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Electro/Digital
Electricity
This is the first lesson on the subject of Electro/Digital. The lesson begins with
Ohms law, which gives the relationship between voltage, current and resistance.
Several important aspects of these three electrical quantities will be described
The second half of the lesson addresses the testset. The testset consists of two
parts a voltage source for direct (DC) and alternating (AC) voltage and a meter
for DC and AC voltage and DC current.

Contents of the lesson

1

Ohms law

Electrical measurements

Testset

Measurement of DC current and DC voltage

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Lesson
1. Ohms law
Ohms law is an important law relating to electricity. It gives the relationship
between voltage, current and resistance. The proportionalities discussed below
were discovered by the physicist Ohm.
A potential difference of 1 volt (V) across a resistance of 1 ohm () results in an
electric current of 1 ampere (A).
Expressed as a formula, this is:
V=I*R

1.1 Voltage
- free electrons
- negative electrical
charge

An electrical conductor contains free electrons. These electrons carry a negative

electrical charge. The electrons repel one another because they are carrying the
same negative charge. The energy needed to move the electrons towards one
another is referred to as voltage. As the voltage increases the electrons are
pushed closer together, overcoming the forces of repulsion caused by the equal
electrical charge. When subjected to this voltage, the electrons tend to move.
The electrons move under the influence of the voltage from a point with high
electron density to a point with low electron density. A point with many
electrons is more highly negatively charged than a point with fewer electrons. In
other words electrons move from negative to positive.
Before the existence of electrons was discovered, it was thought that electricity
flowed from positive to negative. Only later was it discovered that negative
particles were the carriers of electric current and that they flowed from negative
to positive. In order to avoid confusion, however, things were left the way they
were and we still use the convention that an electric current flows from positive
to negative.

- reference
voltage/earth
potential

- electrical potential
- volt

Another way of looking at this is that if an electric current flows through a

conductor, there has to be a voltage difference across the conductor. There needs
to be a reference point in order to determine a voltage difference. In most cases
the voltage of the earth represents the neutral point for a voltage difference. In
electronics this reference voltage is referred to as the earth potential.
We can therefore use the earth potential as a reference point for all other
voltages. The voltage difference between a measurement point and the earth
potential is referred to as the electrical potential of that point. The voltage
difference between two points with different potentials is referred to as the
potential difference. The unit for measuring potential or voltage is the volt (V).

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Question 1
What is meant by earth potential?

1.2 Current
We refer to the movement of electrons under the influence of an applied voltage
as current. The current can be considered as the number of electrons that move
through a conductor per unit time. We are talking here about very large numbers
of electrons per second.
- 1 coulomb
- ampere

- DC and
AC
current

In order to be able to describe an electric current using normal numbers, people

have defined the coulomb, where 1 coulomb = 6.25 * 1018 electrons. The unit of
electric current is the ampere. There is a simple relationship between the ampere
and the coulomb: 1 ampere (A) = 1 coulomb (C) per second (s).
An electric current made up of electrons that are always flowing in the same
direction is called a direct current (DC current). A battery supplies DC current,
for example. An electric current that is continually changing direction is called
alternating current (AC current). An AC current dynamo supplies AC current,
for instance.
Question 2
In which direction do the electrons go through a conductor if there is anAC
current? What is the direction of the electric current?

1.3 Resistance
- electrical
resistance

Electrons can move more easily through some materials than others. The
electrons are hindered to a greater or lesser extent. This hindrance is referred to
as electrical resistance.

- insulators/
conductors

Resistance depends on the type of material and also the shape. A short thick
piece of wire gives less resistance than a long thin piece. Substances with very
high resistance are referred to as insulators, and substances with a very low
resistance are called conductors.

- ohm

The unit of electrical resistance is the ohm ( ). The resistance can be expressed
as the drop or decrease in voltage (in V) that occurs per ampere (A). In
electronics, components are used that are specially intended to form a resistance
to an electric current. Such components are referred to as resistors.
Question 3
Which factors affect electrical resistance?

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2. Electrical measurements
A large number of instruments are used to make electrical measurements. We
will limit ourselves to the voltmeter and the ammeter.

2.1 Voltmeter
- voltmeter
- connected in
parallel

A voltmeter is an instrument for measuring the magnitude of the voltage, for

example the voltage across a resistor. Care must be taken to ensure that the
voltmeter is always connected to the resistor in parallel. The principle of this
type of measurement is shown in figure 1.

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Figure 1
Voltage measurement

- high resistance

Figure 1 is a diagram of a simple closed circuit. The voltage source supplies DC

current. The long bar is the positive and the short bar is the negative. Here the
electric current flows clockwise. The voltmeter is connected to the resistor in
parallel and therefore current passes through it too. This current has to be as
small as possible because otherwise it would not be possible to measure the
voltage across the resistor accurately. A voltmeter therefore has to have a very
high resistance. In the case of DC current, the positive terminal of the voltmeter
has to be connected to the positive terminal of the voltage source. The negative
terminal of the voltmeter is therefore connected to the negative terminal of the
voltage source.

2.2 Ammeter
- ammeter
- connected in series

An ammeter is an instrument for measuring the magnitude of the electric

current, for example the current through a resistor. Care must be taken to ensure
that the ammeter is connected to the resistor in series. The principle of this type
of measurement is shown in figure 2.

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Figure 2
Current measurement
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- low resistance

The electric current in the circuit shown in figure 2 is the same everywhere. In
this situation it does not matter where the current is measured, as long as the
ammeter is connected to the resistor in series. In order to obtain an accurate
measurement, it is essential that the ammeter does not have any practical effect
on the current being measured. This means that the resistance of an ammeter has
to be extremely low. In the case of measurement of a DC current, the positive
terminal of the ammeter also has to be connected to the positive terminal of the
voltage source.

2.3 Voltage source

A voltage source is a device that can maintain a potential difference. The device
has two terminals: a positive terminal and a negative terminal.
If we connect a resistor to this battery, the electrons will flow from the pole with
the negative charge to the pole with the positive charge. As a result of this, the
amount of negative charge on the negative pole is reduced, and the deficiency of
negative charge on the positive pole is also reduced. The voltage difference
between the two poles becomes smaller as a result of the transport of electrons.
The current through the resistor becomes smaller as a result of the reduction in
the potential difference. In this way the voltage between the poles of the voltage
source will ultimately drop to zero.
If we connect a resistor to a voltage source, the electrons will flow from the pole
with the negative charge to the pole with the positive charge. If we also connect
a lamp to the voltage source, the lamp will continue to burn just as brightly. The
positive and negative poles of the voltage source therefore appear to maintain
their voltage.
This is only possible if the electrons arriving at the positive pole are transported
internally within the voltage source to the negative pole. The voltage source
pumps the electrons from the positive pole to the negative pole so to speak.
Question 4
How can a voltage source be described?

3. Testset
A testset consists of two sections:
- a voltage source for DC and AC voltage;
- a meter for DC and AC voltage and DC current.
We will discuss each of these separately.

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3.1 Direct current (DC) supply

Figure 3 shows the section containing the connections for the DC supply. The
sockets marked A and B are the terminals for a non-adjustable voltage of 6 V.
This voltage can be turned on and off using the topmost knob (E).

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Figure 3
DC current supply section of the testset

- position V

- position mA2
- position mA20

The sockets marked B and C are the terminals for a supply that can be adjusted
using knob D. There are three options:
- turn knob D to position V. The supply source is then a constant voltage
source. The magnitude of the voltage can be adjusted using knob E. Knob E
also serves as an on/off switch for these terminals. The highest voltage that
can be set is approximately 9 V;
- turn knob D to position mA2. The supply source is now a constant current
source. The magnitude of this current can also be adjusted using knob E up
to a maximum of 2 mA;
- turn knob D to position mA20. Here too a constant current source is
obtained, but now the maximum current is 20 mA instead of 2 mA.
Question 5
A testset consists of two sections. What are they?

3.2 Alternating current (AC) supply

Figure 4 shows the section of the testset containing the connections for
alternating current (AC) supply; it will not be discussed further because it is not
included in these lessons.

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Figure 4
ACt supply section of the testset

4. Measurement of DC current and DC voltage

- scale divisions

The meter can be set to different sensitivities to measure AC voltages, DC

voltages and DC currents. Figure 5 shows the layout of the instruments meter
panel. The meter has three scale divisions, of which we will only be using the
0-3 and 0-10 divisions.

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Figure 5
Measurement section of the testset

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4.1 Measurement of DC current

- measurement
range

In order to determine a DC current, set knob F to the mA position. Sockets A

and B are the terminals for the DC measurement. The measurement range can be
set using knob E. If it is set to position 3, for example, the magnitude of the
current is read on the scale 0-3. We take the readings from the same meter
when knob E is set to the 0.3, 30 or 300 positions, but now the meter reading has
to be multiplied by 0.1, 10 or 100 respectively. As far as positions 0.1, 1, 10 and
100 are concerned, however, we read the values on the scale 0-10, multiplied
by the correct factor where appropriate.
If the approximate magnitude of the current is not known beforehand, the
measurement is started with E in the highest position (300). If the result of the
measurement permits, the meter is made more sensitive by gradually reducing
the range using knob E.
Question 6
At what measurement range is knob E set if a current of unknown strength has to
be measured?

4.2 Measurement of DC voltage

A DC voltage can be measured when knob F is set to the V position. In this case
the measurement range is set using knob G, and sockets C and D are used as
terminals. Here too, the scale division 0-3 is used for the settings 30 mV, 0.3, 3
and 30 V, and the scale division 0-10 is used for positions 10mV, 0.1, 1 and
10 V.
The two positions of knob F furthest to the right are not required for this lesson.

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Summary
Ohms law gives the relationship between voltage, current and resistance. A
potential difference of 1 volt across a resistance of 1 ohm results in an electric
current of 1 ampere.
Expressed as a formula, this is:
V=I*R
The energy needed to move these electrons towards one another is referred to as
voltage.
The electrons move under the influence of the voltage from a point with high
electron density to a point with low electron density. In other words electrons
move from negative to positive. However, the convention is that an electric
current flows from positive to negative.
In most cases the potential of the earth represents the neutral (or zero) point. In
electronics this reference voltage is referred to as the earth potential.
The voltage difference between a measurement point and the earth potential is
referred to as the electrical potential of that point. The unit for measuring
potential or voltage is the volt (V).
The current can be considered as the number of electrons that move through a
conductor per unit time.
In order to be able to describe an electric current using normal numbers, people
have defined the coulomb, where 1 coulomb = 6.25 * 1018 electrons. The unit of
electric current is the ampere. There is a simple relationship between the ampere
and the coulomb 1 ampere (A) = 1 coulomb (C) per second (s).
An electric current made up of electrons that are always flowing in the same
direction is called a direct current.
An electric current that is continually changing direction is called alternating
current.
The resistance can be expressed as the drop or decrease in voltage (in V) that
occurs per ampere (A). The unit of electrical resistance is the ohm ().
Resistance depends on the type of material and also the shape. Substances with
very high resistance are referred to as insulators, and substances with a very low
resistance are called conductors.
A voltmeter is an instrument for measuring the magnitude of the voltage, for
example the voltage across a resistor. Care must be taken to ensure that the
voltmeter is always connected to the resistor in parallel. A voltmeter therefore
has to have a very high resistance.

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An ammeter is the normal name for an instrument measuring the magnitude of

the electric current, for example the current through a resistor. Care must be
taken to ensure that the ammeter is connected to the resistor in series. This
means that the resistance of an ammeter has to be very low.
A voltage source is a device that can maintain a potential difference.
A testset is made up of two sections:
- a voltage source for DC and AC voltage;
- a meter for DC and AC voltage and DC current.

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Test
Exercises
Do not send in your answers for correction
1

A coil is connected to a voltage of 12 V. The current passing through the

wire is 0.5 A. Calculate the resistance of the coil.

2.

A soldering iron contains an element with a resistance of 110 . What is the

magnitude of the current that is created in the element if the soldering iron
is connected to a 220 V supply?

3.

The bulb of a torch uses a current of 0.3 A at a voltage of 4.5 V. What is the
resistance of the bulb?

4.

A quantity of charge amounting to 4500 Coulomb moves through a

conductor during a period of 5 minutes. How large is the current?

5.

How many light bulbs, each with a resistance of 44 , can burn when
connected to a voltage of 220 V? The current used by each lamp when
burning normally is 0.5 A.

6.

According to convention, what have we assumed to be the direction of the

electric current in a conductor? How do electrons move through this
conductor?

7.

A current of 4 A is flowing through a circuit. The resistance of the circuit is

made twice as large. What does the current then become?

Answers to the questions in the lesson

1.

In most cases the voltage of the earth represents the neutral point for a
voltage difference. In electronics this reference voltage is referred to as the
earth potential.

2.

The direction in which the electrons flow will change continually because
the positive and negative poles are continually exchanged. The electric
current also changes direction continually but it will always be in the
opposite direction to the flow of electrons.

3.

The resistance depends on the type of material and also the shape.

4.

A voltage source is a device that can maintain a potential difference.

5.

A testset is made up of two sections:

- a voltage source for DC and AC voltage;
- a meter for DC and AC voltage and DC current.
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6.

If the approximate magnitude of the current is not known beforehand, the

measurement is started with E in the highest position (300). If the result of
the measurement permits, the meter is made more sensitive by gradually
reducing the range using knob E.

Answers to the exercises

1.

Ohms law gives the relationship between voltage, current and resistance.
Expressed as a formula, this is: V = I * R
Using the data results in 12 = 0.5 * R
It follows from this that R =

2.

12
0.5

= 24

With Ohms law in the form of a formula:

V=I*R
Putting in the data gives:
220 = I * 110
It follows from this that I =

3.

220
110

=2A

With Ohms law in the form of a formula:

V=I*R
Putting in the data gives:
4.5 = 0.3 * R
It follows from this that R =

4.

4.5
0 .3

= 15

The following relationship exists between the ampere and the coulomb:
1 ampere (A) = 1 coulomb (C) per second (s).
Putting in the data results in a current of

4500
(5 * 60)

= 15 A

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5.

With Ohms law in the form of a formula:

V=I*R
Let the number of light bulbs be X. After putting the data into the formula
we obtain:
220 = 0.5 * (X * 44)
It follows from this that:
220
= (X * 44)s

0.5

or X =

220

(0.5 * 4)

= 10

It is therefore possible to have 10 light bulbs burning normally.

6.

The convention is that an electric current flows from positive to negative

The electrons move under the influence of the voltage from a point with
high electron density to a point with low electron density. In other words the
electrons move from negative to positive.

7.

Ohms law gives the relationship between voltage, current and resistance in
the form of a formula. Because the current is inversely proportional to the
resistance, a doubling of the resistance results in halving the current. The
current was 4 A and it drops to 2 A.

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