Professional Documents
Culture Documents
OF
WORKSHOP PRACTISE
The following faculty members has contributed for preparing the Workshop Practice manual.
CARPENTRY
FITTING
HOUSE WIRING
PLUMBING
SHEET METAL
WELDING
Module Co ordinator
J. Dhanraj Pamar
Program Co ordinator
AS Reddy/SE Khainy
HOD
CARPENTRY
INDEX
1. CARPENTRY
Introduction
Tools
Safety precautions
Exercises
1. Practice in Planning, sawing and chiseling
2. Preparing cross Half Lap Joint
3. Preparing Dove Tail Joint.
BEYOUND THE SYLLABUS:
1. Preparing the Mortise and Tenon joint
CHAPTER-1
CARPENTRY
INTRODUCTION:
Carpentry may be defined as the process of making wooden articles and components such as
roots, floors, partitions, doors and windows. Carpentry involves cutting, shaping and fastening
wood and other materials together to produce a finished product. It deals with the building work,
furniture, either, cabinet, making , etc, Joinery. Preparation of joints is one of the important
operations in wood work. Joinery denotes connecting the wooden parts using different points such
as lap joints, mortise and T- joints, bridle joints, etc.
In carpentry workshop, wooden pieces of commercial sizes are given specific shape and size, as
per the requirements. The processes involved in carpentry shop are making layout, marking,
sowing, planning, chiseling joint making etc.
The raw material and tools used in carpentry shop are various are wood, nut, screw, nut and bolt
and glue etc. The tools are classified as marking, cutting, planning, chiseling, striking etc.
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
Following are the common defects occurring in the wood and it can be divided into following
three categories.
1. Natural Defects are the defects which are caused in the tree due to abnormality in the grouts.
2. Defects are also caused during seasoning operation.
3. Some defects are also there due to termites or insects.
Natural defects Wood being a product of nature is subjected of natural defects, some of them
are explained below:
1. Shakes: Shakes are caused due to the separation of wood grains, some times, burning of
tissues and shrinkage of interior parts takes place which causes radial or circular rupture in
tissues and creates cavities, which are called shakes are of three types
(i) Heart and star shakes: These defects in the heart wood in other older tree, especially.
Hemlock heart shakes can be evidenced by a small point cavity at the center of the wood as
shown in fig.
(ii) Wind shakes or Cup shaker: The separation of annual rings is called wind shake or cup
shake. These defects are common in lines.
(iii) Radial Shakes: Radial shakes are the radial splits extending from bark towards the center.
These cracks over the cross section of the log are winder at the bark and narrow down near the
center as shown in fig.
2. Knots: Knot represent irregular in the body of a tree which interrupt the smooth course of the
grand. The fibers of the tree are turned from their normal shaped and grow around the knot at
that point of a tree where a link is being formed. Knots are two types:
(i) Dead knots: When the separation of benches or hurbs takes place before the tree is cut,
the knot thus formed called leaf knot. This knot is not held firmly and wood having leaf knot
is not recommended for engineering purposes.
(ii) Live knots: If the separation occurs after falling of a tree the knot thus formed is called
live knot. A wood having live knot can be used for engineering purposes.
SEASONING OF WOOD
The process of removing moisture from freshly cut down trees is known as seasoning. In these
trees the percentage of moisture is very high. The wood uses of engineering purposes containing
high percentage of moisture may cause many types of problems, such as shrinkage, warpage
distortion etc. To a point this, seasoning is done. After seasoning the percentage of moisture is
reduced to 10- 20%.
Types of Seasoning
(i) Air Seasoning: In this method, the timber balks are stacked in a sheet such that they are not
directly exposed to sun and rain but a free circulation of air takes place through them. The timber
balks are allowed to remain in that condition for a long times. The balks be periodically turned
upside which accelerates the rate of drying. Due to the circulation of free air through the stack,
the excess moisture evaporates and the wood gets seasoned. This is the commonly used method
which takes much time but proper seasoning can be easily done with a little care.
(ii) Water Seasoning: In this method, timber balks are immersed in flowing water for a fortnight.
The flowing stream of water removes the sap. The timber is then taken out and air seasoning is
done as usual. This method takes less time but the strength of wood reduced.
(iii) Artificial or Kiln Seasoning: This is a quick process of seasoning of this method,
the timber balks are stacked and over large trollies which are then driven into hot chambers or
kilus. Hot air or dry stem is pushed into the chamber under controlled temperature conditions.
The moisture content is reduced because the evaporation takes place and ultimately the timber
gets seasoned.
TOOLS
2. Marking gauge
Marking gauge shown in figure1.2.a is a tool used to mark lines parallel to the edge of a wooden
piece. It consists of a square wooden stem with a sliding wooden stock (head) on it. On the stem
is fitted a marking pin, made of steel. The stock is set at any desired distance from the marking
point and fixed in position by a screw. It must be ensured that the marking pin projects through
the stem, about 3 mm and the end are sharp enough to make a very fine line.
A mortise gauge shown in Figure 1.2.b consists of two pins. In this, it is possible to adjust the
distance between the pins, to draw two parallel lines on the stock.
a. Marking gauge
b. Mortise gauge
Compass and divider shown in figure 1.4, are used for marking arcs and circles on the planed
surfaces of the wood.
6. Bevel
Bevel as shown in figure 1.5b is used for layingout and checking angles. The blade of the bevel
is adjustable and may be held in place by a thumb screw. After it is set to the desired angle, it can
be used in much the same way as a trysquare. A good way to set it to the required angle is to
mark the angle on a surface and then adjust the blade to fit the angle.
1. Jack plane
Jack Plane as shown in figure 1.9 a & b is the most commonly used general purpose plane. It is
about 35 cm long. The cutting iron (blade) should have a cutting edge of slight curvature. It is
used for quick removal of material on rough work and is also used in oblique planning.
2. Smoothing plane
Smoothing Plane as shown in figure 1.9c is used for finishing work and hence, the blade should
have a straight cutting edge. It is about 20 to 25 cm long. Being short, it can follow even the slight
depressions in the stock, better than the jack plane. It is used after using the jack plane.
3. Rebate plane
Rebate Plane as shown in figure 1.9d is used for making a rebate. A rebate is a recess along the
edge of a piece of wood, which is generally used for positioning glass in frames and doors.
4. Plough plane
Plough Plane as shown in figure 1.9e is used to cut grooves, which are used to fix panels in a
door. Figure .9 shows the various types of planes mentioned above.
c)smoothing Plane
d) Rebate plane
e) Plough Plane
Figure 1.9: Types of planes
CUTTING TOOLS
1. Saws
A saw is used to cut wood into pieces. There are different types of saws, designed to suit
different purposes. A saw is specified by the length of its toothed edge.
i) Crosscut or hand saw
Cross cut saw as shown in figure1.10 is used to cut across the grains of the stock. The teeth are so
set that the saw kerf will be wider than the blade thickness. This allows the blade to move freely
in the cut, without sticking.
ii) Rip saw
Rip saw as shown in figure 1.10 is used for cutting the stock along the grains. The cutting edge of
this saw makes a steeper angle, i.e., about 60 whereas that of crosscut saw makes an angle of 45
with the surface of the stock.
iii) Tenon saw
Tenon saw as shown in figure 1.11 is used for cutting the stock either along or across the grains.
It is used for cutting tenons and in fine cabinet work. However, it is used for small and thin cuts.
The blade of this saw is very thin and so it is stiffened with a thick back steel strip. Hence, this is
sometimes called as backsaw. In this, the teeth are shaped like those of crosscut saw.
iv) Compass saw
Compass saw as shown in figure 1.12 has a narrow, longer and stronger tapering blade, which is
used for heavy works . It is mostly used in radius cutting. The blade of this saw is fitted with an
open type wooden handle.
i) Firmer chisel
The word 'firmer' means 'stronger' and hence firmer chisel is stronger than other chisels. It is a
general purpose chisel and is used either by hand pressure or by a mallet. The blade of a firmer
chisel is flat, as shown in Figure 1.14 a.
a. Firmer
b. Dovetail
c. Mortise
2. Auger bit
Auger bit as shown in figure 1.15b is the most common tool used for making holes in wood.
During drilling, the lead screw of the bit guides into the wood, necessitating only moderate
pressure on the brace. The helical flutes on the surface carry the chips to the outer surface.
3. Hand drill
Carpenter's brace is used to make relatively large size holes; whereas hand drill as shown in
figure 1.15c is used for drilling small holes. A straight shank drill is used with this tool. It is
small, light in weight and may be conveniently used than the brace. The drill bit is clamped in the
chuck at its end and is rotated by a handle attached to gear and pinion arrangement.
4. Gimlet
Gimlet as shown in figure 1.15d has cutting edges like a twist drill. It is used for drilling large
diameter holes with the hand pressure.
a) Carpenters brace
b) Auger Bit
c) Hand Drill
d) gimlet
MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS
1. Mallet
Mallet as shown in figure 1.16a is used to drive the chisel, when considerable force is to be
applied, which may be the case in making deep rough cuts. Steel hammer should not be used for
the purpose, as it may damage the chisel handle. Further, for better control, it is better to apply a
series of light taps with the mallet rather than a heavy single blow.
2. Pincer
It is made of two forged steel arms with a hinged joint and is used for pullingout small nails
from wood. The inner faces of the pincer (figure 1.16b) jaws are beveled and the outer faces are
plain. The end of one arm has a ball and the other has a claw. The beveled jaws and the claw are
used for pulling out small nails, pins and screws from the wood.
3. Claw hammer
It has a striking flat face at one end and the claw at the other, as shown in figure1.16c. The face is
used to drive nails into wood and for other striking purposes and the claw for extracting relatively
large nails out of wood. It is made of cast steel and weighs from 0.25 kg to 0.75 kg.
4. Screw driver
It is used for driving screws into wood or unscrewing them. The screw driver of a carpenter is
different from the other common types, as shown in figure1.16f The length of a screw driver is
determined by the length of the blade. As the length of the bladeincreases, the width and thickness
of the tip also increase.
5. Wood rasp file
It is a finishing tool used to make the wood surface smooth, remove sharp edges, finish fillets
and other interior surfaces as shown in figure1.16d. Sharp cutting teeth are provided on its surface
for the purpose. This file is exclusively used in wood work.
6. Bradawl
It is a hand operated tool, used to bore small holes for starting a screw or large nail.as shown in
figure 1.16e
a.Mallet
b. Pincer
c. Claw hammer
e. Bradawl
f. Screw driver
For marking with the help of a marking gauge, it must be held firmly with fingers around the head
and with the thumb behind the marking point and the gauge must be pushed forward against the
surface. While pushing, the gauge must be kept slightly forward so that , the point gets dragged at
a slight angle.
If the work is to be finished with a plane, an allowance must be provided for this, while marking
However, it must be borne in mind that removing excess material with a plane is a tedious job and
hence should be kept to a minimum.
Laying-out an Angle
The following are the steps involved in laying-out an angle on a wooden surface.
1. Set the bevel to the required angle.
2. Hold the handle firmly against the face or edge of the board.
3. Mark along the edge of the blade with a pencil or knife.
Plane Adjustment
A plane will not produce proper work surface unless the blade is sharp and properly adjusted.
Out of the two adjustments that are in built in the design of the plane, one is to regulate the depth
of cut and the other is to straighten the blade so that , it produces a flat surface.
The plane adjustment may be checked by feeling the corners of the blade with the first two
fingers. By this, it may be easily detected and adjusted if one corner projects through the throat
farther than the other. For proper work, turn the adjustment nut until a fine shaving is cut when
the plane is moved over the surface.
Method of using the plane.
The following may be noted while using the plane:
1. Hold the handle of the plane with the right hand and the knob with the left band.
2. Stand to the left side of the job, feet apart and with the left foot slightly ahead.
3. While pushing the plane, gradually shift weight to the left foot.
4. While planning , keep the fore arm straight in-line behind the plane
NOTE: i) Always plane along the grains. Planning against the grains will result in rough work.
ii) When not in use, lay the plane on its side. This prevents the cutting edge becoming dull
by contact with the bench top.
Planing a Surface
Planing is the first thing to be done to build any project in carpentry. The following are the steps
involved in planning a surface:
1. Beginning at one edge of the stock, plane with full length strokes to the other edge.
2. Use the edge of a steel rule to test the surface , by placing the edge in various positions on
the surface and see the underneath to locate high and low places. For this , the order of
checking is as follows:
i)
First place the straight edge cross-wise on the stock and move it slowly from one
end to the other.
a. Butt
b. Dowell
e. Lap
c. Dado
d. Rabbet
g. Miter
Lap joints
In lap joints, an equal amount of wood is removed from each piece, as shown in figure 1.17. Lap
joints are easy to layout, using a trysquare and a marking gauge. The layout may also be made by
lapping the pieces to be joined and along the edge of one piece, marking lines on the other.
Here too, while laying-out the joint, Follow the procedure suggested for sawing and removing the
waste stock. If the joint is found to be too tight, it is better to reduce the width of the mating piece,
instead of trimming the shoulder of the joint. This type of joint is used for small boxes to large
pieces of furniture.
SAFE PRACTICE
General
1. Tools that are not being used should always be kept at their proper places.
2. Make sure that your hands are not in front of sharp edged tools while you are using them.
3. Use only sharp tools. A dull tool requires excessive pressure, causing the tool to slip.
4. Wooden pieces with nails, should never be allowed to remain on the floor.
Saws
Be careful when you are using your thumb as a guide in crosscutting and ripping.
Chisels
1. Test the sharpness of the cutting edge of chisel on wood or paper, but not on your hand.
2. Never chisel towards any part of the body.
Screw driver.
1. Select the longest screw driver that is appropriate for the job intended. The longer the tool
, the greater the effort applied.
2. The tip of the screw driver must fit the slot without wobbling. The width of the tip should
be equal to the length of the screw slot.
3. Keep the screw driver properly pointed to prevent injury to hands.
9. Using the try square mark slots with pencil on the face side.
10. Square down these lines upto gauge lines on the two face edges.
11. Mark X over the work piece an portions to be removed.
12. Make saw cuts close up against the lines on the face side and upto gauge lines on the
edges. The cuts should be towards the portion to be removed.
13. Fix the work piece again and chisel out the slots, starting from top to bottom at an angle
and gradually reaching the gauge line. reverse the work piece and repeat the same
operation. Finally, clear the bottom portion of each slot smooth and flat.
14. Saw out the waste wood from both the ends.
NOTE:
1. Use a chisel of smaller size than the slot to be cut.
2. Be careful to see the saw does not run out of the marked lines.
EXERCISE-2
AIM: To make the Cross Half Lap Joint according to the given dimensions, from the given
wooden
piece .
The Wooden piece is firmly clamped in the carpenter's vice and any two adjacent faces
are planed by the jack plane and the two faces are checked for squareness with the try
square.
3.
Marking gauge is set and lines are drawn at 44 and 88 mm, to mark the thickness and
width of the model respectively.
4.
The excess material is first chiseled out with firmer chisel and then planed to correct size.
5.
The mating dimensions of the parts X and Yare then marked using scale and marking
gauge.
6.
Using the cross cut saw, the portions to be removed are cut in both the pieces, followed
by chiseling and also the parts X and Yare separated by cross cutting, using the tenon saw.
7.
8.
A fine finishing is given to the parts, if required so that, proper fitting is obtained.
9.
NOTE:
1. Use a chisel of smaller size than the slot to be cut.
2. Be careful to see the saw does not run out of the marked lines.
RESULT: The cross half lap joint is thus made by following the above sequence of
operations.
EXERCISE-3
AIM: To make the Dove Tail Joint according to the given dimensions, from the given wooden
piece ..
14. The mating dimensions of the parts X and Yare then marked using scale and marking
gauge.
15. Using the cross cut saw, the portions to be removed are cut in both the pieces, followed
by chiseling and also the parts X and Yare separated by cross cutting, using the tenon saw.
16. The ends of both the parts are chiseled to exact lengths.
17. A fine finishing is given to the parts, if required so that, proper fitting is obtained.
18. The parts are fitted to obtain a slightly tight joint.
NOTE:
1. Use a chisel of smaller size than the slot to be cut.
2. Be careful to see the saw does not run out of the marked lines.
RESULT: The Dove tail Lap joint is thus made by following the above sequence of
operations.
EXERCISE-4
AIM: To make the Mortise and Tenon Joint according to the given dimensions, from the given
wooden piece .
Y
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MM
5.
The excess material is first chiseled out with the firmer chisel and then planed to correct
size.
6. The mating dimensions of the parts X and Yare then marked using the scale and marking
gauge.
7. Using the cross cut saw, the portions to be removed in part Y (tenon) is cut, followed by
chiseling.
8. The material to be removed in part X (mortise) is carried out by using the mortise and
firmer chisels.
9. The parts X and Yare separated by cross cutting with the tenon saw.
10. The ends of both the parts are chiseled to exact lengths.
11. Finish chiseling is done wherever needed so that, the parts can be fitted to obtain a near
tight joint.
NOTE:
1. Use a chisel of smaller size than the slot to be cut.
2. Be careful to see the saw does not run out of the marked lines.
RESULT: The mortise and tenon joint is thus made by following the above sequence of
operations.
FITTING SHOP
CONTENTS
Preface
Table of Contents
page
1. Fitting Shop
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Holding tools
1.3
1.4
Cutting tools
1.5
Finishing tools
1.6
Miscellaneous tools
1.7
Safe practice
1.8
Exercises
FITTING SHOP
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Machine tools are capable of producing work at a faster rate, but, there are
occasions when components are processed at the bench. Sometimes, it becomes
necessary to replace or repair component which must be fit accurately with another
component on reassembly. This involves a certain amount of hand fitting. The assembly of
machine tools, jigs, gauges, etc, involves certain amount of bench work. The accuracy of
work done depends upon the experience and skill of the fitter.fitting deals which the assembly
of mating parts, through removal of metal, to obtain the required fit.
Both the bench work and fitting requires the use of number of simple hand tools
and considerable manual efforts. The operations in the above works consist of filing,
chipping, scraping, sawing drilling, and tapping.
It is fixed to the bench with bolts and nuts. The vice body consists of two main parts,
fixed jaw and movable jaw. When the vice handle is turned in a clockwise direction, the
sliding jaw forces the work against the fixed jaw. Jaw plates are made of hardened steel.
Serrations on the jaws ensure a good grip. Jaw caps made of soft material are used to protect
finished surfaces, gripped in the vice. The size of the vice is specified by the length of the jaws.
The vice body is made of cast Iron which is strong in compression, weak in tension and so
fractures under shocks and therefore should never be hammered.
1.2.2 Vblock
Vblock is rectangular or square block with a Vgroove on one or both sides opposite
to each other. The angle of the V is usually 900. Vblock with a clamp is used to hold cylindrical
work securely, during layout of measurement, for measuring operations or for drilling for
this the bar is faced longitudinally in the VGroove and the screw of Vclamp is tightened.
This grip the rod is firm with its axis parallel to the axis of the vgroove.
1.2.3 CClamp
This is used to hold work against an angle plate or vblock or any other surface, when
gripping is required. ts fixed jaw is shaped like English alphabet C and the movable jaw is round
in shape and directly fitted to the threaded screw at the end .The working principle of this
clamp is the same as that of the bench vice.
Figure 1.2:V-block
Figure 1.3:C-clamp
1.3MARKING&MEASURINGTOOlS
1.3.1 Surface Plate
The surface plate is machined to fine limits and is used for testing the flatness of
the work piece. It is also used for marking out small box and is more precious than the marking
table. The degree of the finished depends upon whether it is designed for bench work in a fitting
shop or for using in an inspection room; the surface plate is made of Cast Iron, hardened Steel
or Granite stone. It is specified by length, width, height and grade. Handles are provided on two
opposite sides, to carry it while shifting from one place to another.
1.3.2
Trysquare
It is measuring and marking tool for 90oangle .In practice, it is used for checking the
squareness of many types of small works when extreme accuracy is not required .The
blade of the Try square is made of hardened steel and the stock of cast Iron or steel. The
size of the Try square is specified by the length of the blade.
1.3.5 Divider
It is basically similar to the calipers except that its legs are kept straight and
pointed at the measuring edge. This is used for marking circles, arcs laying out perpendicular
lines, by setting lines. It is made of case hardened mild steel or hardened and tempered low
carbon steel. Its size is specified by the length of the leg.
1.3.6 Trammel
Trammel is used for drawing large circles or arcs.
1.3.7 Punches
These are used for making indentations on the scribed lines, to make them visible
clearly. These are made of high carbon steel. A punch is specified by its length and diameter (say
as 150 12.5mm). It consists of a cylindrical knurled body, which is plain for some length at the
top of it. At the other end, it is ground to a point. The tapered point of the punch is hardened
over a length of 20 to 30mm.
Dot punch is used to lightly indent along the layout lines, to locate center of holes and to
provide a small center mark for divider point, etc. for this purpose, the punch is ground to a
conical point having 60 included angle.
Center punch is similar to the dot punch, except that it is ground to a conical point having 90
included angle. It is used to mark the location of the holes to be drilled.
Figure 1.9:
Punches
1.3.8 Calipers
They are indirect measuring tools used to measure or transfer linear dimensions. These
are used with the help of a steel Rule to check inside and outside measurements. These
are made of Case hardened mild steel or hardened and tempered low carbon steel. While
using, but the legs of the caliper are set against the surface of the work, whether inside or
outside and the distance between the legs is measured with the help of a scale and the same can
be transferred to another desired place. These are specified by the length of the leg. In the case
of outside caliper, the legs are bent inwards and in the case of inside caliper, the legs bent
outwards.
Figure
1.10:Calipers
1.3.9 Vernier Calipers
These are used for measuring outside as well as inside dimensions accurately. It may
also be used as a depth gauge. It has two jaws. One jaw is formed at one end of its main scale
and the other jaw is made part of a vernier scale.
The teeth of the hacksaw blade are staggered, as shown in figure and known as a set of
teeth. These make slots wider than the blade thickness, preventing the blade from jamming.
1.4.2 Chisels
Chisels are used for removing surplus metal or for cutting thin sheets. These tools
are made from 0.9% to 1.0% carbon steel of octagonal or hexagonal section. Chisels are
annealed, hardened and tempered to produce a tough shank and hard cutting edge. Annealing
relieves the internal stresses in a metal. The cutting angle of the chisel for general purpose is
about 60.
Figure 1.15:
Flatchisel
Figure 1.20:
Reamers
1.5.2 Files
Filing is one of the methods of removing small amounts of material from the surface of
a metal part. A file is hardened steel too, having small parallel rows of cutting edges or teeth on
its surfaces.
On the faces, the teeth are usually diagonal to the edge. One end of the file is shaped
to fit into a wooden handle. The figure shows various parts of a hand file. The hand file is
parallel in width and tapering slightly in thickness, towards the tip. It is provided with double
cut teeth. On the faces, single cut on one edge and no teeth on the other edge, which is known
as a safe edge.
Files are classified according to their shape, cutting teeth and pitch or grade of the
teeth. The figure shows the various types of files based on their shape.
1.6.7
Spanners
A spanner or wrench is a tool for turning nuts and bolts. It is usually made of forged
steel. There are many kinds of spanners. They are named according to the application. The size
of the spanner
10. After filing, remove the burrs from the edges of the work, to prevent cuts to the fingers.
11. Do not use vice as an anvil.
12. While sawing, keep the blade straight; otherwise it will break
13. Do not use a file without handle.
14. Clean the vice after use.
Exercise
1
SquareFiling
Aim
To file the given two Mild Steel pieces in to a square shape of 48 mm side as shown in Figure
FE1
Tools required
Bench vice, set of Files, Steel rule, Trysquare, Vernier caliper, Vernier height gauge, Ballpeen
hammer, Scriber, Dot punch, Surface plate, Angle plate and Anvil.
Sequence of operations
1. The dimensions of the given piece are checked with the steel rule.
2. The job is fixed rigidly in a bench vice and the two adjacent sides are filed, using the
rough flat file first and then the smooth flat file such that, the two sides are at right angle.
3. The right angle of the two adjacent sides is checked with the trysquare.
4. Chalk is then applied on the surface of the work piece.
5. The given dimensions are marked by scribing two lines, with reference to the above two
datum sides by using Vernier height gauge, Angle plate and Surface plate.
6. Using the dot punch, dots are punched along the above scribed lines.
7. The two sides are then filed, by fitting the job in the bench vice; followed by checking the
flatness of the surfaces.
As the material removal through filing is relatively less, filing is done instead of sawing.
Result
The square pieces of 48 mm side is thus obtained by filing, as discussed above.
a. Raw material
b. Finished job
Figure F
E1:Squarefiling
Exercise
2
VFittin
g
AIM:To make V fit from the given two MS plates and drilling and Tapping as shown
in Figure FE2
Toolsrequire
d
Bench vice, set of Files, Trysquare, Scriber, Steel rule, Ballpeen hammer, Dot punch, Hacksaw,
Vernier caliper, Surface plate, Angle plate, Vernier height gauge, 5mm drill bit, 3mm drill bit,
M6 tap set with wrench, Anvil and Drilling machine.
Sequence
operations
of
1. The burrs in the pieces are removed and the dimensions are checked with
steel rule.
2. Make both pieces surface levels and right angles by fixing in the Vice, use Files for
removing material to get level.
3. With the help of Try square check the right angles and surface
levels.
4. Using Surface plate and Angle plate mark the given two metal pieces as per drawing
with Vernier height gauge.
5. Punch the scribed lines with dot punch and hammer keeping on the Anvil. Punch to
punch give 5 mm gap.
6. Cut excess material wherever necessary with Hacksaw frame with blade, Drill bits
and Taps.
7. The corners and flat surfaces are filed by using square/flat and triangular file to get
the sharp corners.
8. Dimensions are checked by vernier caliper and match the two pieces. Any defect
noticed, are rectified by filing with a smooth file.
9. Care is taken to see that the punched dots are not crossed, which is indicated by the
half of the punch dots left on the pieces.
Resu
lt
The required V fitting is thus obtained, by following the stages, as
described above.
HOUSE WIRING
3) CTS WIRING: CTS cable tyre sheathed wires are available in single
twin or three cores with a circulars or oval shape. The cable is free the
effects of moisture, acids alkalies and climatic variations. It can be
exposed to sun. The cable can be buried under / sasonary work but is
usually laid over wood battens. The system is even suitable for places
where chemical fumes are present.
1. Metal clips and Saddles used to support the cable should be placed
40cm apart.
2. The support used should not be of such a material as to cause
chemical action with the sheaths.
3. The icas sheath should be run over a damp place.
4. The cable should be run over the damp place.
5. The cable should be run in conduits when crossing the floor or wall.
6. Sharp bends should be avoided.
7. Conduit wiring: workshop and public building this is the best and most
Desirable system of wiring it provides mechanical protection and
safety against fire. They can be supported over the wall by saddles and
pipe hooks.
Care & Maintenance of Tools:
1. PLIERS: 1) Do not cut steel wires and other hard
substances
2. SCREW DRIVER:
a) The edge should not be too sharp
b) At must fit in the slot of the screw head
3. POWER:
a) Keep it well sharpened
b) Do not use it on metals
4. GIMLET:
a) It should be kept straight while holes otherwise the screwed portion may
damage.
5. FIRMER CHISEL:
a) Keep the machine always clean and lubricants the parts specially the
gears.
b) Drill bit should be properly fixed in the jaws of the machine
10. VICE:
a) Vice should not be used as an anvil.
b) It should not be tightened excessively
c) Clean regularly after use.
2. SIDE CUTTING PLIER: It is used for cutting wires and happening the
insulation from the . it is widely used for winding works, radio assembling
and other delicate instruments.
4. SCREW DRIVERS: Screwdrivers of different sizes are used for different types
of jobs. They are used for taking out or driving slotted heat screws by
turning them. The size is measured by its blades. A good driver has a
hardened and tempered egde. The edge should not be ground to suit
different screw heads.
5. POKER: it is a pointed tool with flat sides and used for making pibt
holes for screws in wood casing boxes etc.
6. GIMLET: It is used for making holes in wooden articles. They are of
different length and different diameters. The diameters various steps of
3mm from 6mm to 25mm.
PINCER: It is used to extract nail and cut conductors.
8. Wall bracket
9. Batton holder MC (Miniature cup )type
10. Wall socket 2 pin 5 Amps.
11. Wall socket 3 Pin 5 Amps
12. 2 Pin plug switch combined
13. Ceiling rose 5 Amps
14. 3 Plate ceiling rose 5 Amps.
15. Junction box or cut 5 Amps.
16. Electric bell 230 volts & bell push switch.
17. Bed room transformer 230 volts. 13.5.8 volts.
18. SWG (Standard wire gauge) used for expressing the size of wires.
19. Kt. Kat 15 Amps.
20. VIR (Vulcanized Indian rubber) wire 1/18
21. CTS (Cable tyre sheathed ) wire 1/16
22. Flexible wire plastic or silk core.
23. Wooden screws 60mm, 50mm, and No.8 for rectangular and round blocks.
24. Wooden screws 30mm no 8 for porcelain cleats 2 ways & 3 ways.
25. Wooden screws 20mm no 5 for tumbles switches ceiling rose cut out power
plug and repair.
26. Wooden screw 12 mm, no 4 for batton holder
27. 2-pin socket wall bracket transformers and wood capping
28. Porcelain cleats 2way and 3 way
Precautions: Do not use thick-wire/copper wire for fuse as it allows excess current
into the circuit and causes heavy damage permanently to equipment.
DEMONSTRATION: Types of fuse wire/fuse-holder / cartridge / fuse / replacing a
fuse.
IMPORTANT: Electric shock are easily received and avoided. The risk is not always
apparent, be careful. Take no chance.
1. Always switch off the main switch before replacing a blown fuse.
2. Always use correct size of fuse, while replacing blown fuse.
HOUSE WIRING
Excersice-1
AIM: To control one lamp independently with one S.P.T. switch in conduit wiring
according to the given diagram.
ROUTE DIAGRAM
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
S.No.
Item Description
Quantity
Size
51 cms
P.V.C. Pipe
3 Nos.
2 Nos.
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
Saddle
3 Nos.
180 cms
Wooden Screws:
1) 50mm No-8
2 Nos.
2) 20mm No.5
2Nos.
3) 12mm No.4
2Nos.
TOOLS REQUIRED:
S.No.
Item Description
Drill Machine
10
Poker
11
PROCEDURE:
1) Draw the route diagram of the wiring on the board with chalk.
2) Cut the required length of P.V.C. pipe and fix as per route diagram and by
help of saddle.
3) Cut the P.V.C. wire of the required length and fix in the P.V.C. Pipe
according to circuit diagram.
4) Drill holes around block for wires and fix them in them to the board.
5) Fix the holder on one of the round blocks and the switch on the other.
6) Complete the wiring as per the circuit diagram and check it with mugger
before giving the supply.
PRECAUTIONS:
1) The tools should be used carefully.
2) All the connections should be tight.
HOUSE WIRING
Excersice-2
AIM: make P.V.C. conduit wiring connection to control one lamp with S.P.T. switch
and one 2 pin socket point independently according to given route diagram.
ROUTE DIAGRAM
Circuit Diagram
PROCEDURE:
1) Draw the route diagram of the wiring on the board with chalk.
2) Cut the required length of P.V.C. pipe and fix as per route diagram and by
help of saddle.
3) Cut the P.V.C. wire of the required length and fix in the P.V.C. Pipe
according to circuit diagram.
4) Drill holes around block for wires and fix them in them to the board.
5) Fix the holder on one of the round blocks and the switch on the other.
6) Complete the wiring as per the circuit diagram and check it with mugger
before giving the supply.
PRECAUTIONS:
1) The tools should be used carefully.
2) All the connections should be tight.
HOUSE WIRING
Exercise-3
AIM: Make conduit connection in to control one lamp from the different
places with two different places with two different switches according to
given route diagram ( Staircase Wiring).
ROUTE DIAGRAM
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE:
1) Draw the route diagram of the wiring on the board with chalk.
2) Cut the required length of P.V.C. pipe and fix as per route diagram and by
help of saddle.
3) Cut the P.V.C. wire of the required length and fix in the P.V.C. Pipe
according to circuit diagram.
4) Drill holes around block for wires and fix them in them to the board.
5) Fix the holder on one of the round blocks and the switch on the other.
Complete the wiring as per the circuit diagram and check it with mugger
before giving the supply.
PRECAUTIONS:
1) The tools should be used carefully.
2) All the connections should be tight.
HOUSE WIRING
Exercise-4(a)
AIM: To Control a bell with bell switch in conduit wiring as per the route wiring.
Route Diagram
Circuit Diagram
PROCEDURE:
1) Draw the route diagram of the wiring on the board with chalk.
2) Cut the required length of P.V.C. pipe and fix as per route diagram and by
help of saddle.
3) Cut the P.V.C. wire of the required length and fix in the P.V.C. Pipe
according to circuit diagram.
4) Drill holes around block for wires and fix them in them to the board.
5) Fix the bell on one of the round blocks and the switch on the other.
Complete the wiring as per the circuit diagram and check it with
mugger
before giving the supply.
PRECAUTIONS:
1) The tools should be used carefully.
2) All the connections should be tight.
Earthing (( Exercise-4(b))
The process of connecting metallic bodies of all the electrical apparatus and
equipment to huge mass of earth by a wire having negligible resistance is called
Earthing
Purpose of Earthing
To save human life from danger of electrical shock or death by blowing a
fuse i.e. To provide an alternative path for the fault current to flow so that
it will not endanger the user
To protect buildings, machinery & appliances under fault conditions ie. To
ensure that all exposed conductive parts do not reach a dangerous
potential.
To provide safe path to dissipate lightning and short circuit currents.
To provide stable platform for operation of sensitive electronic
equipments i.e. To maintain the voltage at any part of an electrical system
at a known value so as to prevent over current or excessive voltage on the
appliances or equipment .
To provide protection against static electricity from friction
PLUMBING TOOLS
INTRODUCTION FOR TOOLS OF PLUMBING: Following tools are used in the common
plumbing working up to medium size (10 cm / 100 mm) pipes.
1) Hacksaw
2) Pipe Cutter
3) Pipe Vice
4) Pipe Bending Machine
5) Threading die
6) Ratcher type die holder
7) Pipe wrench
8) Chain-wrench
9) Adjustable wrench
10) Water pump pliers
11) Set the common spanners and ring spanners
1) HACKSAW: It is used for cutting of pipes. Figure 1 shows a hacksaw commonly used, it
essentially consists of a frame, Handle, Prongs, tightening screw and nut. The blade is fixed
in position and tightened by means of the tightening screws.
2) PIPE CUTTING: A pipe cutting is used to cut off the pipes. It has a handle have the length
to a suitable leverage, front position is like the letter C, Three rollers are fixed in it. The
shape of the rollers is convex on both sides. They are made of alloy steel hardened and
tempered. They rotate themselves with friction while moving around the pipe.
3) PIPE VICE: It is a device used to hold the pipe firmly while doing the operations of cutting
threading etc., and while fixing or removing the couplings, the jaws have vee shaped grooves
or steps and they grip the pipe firmly at four corners.
5) THREADING DIE: This is a cutting tool up of HSS (High Speed Steel) Material and is
used for cutting external threads on pipes. Dies are available in different sizes and each one
will form thread of that specify size i.e., BSP die set can produce BSP threads only.
Dies are fixed in die holder and pipe to be threaded is fixed in pipe vice. Dies are inserted on
to the pipe and die holder is gradually rotated completely till the threads are formed on the
pipe. It is required to check with the help of socket whether thread is completing formed or
not. Die holder has to be rotated in opposite direction for withdrawing the die sets form the
pipe.
6) RATCHET TYPE DIE HOLDER: The ordinary die holder is not suitable for threading the
pipes which are fixed in their position and die holder cannot be completely rotated due to
certain obstructions like wall, other pipes etc in such cases, ratchet type die holder is used. It
can be rotated in the regular direction partially and dies also rotate. It can be rotated in
opposite direction in which ratchet slips and only holder is rotated but not die sets. Again it
can be rotated in regular direction for further threading, like wire thread is completed. For
withdrawing die sets, ratchet position is reversed so that it rotates the die set in the opposite
direction and slips in the regular direction. Thus die sets are withdrawn from the pipe. This is
suitable for cutting the threads where complete & rotation of the die holder is not possible.
8) CHAIN WRENCH: The front portion of the chain wrench is like a triangle and handle is
fixed with it having a chain also. After fixing the chain around the pipe, the chain end is
inserted in a box for locking with a pin, It holds the pipe firmly and it is fit for rotation on
either ways.
9) ADJUSTABLE WRENCH: Figure shows an adjustable wrench pump plier. It is used for
screwing and unscrewing of small diameter pipes. It can also be used in tightening of nuts of
bolts, fixing of small taps, valves, etc, in the pipe lines.
10) WATER PUMP PILER: Figure shows a water pump plier. It is used in house plumbing
work. It is the most tool used in the plumbing work.
11) SET COMMON SPANNERS AND RING SPANNERS: Set of ring spanners and common
spanners are required in the plumbing work for various tightening works of cocks, valves,
etc.
COUPLING
2) ELBOW: It is used for changing the direction at right angle by square or round. It has
inner threads in the both ends to a short length. The two pipes are screwed in it is any
length.
ELBOW
3) TEE: (T) It is used to make a branch right angle to the main line. It accommodates three
pipes at any length.
TEE
4) CROSS (T): It is used to speed over the main line on other two opposite direction at
right angle to one another. It accommodates four pipes at any length.
CROSS (T)
5) REDUCER COUPLING: It is used to extend the length in straight line jointing the two
pipes in different diameters in any length.
REDUCER COUPLING
6) PLUG: It is used to block up the pipe on one end. It has a square neck for a spanner to
rotate for tightening or loosening.
PLUG
7) UNION: It consists of three parts. After tightening the pipes on both ends the octogen nut
is tightened. It is used in the pipe line only to separate the connections without disturbing
the pipe line.
UNION
8) FLANGE: It is used for joining the two ends of pipes with bolds and nuts, either in
vertical or horizontal positions it is screwed at one end of the pipe.
FLAN
GE
9) GLOBE VALVE: Where there are many branches, it is fitted for controlling the division
separately. The fluid may be stopped or allowed in any quantity according to the rotation.
GLOBE VALVE
EXPLANATION
PVC SWR Pipes (Polyvinyl chloride, Soil Waste & Rain pipes or (rigid PVC)) & Fittings
have many Advantages over traditional Cement, Asbestos, Cast-Iran (C.I.) Pipes &
Fittings.
Durability & Weather Proof:
PVC SWR (Polyvinyl chloride, Soil, Waste & Rain' or (rigid PVC)) Pipes are made from
virgin PVC Material thus resistant to extremes weather conditions, toxic chemicals unlike C.I.
Pipes they are rust & corrosion proof. Cement & Asbestos pipes, have high thermal sensitivity,
which leads to crack & breaking of the pipes PVC SWR Pipes can with stand extreme variations
in temperature.
Dimensional Stability:
PVC SWR(Polyvinyl chloride Soil, Waste & Rain' or (rigid PVC)) Pipes & fittings have
dimensional stability, these are not effected due to external pressure of support, clamps and
fixtures. This also makes possible leakage proof system.
Great Strength & Light Weight:
PVC SWR (Polyvinyl chloride, Soil, Waste & Rain' or (rigid PVC)) Pipes are comparatively
lighter I weight, yet they can with stand high pressure. They can be easily transported, handled
fixed and maintained.
Highly Efficient:
The Smooth & even surface of PVC SWR Pipe (Polyvinyl chloride , Soil, Waste & Rain' or PVC
(rigid PVC) s provides free flow of water, which improves the efficiency of the system.
Resistance:
PVC SWR Pipes are resistant to Oils, Heat and Fire, Fats, Alcohol, Aromatic Free Patrols and
are more reliable as there is no growth of Fungus, Bacteria, and Termites.
Economical:
PVC SWR Pipes & Fittings prove to be economical on all fronts right from basic cost,
transportation, fixing & maintenance.
Applications:
Homes, Offices, Hotels, Airports, Bus and railway stations.
In mines and vent lines in drainage systems.
In Industries, Chemical Plants, Dairies as chemical waste lines or overflow lines .
Distribution of water in agricultural fields.
EXERCISE 1:
Aim: To cut the given Galvanized Iron (G.I.) Pipe to the required length & perform threading as
per the given sketch.
SKETCH:
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
1) Galvanized Iron Pipe
2) Coupling
3) Elbow 90
TOOLS REQUIRED:
1)
2)
3)
4)
SEQUENCE:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Marking
Cutting
Threading
Testing
Finishing and Assembling Socket & Elbow
PROCEDURE:
1) The given G.I. (Galvanized Iron) Pipe is fixed in the pipe vice and cut to the required
length.
2) Die set of suitable size is fixed in the die holder. The two set screws are adjusted such
that the pipe slightly enters into the die set.
3) The die holder is gradually rotated in the clockwise direction completely so that threads
are formed on the pipe up to the required length. The threads so formed are known as
British Standard pipe (BSP) threads in accordance with the die set used. (The thread
length is approximately equal to the die width).
4) The die set is withdrawn from the pipe by rotating the die holder in the counter clockwise
direction.
5) The quality of the threads is tested by fitting the threaded end with a socket. If the two are
not fitted properly, the set screws on the die holder are readjusted & threading is
performed again until the desired results are obtained.
6) The above procedure is repeated on the other side of the pipe & the threads are checked
by fittings with an elbow.
PRECAUTIONS:
1)
2)
3)
4)
EXERCISE 2:
Aim: Pipe cutting threading and fitting as make three way junction TEE EQL with help of Elbow
90 with Bib cock.
SKETCH:
MATERIAL REQUIRED
S. No.
Description
1.
95 cm
2.
1 No
3.
1 No
4.
1 No
5.
1 No
Tools Required
S. No.
Quantity
Description
1.
2.
3.
Pipe Wrench
4.
Pipe Vice
5.
Sequence of Operation
1) Marking
3) Threading
5) Assembling Tee
Elbow Coupling &
Pipe BIB Cock
2) Cutting
4) Testing
6) Finishing
PROCEDURE:
1) First take a long Galvanized Iron pipe and fix it to a pipe vice.
2) Cut the pipe into required length of 15cm, 15 cm, 30 cm, 30 cm with the help of hacksaw,
3) Set the Die Screws of suitable size in the die holder and adjust the two screws.
4) The length of pipe 60 cm is fixed into the pipe vice and the pipe is place into the die
holder and is gradually rotated in the clockwise direction one or two times up to 20 mm.
5) Then a ratchet die is used to get perfect (BSP) external threads.
6) Next a TEE EQL is fixed and checked whether the threads formed are correct.
7) Now at the other end of the pipe threads are formed following the above procedure and a
elbow 90 is fixed.
8) Next take two 30 cms pipes and form threads to both the ends of both the pipes.
9) One end of one pipe is fixed to one side of TEE equal and one end of other pipe is fixed
to other side TEE equal.
10) Now, a pipe of 15 cm is taken and threads are formed on both the ends of the pipes. To
one end a pipe elbow 90 which is connected to 60 cm pipe is connected and to the other
end of tap is connected.
11) All the fitting is performed by using Pipe Wrench.
PRECAUTIONS:
1) The die sets are lubricated periodically during threading operation.
2) Over handling of the pipe with the die should be avoided.
3) Excessive pressure should not be applied on the die holder.
4) The tools should be handled properly.
EXERCISE 3:
SKETCH
P.V.C. PIPES LAYOUT OF UNION VALVE
MATERIAL REQUIRED:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
3) Pipe Wrench
4) Pipe Cutter / Hacksaw
5) Oil Can Cutting Oil
SEQUENCE OF OPERATION:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Marking
Cutting
Threading
Testing
Assembling Shower
Finishing
PROCEDURE:
1) First take a long PVC pipe and fix it to a pipe vice.
2) Cut the pipe into required length with the help of hacksaw
3) Set the Die Screws of suitable size in the die holder and adjust the two screws.
4) The length of pipe 120 mm is fixed into the pipe vice and the pipe is place into the die
holder and is gradually rotated in the clockwise direction one or two times up to 20 mm.
5) The ratchet die is used to get perfect (BSP) external threads.
6) Now at the other end of the pipe threads are formed following the above procedure and
an elbow 90 is fixed.
7) Now take one 500 mm pipe and form threads to both the ends of the pipe.
8) One end of the pipe is fixed with TEE, other end of the Tee 150 mm pvc pipe is fixed
along with coupling and the tap. One end of other pipe is fixed to other side TEE.
9) Other end of TEE is fixed with 200 mm pipe and the other end is fixed with gate valve.
10) Attach a 600 mm pipe to the end of the Gate Valve. Other end of the pipe, elbow is fixed.
11) Another 500 mm pipe is fixed with the elbow and the shower is attached to the elbow.
PRECAUTIONS:
1) The die sets are lubricated periodically during threading operation.
2) Over handling of the pipe with the die should be avoided.
3) Excessive pressure should not be applied on the die holder.
4) The tools should be handled properly.
EXERCISE 4:
Title or Aim: Difference of Union Joint and Coupling.
Union Joint
1) It consists of Three Pieces.
2) It is used in the region where the Pipes
should not be disturb.
Coupling
1. It consist of one piece
2. Its usage disturbs the pipes in contact
and on either side.
MATERIAL REQUIRED:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
TOOLS REQUIRED:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
SEQUENCE OF OPERATION:
1) Making
2) Cutting
3) Threading
4) Testing
5) Assembling
6) Finishing
PROCEDURE:
1) First take a long PVC pipe and fix it to a pipe vice.
2) Cut the pipe into required length with the help of hacksaw.
3) Set the Die Screws of suitable size in the die holder and adjust the two screws.
4) The length of pipe 240 mm is fixed into the pipe vice and threading operation is carried
out.
5) Both end of the pipe is connected with TEE joint and union joint.
6) The length of pipe 220 mm is fixed into the pipe vice and threading operation is carried
out one end pipe is connected with union joint and other is connected with coupling.
7) Take one pipe size of 120 mm which is connected to elbow enter assembly.
PRECAUTIONS:
1) The die sets are lubricated periodically during threading operation.
2) Over handling of the pipe with the die should be avoided.
3) Excessive pressure should not be applied on the die holder.
4) The tools should be handled properly.
Sheet metal works deals with working on the metal of 16-30 gauge, with hand tools and simple
Machines. It is one of the major applications in engineering industry. It has its own significance as useful
trade in engineering work. Sheet works such as making a tray, box, funnel, chimney, air duct, fabricate
boiler shells and pipe joints from thin or thick plates, etc. are few examples of its application. For
successful working in the trade, one should have a thorough knowledge of projective geometry and
development of surfaces.
It has its own significance as a useful trade in engineering works and also our day-to-day requirements.
Common examples of sheet metal work are hoppers, containers, guards, covers, pipes, funnels, bends,
boxes etc., such articles are found less expensive, lighter in weight, and at many places they easily
replace the use of castings or forgings.
In sheet metal work to obtain an accurate size and shape of the article from the flat sheet knowledge of
geometry, mensuration and properties of metal is must essential since nearly all patterns come from the
development of the surfaces of member of geometrical models.
Pattern:
It is the flat outline of the object. Is is developed to find the exact amount of sheet
metal required. Patterns are obtained from the development of surface of primitive solids like cylinder,
prism, cone, pyramids using their orthographic projections.
Development drawn on a flat sheet of metal then the sheet is cut. When cutting larger sheets, allow the
right part to bend down out of the edge of workpiece and pull the left part up to leave space for your
hand to separate the snip.
The cut sheet is folded or rolled with a required shape before the joints are made by welding or any
other form of fastening
Specification of sheet metal:
The sheet is specified by standard gauge numbers each gauge designates a definite thickness.
The gauge number can be identified by standard wire gauge (S.W.G)
The following table shows gauge numbers and their corresponding thick ness of sheet. The
larger the gauge numbers, the lesser the thickness and vice-versa
S.W.G
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
30
Thickness (mm)
3.2
2.6
2.0
1.6
1.2
0.9
0.7
0.6
0.4
0.3
Block Iron:
Characteristics:
Less expensive
Uncoated sheet
Bluish black appearance
It can be rolled and annealed
It is less resistant to corrosion
Application:
It is used for making tanks, pans, stove pipes etc which are to be painted or enameled.
Galvanized Iron:
Characteristics:
A sheet of soft steel coated with molten zinc is known as Galvanized Iron
Zinc resist corrosion due to formation of dense layer of corrosion product which
insulates it against continued corrosion.
It resist rust, improves the appearance of the metal.
It is easy to solder but difficult to welding, because zinc gives toxic fumes and
residues.
Application:
It is used for making a pans, buckets, furnaces heating ducks, cabinets etc.
Stainless steel:
Characteristics:
To make the steel resistant to corrosion, chromium-18% and Nickel 8to 10%
are added to produce stainless steel.
This is an iron based alloy having high resistance to corrosion
It is tough and can be welded easily.
Cost is very high
It is tougher than galvanized iron sheet.
Application:
Domestic appliances such as vessels are made up of stainless steels due to its
effective anti-corrosion property.
It is ideally suited for handling and storage of liquid helium, hydrogen, nitrogen
and oxygen that exist at cryogenic temperature.
Copper:
Characteristics:
It is reddish in colour, malleable and ductile. It is costly metal.
Copper sheet are available as either cold rolled or hot rolled sheets.
It is highly resistance to corrosion
Since it is a ductile material, it can be formed into complex shapes
It can be easily welded, soldered and riveted
Application:
Copper sheet is used in making cutters, expansion joints, roof flashing and hoods,
automobile radiator.
Aluminum:
Characteristics:
It is whitish in color and light in weight.
It con not be used in pure forms but its alloys are used
It is resistant to corrosion and abrasion
Application:
Tin plate:
Characteristics:
It is a steel sheet coated with pure tin to protect it against rust.
It has a bright silver appearance
The size and thickness of tin plates are denoted by special marks and not by
gauge numbers.
At temperature of 1000C, it can be rolled into sheets are drawn into pipes.
Application:
It is used in making of roofs, food container, dairy equipments, furnace fittings cans etc.
Lead:
Characteristics:
It is a soft and week metal having high resistance to corrosion.
Low strength
High coefficient of thermal expansion.
Application:
It is used for lining in the tank, flooring in chemical pants and it is used in battery plates.
Cutting tools:
a) Chisels: chisels are used in sheet metal work for cutting sheets, rivets, bolts and chipping
operations. Though there are many types of chisels available, round nose chisels and flat chisels
are mostly used for sheet metal work.
b) Snips or Shears: snips or hand shears, varying in length from 200mm to 600mm. 200mm to
250mm ship is most commonly used. In sheet metal work, straight and curved ships are mostly
used
Straight ships: A straight ship has straight blades for straight line cutting and used for cutting along
outside curves and straight lines.
Curved snips or Bend ships: It has curved blades for making circular cuts, it is used for trimming along
the inside curves or cutting along a curvature. This tool is used for cutting thin metal sheets, before or
after marking, according to the jobs, is called snips. The straight snip is used for cutting along outside
curves and straight lines and curved snip or bent snip is for trimming along inside curves.
Bench shear or Hand lever shear: it is used cut sheets up to 6mm thickness. It consists of fixed lower
blade and movable upper blade. The movable blade is operated by the operating handle and leaver
mechanism. Sheet metal may be cut by shearing action. In this, the force is applied through a
compound lever, making it possible to cut sheet metal.
Striking tools:
a) Hammers.
b) Punches.
Hammers: hammers are used to produce shapes in sheet metal by stretching hollowing, leveling,
riveting, strengthening of sheet metal joins etc. The following hammers are mostly used in sheet metal
works. Light weight hammers and mallets are used in sheet metal work. Ballpeen Hammer has a
cylindrical slightly curved face and a ball head. It is a general purpose hammer used mostly for riveting
in sheet metal work. The cross-peen hammer and straight peen hammers are used for folding the sheet
and to work in the corners of the object.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Setting hammer
v.
Creasing hammer
vi.
Raising hammer
vii.
Riveting hammer
viii.
ix.
Mallet
Mallet:
Mallet is used for bending and folding work. It is called as soft hammer. Generally, it is made of
wood.
b). Punches: punch is used in sheet metal for marking out centers. Punch is used in sheet metal jobs for
punching or deep marking. The following two types of punches are widely used
i.
Dot punch
ii.
Center punch
Dot Punch It is used for marking dotted lines. Angle of punching end is 60.
Centre Punch It is like a dot punch used to mark the centre of hole before drilling. Angle of punch end
is 90.
Bending tools:
Pliers: Pliers are mainly used in sheet metal work for bending thee sheet metal to the required shape it
is also used for holding and cutting the sheet metal. The flat nose pliers and round nose pliers are used
in sheet metal work for forming and holding work.
i.
ii.
Combination plier.
Su
pporting tools:
Stakes: stakes are nothing but sheet metal workers anvils used for bending, hemming, seaming,
forming etc., using hammers or mallet. Stakes are made in different shapes and sizes to suit the types of
operations. A stake consists of a shank and a head or horn.
are used as supporting tools and to form, seam, bend or rivet, sheet metal objects. They are made from
wrought iron, faced with steel.
Types of stake:
i.
Half-moon stake: It is used to produce circular labs and circular folder seams.
ii.
Hatchet stake: It consists of a horizontal sharp straight edge. Used for making straight and sharp
bents.
iii.
Funnel stake: It has a tapered round working face. It is used for shaping conical surface and
making wire rings.
iv.
Beak horn stake: It has round tapped horn at one end and a square tapped horn on the
opposite side.
v.
Creasing stake: It has a tapped square horn with groove slats on one end and a tapped round
horn on the other end.
vi.
Pipe stake: It is most suitable for forming pipes and hallow cylindrical surfaces.
Scriber: It is long wire of steel with its one end sharply pointed and hardened to scratch line on sheet
metal for laying out pattern. It is used in sheet metal jobs for circle making. With the divider we can also
do making the parts of the job. This tool is used for making sheet metal jobs.
Steel Square: It is used for checking the right angle of the jobs. It is used for checking square ness of
two surfaces. It consists of a blade made up of steel which is attached to base at 90.
Divider: It is used for drawing circles or arcs on the sheet metal. They are used to mark a desired
distance between two points and to divide lines into equal parts.
Trammels: It used for marking of arc and circle. Maximum size of the arc that can be scribed depends on
the length of the beam in scriber. It is used to draw large circles and arcs. This is also a marking tool
Sheet metal gauge: It is used to find the thickness of the sheet metal. The various types of gauges are
standard wire gauge, American wire gauge etc. The thickness of sheet metal is referred in numbers
known as Standard Wire Gauge (SWG). The gaps in the circumference of the gauge are used to check
the gauge number
Cutting off: This means shearing of a sheet metal by cutting along a single line.
Parting: It means removable of scrap between the two pieces to part them
Blanking: It means cutting a whole piece form sheet metal
Punching: It means making circular holes on to sheet of metal by a punch and die.
Notching: This is a process of removing metal to the deceived shape from the side or edge of a sheet.
Slitting: It means cutting the sheet metal using rotary blade.
Lancing: Lancing is to make a small cut without any removable of sheet metal.
Nibbing: It means cutting any shape from a sheet metal without special tools.
Trimmimg: It is operation cutting a away excess metal in burs from sheet metal.
Flattening and leveling: It means restoring the metal to its original flatness.
Bending:
It means that the metal is stress beyond the elastic limit, so that the metal is bent into right angle and
forming occurs when complete items or parts are shaped. It incorporates angle bending. Roll bending,
roll forming and seeming.
Drawing: It is the operations of producing cup shaped components from sheet metal by many number
of punching strokes. It is performed by placing a metal blank over a stationary die and exerting a
calculated pressure from a punch against the blank.
Squeezing: It is the one of the methods of forming ductile materials. Riveting, cold heading and rotary
swaging are very common process of squeezing.
Swaging: Swaging is a molding raise upon the surface of sheet metal.
Hollowing: Hollowing is the process of forming shallow dish or bowl forms. The metal is placed over a
suitable hollow over a wooden block or on a leather covered sand pad and beaten to shape with a
hollowing hammer or mallet.
Stretching or expending: During stretching, contours are generated that are produced from cylindrical
forms.
Flanging: It is process of increasing the width of a job along the edge. That process is carried out by
hammering with the help of stakes and mallets.
Planishing: It is finishing operation. It is done by striking with hammer. Hammer blows are evenly struck
on surface, each blow slightly overlapping the previous one.
Riveting: Rivets are used to joint two or more sheets of metal together. Round rivets, conical rivets, flat
rivets and counter sunk rivets are commonly used in the sheet metal work.
Sheet metal joints: Sheet metal working incorporates a wide variety of hems and seams.
Hem: Hem is an edge or border made by folding.
Types of Hem:
a) Single hem: It is made by folding the edges of the sheet metal over to make it smooth and stiff.
b) Double hem: It is made by folding the edges over twice to make it smooth and stiff.
c) Wider hem: Edge of the sheet metal is rolled to some distance. It is smooth and very strong.
Seam: A seam is a joining made by fastening two edges together.
Types of seam:
a) Single seam: It is used to join a bottom to vertical bodies of varies shapes.
b) Double seam: It is similar to single seam but its formed edge is bent upward against the body.
c) Grooved seam: It is made by holding two single hems together and locking them by a groover.
Exercise No.1
Aim: To make a rectangular tray from a given metal sheet
Sketch: As shown in Figure
Material Required: G.I. Sheet 22 gauges and M.S. rivets flat head 6 mm dia x 6 mm length
Tools Required
1. Steel Rule
2. Try Square
3. Scriber
4. Divider
5. Prick Punch
6. Solid Punch
7. Snips
8. Wooden mallet
9. Ball peen hammer
10. Hatchet stake
11. Leveling plate
12. Rivet set
13. Bevel Protractor
Sequence of Operations
1. Measuring/checking
2. Leveling
3. Marking
4. Cutting
5. Folding/ Bending
6. Hemming
7. Riveting/ Soldering
8. Dents removing
9. Checking Final Dimensions
Procedure:
1. The size of the given sheet is checked for its dimension using steel rule.
2. Then the sheet is leveled on the leveling plate using a mallet.
3. The development procedure is followed the same as the square taper tray.
4. The dimensions are marked as shown in figure.
5. The sheet is cut as per the marked dimensions by straight snips.
6. Then a single hemming is made on the four sides of the tray as shown in figure.
7. The four sides of the tray bent to 90_ using the stakes anvil.
8. Finally all the corners of the tray are joined by riveting.
Precautions:
Result: Thus desired rectangular tray is made from the given sheet metal.
Exercise No.2
Material Required: G.I. Sheet 24 gauges, M.S. rivets flat head 6 mm dia x 6 mm length
Tools Required
1. Steel Rule
2. Try Square
3. Scriber
4. Divider
5. Prick Punch
6. Solid Punch
7. Snips
8. Wooden mallet
9. Ball peen hammer
10. Hatchet stake
11. Leveling plate
12. Rivet set
13. Bevel Protractor
Sequence of Operations
1. Measuring/checking
2. Leveling
3. Marking
4. Cutting
5. Folding/ Bending
6. Hemming
7. Riveting/ Soldering
8. Dents removing
9. Checking Final Dimensions
Procedure:
1. Take a G.I sheet of required length, breadth as per specification
2. Sheet is leveled on the leveling plate using a mallet
3. Check the given sheet for correct dimensions by using steel rule.
4. Mark the sheet as per the given specification with help of steel rule, try-square, scriber and prick
punch (or) Take the top sheet and mark the lines according to the dimensions as shown in figure.
5. Cut the sheet with the help of straight snip along the cutting line (or) Remove the excess material
as shown hatched portion in the figure with the help of straight snip.
6. Bend the four corners of the sheet through 900 with the help of a beak horn stake then single
hemming is made on the four sides of the tray as per the dimensions given in the figure
7. Use solid punch for making holes for the purpose of riveting
8. Rectangular scoop is riveted using rivets and hammer
Precautions:
Result: Thus, the required rectangular scoop is made as per the drawing.
Exercise No.3
Aim: To make a square tin box/ cube box closed at one end from given G.I. Sheet
Sketch: As shown in Figure
Procedure:
1. Take a G.I sheet of required length, breadth as per specification
2. Check the given sheet for correct dimensions by using steel rule.
3. Mark the sheet as per the given specification with help of steel rule, try-square, scriber and prick
punch (or) Take the top sheet and mark the lines according to the dimensions as shown in
figure.
4. Development of the body of the box is cut, unwanted material is removed using snips. Now
shape of the vertical size of box is obtained.
5. Layout of Base of the box is drawn and cut it.
6. Flanges are formed on the body to receive the base, using stakes and mallet and base of the box
is folded as shown in figure.
7. Base and body are placed in position and folded, using single and double seams.
8. Seams are soft soldered to make the box water tight.
PRECAUTIONS:
RESULT:
WELDING
Welding is a materials joining process which produces coalescence of materials by heating them to
suitable temperatures with or without the application of pressure or by the application of pressure
alone, and with or without the use of filler material. Welding is used for making permanent joints. It is
used in the manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft frames, railway wagons, machine
frames,structural works, tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship building.
g) Electro-slag welding
(2). Gas Welding
a) Oxy-acetylene welding
b) Air-acetylene welding
c) Oxy-hydrogen welding
Temperature of arc is about 4000c Electrodes used in arc welding are coated with a flux. This flux
produces a gaseous shield around the molten metal. It prevents the reaction of the molten metal with
oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere. The flux removes the impurities from the molten metal and
form a slag. This slag gets deposited over the weld metal. This protects the weld seam from rapid
cooling. Fig.1 shows arc welding process.
Equipments:(Refer Fig 2)
Electrode holder
Electrode
Protective shield
Gloves
Wire brush
Chipping hammer
Goggles
Fig 2 Electric
Arc Welding Equipments
Advantages
Most efficient way to join metals
Lowest-cost joining method
Affords lighter weight through better utilization of materials
Joins all commercial metals
Provides design flexibility
Limitations
1. Manually applied, therefore high labor cost.
S.No
More efficiency
Less efficiency
or electrode
GAS WELDING
Oxy-Acetylene welding
In gas welding, a gas flame is used to melt the edges of metals to be joined. The flame is
produced at the tip of welding torch. Oxygen and Acetylene are the gases used to produce the
welding flame. The flame will only melt the metal. A flux is used during welting to prevent oxidations
and to remove impurities. Metals 2mm to 50mm thick are welded by gas welding. The temperature
of oxyacetylene flame is about 3200c. Fig 3 shows Gas welding equipments.
Gas Welding Equipment
1. Gas Cylinders
2. Regulators
Working pressure varies depends upon the thickness of the work pieces welded.
3. Pressure Gauges
4. Hoses
5. Welding torch
6. Check valve
7. Non return valve
TYPES OF FLAMES
When acetylene is burned in air, it produces a yellow sooty flame, which is not enough for
welding applications
Oxygen is turned on, flame immediately changes into a long white inner area (Feather)
surrounded by a transparent blue envelope is called Carburizing flame (30000c)
Addition of little more oxygen give a bright whitish cone surrounded by the transparent blue
envelope is called Neutral flame (It has a balance of fuel gas and oxygen)
If more oxygen is added, the cone becomes darker and more pointed, while the envelope
becomes shorter and more fierce is called Oxidizing flame
Advantages
1. Equipment has versatile
2. Same equipment can be used for oxy acetylene cutting and brazing by varying the torch size
3. Heat can controlled easily
Disadvantages
1. Slower process
2. Risk is involved in handling gas cylinders
GAS CUTTING
Ferrous metal is heated in to red hot condition and a jet of pure oxygen is projected onto the
surface, which rapidly oxidizes
Oxides having lower melting point than the metal, melt and are blown away by the force of the
jet, to make a cut
Cutting torch has preheat orifice and one central orifice for oxygen jet
Piercing, used to cut a hole at the centre of the plate or away from the edge of the plate
Weld joint
There are 5 basic joint types in welding
Butt joint: Two materials are in the same plane, joined from the edges.
Corner joint:The corners of two materials form a right angle and joined.
Types of weld
1. Fillet weld: Used in T joints,corner joints, lap joints.
2. Groove weld:Used in butt joints.
1. Torch brazing
2. Dip brazing
3. Furnace brazing
4. Induction brazing
Fig 9 Brazing
Advantages
In brazing thermal stresses are not produced in the work piece. Hence there is no distortion
Using this process, carbides tips are brazed on the steel tool holders
Disadvantages
Soldering
Electrical Connections
Fig. 10 Soldering
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:1. Check workspaces and walkways to ensure that no slip/trip hazards are present
2. Check switchgear and cable are in sound condition
3. Check electrode points are in good condition and meet exactly
4. Ensure electrodes are securely mounted and clean from contaminants
5. Gloves should be used to position and hold work
6. When oxyacetylene gas welding or cutting, never leave a lit torch around when it is not in
the welders hand.
7. When oxyacetylene gas welding or cutting, never point the torch at cylinders, regulators,
hose, or anything else that may be damaged and cause a fire or explosion.
8. Before arc welding or cutting, ground the electrical equipment to reduce the risk of the
transformer causing a fire by triggering the electrical supply circuit protection.
9. Always turn off the machine when leaving the work.
10. Apply eye drops after welding is over for the day, to relieve the strain on the eyes.
11. While welding, stand on dry footing and keep the body insulated from the electrode, any other pa
rts of the electrode holder and the work
Excersice-1
Single V- Butt joint
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: Rough and smooth files, protractor, arc welding
machine(transformer type), mild steel electrode and electrode holder, ground clamp, tongs, face shield,
apron and chipping hammer.
SEQUENCE OF
OPERATIONS
1. The given M.S pieces are thoroughly cleaned of rust and scale.
2 .One edge of each piece is beveled, to an angle of
, leaving nearly
one end
3. The two pieces are positioned on the welding table such that, they are separated slightly for better
penetration of the weld.
4. The electrode is fitted in the electrode holder and the welding current is set to a proper value.
5. The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
6. Wearing the apron and using the face shield, the arc is struck and holding the two pieces together;
first run of the weld is done to fill the root gap.
7. Second run of the welding is done with proper weaving and with uniform movement, during the
process of welding, the electrode is kept at
to
from vertical and in the direction of welding.
8. The scale formation of the weld is removed by using the chipping hammer.
9. Filling is done to remove any spatter around the weld.
RESULT: The single v-butt joint is thus made, using the tools and equipment as mentioned above.
Excersice-2
Lap Joint
AIM: To make a lap joint, using the given two M.S pieces and by arc welding .
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: Rough and smooth files, protractor, arc welding
machine(transformer type), mild steel electrode and electrode holder, ground clamp, tongs, face shield,
apron and chipping hammer.
SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS
1.Take the two mild steel pieces of given dimensions and clean the surfaces thoroughly from rust, dust, particles, oil
and grease.
2. Remove the sharp corners and burrs by filing or grinding and prepare the work pieces.
3. The work pieces are positioned on the welding table, to form a lap joint with the required over lapping.
4.The electrode is fitted in to the electrode holder and the welding current is set to a proper value.
5. The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
6.Wearing the apron, hand gloves, using the face shield and holding the over lapped pieces the arc is struck and the
RESULT: The lap joint is thus made, using the tools and equipment as mentioned above.
Exercise-3
T- Joint
AIM: To make a T- joint, using the given two M.S pieces and by arc welding .
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: Rough and smooth files, protractor, arc welding
machine(transformer type), mild steel electrode and electrode holder, ground clamp, tongs, face shield,
apron and chipping hammer.
Figure 4: T- joint
SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS
1. Take the two mild steel pieces of given dimensions and clean the surfaces thoroughly from rust,
dust particles, oil and grease.
2.Remove the sharp corners and burrs by filing or grinding and prepare the work pieces.
The work pieces are positioned on the welding table such that, the T shape is formed.
4.The electrode is fitted in to the electrode holder and the welding current is set to a proper value.
5. The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
6.Wearing the apron, hand gloves, using the face shield and holding the pieces the arc is struck and the wor
k pieces are tackwelded at both the ends.
3.
7.The alignment of the T joint is checked and the tackwelded pieces are reset, if required.
8.Welding is then carried out throughout the length of the T joint as shown in the figure.
9. Remove the slag, spatters and clean the joint.
RESULT: The T-joint is thus made, using the tools and equipment as mentioned above.
Excersice-4
Corner Joint
AIM: To make a corner joint, using the given two M.S pieces and by arc welding .
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: Rough and smooth files, protractor, arc welding
machine(transformer type), mild steel electrode and electrode holder, ground clamp, tongs, face shield,
apron and chipping hammer.
SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS
1.Take the two mild steel pieces of given dimensions and clean the surfaces thoroughly from rust,
dust particles, oil and grease.
2. Remove the sharp corners and burrs by filing or grinding and prepare the work pieces.
3. The work pieces are positioned on the welding table such that, the L shape is formed.
4.The electrode is fitted in to the electrode holder and the welding current is set to a proper value.
5. The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
6. Wearing the apron, hand gloves, using the face shield and holding the pieces the arc is struck and
the work pieces are tackwelded at both the ends.
7. The alignment of the corner joint is checked and the tackwelded pieces are reset, if required.
8. Welding is then carried out throughout the length.
9. Remove the slag, spatters and clean the joint.
RESULT: The corner joint is thus made, using the tools and equipment as mentioned above.