches can also be used to connect LANs with diffe
rent
media, for example, a 10 Mbps Ethernet LAN and 100 Mbps Ethernet LAN can be
connected using a switch. Some switches support cut through switching, witch red
uces
latency and delays in the network, while bridges support only store-and-forward
traffic
switching. Finally switches reduce collision
on network segment . A switch is a
networking device which filters and forward packets through the network. It is a
layer 2
device. It is more advanced then hub but not as advanced as router.The basic fun
ction of
a switch is to manage the signal flow. hen the switch is open, it allows the si
gnal to
flow through it and when it is closed, it stopes the signal to flow. Switch conn
ects
separate LAN segment. It allows multiple system to transmit simultaneously. A sw
itch is
a hardware device that filters and forward data packets between network segments
.
Ethernet switches are used in LAN to create Ethernet networks. Switches forward
the
traffic on the basis of MAC address. Switches maintain a switching table in whic
h MAC
addresses and port numbers are used to perform switching decision.
ORKING OF S ITCH
hen switches receives data from one of connected devices, it forward data only
to the port on witch the destinated system is connected.It use the media access
Control
(MAC) address of the device to determine the correct port.The MAC address is a u
niqe
number that is programed in to every Network Interface Card(NIC). Concider, devi
ce A
wants to send data to device B. hen device A passes the data, switch receives it
. Switch
than cecks the MAC address of the destination system. It then transfer data to d
evice B

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
only instead of brodcasting to all the devices. By forwarding data only to the s
ystem to
witch the data is addressed, switch decreases the amount of traffic on each netw
ork link.
S ITCHING METHODS
There are three types of switching method:

Store-and-forward switching
The entire frame is received and the CRC is computed and verified before
forwarding the frame. If the frame is too short (i.e. less than 64 bytes includi
ng the
CRC), too long (i.e. more than 1518 bytes including the CRC), or has CRC error,
it
will be discarded.
It has the lowest error rate but the longest latency for switching. However, for
high-speed network (e.g. Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet network), the latency
is
not significant. It is the most commonly used switching method, and is supported
by
most switches.

Cut-through switching
It is also known as Fast Forward switching. A frame is forwarded as soon as
the destination MAC address in the header has been received (the 1st 6 bytes
following the preamble). It has the highest error rate (because a frame is
forwarded without verifying the CRC and confirming there is no collision) but
the shortest latency for switching

Fragment-free switching ( Modified Cut-through switching )


A frame is forwarded after the first 64 bytes of the frame have been
received. Since a collision can be detected within the first 64 bytes of a frame
,
fragment-free switching can detect a frame corrupted by a collision and drop
it.Therefore, fragment-free switching provides better error checking than cutthr
ough switching.
The error rate of fragment-free switching is above store-and-forward
switching and below cut-through switching. The latency of fragment-free

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
switching is shorter than store-and- forward switching and longer than cutthroug
h switching.
NOTE:
Bridges only support store-and-forward switching. Most new switch models also
use store-and-forward switching. However, it should be noted that Cisco 1900 swi
tches
use fragment-free switching by default.
Types of switch based on OSI model

(i)
Layer-2 switch
(ii)
Layer-3 switch
Layer-2 Switching
Layer-2 switching is hardware based, which means it uses the MAC
address from the host NIC card to filter the network traffic. Layer-2 switch can
be
considered as multi- port bridge.
Layer 2 switches are fast because they do not look at the network layer
header information, instead it looks at the frames hardware address before decid
ing to
either forward the frame or drop it.
Limitations of Layer 2 Switching
ith bridge the connected networks are still one large broadcast domain.
Layer 2 switch cannot break the broadcast domain, this cause performance issue w
hich
limits the size of your network. For this one reason the switch cannot completel
y replace
routers in the internetwork.
3.17.1.1
VLAN (Virtual LAN)
VLAN provides Virtual Segmentation of Broadcast Domain in the network. The
devices, which are member of same Vlan, are able to communicate with each other.
The

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
devices of different Vlan may communicate with each other with routing. So that
different Vlan devices will use different n/w addresses.
Vlan provides following advantages:
Logical Segmentation of network

Enhance network security


Creating port based Vlan
In port based Vlan, first we have to create a Vlan on manageable switch then we
have to add ports to the Vlan. A Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a broadcast domain create
d
based on the functional, security, or other requirements, instead of the physica
l locations
of the devices, on a switch or across switches. ith VLANs, a switch can group d
ifferent
interfaces into different broadcast domains. ithout VLANs, all interfaces of a
switch
are in the same broadcast domain; switches connected with each other are also in
the
same broadcast domain, unless there is a router in between. Different ports of a
switch
can be assigned to different VLANs. A VLAN can also span multiple switches.
The advantages of implementing VLAN are

It can group devices based on the requirements other than their physical
locations.

It breaks broadcast domains and increases network throughput.

It provides better security by separating devices into different VLANs.

Since each VLAN is a separate broadcast domain, devices in different VLANs


cannot listen or respond to the broadcast traffic of each other.

Inter-VLAN communication can be controlled by configuring access control


lists on the router or Layer 3 switch connecting the VLANs.
Types of VLAN

Static VLAN

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Assigning VLANs to switch ports based on the port numbers. It is easier to set
up and manage.

Dynamic VLAN
Assigning VLANs to switch ports based on the MAC addresses of the
devices connected to the ports.
A VLAN management application is used to set up a database of MAC addresses, and
configure the switches to assign VLANs to the switch ports dynamically based on
the
MAC addresses of the connected devices. The application used by Cisco switches i
s
called VLAN Management Policy Server (VMPS).
Cisco switches support a separate instance of spanning tree and a separate bridg
e
table for each VLAN.
A VLAN = A Broadcast Domain = Logical Network (Subnet)
VLAN Operation

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Fig 26: VLAN Operation

Each logical VLAN is like a separate physical bridge.

VLANs can span across multiple switches.

Trunks carry traffic for multiple VLANs.

Trunks use special encapsulation to distinguish between different VLANs.


VLAN links
There are two different types of links in a switched network:

Access link

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
A link from Pc to switch is called as access link or A link that is part of only
one
VLAN. Therefore, a port connecting to an access link can be a member of only one
VLAN. And the mode of port is called as access mode.

Trunk link
A link from switch to switch or switch to router is called as trunk link. A 100
Mbps or 1000 Mbps point-to-point link that connects
switches or routers, and carries
frames of different VLANs . Therefore, a port connecting to a trunk link can be
a member
of multiple VLANs. All VLANs are configured on a trunk link by default. VLAN
Trunking, by making use of frame tagging, allows traffic from different VLANs to
transmit through the same Ethernet link (trunk link) across switches.
VLAN Trunking identifies the VLAN from which a frame is sent by tagging the
frame with the source VLAN ID (12-bit long). This feature is known as frame tagg
ing or
frame identification. hen there are multiple switches then we have to use trunk
links to
connect one switch with other. If we are not using trunk links then we have to c
onnect
one cable from each vlan to the corresponding vlan of the other switch.
ith frame tagging, a switch knows which ports it should forward a broadcast
frame (forward out the ports which have the same VLAN ID as the source VLAN ID).
It
also knows which bridge table it should use for forwarding an unicast frame (sin
ce a
separate bridge table is used for each VLAN).

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
A frame tag is added when a frame is forwarded out to a trunk link, and is
removed when the frame is forwarded out to an access link. Therefore, any device
attached to an access link is unaware of its VLAN membership.
Commands to create Vlan
Switch#vlan database
Switch(vlan)#vlan <no.> [name <name of vlan>]
Switch(vlan)#exit
Commands to configure ports for a Vlan
By default, all ports are member of single vlan that is Vlan1. we can change vla
n
membership according to our requirement.
Switch(config)#interface <type> <no.>
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan <no.>
Switch(config-if)#exit
Commands to configure multiple ports in a vlan
Switch(config)#interface range <type> <slot/port no. (space)(space) port no.>
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan <no.>
Switch(config-if)#exit
Example: - Suppose we want to add interface fast Ethernet 0/10 to 0/18 in vlan5
Switch(config)#interface range fastethernet 0/10 18
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 5
Switch(config-if)#exit
To display mac address table
Switch#show mac-address-table
Vlan
Mac address
type
ports

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
20
00-08-a16-ab-6a-7b dynamic
fa0/7
To Display Vlan and port membership
Switch#show vlan brief
Command to make Trunk link
Switch(config)#interface <type> <type number>
Note :- Trunk mode should not be a member of any vlan port.
3.17.1.2 Vlan Trunking Protocol (VTP)
ith the help of VTP, we can simplify the process of creating Vlan. In multiple
switches, we can configure one switch as VTP server and all other switches will
be
configured as VTP client. e will create Vlans on VTP server switch. The server
will
send periodic updates to VTP client switches. The clients will create Vlans from
the
update received from the VTP server.
VTP Operation

VTP advertisements are sent as multicast frames.

VTP servers and clients are synchronized to the latest revision number.

VTP advertisements are sent every 5 minutes or when there is a change.


VTP Modes

VTP server mode


By default all the switches in this mode are in server mode. VTP server is a
switch in which we can create, delete or modify Vlans.yhe switch in this mode
forwords the vlans to next switch. The server will send periodic updates for VTP
clients.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/

VTP client mode


On VTP client, we are not able to create, modify or delete Vlans. The switch
in this mode creates the vlans that are received from server mode switch.The cli
ent
will receive and forward vtp updates. The client will create same Vlans as defin
ed in
vtp update.

VTP Transparent mode


Transparent is a switch, which will receive and forward VTP update. It is able
to create, delete and modify Vlans locally. A vlan created in this mode cannot b
e
forworded into next switch. A transparent will not send its own VTP updates and
will
not learn any information from received vtp update.
VTP configuration
At Switch 1:

Creat vlan

Port assignment

Trunk port

Switch vtp
Switch(config)#vtp mode server
Switch(config)#vtp domain cisco
Switch(config)#vtp password sun
At switch 2:
Switch(config)#vtp mode server
Switch(config)#vtp domain cisco
Switch(config)#vtp password sun
At switch 3:
Switch(config)#vtp mode server
Switch(config)#vtp domain cisco
Switch(config)#vtp password sun

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Fig 27 : VTP Configuration
To see all the configurations
Switch#show vtp password
Switch#show vlan brief
Switch#show vtp status

Vtp version

Vtp domain

Vtp mode

Vtp pruning

Vtp reusion number

Maximum vlan supporting

Total no. of vlans


VTP Pruning
Pruning is the VTP feature through which a trunk link can be automatically
disable, for a particular Vlan if neighbor switch does not contain ports in that
Vlan. Vlan1
is not prun eligible.

Increases available bandwidth by reducing unnecessary flooded traffic

Example: Station A sends broadcast, and broadcast is flooded only toward


any switch with ports assigned to the red VLAN

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Command to configure VTP Pruning
e have to use only one command on VTP server for VTP Pruning.
Switch#configure terminal
Switch(config)#vtp pruning
Switch(config)#exit
Fig 28 : VTP Pruning
Spanning Tree Protocol
hen we connect multiple switches
one switch to another switch then
rk.
Multiple paths are used to create
d when
multiple path exist then there is

with each other and multiple path exist from


it may lead to the switching loop in the netwo
redundancy in the network. STP is only require
possibility of loop in n/w.

Problems that occur with redundancy path


(i)
Multiple copies of the frame will be received by destination.
(ii)
Frequent changes in the mac address table of switch.
(iii) A mac address may appear at multiple ports in a switch.
(iv)
Packets may enter in the endless loop.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Spanning Tree Protocol will solve this problem by blocking the redundancy
interface. So that only one path will remain active in the switches. If the prim
ary path
goes down then disabled link will become enable and data will be transferred thr
ough that
path.
Spanning Tree Protocol Basics

Spanning Tree Protocol or STP (IEEE 802.1d) is used to solve the looping
problem.It runs on bridges and switches in a network. It implements a Spanning
Tree Algorithm (STA), which calculates a loop-free topology for the network.

STP ensures that there is only one active path between any two network segments
by blocking the redundant paths. A redundant path is used only when the
corresponding active path failed. It is not used for load-balancing.

Because STP solves the looping problem by blocking one or more links in a
network, the frames traveling between some source / destination devices may not
be able to use the shortest physical path.

Bridges exchange STP information using messages called Bridge Protocol Data
Units (BPDUs) through Layer 2 multicast.
3.18
i-Fi ( IRELESS FIDELITY)
The term " i-Fi" suggests " ireless Fidelity", compared with the longestablished audio recording term "High Fidelity" or "Hi-Fi". The term " i-Fi", f
irst used
commercially in August 1999. i-Fi is an IEEE standard 802.11.
3.18.1 ireless LAN
i-Fi is also known as wireless LAN. The name of a popular wireless
networking technology that uses radio waves to provide wireless high-speed Inter
net and
network connections. " i-Fi works with no physical wired connection between send
er
and receiver by using radio frequency (RF) technology, a frequency within the
electromagnetic spectrum associated with radio wave propagation. hen an RF curr
ent is

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
supplied to an antenna, an electromagnetic field is created that then is able to
propagate
through space.
The Typical Range of a i-Fi LAN
The range of a home i-Fi LAN depends on the wireless access point ( AP) or
wireless router being used. Factors that determine a particular AP or wireless
routers
range are:

the specific 802.11 protocol employed

the overall strength of the device transmitter

the nature of obstructions and interference in the surrounding area


A general rule of thumb in home networking says that 802.11b and 802.11g
APs and routers support a range of up to 150 feet (46 m) indoors and 300 feet (
92 m)
outdoors. Another rule of thumb holds that the effective range of 802.11a is
approximately one-third that of 802.11b/g.
Obstructions in home such as brick walls and metal frames or siding greatly can
reduce the range of a i-Fi LAN by 25% or more. Because 802.11a employs a higher
signalling frequency than 802.11b/g, 802.11a is most susceptible to obstructions
.
Interference from microwave ovens and other equipment also affects range. 802.11
b and
802.11g are both susceptible to these.
3.18.2
ireless Standards
The different wireless standards that are used for IEEE 802.11 standard are

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
Fig 29:
IEEE 802.11 Standards
802.11
It was released in year 1997. The standard was original of 802.11. the max. data
rate of this is 2Mbps and frequency of this is 2.4GHz and can cover upto 46m.
802.11a
It was modified in year 1999. this is improved version of original standard.
Operates at the frequency of 5GHz, which is less crowded than 2.4GHz where telep
hones
and microwaves may cause interference. Although the speed is up to 54Mbps, the r
ange
is only up to 75 feet or distance covered is 46m. 802.11a standard is incompatib
le with
both 802.11b and g because it operates at a different frequency.
802.11b
This standard was released in 1999. Operates on the 2.4GHz frequency band and
can transmit data at speeds of up to 11Mbps within a range of up to 100-150 feet
or a
distance of 90m. ireless range can be affected by reflective or signal-blocking
obstacles,
such as mirrors, walls, devices and location, whether indoors or outdoors.
802.11g
This standard was released in 2003. The max. data rate for the standard is 54Mbp
s.
It supports a frequency range of 2.4GHz, covers a distance of 90m.
802.11n

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
The latest version of IEEE 802.11 standard that is still in progress of
development. The next generation of high-speed wireless networking, capable of
delivering the range and capacity to support todays most bandwidth-hungry appli
cations
like streaming high definition video, voice, and music. ireless-n is based on M
IMO
(Multiple Input, Multiple Output) technology, which uses multiple radios to tran
smit
multiple streams of data over multiple channnels.
Operates in two modes of frequency 2.4GHz and 5.6GHz frequency band and
can transmit data at speeds of up to 11Mbps within a range of up to 100-150 feet
.
ireless range can be affected by reflective or signal-blocking obstacles, such
as mirrors,
walls, devices and location, whether indoors or outdoors.
i-Fi is supported by many applications and devices
3.18.3

video game consoles

home networks

PDAs

mobile phones

major operating systems

other types of consumer electronics


ireless Security
A common but unproductive measure to deter unauthorized users is to suppress the
APs SSID broadcast, "hiding" it. This is ineffective as a security method becau
se the
SSID is broadcast in the clear in response to a client SSID query. Another unpro
ductive
method is to only allow computers with known MAC addresses to join the network.
MAC address are easily spoofed. If the eavesdropper has the ability to change hi
s MAC
address, then he may join the network by spoofing an authorized address.
ired Equivalent Privacy ( EP) encryption was designed to protect against casual
snooping, but is now considered completely broken. Tools such as AirSnort or air
crack

can quickly recover EP encryption keys.

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
To counteract this in 2002, the i-Fi Alliance blessed i-Fi Protected Access (
PA)
for wireless security. Though more secure than EP, it has outlived its designed
lifetime,
has known attack vectors and is no longer recommended.
In 2004 the full IEEE 802.11i ( PA2) encryption standards were released. If used
with a
802.1X server or in pre-shared key mode with a strong and uncommon passphrase P
A2
is still considered secure, as of 2009.
4.
CONCLUSION
General Conclusion
Computer Networking is a very vast project in the present developing era of
electronics and communication. Now a days, computers are used in a wider range.
All the

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/
organizations are using multiple computers within their departments to perform t
heir day
to day work. Computer network allows the user to share data , share folders and
files with
other users connected in a network. Computer Networking has bound the world in a
very
small area with it wide networking processes like LAN, MAN, AN.
Applications

Communication Field

Industries

Medical Field

Rearch Field

Organisations

School

Colleges
REFRENCES

www.goole.com

www.jetkinginfotrain.com

www.microsoft.com

www.nythimes.com

www.digitech-engineers.com

www.final-yearprojects.co.cc | www.troubleshoot4free.com/fyp/

Network Essentials module

4-in-1 MCSE study material

Introduction to indow Server2003

CISCO Cretified Network Associate

Faruk Husain

You might also like