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Job enrichment is one method that has been used to increase employee satisfaction
and work motivation. Hackman and Oldham's (1976) job characteristics model
has served as the foundation for many job enrichment efforts. In particular, a
considerable amount of research has been devoted to the study of the job
characteristics-job satisfaction relation. The purpose of this study was to statistically
determine, using meta-analysis procedures, the "true" relation between job
characteristics and job satisfaction. The role of growth need strength (GNS) as a
possible moderator of this relation was also investigated. Results indicated a
moderate relation between job characteristics and job satisfaction. This relation
is stronger for employees high in GNS. Situational characteristics appear to be
more important in determining satisfaction for employees low in GNS.
interaction of job characteristics and individual characteristics are related to organizationally desirable outcomes.
The theoretical basis for many current
enrichment efforts is the Hackman and Oldham (1975, 1976) job characteristics model.
In the model (see Figure 1), specific job
characteristics such as skill variety (the degree
to which a job requires a variety of activities
to carry out the work) and task significance
(the degree to which the job has a substantial
impact on the lives of other people) affect the
individual's experienced meaningfulness of
the work, experienced responsibility for work
outcomes, and knowledge about the results
of his or her work activities (Hackman &
Oldham, 1976). These three "critical psychological states" have, in turn, been linked to
such outcome variables as internal work motivation, job satisfaction, absenteeism, turnover, and work quality (Ford, 1969; Hackman,
Oldham, Janson, & Purdy, 1975; Wanous,
1974). As originally conceived, the job characteristics model also included the individual
characteristic of growth need strength (GNS)
as a moderator of the relation between the
characteristics of the job and the outcome
variables (Hackman & Oldham, 1976).
Hackman and Oldham assumed that one of
the most important work values is the job
280
Psychological
States
"~?elings of
eanlngfulness
Task significance
Outcomes
-High Intrinsic
motivation
High quality work
High satisfaction
responsibility
i
results
Low absenteeism
I and turnover
281
282
Data Analysis
Both Type O and Type M studies were included in the
analysis for establishing the "true" relationship between
job characteristics and job satisfaction. If job characteristics-job satisfaction correlations were reported for highand low-GNS groups but not for a combined sample,
then each GNS group within the Type M studies was
treated as if it were a separate study. Only Type M
studies were included in the moderator analysis.
Initially, separate analyses were conducted of the relation
between each of the five task dimensions and job satisfaction. This was done to ascertain the "true" relationship
between each task characteristic and job satisfaction and
to determine which, if any, of the task characteristics
were more strongly related to job satisfaction. A second
analysis of the job characteristic-job satisfaction relation
was conducted using the average of correlations between
each of the JDS task dimensions and the job satisfaction
measure. The rationale for combining the task dimensions
was based on the findings that the intercorrelations
among task dimensions are generally high and positive
(Hackman & Lawler, 1971). Additionally, Aldag et al.
(1981) found that the dimensionality of the JDS remains
questionable in view of the number of studies reporting
Results
A total of 28 studies that met the inclusion
criteria were found. All but one of the studies
283
Table 1
Correlations Between Job Characteristics and Job Satisfaction for Type O Studies
Study
1.
Job
Characteristics
Index
T.I.
T.S.
S.V.
Aut.
Fdbk.
104
.34
.43
.32
.51
.37
.394
120
155
.37
.31
.21
.28
.43
.41
.26
.43
.26
.34
88
784
.41
.16
.27
.20
.34
.18
.51
.27
.43
21
.392
.204
343
129
171
.15
.38
.66
.16
.54
.69
.29
.35
.71
.24
.66
.66
.22
208
.20
.26
.38
.39
.28
.313
658
.22
.21
.22
.21
.24
.25
.32
.23
.23
.38
.28
.27
.38
.26
.26
.302
.244
.246
.36
.302
.332
5. Dunham (1977)
6. Evans, Kiggundu &
House (1979)
7. Griffin (1981) I
II
8. Hackman & Lawler
(1971)
.315
.483
.68
10. Katz(1978a)
11. Katz (1978b)
12. Katz & Van Maanen
3060
2094
138
.24
.34
.23
.21
.28
.57
.40
.60
Bloom (1980)
Orpen (1979)
Rousseau (1977)
Rousseau (1978)
Schmitt, Coyle, White,
& Rauschenberger
(1978)
19. Schmitt & White1
20. Sims &Szilagyi( 1976)
21. Walsh, Taber, & Beehr
(1980)" I
76
36
199
271
.23
.36
.26
.05
.33
.35
.54
.18
.33
.27
.58
.38
.39
.28
.48
.47
.46
.32
.37
.37
.348
.316
.446
411
860
766
.14
.24
.30
.27
.33
.42
.31
.54
.40
.28
.26
.26
.17
.26
.298
.266
.340
486
96
232
.28
.32
.33
.32
.12
.20
.31
.24
.38
.12
.28
.20
.258
(1977)
3500
15.
16.
17.
18.
II
III
-.06
.29
.24
.278
Note. T.I. = Task Identity; T.S. = Task Significance; S.V. = Skill Variety; Aut. = Autonomy; Fdbk. = Feedback.
* Unpublished study via personal communication.
b
Three separate studies in one publication.
284
lem of common method variance. The average relationship is moderated by other variables.
correlation between the measures of growth An examination of the 95% confidence interneed strength, task characteristics, and job vals indicated that no one task characteristic
satisfaction was .05, which suggests that the necessarily has a stronger relationship with
correlations were not significantly inflated job satisfaction than any other (see Figure 2).
because of the reliance on self-report mea- This gives further evidence for the lack of
sures.
dimensionality of the JDS, that is, the JDS
The results of the analysis of the relation may be a measure of the overall complexity
between each of the five skill dimensions and of the job rather than of specific job characjob satisfaction are presented in Table 5. The teristics. These results support combining the
correlations after correcting for sampling error task dimensions in order to establish the
and reliability in the measures range from relation between "job complexity" and job
.46 for Autonomy to .32 for Task Identity. satisfaction.
Controlling for statistical artifacts accounted
The results of the analysis of the job charfor less than 75% of the observed variance in acteristic-job satisfaction relation based on
all of the task characteristics, which suggests the average of correlations between each of
that the job characteristic-job satisfaction the JDS task dimensions (job characteristic
Table 2
Correlations Between Job Characteristics and Job Satisfaction for Type M Studies
Study
High growth need strength
1. Armenakis, Field, Holley,
Bedeian & Ledbetter
(1977)
2. Brief &Aldag( 1975)
3. Griffin (1982)
4. Griffin (1981) I
II
5. O'Reilly & Caldwell
(1979)
6. Orpen(1979)
7. Pokorney, Gilmore, &
Beehr (1980)
8. Umstot, Bell, & Mitchell
(1976)
9. Wanous(1974)
Low growth need strength
1. Armenakis, Field, Holley,
Bedeian, & Ledbetter
(1977)
2. Brief & Aldag ( 1975)
3. Griffin (1982)
4. Griffin (1981) I
H
5. O'Reilly & Caldwell
(1979)
6. Orpen (1979)
7. Pokorney, Gilmore, &
Beehr (1980)
8. Umstot, Bell, & Mitchell
(1976)
9. Wanous(1974)
T.I.
T.S.
S.V.
Aut.
Fdbk.
Job
Characteristics
Index
28
35
48
65
65
.47
.40
.48
.52
.73
.28
.47
.53
.56
.82
.80
.53
.74
.52
.72
.66
.36
.84
.44
.71
.553
.440
.648
.510
.745
37
18
.53
.29
.41
.27
.87
.19
.85
.46
.65
.28
.662
.298
44
.40
.64
.34
.42
.63
.486
50
37
.27
.70
.70
.50
.71
.59
.76
.41
.628
.450
27
35
38
64
64
-.10
.33
.13
.18
.57
.09
.35
.60
.53
.03
.35
.23
.11
.73
.38
.36
.13
.42
.63
.348
.115
.328
.615
37
18
.31
.31
.29
.18
.63
.14
.58
-.02
.31
.09
.424
.140
54
.17
.29
.09
.23
.15
.186
.67
.28
.73
.15
.41
.48
.10
.514
.023
50
37
.30
-.07
-.03
-.09
.10
Note. T.I. - Task Identity; T.S. - Task Significance; S.V. = Skill Variety; Aut. = Autonomy; Fdbk. = Feedback.
JOB CHARACTERISTICS-JOB
index) are presented in Table 6. The sampleweighted correlation coefficient was .39 after
correcting for attenuation due to unreliability
in the task characteristic and job satisfaction
measures. The observed variance in the correlations was .0059. After correcting for variance due to sampling error and unreliability
in the measures, the variance in the correlations was still .0028. These statistical artifacts
account for 53% of the observed variance in
the correlation coefficients. This indicates
that 47% of the observed variance is due to
other factors, one of which may be GNS. If
both job characteristics and job satisfaction
had been perfectly measured, we would expect
to find a "true" distribution centered on .39,
285
SATISFACTION RELATION
Table 3
Reliability Data for Job Characteristics and Job Satisfaction Measures
for Type O and Type M Studies
Mean job
satisfaction
T.I.
Study
T.A.
S.V.
Aut.
Fdbk.
'yy
Type O studies
1.
2.
3.
4.
II
.63
.72
.63
.72
.62
.76
.69
.73
.63
.75
.64
.74
.87
.52
.91
.97
.50
.53
.89
.96
.53
.89
.96
.38
.86
.96
.49
.89
.96
.79
.93
.77
.72
.62
.73
.59
.90
.83
.78
.77
.75
.63
.75
.71
.70
.80
.75
.66
.76
.74
.88
.59
.36
.63
.54
.62
.55
.67
.76
.61
.70
.57
.74
.51
.75
.51
.77
.48
.74
.54
.79
.70
.53
.55
.69
.50
.41
.37
.53
.67
.64
.36
.73
.72
.48
.59
.61
.74
.73
.69
.63
.93
.62
.84
.69
.91
.63
.92
.64
.90
.94
.73
.72
.75
.74
7. Katz(1978b)
8. Kiggundu (1980)
9. O'Reilly, Parlette, &
Bloom (1980)
II
III
Type M studies
1. Brief* Aldag (1975)
2. Griffin (1982)
3. Pokorney, Gilmore, &
Beehr(1980)
4. Wanous (1974)
.76
.76
Note. T.I. = Task Identity; T.S. = Task Significance; S.V. = Skill Variety; Aut. = Autonomy; Fdbk. = Feedback.
286
Table 4
3
25
16
12
23
5
2
3
3
2
4
2
2
10
4
24
Discussion
The results of the analysis involving studies
of the job characteristics-job satisfaction relation appear to answer our question regarding
the level of the relation between job characteristics and job satisfaction. The correlation
between the job characteristics index and job
satisfaction is about .39. The relation between
each of the task characteristics and job sat-
Note. JDS = Job Diagnostic Survey; JCI = Job Characteristic Inventory; JDI = Job Descriptive Index; ERG =
Existedness, Relatedness, Growth.
Table 5
Results of the Meta-Analysis by Skill Dimension
Variable
Sample-weighted correlation
coefficient
Observed variance
Variance due to sampling
error
Variance corrected for
sampling error
Variance due to
unreliability in the
measures
Sample-weighted correlation
after correcting for
unreliability in the
measures
Variance of distribution of
true score correlations
Upper 95% confidence limit
Lower 95% confidence limit
T.I.
T.S.
S.V.
Aut.
Fdbk.
.24
.25
.30
.34
.29
.006403
.003923
.013691
.009454
.011311
.002177
.001983
.002030
.001912
.002041
.004226
.002440
.011661
.007542
.009270
.000663
.000835
.001624
.001346
.001968
.32
.38
.41
.46
.41
.006389
.003587
.018664
.011106
.013863
.48
.16
.50
.26
.68
.14
.67
.25
.64
.18
Note. T.I. = Task Identity; T.S. = Task Significance; S.V. = Skill Variety; Aut. = Autonomy; Fdbk. = Feedback.
Total sample size was 15,542.
287
Table 6
Results of the Overall Mela-Analysis
Sample-weighted correlation
coefficient
Observed variance
Variance due to sampling error
Variance corrected for sampling
error
Variance due to unreliability in the
measures
Sample-weighted correlation after
correcting for unreliability in the
measures
Variance of distribution of true score
correlations
Upper 95% confidence limit
Lower 95% confidence limit
Task Identity
Task Significance
.29
.005882
.002058
.26i-
Skill Variety
Autonomy
.003824
.001046
Feedback
-1.64
.OO
.39
.005068
.53
.25
.10
.20
.30
.40
.SO
.60
.70
Table 7
Results of the Moderator Analysis
Variable
Sample-weighted correlation coefficient
Observed variance
Variance due to sampling error
Variance corrected for sampling error
Variance due to unreliability in the measures
Sample-weighted correlation after correcting for unreliability in the measures
Variance of distribution of true score correlations
Upper 95% confidence limit
Lower 95% confidence limit
High GNS
Low GNS
.57
.32
.013517
.010721
.002796
.002458
.036792
.019083
.017709
.000764
.68
.38
.000482
.024179
.72
.64
.68
.08
Note. Total sample size for high-GNS group was 427. For low-GNS group, sample size was 424.
288
acteristics (such as work group or management support for enrichment activities) may
be necessary if the core job dimensions are
to increase employee satisfaction. That is, the
opportunities an enriched job offers, in and
of themselves, may not be recognized or
cared about by low-GNS employees. What
may be more important is how the employee's
work group views these opportunities. If the
work group is supportive of enriched work,
this may help to enhance the employee's
satisfaction with a more complex job. Future
research is necessary to investigate hypotheses
about moderating situational characteristics
for low-GNS persons.
An alternative explanation is that satisfaction influences how individuals describe their
jobs (the authors thank an anonymous reviewer for this suggestion). Satisfied individuals may see their jobs as more "complex"
than dissatisfied individuals. The direction of
arrows in Figure 3 may be reversed.
Finally, the characteristics of the studies
reported in the literature are particularly
disturbing. Few empirical studies of actual
job enrichment interventions have been reported in the professional literature. More
studies evaluating the impact of actual changes
in job characteristics on employee attitudes
and performance need to be conducted. Additionally, more attention needs to be directed
to the impact of common method variance
on the job characteristics-job satisfaction relation. The use of multiple methods (e.g.,
interviews, unobtrusive observation) to assess
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Appendix
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Received May 25, 1984
Revision received July 30, 1984