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Centre for Ore Deposit Research (University of Tasmania), CSIRO, and the
Centre for Strategic Mineral Deposits (University of W.A.)
Giant Porphyry
Copper-Gold Deposits
A contribution to:
Hydrothermal Systems,
Giant Ore Deposits
&
A New Paradigm for
Predictive Mineral Exploration
P511
JULY 1998
COMMERCIAL-IN-CONFIDENCE
The contents of this Proposal are confidential to Centre for Ore Deposit Research (University
of Tasmania), CSIRO Exploration & Mining, Centre for Strategic Mineral Deposits
(University of Western Australia) and The Australian Minerals Industry Research Association
and are made available to possible participants in the Project solely for the purpose of
inviting their interest and are not to be used for any other purpose or disclosed or made
available to any other person or body.
Preamble
RELATIONSHIP OF CODES PROJECT TO AMIRA GODS RESEARCH
PROGRAM P511
This document is an outline of a collaborative research proposal between the Centre for Ore Deposit
Research (CODES) , University of Tasmania and CSIRO on Giant Porphyry Cu-Au Deposits, to be
managed by AMIRA.
Giant Porphyry Cu-Au Deposits (CODES Project) will be a subproject of Hydrothermal Systems,
Giant Ore Deposits & A New Paradigm for Predictive Mineral Exploration - P511 (the GODS
Research Program). GODS commenced in early 1998, and will continue until early 2001. Any
company sponsoring the CODES project will automatically join P511, gaining full access to the
results of that project. Likewise, existing sponsors of the GODS AMIRA project P511 will gain full
access to the results of the CODES project. This complete exchange of information will be mutually
beneficial, and will help lead to the overall success of both projects.
In April 1998, a Strategic Partnership in Industry Research and Training (SPIRT) project proposal
was submitted to the Australian Research Council (ARC), seeking funds to match industry funding
that we are seeking for the CODES proposal. If we fail to gain industry support, the application for
ARC matching funds will be withdrawn. Should this occur project P511 will continue in its current
form, without a major porphyry Cu-Au component.
The following document outlines the aims and scope of the Giant Porphyry Cu-Au Deposits (CODES
Project). It also discusses the broader scope of the GODS Research Program (P511), explaining how
the current proposal on giant porphyry copper-gold deposits will be integrated within GODS.
A minimum of four companies is required to ensure that the Giant Porphyry Cu-Au Deposits project
will attract SPIRT funding and thus proceed.
The soft models, together with 3-D geological models of the crust, provide a framework for
evaluating quantitative 4-D (hard) models of the development of fluid reservoirs within the crust and
of mechanisms of focusing fluids from major reservoirs into sites of ore formation.
Key results from the modelling will be tested with selected acquisition of new data.
Work Program GODS Research Program
The focus of the project is on the nature of fluid reservoirs within Au and Cu-Au systems, the
influence of the architecture and geodynamic processes on fluid release from reservoirs, fluid flow
paths and the processes of metal transport, deposition and enrichment.
The following three regions are being studied initially:
Northern Chile
Kalgoorlie
AMIRA
NON -AMIRA
The Conjunction of
Physical and Chemical
Factors Responsible for the
Formation of World Class
Orogenic Lode-Gold Deposits
SPIRT
CSMD
UWA
CSIRO
ii
Fault Architecture
Large ARC Grant
CSMD
UWA
Research Pogram, encompassing the Lode _Au project and results of the CODES project up to that
time,
A final report will be produced for the CODES Project only at the end of the project.
A fully integrated report for the GODS Research Program, encompassing all the results of the
basis. As part of this process, a support group will be established to disseminate information as
results come through.
PERSONNEL
Giant Ore Deposits Research Program - Project Leaders
Dr John L. Walshe Project Leader: GODS AMIRA Project P511
Specialist in geology and geochemistry of hydrothermal systems.
Prof. David Groves - SPIRT (Lode Au)
Economic geologist, specialist in lode gold deposits.
Director of the Centre for Strategic Mineral Deposits, Geology Department, University of
Western Australia
Dr David Cooke SPIRT (Giant Porphyry Cu-Au)
Specialist in hydrothermal geochemistry and magmatic-hydrothermal systems.
GODS Team Members, CSIRO
Dr. Graham Carr
Mrs. Gem Midgley
Dr. Alison Ord
Dr. Chris Ryan
Dr. Phaedra Upton
Dr. Paul Gow
Dr. Chongbin Zhao
Dr. Hans Muhlhaus
North Ryde
Nedlands
Nedlands
North Ryde
Nedlands
Nedlands
Nedlands
Nedlands
Pb isotope geochemistry
Database and project management
Deformational modelling
PIXE analysis, fluid inclusion geochemistry
Thermal and deformational modelling
Thermal and deformational modelling
Thermal modelling
Geomechanics
iii
Pb isotope geochemistry
Hydrothermal geochemistry
Geographical information systems
Economic geology, metallogeny
Hydrothermal geochemistry
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
RELATIONSHIP OF CODES PROJECT TO AMIRA GODS RESEARCH PROGRAM P511. I
GODS RESEARCH PROGRAM P511 - EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.............................................. I
PERSONNEL...................................................................................................................................... III
GIANT PORPHYRY COPPER-GOLD DEPOSITS ......................................................................... 1
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
GOAL ......................................................................................................................................... 1
SIGNIFICANCE......................................................................................................................... 1
RESEARCH PLAN .................................................................................................................... 4
TIMETABLE.............................................................................................................................. 8
BUDGET .................................................................................................................................... 9
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 10
THE WORK PROGRAM......................................................................................................... 11
SOFT - HARD MODELLING STUDIES ................................................................................ 11
Papua New Guinea - Irian Jaya............................................................................................... 11
Northern Chile Regional Study ................................................................................................ 14
Kalgoorlie Regional Study ....................................................................................................... 15
PROGRAM STRUCTURE AND FUNDING.......................................................................... 17
DELIVERABLES..................................................................................................................... 19
TIMETABLE............................................................................................................................ 20
BUDGET (EXCLUDES THE CODES GIANT PORPHYRY CU-AU PROJECT)................ 21
KEY PEOPLE FOR THE SOFT - HARD REGIONAL MODELLING.................................. 22
GOAL
The SPIRT project on Giant Porphyry Cu-Au deposits will investigate the role of high level magma
chambers as reservoirs for hydrothermal fluid and the interplay of magmatic and non-magmatic fluids
around these chambers utilizing the porphyry copper and geochemical expertise available through the
Centre for Ore Deposit research at the University of Tasmania. Systematic geochemical studies will
seek to fingerprint the ortho-magmatic stages of productive magma chambers (both hydrothermal and
magmatic products) and differentiate the hydrothermal stages dominated by non-magmatic fluid
reservoirs.
The principal research topics will:
1. Magnetite distribution, mineral and whole rock geochemistry
2. Fluid inclusions and vein paragenesis
Specifically, we will analyse:
Cation ratios (Na/K, Na/Ca etc) analyse decrepitates using EMP +/- laser Raman
II.
SIGNIFICANCE
these fluids. It is important to understand the processes operating at the regional to crustal scales that
give rise to reservoirs of heat, salinity, acidity, sulfur and redox capacity within the crust and mantle.
These are effectively the metal reservoirs, or are the reservoirs of the critical reagents (oxidant,
reductant, etc.) required for metal transport/precipitation. Equally, it is important to understand the
mechanisms of fluid release from these reservoirs, and of the focusing mechanisms at the trap site that
operate while maintaining chemical integrity of the fluids. Maintaining fluid pressure as well as
temperature within fluid reservoirs is also likely to be of paramount importance. Commonly, the
partial pressure of the acid volatile species (CO2, H2S, SO2 and HCl) determines acidity, oxidation
state, sulfur concentrations and maintains a balance of both metal and the sulfur components within
the fluid. Loss of fluid pressure is likely to lead to a degradation of the reservoir both in terms of
volume of available fluid and its chemical potential for deposit formation. However, in a pre-existing
zone of mineralization, a loss of fluid pressure can lead to sulfide dissolution and a significant
upgrading of the resource. There is a need to recognise the existence and extent of any regional seals,
be it a plug in the top of a magma chamber or a clay horizon within a sedimentary basin, and to learn
to recognise when one or several reservoirs have released fluids in a controlled and focused way.
These are likely to be times of great potential for the formation of large tonnage and high-grade
hydrothermal deposits.
1km
5km
200km
La E scondida
Chuquicama ta
Radiom iro To mic
Zaldiv ar
Regional
Seal
1
Groundwater
Reservoir
10
100 km
Figure 1
Recent advances in understanding the regional settings of porphyry Cu-Au deposits in PNG-Irian
Jaya, southwest United States, Lachlan Fold Belt and northern Chile suggest sub-volcanic magma
chambers play an important role in the formation of porphyry deposits, acting as reservoirs of magma,
saline brines and magmatic vapour. Other key elements of the architecture of porphyry and related
hydrothermal systems appear to be large-scale structures (arc-parallel and arc-normal) and regional
seals within the host sequences. The key to the formation of the giant deposits appears to lie in a
complex interplay of fluids from magmatic and non-magmatic reservoirs, with focusing mechanisms
governed by fault networks, and critical gas pressures determined by seals around and above magma
chambers. High metal grades are possible when large gradients are generated and sustained in one or
more solution parameters (temperature, acidity of fluid, redox state of fluid, salinity of fluid and
concentration of volatile species, particularly sulfur). The mechanisms for sustaining these gradients
are limited. Common processes include reactions of fluids with specific host rocks, phase separation
at particular sites and mixing of fluids (liquids and/or gases). Fluid-rock reactions and phaseseparation mechanisms have limited capacity to maintain gradients and generate both large tonnage
and high grades. Processes involving the mixing of large volumes of fluid with strongly contrasting
properties or processes involving the recycling and upgrading of initially low-grade deposits are
potentially the most effective mechanisms for generating both high grade and large tonnage deposits.
Ultimately, large tonnage, high-grade resources appear to have complex histories of formation. From
the work of Zentilli et al (1995) on the Chuquicamata deposit, it is possible to argue that giant
deposits may result from a two-stage process, as outlined in Figure 1: an initial proto-ore develops
during the ortho-magmatic stages of the system remobilisation and upgrading of this proto-ore by
para-magmatic fluids results in the formation of a large tonnage, high grade resource at a high level in
the system. This reworking may take place over considerable (km-scale) vertical distances within the
crust. If the giant deposits are products of complex processes involving reworking of previously
deposited sulfides, then it will be necessary to clearly identify each stage in the rock record.
Questions that must be posed include:
Is it possible to determine if and when a sub-volcanic chamber acted as a reservoir for metal-rich
brines or vapour from the geochemistry of its high-level magmatic products?
Is it possible to resolve the relative roles of magmatic and non-magmatic fluids in the
remobilization stage?
Re gion al Sea l
2 km
Po ta ssic a lteratio n
vapour
brine
Figure 2
2) Fluid Inclusions and Vein Paragenesis: Detailed studies of fluid inclusions, placed in a
paragenetic (temporal) context, are essential for determining the role of brine chemistry in forming
giant porphyry deposits, and to test hypotheses about depositional processes (fluid mixing, phase
separation, etc.). There seems to be a first-order distinction between porphyry deposits which are
products of fluids exsolved from a magma chamber (ortho-magmatic fluids) and those which are
products of evolved magmatic fluids (para-magmatic fluids), substantially modified by fluid-rock
reactions and/or mixing with non-magmatic fluids. In the latter case, metals may be largely derived
from the intrusive complex, but the metal contents of the fluids reflect their extensive subsolidus
history. The salient characteristics of deposits in which ortho-magmatic processes played a
significant role are early high temperature Fe-Na Ca metasomatism, characterized by plagioclase
biotite and magnetite (M veins of Clark, 1993) with highly saline (> 50-90 wt. %) fluid inclusions (eg.
Endeavour 26N, NSW; Park Premier, Utah; El Salvador, Chile; Panguna, Papua New Guinea).
Commonly, the most saline fluids are also the most sodic (Figure 3). The porphyry deposits most
likely to have formed by para-magmatic processes are those in which the deposition of sulfides is
relatively late in the paragenesis (eg. Ann-Mason, Yerrington Batholith; Nevada; Bingham, Utah;
Santa Rita, New Mexico; Sierrita, Arizona). In these deposits, the early M and A veins are missing
and deposit formation begins with the formation of a sulfide-poor quartz stockwork (most probably
equivalent to B veins, using the vein terminology of Gustafson and Hunt, 1975) and associated
potassic alteration (K-feldspar - biotite). Deposits such as Bingham, which do not display the early
stages of this paragenesis, lack the highly saline and sodic fluid inclusions. Detailed analyses of fluid
inclusions in the mineralised vein stages of giant porphyry Cu-Au deposits will therefore be
undertaken to help understand the origins and compositions of brines and gases that form giant
porphyry Cu-Au deposits, and to evaluate if there are any unique characteristics. Specifically, we will
analyse:
Cation ratios (Na/K, Na/Ca, etc.) analyse decrepitates using EMP +/- laser Raman
H2O
C&Dvein fluids
quartz poor
sulfide rich
Bingham
Early barr en quartz ve ins
with m olybdenite pyrite
Park P remier
Type C
Ortho- magmatic
Fluids
B- vein e quivalents
B ingham
Para-m agmat ic
Fluids
Park P remier
Type D
KC l
N a Cl
Park Premier
Pa rk Premier
M-vein stage
magnetite + actinolite
Na-plagioclase quartz
biotite & pyroxene stable
Figure 3
3) Sulfur Isotope Systematics: Sulfur isotopes provide information about the sulfur source and/or the
redox state of the system. The strongly negative numbers for sulfide seen in some deposits (eg. El
Salvador; early stage, & Goonumbla; Figure 4) are taken to reflect very oxidized fluids of orthomagmatic origin with bulk fluid compositions around 0. However, most data sets are more
positive. The positive shift in the late stage at El Salvador was interpreted in terms of ingress of
groundwater into the system. If this is a common process, then the sulfur budgets of the productive
stages of a host of deposits - Bingham, Grasberg, El Teniente, Rio Blanco may have been dominated
by country rock sulfur. However, it is not clear how variable the magmatic sulfur signature might be.
To resolve this issue there is a need to determine the sulfur isotopic compositions of sulfides in
magmatic sulfides in coeval volcanics and also to determine the bulk sulfur isotopic compositions of
country rocks. Sulfur isotope analyses will also be used to trace fluid and sulfur sources, and to
determine if any isotopic zonation exists around giant porphyry Cu-Au deposits. The laser ablation
system for analysing sulfur isotopes at the University of Tasmania can analyses individual sulfide
grains with diameters as small as 100m. Previous sulfur isotope studies of porphyry deposits have
been hampered by the requirement of coarse-grained sulfides for hand drilling. The laser ablation
technique is ideally suited to a study of porphyry-style mineralization, because it can effectively
analyse the fine, disseminated sulfides that occur in the primary igneous lithologies, and in the various
alteration assemblages related to a giant porphyry system. In addition, under the auspices of an ARC
large grant at the University of Tasmania, Dr. Garry Davidson has been developing a whole rock
technique for the analysis of sulfur isotopes in rocks that have low sulfur contents (eg. fresh diorites
and monzonites). We can use this technique to determine the primary magmatic sulfur isotope
composition of the magmas responsible for giant porphyry formation. In addition to the important
scientific insights to be gained from this aspect of the project, our sulfur isotope research has
excellent potential as an exploration tool within deposits and in mineralized districts, because it will
be able to detect any subtle sulfur isotopic zonation that may be associated with oxidation or other
processes that occur within giant porphyry deposits.
4) District-Scale Alteration: To test how important fluid mixing is for the origin of giant porphyry
deposits, it is essential to investigate fluid compositions in the districts that host the deposits. By
studying regional alteration assemblages (using alteration petrography, whole rock geochemistry,
fluid inclusions and stable isotopes), it is possible to determine whether a given assemblage acted as a
metal source or sink, whether the pore fluids were oxidized or reduced (eg. Cooke et al., 1998b), and,
given suitable sample material and sample distribution, regional temperature gradients and directions
of fluid flow. If, as hypothesised, regional seals are important, then meteoric/connate water
convection should have established distinctive background alteration assemblages such as the sodiccalcic assemblage at Yerrington, Nevada (Dilles and Einaudi, 1992), which is recognised to be a
prograde assemblage formed by influx of pore waters from the country rocks into the intrusions
during porphyry formation. These subtle regional alteration assemblages (eg. epidote-albite-pyritechlorite etc.) are the most common varieties encountered during exploration. A greater understanding
of their importance and an evaluation of their potential as exploration vectors are of great relevance to
the mining industry.
+12
0
80
60
+8
X H S > > X SO
2
4
oC
0
40
oC
0
30
oC
Porgera - stage 1
(A veins)
do m
in a
te d
0.
-4
??
0.
-8
S
Ro
XH2
ck
34 S ( 0 /00) - Sulfide
+4
oC
=
0.
5
-12
Magmatic fluid
dominated
Porgera - stage 2
(D veins)
-16
-20
0
15
10
12
14
X H S ~ X SO
2
4
oC
16
18
20
22
24
34 S Anhydrite ( 0 /00)
Bingham
Grasberg -paired sample
El Teniente, Rio Blanco
Gaspe
Goonumbla (E26N)
El Salvador
Open symbols; sulfide data only; temperature based on fluid inclusions
Figure 4
IV.
TIMETABLE
The field component will be completed in two stages during the first 18 months. Petrographic and
geochemical analyses will continue from year 1 through to year 3, with a greater emphasis on
geochemistry in the later stages of the project. An additional half-year has been added allowing for
completion of the APA-I (PhD) projects and integration of their results with the regional studies. If
the APA-I projects are completed within 3 years, then the additional 0.5 years will not be required:
Porphyry Cu-Au M odule
M ar
Jun
99
Sep
Dec
M ar
Jun
Northern C hile
Field Program
Petrography
G eochem istry
Reporting
Petrography
G eochem istry
Reporting
00
Sep
D ec
M ar
Jun
01
Sep
D ec
V.
BUDGET
1998
1999
2000
2001
Predicted Income
AMIRA
ARC (SPIRT)
42K
83K
86K
83K
87K
42K
88K
Total
42K
169K
170K
130K
18K
57K
40K
18K
58K
40K
18K
41K
40K
9K
13K
6K
10K
15K
10K
169K
16K
6K
10K
12K
10K
170K
24K
Expenditure - salary
Structural Post-doc
2 PhD scholarships
Part time Research Assistant
9K
Other Expenditure
Geochemical analyses
Fieldwork and assoc expenses PhDs
2K
5K
Travel
AMIRA Fees
Total Expenditure
3K
5K
42K
3K
8K
5K
130K
INTRODUCTION
The ultimate goal of this project (including the CODES project), is to understand the factors that
govern the location, size and grade of mineral deposits.
There is increasing consciousness within the community that we lack an understanding of the
processes required to form large tonnage, high grade deposits. The general processes of ore
formation are understood but not the particular processes that lead to giant ore deposits. There is also
awareness that regional-scale data, particularly geophysical data, are fundamentally modifying
perceptions of the physical dimensions of hydrothermal systems. It is increasingly possible to think
in terms of ore-forming systems rather than ore deposits.
Hydrothermal systems research necessitates a shift in perspective from the traditional depositoriented and class-oriented approaches to ore deposit research. There is a need for new skills and
tools to permit development of holistic pictures of hydrothermal systems. There is a need for new
skills to read from the rock record information about scale of systems, nature and location of
productive fluid reservoirs, locations of major flow paths, and regional and local seals. There is also
a need to understand what features of a deposit - even features at the microscale - are of significance
at the regional scale. Alteration assemblages, zonations and parageneses at the deposit scale have
been traditionally interpreted in terms of fluid-rock reactions at that scale. From a hydrothermal
systems perspective many of these same features may be interpreted in terms of mixing of fluids
from different reservoirs. Such interpretations, if sustained, will be one of the ways of making the
links between sites of ore formation, the regional-scale flow paths and fluid reservoirs. Fluid-rock
reactions may play a far more significant role in the reservoirs and along the flow paths than at the
site of ore formation. A microscale texture, such as the replacement of sulfides by silicates or quartz,
may have regional significance in much the same way as cleavage in a rock or thin-section may be of
regional significance. The rationale for this is that the texture reflects pressure perturbations in the
system and such perturbations may be of regional significance.
It is not possible to develop a set of descriptive criteria for outsized mineral deposits. Understanding
why and where giant ore deposits occur will require a judicious combination of the empirical and
conceptual approaches to understanding ore-forming processes. There is a need to critically reexamine the geological and geochemical data at all scales (regional, mine, micro) to provide a basis
for developing thoroughly integrated qualitative to semi-quantitative (soft) models of ore formation.
The soft models, together with 3-D geological models of the crust, may provide a framework for
evaluating quantitative 4-D models of the development of fluid reservoirs within the crust and of
mechanisms of focusing fluids from major reservoirs into sites of ore formation. The quantitative
modelling (the hard modelling) involves complete coupling between fluid flow, heat transport, rock
deformation and chemical reaction. It provides a holistic, quantitative view of the giant ore systems.
The hard modelling is a tool to answer the what-if questions. It is potentially a new tool in
designing and evaluating exploration programs: the essence of the new paradigm in predictive
mineral exploration.
Relating processes to size and grade
Mixing fluids of contrasting chemistry and hypogene enrichment, the reworking of pre-existing
sulfidic domains in the rock column, are two important processes for attaining high grades. Large
tonnage, high grade resources appear to reflect complex histories involving several different
processes that operated over time. Highly efficient focusing mechanisms are important: large
deposits are commonly related to large, deep-seated and long-lived fault systems. Many of these
themes are common to various classes of hydrothermal deposits (porphyry Cu-Au, lode Au, MVT,
syn-metamorphic and VMS deposits). It seems that it is possible to think in terms of a general theory
of hydrothermal systems and that it will be possible to make some quite powerful statements about
why deposits are large, why they are high grade and where they might be found.
10
Two themes woven into the fabric of this research may well be germane to genuine progress in
understanding the origins of the giant deposits.
These are:
- the need to recognize the diversity and complexity of the processes
- the need to integrate all of the data from the microscale to the crustal scale
II.
The work program develops the soft model hard model concept.
The modelling begins by asking the following five questions about the system.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The answers to these five questions generate the soft models that in turn provide a framework for the
hard models. Quantitative modelling of hydrothermal systems places severe constraints on what is
possible. It is this holistic, quantitative view of the ore system that holds the key to the new paradigm
in mineral exploration: utilizing modelling as a tool in designing and evaluating exploration programs
at local, regional and crustal scales.
The focus of the project is on the nature of fluid reservoirs within Au and Cu-Au systems, the
influence of the architecture and geodynamic processes on fluid release from reservoirs, fluid flow
paths and the processes of metal transport, deposition and enrichment. The project is utilizing the
numerical modelling skills within the AGCRC and architectures largely derived from other studies by
the AGCRC, AGSO, state geological surveys and the exploration industry.
The following three regions are being studied initially:
Northern Chile
Kalgoorlie
The present status of the soft models and the concepts to be examined by the hard modelling within
each of these regions is summarized in this document.
Assessment of all the data, from the deposit-scale to the regional-scale to the crustal-scale is being
utilized in developing soft and hard models of the ore forming processes. It should lead to the
recognition of linkages between deposits, districts and provinces not previously appreciated.
role of regional uplift in developing reservoirs and providing triggers for focused release of fluids
from reservoirs
11
Region/deposit classes
PNG/Irian
Jaya Cu-Au
Priority
What is the system?
Size
??
Structural architecture
Lithological architecture
Nature of fluids/reservoirs?
Meteoric
Basinal brines
Basinal devolatilization (hydrocarbons)
Lower-crustal devolatilization
Magmatic
Mantle
Mechanisms driving the fluids?
Compaction
Topography
Thermal - igneous complexes
Tectono-thermal-deformational
Extension
Thrust loading
Transport/depositional processes?
Fluid mixing
Fluid/rock reaction
Phase changes/pressure seals
Hypogene enrichment
Northern
Chile Cu
Kalgoorlie
Region Au
Carlin
Au
Wiluna
Au
??
??
??
??
Size of system
The working hypothesis for the Papua New Guinea - Irian Jaya region is that the deposits from
Porgera through Ok Tedi and Frieda River to Grasberg/Etrsberg may be considered part of one
large system.
Structure
There appears to be three important structural elements and we are focusing on these initially:
Arc-parallel structures that align with the edge of the Australian craton.
Arc-normal structures that appear to be reactivated basement structures in the Australian craton.
A regional seal which is the thrust contact between the Darai Limestone and the Chim
Formation.
Lithologies
Intrusive rocks
12
Om U plift
Intrusions
-source of oxidized fluid
R e gion al S ea ls
SSW
NNE
Figure 5
135 0
140 0
145 0
150 0
155 0
00
Grasberg
Nena
Frieda
?
50
Ok Te di
Porgera
Mt Kare
10 0
Intrusions
Figure 6
13
Geodynamic History
What is the relationship between uplift in the Papua New Guinea Irian Jaya region, magmatism and
the formation of mineral deposits?
Part of the answer may lie in the need to load the system to activate the seals and form the reservoirs.
Uplift may also provide triggers for focused release of fluids from reservoirs.
Nature and location of fluid reservoirs that generated the Porgera deposit
Reduced fluids: Stage 1 mineralization in the Porgera Au deposit is associated with reduced sulfide
assemblages sitting in and around an alkaline intrusive complex. The Pb isotope data indicate that the
Pb in the fluids was mostly derived from igneous rocks and the Om Formation. This suggests the
reduced ore fluid is a product of fluid interaction with sedimentary and igneous rocks which occurred
at least three kilometres beneath the
The hydrothermal history of the Porgera deposit suggests oxidized fluids were active in the system at
a very early stage and also at a late stage during the formation of the high grade ore in the Roamane
Fault. Some part(s) of the Porgera Complex is assumed to have formed the reservoir for the oxidized
fluid.
Mechanisms of transport and deposition at Porgera
Gold was deposited in Stage I from reduced fluids that had equilibrated with the black shales in the
stratigraphic column
Magmatic volatiles oxidised the reduced ore fluid during stage II
The strong redox gradients between the reduced and oxidized fluids generated the high grades
within the Roamane Fault
Significant remobilization of gold in the rock column occurred during stage II
Mechanisms driving fluid flow and fluid focussing in the system
The model of fluid reservoirs summarized in Figure 5. brings together the major elements of the
geology and geochemistry of the Porgera deposit. From modelling of the magnetic data, the top of the
larger body of intrusive rock at Porgera is taken to be 2-3 km below the present surface. Convection
led to a reduced fluid with a homogeneous isotope signature. It is suggested that the Darai Limestone
- Chim Formation contact (a thrust fault) acted as a regional seal on the system. This seal would have
controlled fluid pressures in the underlying rock column and breaking of the seal focused fluids into
the zone of mineralization.
B) Northern Chile Regional Study
Aim:
To test some key concepts about crustal magma chambers acting as fluid reservoirs in a linked-fault
system and the interplay of magmatic and non-magmatic reservoirs:
Determine the shapes of the deep magma reservoirs from geophysical data
Modelling of fracture propagation around the model chamber with/without mineral precipitation
examining the influence of pre-existing structure and regional seals
Examine the interplay between pre-existing structure and the chamber to locate the valves that
release fluids to a higher level in the between
Model the role of gas pressure in driving hypogene enrichment processes in the system
The working hypothesis for the Northern Chile porphyry Cu deposits:
Architecture of the system
Size
Taken to be approximately the length of the west fissure.
14
Structure
Arc-parallel structures, dominated by west fissure but also E-W, NE and SW trending structures these seem to be basement structures.
Lithologies
Need to document the following elements:
marine sediments - potential hosts of reduced-fluid reservoirs
terrestrial sediments - potential hosts for oxidized fluid reservoirs
potential regional seals
relationships of volcanic rocks/dykes to chambers defined by magnetics
Geodynamic History
The giant porphyry Cu deposits form within a relatively restricted time interval. What is the causal
relationship between subduction and ore formation during this interval?
Nature and location of fluid reservoirs in the system
The deep-seated magma chambers may act as reservoirs for ortho-magmatic fluid (brines and/or
vapor) and non-magmatic fluid or evolved magmatic fluid reservoirs may occur external to the magma
chambers.
Available data on mineralogy, paragenetic relations, and isotopic compositions will be used to assess
the relative roles of ortho-magmatic and non-magmatic fluid reservoirs. Deposits to be studied
include El Teniente, Rio Blanco-Los Bronces, El Salvador, and Chuquicamata.
Transport and deposition processes
Available data will used to assess the role of gas pressure within the system in controlling available
acid and the mobility of Cu at both the ortho-magmatic and para-magmatic stages of the system.
Numerical models will be developed to assess the role of gas pressure in hypogene enrichment
processes
C) Kalgoorlie Regional Study
Aims:
To explore the interplay between structure and chemistry of fluid reservoirs in determining
location, size and grade of deposits within the Kalgoorlie region
To understand the outstanding size and grade of the Golden Mile
Chemistry modelling
The numerical modelling of the chemistry will examine:
The influence of the Golden Mile Dolerite on mineral assemblage and capacity to buffer the redox
state of the fluid
The grade of gold that may be generated by reaction of fluid of variable pH and redox conditions
with the Golden Mile Dolerite
The robustness of redox states set at deeper levels in the system. Will these conditions be
transferred to higher levels in the system or will they be reset by fluid-rock reaction along the flow
paths?
The effectiveness of mixing fluids of contrasting redox state to generate large tonnage/high grade
resources
Soft Modelling
The soft modelling will proceed by developing a GIS database of key geological, geophysical and
geochemical elements that will aid the correlation of fluid reservoirs and flow paths of contrasting
15
chemistry with structure. Interest is particularly centred on resolving differences between sets of N-S
trending structures and cross-structures. The elements of the database will include:
regional geology
regional structures
geophysical data sets
major and minor deposits
alteration styles
presence of pyrite, pyrrhotite, hematite, magnetite, sulfate
talc-carbonate alteration
presence of minor phases (roscoelite, scheelite, Ni-arsenides, molybdenite, tourmaline)
fluid inclusion data temperature and salinity
variation in sulfur and carbon isotopes
Pb isotope data
age constraints on intrusions/alteration/mineralization
Working hypothesis for the formation of the Golden Mile deposits:
Regional Architecture
Structures
N-S trending
Early set with carbonate alteration that does not cut greenstone/basement contact
N-E trending features in topography with some possible correlation with dykes - from
magnetic image. Locally late N-E structures control distribution of gold grades within N-S
trending structures
Lithologies
Do the Black Flag Beds act as a regional seal within the system?
16
In part, the Golden Mile Dolerite may have behaved as an aquiclude at the local to regional scale
maintaining the chemical integrity of reduced and oxidized fluids up to the point of mixing.
IV.
Large ARC funded project at CSMD, University of Western Australia. Fault Architectures. Not
officially part of the GODS research program but will feed results into the program
Collaboration between researchers and exploration geoscientists is being developed through a series
of support groups.
The GODS project is unique in its character and scope. The GODS project is bringing together a
breadth and depth of talent from the CSIRO, the Centre for Strategic Mineral Deposits at the
University of Western Australia, Centre for Ore Deposit Research at the University of Tasmania, the
AGCRC and collaborative partners. The team encompasses skills in hydrothermal ore deposits,
hydrothermal geochemistry, igneous petrology, basin analysis, isotope geochemistry, analytical
geochemistry, structure, numerical modelling of fluid flow (thermal and deformational), geographical
information systems and exploration geoscience. The team blends the experience of internationally
recognised geoscientists and experienced explorers with the youthful and talented enthusiasm of a
new generation of geoscientists.
17
SPIRT Au
Orogenic Gold
Deposits
GODS
Scales
P/T history
magmatism
geodynamic
s
space/time
The
Questions
SPIRT
Au
Wyman
Gardoll
Groves
(Barley)
Integration
&
Prediction
GODS
Walshe
Gow
(McInnes)
(Hobbs)
(Ord)
Porphyry Cu-Au
Deposits
Scale of system
Global to
Terrane
Research
SPIRT
Deposit
Scale
Province
and
District
Architecture
Transport
and
Deposition
Reservoirs
SPIRT Au
LARGE ARC
Faults-Au
Hagemann
Groves
ARC Rfellow
McNaughton
GODS
Walshe
Gow
McNaughton
(Ord)
Cooke
SPIRT Cu-Au
Rf ll & PhD
SPIRTAu
/GODS
SPIRT
Rfellow
SPIRT CuHagemann
Groves
Mikucki
SPIRT Au Rfellow & PhDs
Cooke
SPIRT Cu-Au Rfellow & PhDs
Walshe & Midgley
Soft Models
CSIRO Modelling Group
CSMD and CODES
GIS Integration
Gardoll
Knox-Robinson
(Fractal Graphics)
AMIRA
Sponsors
PNG-Irian Jaya
Northern Chile
Kalgoorlie Region
Wiluna Region
Post-Rodinian Au, Cu-Au
distribution
Global to District
Exploration Criteria
District
Global
Hard Models
Ord and
CSIRO Modelling Group
GODS
18
V.
DELIVERABLES
19
VI.
TIMETABLE
REG IO NAL STUDIES
M ar
Jun
98
Sep
Dec
M ar
Jun
99
Sep
Dec
M ar
Jun
triggers
W iluna Region
Architecture/geodynam ic history
Hard m odelling
radiogenic tracers
Northern Chile
Architecture/geodynam ic history
m agm a cham bers
m agnetics
Hard m odelling
fault architecture - fluid flow
20
00
Sep
VII.
1999
2000
Income
AMIRA
SPIRT
CSIRO
200K
130K
93K
200K
120K
93K
200K
120K
93K
Total
423K
413K
413K
Expenditure - salary
JLW (65%)
Research assistant - Gem Midgley
Structural Post-doc
Contr. hard modelling (Gow/Upton)
2 PhD scholarships
Advertising/moving
Part-time assistance
72K
46K
59K
40K
40K
10K
20K
72K
48K
59K
40K
40K
72K
50K
59K
40K
40K
20K
20K
Other Expenditure
Computer/software
GIS
Geochemical analyses
Fieldwork and assoc expenses PhDs
Travel
AMIRA Fees
Total Expenditure
10K
20K
26K
20K
32.6K
27.4K
423K
10K
20K
24K
20K
32.7K
27.3K
413K
10K
20K
22K
20K
32.7K
27.3K
413K
21
PNG-Ijaya
Nth Chile
Gow
Lithologies
Gow
Intrusions/coeval volcanics
Gow
Gow
Uplift data
Geochemistry of igneous rocks
Fluids/Reservoirs
Transport/depositional processes
Deposit geology
Mineralogy/ paragenesis
Fluid inclusions
Stable Isotopes
Radiogenic isotopes
Kalgoorlie
Archibald
JLW
Archibald
JLW
Archibald
JLW
Archibald
JLW
Gow
McInnes
JLW/GEM
JLW/GEM
JLW/GEM
JLW/GEM
Hard Modelling
Seal/reservoir /def/thermal/uplift
Seal/res/def/therm/chamber/faults
Models above with qtz ppt
Gas pressure/acidity
Replicate above in 3D
Inversion of magnetic image/chamber
Wiluna
DIG/SPIRT
Rfellow
DIG/SPIRT
Rfellow
DIG/SPIRT
Rfellow
DIG/SPIRT
Rfellow
Wyman
SH/DIG/students/JLW
SH/DIG/students/JLW
SH/DIG/students/JLW
SH/DIG/students/JLW
McNaughton / Carr
Upton/Gow
Upton/Gow
Upton/Gow
Upton/Gow
Upton/Gow
CSIRO/Fractal Graphics
Code Development
Perm/por for modelling of seals
Upton/Zhang
Upton/ Semeniuk/JLW
22
Objectives:
1. Establish models to explain why some orogens are gold-rich and others are gold-poor by placing
known deposits in the spatial and temporal context of (i) supercontinent aggregation and breakup
and/or (ii) the global record of coeval tectonics and magmatism (Archean lode gold deposits).
2. Define exploration criteria to distinguish these different types of orogens by comparing the
attributes of prospective and non-prospective terranes.
3. Provide guidelines for determining the location of prospective districts within favourable terranes.
Key Areas:
1. Archaean: Yilgarn; Superior Province (highly and weakly prospective)
2. Post-Archaean: Circum-Pacific
Personnel:
Derek Wyman, Stephen Gardoll (GIS Research Officer), David Groves, Mark Barley, Brian Krapez
Scientific Approach:
GIS studies at two scales:
1. Global Plate Reconstructions
2. Terrane Focus Studies Incorporating Multiple Data Types:
Lithogeochemical data that fingerprints terrane geodynamic histories
Data for gold mineralization and other deposit types that may define recurring geodynamic-
metallogenic associations
Terrane-scale structural data,
Geochronological data that constrain individual deposit ages, establish terrane histories and
All CSMD terrane studies will be available for comparison and study in the GODS Project in order to
more rigorously establish prospective exploration criteria
Outcomes:
Identification of prospective age spans and terrane types. Establishment of guidelines for selection of
prospective districts within prospective terranes. Development of sets of criteria for evaluation and
prioritisation of poorly exposed or little-studied terranes.
II.
DISTRICT-SCALE STUDIES
Objectives:
1.
To establish those factors which are common to districts containing world-class orogenic gold
deposits within gold-rich orogens.
2.
In particular, to determine the relative roles of: 1) the regional-scale structural architecture of
the ore systems, 2) the nature of fluid reservoirs, and 3) the plumbing systems promoting
anomalously high fluid flux, in determining the specific conjunction of factors which lead to
the generation of world-class orogenic gold deposits.
23
Key Areas:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Personnel:
David Groves, Derek Wyman, Neal McNaughton, Carl Knox-Robinson, Juhani Ojala with input from
Steffen Hagemann and John Walshe. PhD students whose studies impact on the project include Susie
Brown, Graeme Cameron, Jon Pigois, Orestes Santos, Eduardo Videla, and Grace Yun.
Scientific Approach:
Two levels of research:
1.
2.
Outcomes:
Identification of geometric and other parameters of highly mineralised belts with world-class deposits
versus those poorly mineralised belts. Improved understanding of architecture of giant hydrothermal
systems at district scale. Derivation of quantitative models of such systems through interactions with
CSIRO personnel.
III.
Objectives:
1. Determine, through integrated structural and hydrothermal studies, the main factors, which
control the spatial occurrence of world-class gold deposits.
2. In particular, to elucidate the structural and hydrothermal evolution of the deposits, reconstruct
the paleohydrothermal system in terms of P-T-X-t, and provide an integrated structuralhydrothermal and fluid chemistry model for the deposits.
Key Areas: (subject to negotiation)
1. Wiluna lode-gold deposits, and Mt. Wilkinson lode-gold deposits in the Wiluna greenstone belt
2. Tamoola gold deposits near Leonora, and
3. Damang and Prestea mines in Ghana
4. Sunrise
Personnel:
Steffen Hagemann, Ed Mikucki, David Groves, Postdoc (to be decided), PhD students Paul Duuring,
Susie Brown, Graeme Cameron, Jon Pigois, other APA (I) (to be decided).
24
Scientific Approach:
Alteration zonation and timing will be constrained in terms of petrography, whole rock and
mineral chemistry
Fluid chemistry studies of gases, ions and metals will employ quadrupole mass-spectrometry and
laser-ICP-MS analyses on fluid inclusions.
Fluid sources will be constrained by a combination of stable, radiogenic isotopes and gas- and
ion-chromatography
Structural, petrographic and chemical work will then be integrated in order to provide a
descriptive as well as genetic model for each deposit.
Outcomes:
The study will establish (1) the structural control of lode-gold mineralization within specific ore
bodies, (2) petrographic and geochemical vectors towards high grade gold mineralization, and (3) a
quantitative structural-hydrothermal model for each deposit. Results will be synthesised to define the
structural-hydrothermal architecture of giant lode-gold systems at the deposit scale.
25
26
27
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
Intellectual property generated during this project shall be available to all parties according to the
conditions set out in the CSIRO-AMIRA-University standard collaborative research agreement. The
rights and obligations of sponsors under this agreement are as follows:
Each Sponsor Company has a non-exclusive, royalty free right to use in its own operations both
the Intellectual Property generated by a Project and so much of the Background Technology
contributed by the Researcher as is necessary to enable the Sponsor Company to so utilise the
Project Intellectual Property.
Each Sponsor Company has the further right after written notice to AMIRA and the Researcher to
sublicense that Intellectual Property to third parties solely for the purpose of enabling the Sponsor
Company to utilise the Intellectual Property in its own operations and not for any other use by the
third party. The Sponsor Company bears all risk and responsibility arising from the granting of
such a sub-licence, without recourse to the Researcher.
Sponsor Companies have the further right to disclose Project Intellectual Property to related
companies for evaluation only on terms of strict confidentiality and after written notice to AMIRA
and the Researcher. Related Companies wishing to use such Intellectual Property must negotiate a
separate licence agreement with the Researcher.
For a period of eighteen months after completion of a Project, Sponsor Companies have the right
to request, and to participate in, any further research, development or commercialisation of the
Project Intellectual Property on terms to be agreed.
The proceeds of any licensing of Project Intellectual Property by the Researcher are required to be
shared with Sponsor Companies proportionately to their respective contributions.
Save as above, Sponsor Companies are bound by a strict duty of confidentiality which urvives the
completion of the Project and the expiry of the Research Agreement and are required to ensure
that their employees and others to whom they are entitled to disclose Project Intellectual Property
accept a similar duty of confidentiality.
The standard AMIRA IP provisions above (1-6) will have to be agreed to by Monash University
and the CSIRO prior to the initiation of the project.
REFERENCES
Clark, A.H., 1993, Are Outsize Porphyry Copper Deposits either Anatomically or Environmentally
Distinctive?: In Whiting, B.H., Hodgson, C.J., and Mason, R. eds, Giant Ore Deposits, Society
of Economic Geologists, Special Publication 2, p. 213-284.
Cooke, D.R., Heithersay, P.S., Wolfe, R., and Losada-Calderon, A., 1998a, Concepts and Exploration
Criteria for Australian and Western Pacific Porphyry Cu-Au deposits: AGSO Journal of
Geology and Geophysics (in press).
Cooke, D.R., Bull, S.W., Donovan, S., and Rogers, J.R., 1998b, K-metasomatism and Base Metal
Depletion in the Settlement Creek and Gold Creek Volcanics, McArthur Basin, Northern
Territory - Implications for Base Metal Mineralisation. Economic Geology (in press).
Dilles, J.H., and Einaudi, M.T., 1992, Wall-rock Alteration and Hydrothermal Flow Paths about the
Ann-Mason Porphyry Copper Deposit, Navada - A 6km Vertical Reconstruction: Economic
Geology, v. 87, p. 1963-2001.
Gustafson, L.B., and Hunt, J.P., 1975, The Porphyry Copper Deposit at El Salvador, Chile: Economic
Geology, v. 70, p. 857-912.
Zentilli, M., Graves, M., Lindsay, D., Ossandon, G., and Camus, F., 1995, Recurrent Mineralization in
the Chuqicamata Porphyry Copper System: Restrictions in Genesis from Mineralogical,
Geochronological and Isotopic Studies: In Clark, A.H., ed., Giant Ore Deposits II, Proceedings
of the Second Giant Ore Deposits Workshop, Kingston, Ontario, Canada, p. 90-113.
28
1.
AMIRA acts as agent for the Sponsors collectively to enter into an agreement on their behalf
with one or more Researchers to carry out the Research Project described in the proposal to
which these terms are attached.
2.
Each Sponsor will pay to AMIRA its specified proportion of the operating budget for the
Research Project in the amounts and on the dates set out in the letter accompanying the
proposal.
3.
AMIRA will hold moneys received from each Sponsor on trust for that Sponsor for
disbursement in accordance with the Research Project Agreement.
Pending such
disbursement AMIRA may mix such moneys with its own moneys and with the moneys of
others and may invest and earn interest on such moneys in any form of investment approved
by the Council of AMIRA. Any interest accruing from such investments shall belong to
AMIRA to assist in defraying its expenses and operating costs generally.
4.
Proportionately with all other Sponsors, each Sponsor will indemnify and keep indemnified
AMIRA from and against all losses, claims, expenses, costs, actions, proceedings and
liabilities sustained, suffered or incurred by AMIRA arising out of the Research Project and
anything done or omitted by AMIRA as their agent, acting within the scope of its authority.
5.
AMIRA will monitor the performance of the Research Project and keep the Sponsors
informed of all material matters, including any developments likely to be useful to Sponsors
in relation to the subject matter of the Research Project.
6.
AMIRA and each Sponsor shall keep confidential any information passing between them and
the Researcher in relation to the Project, save that Sponsors shall be entitled to disclose
otherwise confidential information to related companies for the purpose of evaluation on
similar terms of confidentiality. Furthermore, Sponsors shall ensure that their employees,
officers and agents have agreed in writing, either generally as a term of their employment or
specifically in relation to the project, to maintain the confidentiality of all Project related
confidential information of which they become aware.
7.
Both during and on completion of the Research Project, the rights of Sponsors to, and their
obligations in relation to, the Intellectual Property provided by other Sponsors or the
Researcher or developed by the Researcher in the performance of the Research Project shall
be as set out in the Research Project Agreement.
Companies which sponsor AMIRA research projects and members of AMIRA generally need to be
aware of their rights and obligations in respect of Intellectual Property generated in Collaborative
Research projects and made available to Sponsor Companies.
Following is a precis of the relevant provisions of the standard form Collaborative Research/Licence
Agreement used by AMIRA in contracting with Researchers on Sponsor Companies behalf.
Other than in exceptional cases of which due notice will be given, the following provisions will apply:
1. Each Sponsor Company has a non-exclusive, royalty free right to use in its own operations both
the Intellectual Property generated by a Project and so much of the Background Technology
contributed by the Researcher as is necessary to enable the Sponsor Company to so utilise the
Project Intellectual Property.
2. Each Sponsor Company has the further right after written notice to AMIRA and the Researcher to
sublicense that Intellectual Property to third parties solely for the purpose of enabling the Sponsor
Company to utilise the Intellectual Property in its own operations and not for any other use by
the third party. The Sponsor Company bears all risk and responsibility arising from the granting
of such a sub-licence, without recourse to the Researcher.
3. Sponsor Companies have the further right to disclose Project Intellectual Property to related
companies for evaluation only on terms of strict confidentiality and after written notice to
AMIRA and the Researcher. Related Companies wishing to use such Intellectual Property must
negotiate a separate licence agreement with the Researcher.
4. For a period of eighteen months after completion of a Project, Sponsor Companies have the right
to request, and to participate in, any further research, development or commercialisation of the
Project Intellectual Property on terms to be agreed.
5. The proceeds of any licensing of Project Intellectual Property by the Researcher are required to be
shared with Sponsor Companies proportionately to their respective contributions.
6. Save as above, Sponsor Companies are bound by a strict duty of confidentiality which survives
the completion of the Project and the expiry of the Research Agreement and are required to
ensure that their employees and others to whom they are entitled to disclose Project Intellectual
Property accept a similar duty of confidentiality.
These provisions are designed to protect the interests of both Researchers and Sponsor Companies in
restricting the free availability of the technology to those who are directly involved. Apart from any
other consideration, the availability to sponsors of concessional deductions under S.73B of the
Australian Income Tax Act depends upon access to the technology being restricted in this way.