Understanding Algonquian Indian Words

(New England)-revised ed.

Moondancer Strong Woman

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

OBrien, Francis Joseph, Jr. (Moondancer)
Jennings, Julianne (Strong Woman)
Understanding Algonquian Indian Words (New England).
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Algonquian Indian languages (Massachusett and Narragansett) Dictionary
2. Algonquian Indian languages (Massachusett and Narragansett) Grammar.
I. The Massachusett Language Revival Project.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 96-85223

SECOND PRINTING (corrected and revisedApril, 2001)

The Massachusett Language Revival Project is made possible [in part] by a grant from the
Rhode Island Committee for the Humanities, a state program of the National Endowment for
the Humanities.

The views expressed in this book do not necessarily reflect the views of either the Rhode
Island Committee for the Humanities or the National Endowment for the Humanities. The
Aquidneck Indian Council is solely responsible for its contents.
The Massachusett Language Revival Project is also made possible [in part] by a grant from
The Council of Elders, Mashantucket Pequot Tribal Nation.

Copyright 1996, 2001 by Moondancer and Strong Woman, Aquidneck Indian Council,
Inc.,12
Curry
Avenue,
Newport,
RI
02840-1412,
USA.
E-mail:
moondancer_Nuwc@hotmail.com. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written
permission of the Aquidneck Indian Council, Inc. Printed in the United States of America.

CONTENTS

List of Illustrations

iii

Foreword by Tall Oak iv

Foreword by Moondancer Strong Woman v
Preface

vi

Background

vi

Algonquian Languages vii

The Massachusett Language Revival Project
Aquidneck Indian Council

vii

ix

Understanding Algonquian Indian Words (New England)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ix

ABBREVIATIONS AND OTHER CONVENTIONS

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

xii

xiv

PRONUNCIATION GUIDE xvi

INTRODUCTION
Background

xxiv
xxiv

The Massachusett Language

xxvi

Approach to Language Revival xxviii

Structure of Book
Part I

xxviii

Part II

xxx

Part III

xxx

xxviii

I. ALGONQUIAN WORD ELEMENTS AND MEANINGS (NATICK-MASSACHUSETT

AND NARRAGANSETT)
II. EXAMPLES

73

Earliest Recorded Indian Dictionary, Wm. Woods 1634 Nomenclator 74

Selected New England Place Names

79

ii

 Conversational Lesson Sheet

81

Keihtanit-m (Poem) 84
Wampanoag Prayer 86
One of The Longest Indian Words Ever Recorded In The New England
Algonquian Languages 89

Sample of Wampanoag Langauge: A Deed for Land Sold in 1700 91

Translation Exercise

94

III. INTRODUCTION TO THE GRAMMAR OF NATICK-MASSACHUSETT

96

The Indian Grammar Begun by John Eliot 97

GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS 108

SOURCES

116

ENGLISH INDEX

120

About the Authors

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Front Cover, Southern New England, Wm. Wood map, 1634

Figure 1. Southern New England Tribal Territories circa 1630

xxv

Figure 2. Southern New England Indian Settlements and Reservations after 1674

xxvi

Figure 3. Facsimile Title page, A Key into the Language of America, Roger Williams, 1643 1
Figure 4. Facsimile Title page, The Holy Bible (first ed.), John Eliot, 1663 1
Figure 5. Facsimile Title page, The Indian Grammar Begun, John Eliot, 1666

96

iii

FOREWORD
by
Tall Oak
My interest in the story of our People here in southern New England did not burn into the
passion I now have until I was already in my senior year in high school (1955) when I stumbled on a
little old book in our school library entitled A Key into the Language of America by Roger Williams.
It was like finding buried treasure! I had no idea such a book had ever been written and couldnt
believe I had access to such a prize! Once I picked it up, I became completely fascinated with the
treasure house of information it was filled with and soon found myself transported back in time as I
began to absorb the contents of each page with a thirst I could not quench. It opened my eager eyes
to the beauty of a language and a way of life that had been taken away from us for so many, many
years. My dream of repossessing what should have been never been take away had begun!
Through many years of research and being blessed with the opportunity to meet many
traditional people from Alaska to South America, I have been able to participate in a revival which
continues today in southern New England in ways I never dreamed would be possible. I soon
became aware that the world-view of a people and the thought processes of their minds are all
embodied in the language that they used to communicate with each other. I then began to see that in
order to really understand our people and our history, you have to develop more understanding of the
language which was the soul of our people. This was all part of that circle which had been broken
and definitely needed to be repaired.
As I continued to accumulate all the information I could, it wasnt until I was married and
became the father of my sons, all of whom have Algonquian names, that I saw what I thought would
be an ideal strategy in realizing my dream. Believing that a language can only be brought back to
life by being used regularly and understanding that children, having less inhibitions, can learn a
language more easily than adults, I decided to utilize those capabilities I had with my three young
sons, who ranged in age from pre-school to the early elementary level. Although they soon
developed some proficiency in the language, I eventually tempered my idealism with enough reality
to realize that any serious revival of the language was going to take a lot more time and effort than I
had been able to put into it, so my dream of that revival was put on hold -- indefinitely.
All of the time and effort that Strong Woman and Moondancer put into this Project might
now make this dream of revival more possible. It is with this hope that I have agreed to become a
consultant on this project. The dream is still alive and the contribution is ready to be made.
Tall Oak
Mashantucket Pequot and Wampanoag
May, 1997

iv

FOREWORD
by
Moondancer Strong Woman

The Indian Spirit is alive today throughout Turtle Island. In New England, one of the
principal manifestations of the ancient ones is the names they have left for many things -- foods,
animals, clothing, states and cities, lakes, mountains, and so on. For example, one can note the
names Wampanoag and Narragansett, succotash and squash, moccasin, wampum, toboggan,
Connecticut and Massachusetts, opossum and raccoon, Mashantucket, Winnepesaukee, and many
more, all of which are common names taken over from our New England Indian heritage.
It is important to know how to understand these words which are derived from the Indian
tongues once heard in these woods, fields, lakes and mountains for thousands of years before the
keels of the European boats grated harsh against the sands of these shores.
No one knows for sure how to pronounce the original Indian words from the extinct
languages of southeastern New England since there are no detailed recordings of the speakers. But
we can begin to gain reading and writing fluency from the written records we do have. Analysis of
similar existing Algonquian languages in New England may help in reconstructing the pronunciation
and talking style of the extinct languages.
This book by Moondancer and Strong Woman is the first in a planned series of non technical
works initiated by the Aquidneck Indian Council. The program The Massachusett Language
Revival Project is designed to introduce the Indian languages of New England at an elementary
level, particularly the language Massachusett. The first volume, Understanding Algonquian Indian
Words (New England) is a primer (very elementary and introductory work), focusing on wordanalysis skills, or the ability to break words down into their primary roots and other parts. For
example the words Wampanoag and wampum both share the common root wmp meaning white
which comes from the American Indian language Massachusett. Moondancer and Strong Woman
have compiled a selection of important roots and combining stems and prefixes/suffixes as well as
phrases and whole sentences. The word elements contained in this book are provided for those
interested in understanding the meanings of various Algonquian language words that are spoken or
were spoken in New England by Eastern Woodland American Indians. Another purpose of the book
is for readers to be able to understand the present, often mangled, words through out New England
that come from "Pure Indian" (such as Mystic, Horseneck, Swampscott, Sheepaug, Wicaboxet, and
hundreds more).
By using this book and practicing reading of known books, poems and the like (such as given
in this book) a person can begin to understand this complex language. A person will also be able to
recognize many Indian-based names so prevalent in our culture.
Thus, Understanding Algonquian Indian Words (New England) will be of interest to all
people who find languages a fascinating invention of human beings.
Since the first edition of our book, we have published several other books on the language
and culture of regional peoples. A Massachusett Language Book, Vol. 1 contains several vocabulary
listings arranged topically. Our two Narragansett books offer a dictionary for Roger Williams A Key
into the Language of America, and a re-translation of A Key supported by 1,000 footnotes. Recently
we have produced an audiocassette tape of songs and chants in the language, sung by Strong
Woman. See SOURCES. The Wampanoags have made tremendous strides in bringing back their
lost language. See, for example, Jessie Little Doe Fermino, 2000, An Introduction to Wampanoag
Grammar. Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. (Unpublished Masters Thesis.)

May, 1997
April, 2001 Newport, RI

PREFACE
Background
Latin and ancient Greek are dead languages. Many people spoke these languages a long time ago.
No one speaks Latin or ancient Greek today. Only a handful of people read Latin or ancient Greek poets,
philosophers and statesmen. But you can study Latin and ancient Greek in schools and learn to pronounce
Latin and ancient Greek words. But no one is sure how the Romans spoke Latin or the Greeks spoke Greek.
Latin and ancient Greek are important for learning English because a good percentage of the words in
English dictionaries are derived from Latin and ancient Greek roots* . Ask any medical or nursing student or
medical secretary how important Latin and ancient Greek are for their professions. For example, take the
word

pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis
which is a real word based on Latin and Greek roots. Roughly the word means the condition of having
glass-like dust particles caught in the lungs from a volcanic eruption. One word expresses so much!
The medical student learns to break this very long word down into its basic roots and other combining
elements (prefixes, suffixes, etc.) to understand and remember it.
Lets see how we can break the code of this word. Breaking it up into the basic parts:

pneumono ultra micro scopic silico volcano coni osis

Look at the following table for the essential meaning of each part:
pneumono
ultra
micro
scopic
silico
volcano
con
osis

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

lungs
beyond
very small
see
glass-like
volcano
with
the condition of

The Greek elements are written in English. Forget for now how you pronounce this monster-word.
Forget for now that volcano is a noun (referring to a person, place, thing or idea). Forget all technical matters
dealing with grammar. Lets focus only on the meaning of this word.
Now if we take the word elements in the left hand column of the table we created and string them
together we get a clue to the meaning of

pneumono ultra micro scopic silico volcano coni osis

lungs + beyond + very small + see + glass-like + volcano + with + condition of

A knowledge of 14 Greek and Latin roots would help readers to recognize over 14, 000 words in the English language.

vi

Stringing the meanings together, and clumping the meaning of each part into larger whole units of
meaning, and imposing an ordering (that students learn) tells us how you get the essential meaning from the
list. Now we know a very big word. But we also learned something else because the roots and other
combining elements (pneumono, etc.) show up in very many medical words one finds in a medical dictionary,
a doctors report and so on. So if you now see the word pneumonia, you have a good clue that pneumonia has
something to do with the lungs. The beginning student of medical terminology who is taught these eight roots
has knowledge of all words using them. Thats what makes doctors so smart (and rich).
The words, ideas, thoughts, feelings expressed in the Algonquian Indian languages present the same
challenge to understanding them that pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis presents to the medical
student. Interestingly, in medical courses students are taught their Latin and Greek roots (etymology) first
before they learn the language of medicine. Without the roots, students would never remember the
language of their profession.
So, pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis can be understood by word-analysis. Now, to
spill another one, take the following hyphenated word from the Indian language Massachusett:

nup-pahk-nuh-t-pe-pe-nau-wut-chut-chuh-qu-ka-neh-cha-neh-cha-e-nin-nu-mun-n-n o k.
This 61-letter word means our well-skilled looking-glass makers (Trumbull, 1903, p. 290). Such a word
can be analyzed with the tools learned in this book. Our approach is the same basic one used to understand
pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis.

Algonquian Languages
Now suppose you give yourself the challenge of learning another dead language such as any of the
extinct American Indian languages in southern New England (Narragansett, Massachusett (no s on end) or
Pequot-Mohegan, among others). There are several types of books and other materials on the Indian
languages of New England (called Algonquian languages) particularly those dealing with the extinct
languages of southern New England. Some of the books are more than 300 years old. These books can tell
you something about how the language sounded, the meanings of the words, and the syntax (grammatical
rules for making words, phrases and sentences). But you dont really know how the musical spoken word
really sounded or how hand gestures and other body language was used to communicate thoughts and
feelings. Most of these books are not available to most people.
Some books are available in scholarly libraries but are understandable to only a handful of people in
the world. Other books are phrase books with no instruction on how to make new words, phrases or
sentences. Still others are place name listings of towns, cities and so on in New England. Such Indian
place name books tell you something about the roots and other important word elements of Algonquian
words. But they are not readily available either in our public libraries.
You are frustrated! The language experts must make a living also. Some seem too busy to help you
to the extent you need, or are helpless themselves because they are like the Latin or ancient Greek teachers -they have some knowledge, but not certain knowledge. Also, Algonquian languages are very strange, very
complicated and most beautiful, almost like poems. You are almost afraid to try to pronounce them, either for
fear of making mistakes or out of reverence for the ancient ones.

The Massachusett Language Revival Project

vii

All of this was the womb in which began The Aquidneck Indian Councils The Massachusett
Language Revival Project. Let us tell you some background about this project.
As mentioned, one major Indian language group of southeastern New England is referred to by
linguists as Massachusett. The Massachusett Language Revival Project is designed to assist in the
reconstruction and revival of this extinct American Indian language to the extent humanly possible. We must
start with the basics and proceed carefully and slowly. Our task is like micro-surgery on a language, and like
micro-surgery, one needs skill, patience and love for what one is doing.
The Massachusett language was once spoken fluently in what are now the States of Massachusetts
and Rhode Island as well as other places in New England. According to linguists and historians, the Indians
speaking the Massachusett language are called by scholars the Massachusett Indians, the Pokanoket Indians,
The Nipmuck Indians and the Pawtucket Indians (see Trigger, 1978, or Goddard and Bragdon, 1988, or
Bragdon, 1996, for other information [sometimes not always clear to the non specialist]). Thousands of
Indians spoke this language before the coming of the bacilli and the Bible, plus an untold number who spoke
different dialects of Massachusett or could understand it to some degree. Go to our Figure 1 in the
Introduction to the book for a map showing these peoples aboriginal general locations along the coast of
southern and middle New England.
Various dialects of Massachusett were once spoken in Rhode Island and Massachusetts by peoples of
different Tribes, each showing regional variation, but together constituting a single language -Massachusett of the Eastern Algonquian language family. One dialect of Massachusett (called Natick) was
extensively studied and documented by the missionary The Reverend John Eliot in the 1600s. It seems that
he learned to speak the local oral language from Job Nesutan, a devoted Indian tutor and servant for 35 years,
and he studied its grammatical structure. Eliot began preaching to the Indians in their language which very
much impressed them. Later he and Job Nesutan (and other Indians) undertook an ambitious project
designed to convert Indians to Christianity. Eliot and Job Nesutan (and other Indians ?) translated every word
of the Holy Bible into Massachusett, and Eliot set about to teach the praying Indians how to read words in
their own language, and then instructed them in the reading of the Holy Bible written in Massachusett. Eliot
is considered by some as one of historys most gifted linguists. Job Nesutan and the other Indians must not be
forgotten either, for they taught and assisted Eliot.
Although Natick was the dialect of the language Massachusett that was documented by Eliot, and
given that no two dialects of the same language are completely interchangeable, nonetheless NatickMassachusett is the logical place to begin in reconstructing and reviving some the Indian languages of
southeastern New England.* In days of old, an Indian who spoke Natick-Massachusett could be understood
throughout the areas of what are now the States of Rhode Island and Massachusetts (Gookin, 1792). Many
Indians in New England spoke two or more Indian languages, according to scholars like Kathleen J. Bragdon
(1996).
After The King Philips War (1675-1676) , English and English ways were urged among all the
Indians. Because the very small number of surviving Indians were discouraged, by love or by force, from
using their mother tongue, it died out. It is believed that the language Massachusett (and all Indian languages
of southern New England) became extinct sometime in the 1800s (Huden, 1962; Goddard, 1978).
Today, among most of the descendants of the ancient American Indians of southern New England, all
that survives of this unwritten Indian tongue are a handful of phrases handed down over the generations
(Good morning, Peace be to you, I love you, and the like; some can recite the Lords Prayer in the
language). Heated debates are heard at powwows over the roots and derivations of New England place names
derived from Algonquian languages. However, what little they have of this language, they do not want to lose.
They are keenly aware of what has been lost, and are very desirous of reconstructing and reviving all aspects
of their culture (excluding the War Dance and related activities), including the language(s) of their ancestors.
*

Narragansett is an Algonquian language once spoken by Narragansett Indians (in present-day Rhode Island) and
understood throughout New England. Narragansett is also extinct, and shares many features with Massachusett. Roger
Williams wrote a famous Narragansett language phrase book in 1643. A technical problem is that Narragansett does not
enjoy the linguistic knowledge we have from Eliots missionary work, and the subsequent technical work done on
Massachusett. We treat Narragansett in our later books, Indian Grammar Dictionary for N-Dialect (2000) &
Introduction to the Narraganett Language (2001).

To some Indians, this war is called The Great Matriotic War (fight to keep Mother Earth).

viii

Thus we have some information about parts of this language, not only from Eliot, but also from
scholars, both remote and proximate, who wrote dictionaries, etc. There exists today an elite band of scholars
who work in this subset of a subset of theoretical and applied linguistics. Well-known scholars in the field
helped us. They feel sure of the technical feasibility of reconstructing and reviving parts of the language with
a great deal of painstaking work and cooperation among Native Americans, Indian language experts and
funding agencies. Indians and language scholars are beginning to work together on this revival project.
With the right assistance from Indian language experts and funding agencies, we expect to see in the
future a degree of fluency in the language which will be a significant improvement over what now exists.
Many people agree with us.
Now, allow us to quote one of the many consulting scholars to our project, Professor Kenneth L.
Hale, linguist of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), a man who gives generously of his time
and efforts to Native Americans. Quoting Prof. Hales theory of language revival, taken from Keeping our
Words (The Sciences, Sept./Oct., 1994):
No case is hopeless, Hale says. Just as Hebrew was revived as a spoken language in the
nineteenth century, extinct native languages might return in the twenty-first century.
Take Mohican, he says. There arent any speakers in that language, but you could
take books and deeds published back in the 1600s, and from what we know about
comparative Algonquian, you could figure out pretty closely what it sounded like. People
could learn it and begin to use it and revive it. (p. 20)

How much of this ancient tongue Massachusett can be brought back is an open question. Can Indians
in New England speak, read and write Massachusett as fluently as they speak English today? The Aquidneck
Indian Council and its brothers and sisters and friends are committed to trying to do what can be done. Only
time will tell and only the Creator knows for sure what will happen.

Aquidneck Indian Council

Our involvement is based on ancient Indian spiritual (religious) tradition -- if you have something to
share, you are obligated to share because moral and social standing is derived from how much you give. No
one must go hungry for lack of food or language. In principal, all men are brothers and fathers, all women
are sisters and mothers. The Native American community supports our efforts and counts on us to complete
our tasks. Our book is by Indians for Indians (and others). This is a very important point.
The Aquidneck Indian Council is an independent, non profit, tax-exempt corporation. Our purposes
are educational and cultural. We are committed to reviving and preserving the ancient traditions of New
England Indians.
We believe very strongly that American Indian heritage has much to offer to all peoples of the earth.
We share our proud traditions and customs with all. The founding leaders of the Council are all descendants
of the aboriginal peoples of North America.

Understanding Algonquian Indian Words

(New England)
Understanding Algonquian Indian Words (New England) is the first in a planned series of non
technical works designed to introduce the languages of southeastern New England at an elementary level with
emphasis on the language Massachusett. The first volume is a primer (very elementary and introductory

ix

work), focusing on word-analysis skills*, and a very brief introduction to the complicated grammar of
Massachusett

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful for the enthusiasm and encouragement we have received from the Native American
and non Indian communities for this historic project. We trust that others will be motivated to take up the
torch light and help bring back the living languages of New England Indians heard in these woods, fields,
lakes and mountains for thousands of years.
Our financial funding came from three sources. The Aquidneck Indian Council has invested so far
over $25,000 of its own meager resources in the form of cash and in-kind services for The Massachusett
Language Revival Project.
Chairman Richard Skip Hayward and The Council of Elders of the Mashantucket Pequot Tribal
Nation were the first to give us a grant to purchase books and other supplies for us to begin our long journey.
Nwomantam kehchisog kah kehchissquaog
A great deal of acknowledgment must also go to the Rhode Island Committee for the Humanities, a
state run program of the National Endowment for the Humanities. The entire committee of R.I.C.H. as well as
Executive Director Dr. Joseph Finkhouse and Deputy Director Jane H. Civens believed in our project,
encouraged us, funded us, and helped in many other ways.
Kuttabotomish, n etomppauog
Many of our friends in the Native American community of New England as well as recognized
scholars have helped us in one way or another to make this book a reality. Our friend, Professor Shepard
Kretch III of The Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology, and Anthropology Department, Brown University,
was very kind in sending our original ideas to Dr. Kathleen J. Bragdon (noted ethnohistorian and
Massachusett language expert). Dr. Bragdon offered much valuable technical assistance and stressed the
importance of the project and gave us much needed encouragement.
Tall Oak, who served as one of our Principal Humanities Scholars on the project, has encouraged us
and helped us immensely from the beginning. Tall Oak serves as one of our Councils wauontam (wise man,
councilor). Our heart-felt thanks to Tall Oak for his kindness and love.
Karl V. Teeter, Professor of Linguistics (Emeritus), Harvard University, is a Principal Humanities
Scholar on the Massachusett Language Revival Project. Prof. Teeter helped in many ways on the technical
linguistic matters. His assistance was invaluable, and his friendship is cherished.
Our children Brian (Feet Like Thunder) and Julia (A Great Voice), and newly born Lily-Rae (Little
White Flower) helped us as only young boys and girls can help their parents who are doing grown-up stuff.
This book is our legacy to them.
Others who have helped us in one way or another include the following institutions and individuals:

Rhode Island Indian Council

Massachusetts Center for Native Awareness
Massachusetts Council on Indian Affairs
Widener Library, Harvard University
Plymouth Colony Archive Project
John Carter Brown Library
University of Pennsylvania
University of Rhode Island

Word-analysis means the breaking down of a word into its parts and the recognition of the original meaning of each
part. For example the word preliterate has a prefix (pre = before) and a root (litera = a letter), to give the meaning of
preliterate as before writing. Also, the word docile contains the root (docere = to teach) and a suffix (ile =
capable of) to give the literal meaning of docile as capable of teaching.

National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution

Rhode Island Historical Society Library
Rhode Island State Council on the Arts
Rhode Island Foundation
Expansion Arts
Aquidneck Indian Council Members of the Board, Council & Friends and Contributors
Seekonk Historical Society
Rhode Island Public Libraries
Massachusetts Public Libraries
Mashantucket Pequot Museum and Research Library
Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology, Brown University
The Norman Bird Sanctuary, Middletown, RI
Public Schools in Newport
Public Schools in Middletown
Narragansett Indian News
Los Angeles Times
Newport Daily News
Providence Journal
New York Academy of Sciences
Indian Country Today
Whispering Wind Magazine
American Indian Culture and Research Journal
Enokwin Journal of First Native American Peoples
Lincoln Out-of-Print Book Search
Dream Edit, Newport, RI
Tribal Councils of Narragansett, Mashpee, Gay Head, Eastern Pequot, Quinnipiac, Wutuppa, Hassanamisco
Nipmuc, Quinsigamond, Chaubunagungamaug Nipmuc, Assonset, Seaconke-Wampanoag, Dighton, and others
Darrel Waldron, Executive Director, Rhode Island Indian Council
Kenneth L. Hale, the late Ferrari P. Ward Professor of Modern Languages and Linguistics, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology
George Aubin, Assumption College
Philip S. LeSourd, Indiana University
Lorraine Baker (Healing Woman), Council Treasurer, and Project Financial Officer
Charles Weeden (Great Bear), Council Publicity Coordinator
Iron Thunderhorse, Quinnipiac Tribal Council Grand Sachem
Orman talking Turtle (Narragtansett) and Maliseet friends, Tobique Band, N.B.
Chief Eagle, Sagamore Tribal Council, MA
Peter Lenz, Maine Historian
Mary Benjamin Maine Biographer
Steven Baker, Council Photographer
Guy Perotta & Charles Clemmons, Co-producers and Native American actors, Mystic Voices: the Story of the
Pequot War
Galen Silvia
Kinkos Copies of Middletown, RI
Micro Image III, Inc., Everett, MA.

The Smithsonian Institution kindly allowed us to reprint the maps shown in our INTRODUCTION, taken from
Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 15 (Northeast), 1978. We are grateful to The John Carter Brown Library
for permission to reprint John Eliots The Indian Grammar Begun which appears in Part III. We thank Plymouth Colony
Archive project for permission to use Woods Map [front cover], the University of Pennsylvania for permission to use
Figures 3, 4 & 5.
Any errors remain solely those of the authors. We would appreciate hearing from readers who spot errors in the
book or otherwise desire to improve this book in future editions.
We are very proud of our heritage. Our ancestors were born on this land. Nttauke, Nissa Wnawkamuck. We
want to share our gifts with others so that New England Indian culture and language will continue to exist. The language
of a people is very important because it tells us how people thought of their world and lived in it. May the Indian People
live !

xi

ABBREVIATIONS
AND
OTHER CONVENTIONS
Very few abbreviations and symbols are used in the book, except for the following.

Abbreviation Meaning
cf.

compare with

e.g.

for example

etc.

and so on

i.e.

specifically, that is to say

Narr.

Narragansett language

p.

page

pp.

pages

Symbol

Meaning or Meanings

equal sign used to indicate has the meaning:

e.g., neetompas = my sister

authors not sure of something

(1)

first meaning of a word; e.g., ke (1);

ke (2) is second meaning, etc.
ist use: separation of singular-plural terms; e.g. hnck-hnckock is written to give
the meaning for one goose as hnck, and hnckock for many geese. Likewise, the
word qussuck-quanash stands for the words qussuck = one rock and
qussuckquanash = many rocks.
2nd use: for hyphenating roots like s-s-k (rattling sound, like a snake, gourd, etc.) or
t-op, and prefix/suffix terms, such as: -ash, and compound terms such as keht- or unk or -antam. Roots such as min or uhq are not hyphenated.
3rd use: to indicate different definitions of some words; e.g. the word -hogk
has two different meanings listed in Part I.

xii

see footnote, bottom of page

see footnote, bottom of page

see footnote, bottom of page

a sound or sounds usually written or spoken where is; e.g.,

(
mtah = me tah . Dont confuse the symbol with
the symbol (accent mark) such as seen in the word wtu

literal meaning of a word, phrase, sentence; e.g. misqushim = red fox .

xiii

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

Here we give an explanation of how to read the entries in Part I and the Index of the book. In Part I,
we give a short list of words, phrases, sentences along with their roots and stems, references to other words,
some examples, and sometimes additional information. Each entry has some information like this, but not all
entries have all the information because it doesnt exist, or would take up too much space.

Reading Entries in Part I

We want to make sure you know how to read the entries when you look up a word. We try to keep it
simple. Here are three examples just as they appear in Part I of the book:
agwe (agwu, ogwu) under, below (e.g., agwattin = under a hill)
mituck-quash (mehtug-quash) tree-trees
(see mtugk, -quash)
misqu (Narr.) (it is) red (e.g., misqushim = red fox), animate form

The Algonquian words are on the left-side of the page, and the English translations are on the rightside of the page. Algonquian words are always written in the slanted-italic-style (like agwe).
The Algonquian word agwe is given in the first example. In parentheses we show that two variant
spellings of agwe may be seen in other written sources (agwu, ogwu). Next we know that agwe is a
Massachusett language word (because we dont give the Narr. abbreviation). The meanings of the word agwe
are under, below. An example of agwe in a phrase is, agwattin = under a hill.
The second example shows a singular and plural word for the noun tree. The Massachusett
language entry is mituck-quash (mehtug-quash). In parenthesis is an alternate spelling of the words which
may show the pronunciation of a different dialect (?), or spurious missionary recordings. The word mituck by
itself means tree, and when you drop the hyphen, close up the whole word, you get the plural, mituckquash
= trees. Now we say (see mtugk, -quash) where we give roots for tree and tell you about the plural
marker -quash. No examples are given here.
The third example shows a Narragansett word misqu meaning red . As an example of misqu used
in a Narragansett-language phrase, misqushim = red fox. If you look up misqushim, youll see that
misqushim literally means red animal.
The accent symbols, for readers who want to have a rough idea of the sound of the words, can be
found in the next section, PRONUNCIATION GUIDE. No accent mark means that the word is pronounced
as written with an equal emphasis on each syllable. In this book we dont concentrate on accurate
pronunciation (a difficult matter when no fluent speakers exist).

Notes on Using the Index

The English language Index at the back of the book is the key to this book. The Index should be
used to find roots, phrases and sentences for Part I. For example, to find the Massachusett phrase for good
morning, the reader finds good morning in the alphabetical Index in the back of the book where the page
number is given for finding the phrase in Part I. Turning to the indicated page number the reader searches the
page until mohtompan wunne (good morning) is located. There the roots are given and the reader is told to
see related terms to help understand as much as possible about the words.
Want to know the word for red ? The Index shows that red can be found in many places of the
book (by itself, in another word like red-fox, in a phrase, or in a sentence).

xiv

Look in all places of the book until satisfied. Write down notes, page numbers etc. to help you
remember. Thats how we all learn new words. The main thing is: be patient, have fun, and grow. When you
speak your mother tongue you are worshipping the ways of your ancestors.
If the reader has learned the word hopunck, find hopunck in Part I to learn that hopunck = a
tobacco pipe (a Narragansett word). Note that very few derivations of Narragansett words seem to have
been passed down.
Lastly, to supplement the vocabulary in Part I, we give the meanings for about 150 other words,
phrases, sentences. These terms are defined in the Index itself (e.g., hair = meesunk). One other reason for
giving this listing is so that readers may further practice word analysis; after you have read something about
the grammar in Part III, you should be able to recognize parts of some of the words, etc. in the Index.
Since this book is not meant to replace existing dictionaries, but give only a small number of words
with which to start off with, we give only a very modest amount of the vocabulary. The Massachusett
Language Revival Project will help make available the extensive dictionaries people need for learning their
language.

xv

PRONUNCIATION GUIDE
Guide to Historic Spellings & Sounds
in Massachusett-Narragansett1
(Mainland Dialects from Records of 1600s & 1700s)
STRESS AND PITCH MARKS
STRESS (Accent)

LANGUAGE

(primary or main stress)

(secondary stress)

Massachusett & Narragansett

Historic records seem to omit

PITCH (Tone)

LANGUAGE

(high or rising)
(low or falling)
(rising, then falling)
m (pause, hesitation)

Narragansett ?
Narragansett ?
Narragansett [in Massachusett ^ symbol is for nasals , , ]
Massachusett & Narragansett

SYLLABLE STRESS
Stress (or emphasis or accent) typically falls on syllable or syllables marked with special symbols
(e.g., wtu stresses first syllable with primary/main stress; ew stresses second with a low/falling
tone; wuskwhn has main stress & low pitch; a stresses a and ). Most Massachusett words
seem to have no stress marks indicating that no special stress on any one syllable exists [e.g., nippe,
askk, mehtugq]. When in doubt about stress, the following rules of thumb may be used :

for 1 syllable, no stress

for 2 syllables, stress first syllable (w-tu)
for 3 syllables, stress second syllable (wos-k-tomp)
for more than 3 syllables, stress near middle or end of word (we-at-chim-mn-eash)

These are only rules of thumb (or tongue) and do not apply for all words. More complicted rules
exist for accent structure (see Goddard, 1981).

This section selected from A Massachusett Language Book, Vol. I (1998).

xvi

VOWELS & CONSONANTS (true phonemes). See the list below for other vowel spellings
& sounds.

61-4
VOWELS
42 4 43
u{
a ee
o oo
1 42
43o

SHORT

LONG

__________ __________ __________

12
- CONSONANTS
14
4 442 4 4 4 43

ch h k m n p s sh t tt,
te, 3
ty w y
12
1 - conson .

Partial List of Spellings & Sounds

<
<
<
<
SPELLING

APPROXIMATE SOUND

(from John Eliot & others)

(Some are uncertain)

a [as in wadchu (wachuw)]

a in sofa (or) ah [short or long version]

aa [as in waantamonk]

long ah [sometimes aa written as a]

[as in nsh (nosh)]

long ah

a [as in wa) wamek ]

(
a [as in pa( ]

a in ale (or) a in father

[as in nmaus]

a in French word blanc ( is a nasal sound) (or, perhaps)

a in abet
ah [long vesion]

a
[as in pesik]

a in knave (nasalized). a is rarely seen.

a in arm (rarely seen)

ae [word middle or ending]

e in he (or) a in am

e [word middle or ending as in agkome

ah-ee (long ah)

(akomee)]
ag [as in tannag (tanok)]

ak as in clock

ah [word ending]

long ah

ai [as in naish (nosh)]

long ah (or) ai in mail

aih [as in nuppaih (nupoh)]

ah [long version]

am, an, m, n [after consonant as in sampwe

a in French blanc (nasal sound)

(spwee)]
ash [word ending for plurals as in hassenash]

arsh in harsh (silent r)

ass [word ending for some plurals, Narragansett]

ahs
xvii

au [as in hennau (henw)]

ow

a [as in ake (ahkee), Narr.]

long ah [a rising-falling pitch]

a, u [as in nesusuk (neessuk)]

nasal sound as a in French blanc

a [as in a]

ah-ou ( is oo in boot)

b, bp [word middle after vowel as in kobhog

b or p in big (or) pig (a sound between b / p)

(kophak)]
b, bp [word ending]

b or p in big (or) pig (a sound between b / p)

ca, co, cu

k-sound like call, cold, cut

cau

cow (or) caw (see kau)

ce, ci
ch [word beginning and after h]

s-sound in cede, civil, acid

sometimes z- or sh-sound as in sacrifice, ocean
ch in chair

ch [word middle & word ending after vowel]

ch in much, etching

cha [word beginning]

cha in cha-cha

cha, che, chi [word middle & ending, as in schem

tee-you [fast tempo] (a complex sound between ch &

t)

(steum)]

che, chee

chee in cheese

chu [word middle following vowel or word ending as

tee-you [fast tempo] (a complex sound between ch &

t). chu is rarely seen with this sound as a word ending; see
next entry for more common sound with this word ending.
chew

in wechu (weeteuw)]

chu [word ending as in wadchu

(wachuw) & meechu
(meechuw)]
ckq [word middle as in Narr., muckqutu
(mukweeteuw)]
dch, dtch [word middle & word ending after vowel]

ch in much, etching

dj

ch in match (rare)

dt, d [word middle after vowel]

t in tin (or) d in din (a d-t sound) [d may be silent in

some words like wadchu (wachuw)]
t in tin (or) d in din (a d-t sound)

dt, d [word ending as in kod (kat)]

dtea [after a vowel]
dti
e [word beginning or middle as in kesukun
(keesukun)]
e [word ending as in wuske (wuskee) or seipe
(seep)]

qu as in queen (see kq)

tee-ah [fast tempo] (a complex sound between ch &

t)
tee-you [fast tempo] (a complex sound between ch &
t)
e in he (or) a in sofa (or) e in bed (Narr.)
e in he [usually for adjectives & adverbs; a final e in
some Roger Williams & Cotton words is probably
silent and tells us that the preceeding vowel is a long
sound; e.g. cummmuckquete (kumumukweet) (see
ese for another example)
e in he
xviii

ee

ee as in green (or, before ht & hch) a in sofa

[as in wtu (weeteuw)]

(
(
e [as in metah ]

e in he

[Narr., as in penntunck] (pehntunck)]

Roger Williams says ^ is long sounding Accent

a in tame ( rarely seen)

ea [as in sekeneam (seekuniam)]

e in he (or) long ah

ei [as in keihtoh (kuhtah)]

a in sofa [before ht, hch] (or) i in hit (or, rarely) ee

in heed
eemees

emes [word ending for diminutive as in

e in end

mehtugquemes (muhtukweemees)]
es [word ending for diminutive as in mehtugques
(muhtukwees)]
ese [word ending for Narr. diminutive, as in squese
(skwahees)]
et [word ending , locative as in pautuxet]

et in set

eu [as in ayeu (ayuw)]

eu in feud

uck [word ending as in Narr., Massachusuck]

e in heed + ook in hook

not used

g, gg, gk [word middle after a vowel as in agkome

k in cow [perhaps a guttural sound]; one g heard in gg.

(akomee)]
g, gk [word ending as in mehtug (muhtukw) &
tannag (tanok)]

k in cow [perhaps a guttural sound] (or) qu in queen

gh

k in cow (or) ge in age

ghk

k in cow (or) qu in queen

gi, ji

gi in giant

gq [word ending as in mehtugq (muhtukw) ]

qu in queen

gw , gqu [word middle between vowels as in

qu in queen

ees
ees [final e in ese probably silent & means preceeding vowel
is long; see e (word ending)]

mehtugquash (muhtukwash) ]

h, hh

h in hot (one h heard)

h [word beginning as in htugk]

h in hot (a pause or breathing sound after h)

hch, ch

ch in chair

hk [word middle as in kishke

k in cow

(keeskee) ]

hsh

sh in shoe

ht

ht in height

hw, hwh

wh in what

i [word middle as in quinni (kwinee)]

a in sofa (or) e in he (or) i in hit (Narr.)

i [word ending as in mi (moowee) ]

e in he

[as in sickssuog]

i in hit (or) a in sofa (or) i in hit (Narr.)

xix

i
(
(
i [as in nehch i ppog ]

i in ice

[as in a]

e in he ( rarely seen)

ie

e in he [rare]

is, ish [word middle as in kishke (keeskee)]

ees [ see entry for sh & shk]

ish [word ending as in anish (ahnish)]

ish as in dish

is [word ending as in mokkis (mahkus)]

us

it, ut [word ending, locative]

it or ut in put

ch in match (or) gi in giant (rare)

ji

gi in giant

jt [word middle after vowel as in quajtog

ch in etching

(kwochtak)]
k [word beginning & after consonant]

k in cow

k, kk [word middle after vowel as in mokkis

k in cow (one k heard)

(mahkus)]
k [word ending as in ahtuk (ahtukw)]

qu in queen (or) k in cow

k [word beginning as in kchi]

2nd k in kick (a pause or breathing sound after k)

kau

cow (or) caw (see cau)

ke

kee in keep (or) kuh

ke , kee

kee in keep

kh

ck in back?

ki

kee in keep (or) ki in kick

ko

ka in karate (or) co in coop

kq [before consonant & word ending]

qu in queen [see ckq]

kqu [word middle between vowels as in

qu in queen [see ckq]

nukqutchtamup (nukwuchtamup)]
kuh, keh [as in kehtnog (kuhtoonakw)]

uh like a in sofa (or) kuh in coop

el (rarely seen in southeastern New England dialects)

m, mm

m in mud (or) hammer (one m heard)

& [as in pom& pu (phpuw)]

m

& is very rare)

nasal sound as in pomp ( m

m [word beginning as in mtugk]

meh or muh (a pause or breathing sound after m)

n [ beginning of word]

n in no

nn [ beginning of word as in nnin]

ne-ne in enema (two n sounds)

n, nn [middle, end of word]

n in tan (one n sound)

&& [as in mon&&chu ]

n

&& is nasal is nasal sound

on

o [as in kod (kat)]

ah [short version] (or) oo in food

i in ill

xx

oo [as in askook]

oo in food

oooo,
[as in wmpi (wampee) & anme (anme)]

first oo or spoken; said as oo in food

ah [long version] (or, rarely) o in old

o [as in k omuk ]

o in old

[as in wosktomp (waskeetp)]

a in French word blanc (nasal sound)

o in no [as a nasal sound?]

is very rare.

ock [word middle or ending, Narr.]

ak in clock

og [word middle or ending]

ak in clock

oh [as in ohke (ahkee)]

(
oh [as in po( hqui ]

ah [short or long version] (or) nasal sound h [after n]

oi

oi in oil

nasal a in blanc + e in he

om, on [nasal sound as in wosktomp(waskeetp)]

a in French word blanc (nasal sound)

onk [word ending, abstract nouns as in meetsuonk]

onck (or) unck

oo

[as in askook (ahskook)]

[as in muttn (mutoon)]

oo in food [Eliots special symbol for double oo;

the same as (or) 8]
oo in food (modern symbol for oo; 8 also used for
oo)
first o or spoken; said as oo in food
oo in boot

,
[as in sohsum onk]

(
[as in peantam( onk ]

a in sofa

oo in foot

ou

ou in out

w [word beginning]

whee (whistling sound which Eliot couldnt explain]

p, pp [word middle after vowel]

p or b in pig (or) big (a sound between p / b). One p

p [word ending]

p or b in pig (or) big (a sound between p / b)

ps [word beginning or middle as in psuk]

pss ( rare)

pu, puh [as in appu (apuw)]

pu in put

q [before consonant & word ending]

qu in queen

qu [word beginning & after consonant]

qu in queen

qu [word middle between vowels]

qu in queen

qua [as in quadjtog (kwochtak)]

quo in quota (or) qua in quality

qu

quo in Pequot

que [as in ahque (ahkwee)]

quee in queen (or) quest

qui

quee in queen (or) qui in quick

heard

xxi

quie [as in wishquie (weeskwayee)]

kwayee

quo [as in ahquompi (ahkwahmpee)]

quah

qun [as in qunutug (kwunutukw)]

kwun

qu [as in qutshau&& ]

coo (like dove-sound)

qut

kwut

are (rarely used in southeastern New England dialects)

s [word beginning & after consonant]

s in sip

s, ss [after vowel as in nusseet (nuseet)]

s in sip (one s sound)

sh [before vowel & word ending as in mukquoshim

sh in shoe, she, ship

(mukwahshum)]
sh [before consonant as in kishke (keeskee) ]

s in sip

shau [as in petshau (peetshow)]

show in rain-shower

shk [before vowel as in kishke (keeskee) ]

sk in Alaska

sq [as in mosq (mahskw)]

squah in squat

suck [word ending, for plurals in Narragansett]

sook

t [word beginning & after consonant as in tabot]

t in tin (or) d in din (a d-t sound)

t, tt [word middle after vowel as in nuttah (nutah)]

t in tin (or) d in din (a d-t sound) [one t heard]

t, tt [word end as in moskeht]

tee-you [fast tempo] (a complex sound between ch &

t)
ch in etching

tch [word middle & word ending after vowel]

te [word beginning as in teag (teokw)]
tea, ttea [after a vowel]
teau, teu, tteu [word middle or end as in keteau
(keeteow)]

to, t, t [as in attau (atow)]

tu, ttu [word middle or end as in wtu (weeteuw),
pittu (puteow)]

tee-you [fast tempo] (a complex sound between ch &

t))
tee-ah [fast tempo] (a complex sound between ch &
t)
tee-you [fast tempo] (a complex sound between ch &
t)
to in top [a nasal sound]
tee-you [fast tempo] (a complex sound between ch &
t)
Other sounds like ti, tti, tj have the tee-you sound plus
additional sounds

toh [as in kehtoh (kuhtah)]

tah

u [as in wuttup (wutup)]

a in sofa (or) ah (short version). Some think that at

the beginning of some words, a u was a whistling
sound (see w)
u in rude (or) a in sofa

[as in a ]
&& ]
u [as in qu tshau
(
(
u [as in wonkqussis ]

u in rude, tune

a in blanc (or) u in mud? (nasal sound)

u in circus, up?

xxii

u&

u in turner (in Eliot ?)

[as in a]

u in upsilon (or) oo in boot ( rarely seen) ?

uck, uk [word ending as in pasuk (posukw)]

k is qu sound as in queen

ut, it [word ending, locative as in kehtompskut]

ut in put (or) it

uw [word beginning]

a w whistling sound

not used

w, ww

w in won (one w heard) [perhaps a whistling sound in

wh

wh in what

wi

why (or) wee

wu [as in wuttup (wutup)]

wah (or) woo

ex in exit (rarely seen)

y in yes

y
(
y

y in lyre (in Eliot, others ?)

yau

yaw

yeu [as in ayeu (ayuw)]

you

yo

yah (or) yo in yo-yo

yah (or) yo in yo-yo

yo

yo in yo-yo

z, zs [as in nukkezheomp (nukeeship)]

s in sip

some words beginning with w]

y in typical (or) fully

<<

<

NOTE <

The above spellings are selected from the works of John Eliot, Josiah Cotton, Roger Williams & J.
H. Trumbull. The Nantucket & Marthas Vineyard island dialects are not included. The symbols
and 8 are seen in modern writings to stand for Eliots special character oo. There is a great deal of
uncertainty in our knowledge about the actual speech sounds and patterns of the Algonquianspeaking full-blooded Indians of southeastern New England (Rhode Island, Massachusetts & parts of
Conn.). For additional information on these matters of phonology, consult the works by Goddard
(1981), Goddard & Bragdon (1988), and other references cited in those sources.

<

<

<

<

xxiii

INTRODUCTION
Background
Algonquian refers to a family of about thirty-five interrelated American Indian languages making up the
Algonquian language family, the largest group of languages in eastern North America. Quoting Pentland,
Among the languages which make up the Algonquian family are two large groups, CreeMontagnais, which stretches from Labrador to Alberta, and Ojibwa (or Ojibwe/Ojibway),
reaching from southern Quebec to Saskatchewan and North Dakota, and including the
varieties known as Algonkin, Ottawa, and Chippewa. South of the Great Lakes are
Potawatomi, Menominee, Fox-Sauk-Kickapoo (three dialects of a single language),
Miami-Illinois, and Shawnee. To the west were Blackfoot, Arapaho and Atsina (or Gros
Ventre), Cheyenne, and several other languages which are now extinct. On the east coast
there were a large number of tribes who spoke Algonquian languages: Micmac, MalecitePassamaquoddy, Eastern Abenaki (several dialects, including Penobscot), Western
Abenaki, Nipmuck, Massachusett, Narragansett, Pequot-Mohegan, Quiripi-Unquachog,
Mahican, Munsee and Unami Delaware, Nanticoke, Conoy, Powhatan, and Pamlico. We
have records of about three dozen Algonquian languages all told, but it is almost certain
that there were several more that died out before they could be recorded (Pentland, 1996)

Our focus is on southeastern New England Indians, the forest Indians, whom scholars call The Eastern
Woodland Indians. See the two maps of the region. Fig. 1 shows the historic ancestral homelands of the major
Indian nations and tribes in southern New England (the gray-shaded region). Here we see what are believed to
be the Indian Nations who spoke fluently some dialect of the Massachusett language: Pokanoket2 Nation,
Massachusett Nation, Nipmuck Nation, Pawtucket Nation. The earliest recorded information we have on the
Indians of the 1600s says that all the Indians seemed to speak the same language. Lets quote (in Modern
English) one of the best European sources, Mr. Daniel Gookin, 1792:
The Indians of the parts of New England, especially upon the sea coasts, use the same
sort of language, only with some differences in the expressions, as they differ in several
countries [counties ?] in England yet so as they can well understand one another. Their
speech is a distinct speech from any of the those used in Europe, Asia, or Africa, that I
ever heard. (p. 9.)

Modern linguists seem to agree generally with Gookin.

The recent book by K.J. Bragdon (1996) is a comprehensive reference work on the culture and language
of southeastern New England Indians. Also, this book, while scholarly in nature, is centered on the Indian
perspective. It is recommended, for it includes much information on the languages of Massachusett and
Narragansett.
In Fig. 2 we see where certain Indian villages, reservations, and other settlements were just before the
outbreak of the bloody New England war, King Philipss War (1675-1676). Natick Village (near present-day
Boston, Massachusetts) can be seen, the location where The Rev. John Eliot learned Natick-Massachusett, and
recorded much of what we know today about Massachusett.

Note that the Pawtuckets (or Pennacooks) lived above the Massachusett Indians, one of the major tribes/nations speaking
the language Massachusett.
2
Wampanoag in modern terms.

xxiv

Figure 1. The broad white lines show tribal territories (ancestral homelands). A
black square indicates a modern non Indian town. A large bold-type name refers to
an Indian Nation (e.g., Massachusett), the smaller bold-type names indicate
tribal subdivisions (e.g., Neponset), present day State boundaries are indicated by
dashed lines -- and State names are capitalized (e.g., MASSACHUSETTS),
and geographical features are italicized (e.g., Atlantic Ocean). Source: Bruce G.
Trigger (Volume Editor), Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 15
(Northeast), 1978. Washington, DC: The Smithsonian Institution (Page 160).
Used with permission.

xxv

Figure 2. Black squares indicate a modern non Indian town, present day State boundaries
are indicated by dashed lines - - and State names are capitalized (e.g.,
MASSACHUSETTS), and geographical features are italicized (e.g., Atlantic Ocean).
Source: Bruce G. Trigger (Volume Editor). Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 15
(Northeast), 1978. Washington, DC: The Smithsonian Institution (Page 178). Used
with permission.

The Massachusett Language

Algonquian Indian languages are described by linguists as polysynthetic. This means that many simple
roots, stems and prefixes/suffixes are combined in a specific way to generate a whole word, thought, idea, feeling.
For example, take the word Massachusetts, the name of a New England State. The original word, massachuset, is
from the Massachusett (or Natick) Indian language. Etymologically we can break this word down into four
simpler word elements:
massa ( big or great) + wadchu (mountain, hill)
+ ash (plural, inanimate object) + et ( at, near, place of)

xxvi

Thus Massachusetts (massachuset) means "at or near the great hills and referred to a specific
geographical location (the Blue Hills), not to the entire present State of Massachusetts. Notice how the four
elements (massa, wadchu, ash, et) were abbreviated or contracted to form the final word; this is the essence of the
language. A knowledge of the roots and other elements of a word is very important in deciphering the original
meaning (when it can be reconstructed). But, because Algonquian languages (like Massachusett) are logical,
rule-bound communication systems with complicated grammatical structures, the reader should not form the
mistaken impression that simply stringing along a handful of prefix-root-suffix terms to form a polysyllabic
mouthful of a word, is all that these languages can offer. For example, take the word from Massachusett
wtu = a house (wigwam), a noun.

Now, consider the following:

neek = my house
keek = thy (your) house
week = his house
wetuomash = houses

These examples suggest that the elemental pronoun markers n-, k-, w- (and other variations) and the pluralization
stem ash for inanimate objects must be combined with the noun in special ways to form words that appear in
writing to be very different from the base noun wtu. Using wtu in whole sentences is even more complicated.
Thus, grammar and composition are separate topics that need to be taken up slowly. An adequate treatment
requires a separate volume.
Understanding Algonquian Indian Words (New England) is not meant to be a comprehensive vocabulary
book or a grammar book or a phrase book, for such are topics for future works. Only limited grammatical forms
are given such as pronoun, noun, verb inflections.
The most comprehensive source we know of on the grammar of Massachusett is the two-volume
monumental work by Ives Goddard and Kathleen Bragdon (1988). They offer a highly technical treatment of the
complex grammar and vocabulary of Massachusett (Natick )*. One must have specialized training in linguistics
to understand their book. We intend to use their book to provide a nontechnical grammar textbook on
Massachusett.
Another major league Algonquianist is the late and great Prof. James H. Trumbull whose 1903 dictionary
of the Massachusett (Natick) language is a major reliable source for the reader interested in the written word.
Trumbull's 350 page book contains extensive discussion of words, giving words from other Algonquian languages
and relating them to ancient world-wide languages, a most precious book. Another major source for the
Massachusett vocabulary is the dictionary by Cotton (Cotton, 1830, Nichols, 1822).
The works by the Rev. John Eliot ("The Apostle to the Indians") in the 1600s are the ultimate original
written sources for the Natick dialect of the Massachusett language. Unfortunately, as we mentioned earlier, the
works of Trumbull, Cotton, Eliot, and others are all but impossible for most people to obtain.

The word wtu is a fascinating word, as are all words given to Indians by the Creator. If you go through an Algonquian
dictionary (e.g. Trumbulls 1903 book) you can piece together the different shades of meaning of wtu. Our analysis showed
wtu related to other Massachusett words (or concepts) such as family, growth, love, land and wood. So, remembering that a
house (a structure) is not a home (where family and love exist and grow), wtu seems to us to mean roughly a wooden
home our family moves about our land. All Algonquian Indian words seem to weave these deep, interconnected, primitive
notions of biotropism. Thus, the reader of our book should know that our word listing merely scratches the surface of
meaning, because each word could fill a book by itself.
*
The Goddard and Bragdon work (Part 2) is interesting because it attempts to develop a grammatical sketch of the written
records (letters, deeds, etc.) produced by Massachusett-speaking Indians who learned to read and write their ancient mother
tongue from reading Eliots Bible in their language. They showed a great deal of individual differences in how they spelled
words, used grammatical rules, etc. (Indians value freedom and independence above all else). Goddard and Bragdon try to
systematize these linguistic phenomena and come up with their own grammatical sketch which includes John Eliots system
from the 1600s.

xxvii

Approach to Language Revival

Learning a new language is very difficult for most people. When there are no fluent speakers of a
language, but only written sources on the semantics (word meanings, such as in Trumbulls dictionary) and syntax
(rules for forming sentences, the grammar, such as in Eliots works, and others), then students are facing
tremendous obstacles to language fluency. Such is the case for those who want to learn a language such as
Massachusett, extinct since the early 1800s. Where to begin in reviving such a language poses many questions.
The reader may know that almost all American Indian languages had no writing system as we know it. The
cultures were oral. You learned everything from family and friends by listening to their words and thoughts and
remembering what you were told. The hand gestures and other body language were also very important since
they added meaning to the words.
Compare this situation to American children learning the English language in the United States. Learning
English usually involves learning how to speak it, read it and write it. Children have available their parents,
teachers in schools, and many others from whom to learn the oral and written language. They also have books,
tapes, music, their friends and playmates, TV, movies, etc. to practice their mother tongue. Some people have
learned English from watching TV over an extended period of time.
Language teachers tells us that one of the most important aspects of language learning is knowing the
meanings of the words in the language (the semantics). Remembering the many words of a new language is
difficult, especially when one doesnt have all the help needed to learn the language.
The Massachusett Language Revival Project starts with the approach of basic word recognition, and the
unique aspect of Indian languages -- their rootedness in nature, expressing very complex ideas, thoughts, feelings
in complicated-looking words that combine many simple elements to form a complete idea, thought, feeling.
Many of the Indian words for living things, especially animals, are onomatopoetic (imitative of nature -- word
based on sound associated with object). For example, the Narragansett word for goose-geese (hnck- hnckock)
is based on how Indians heard the honking sounds geese make. The word for tree htugk is what a tree sounds
like when you strike it with a rock or club. To us, this practice attests to the intelligence of Indians because the
word is easier to remember. It also shows the respect ("to look at objectively") Indians have for their brothers and
sisters of the forest from whom they have learned so much about survival, and living in harmony and balance with
nature.
Our approach to teaching Massachusett (and some other related Algonquian languages) starts with the
belief that learning the root words and other word parts of the language can provide knowledge of Massachusett
(and other related Algonquian languages) more quickly. So, weve written this book with this belief in mind.

Structure of Book
Part I
Understanding Algonquian Indian Words (New England) is structured in the following way. The book
consists of three major chapters. The roots, stems and prefixes/suffixes, phrases and sentences presented in Part I
are limited to the historic Eastern Woodland Algonquian Indian language of Massachusett (Natick) as preserved
by John Eliot and others. A handful of terms in Part I come from the Narragansett language, and are so identified.
Each of the entries in Part I shows the word element and some of the variant spellings of the same term, and the
meaning or various meanings of the Algonquian term. A Natick dictionary such as Trumbulls 1903 book should
be consulted for a more complete definition of the terms. Sometimes one finds a single word with more than one
meaning or spelling, or there exists five or six words for the same thing. Included are selected whole words,

xxviii

phrases and sentences cross-referenced to their combining elements which was felt to be important for the
beginning student.
The derivations of words in some cases are suppositive (based on our own oral traditional reconstruction
which amounts to saying we could be wrong, but heres our educated guess). It seems better to give the reader
an hypothesis from which to launch ones own analysis ("nature abhors a vacuum").
The reader will not see the so-called grammatical classification for a word such as noun, adverb that one
sees ordinarily in a dictionary. Our belief is that such information comes latter in language revival. Such
knowledge, intimately tied-up with learning rules for word, phrase and sentence construction, is too burdensome
now. Future works, as mentioned earlier, will take up such matters in detail, in conjunction with experts.
The words in Massachusett are spelled phonetically -- what you see is what you say: see the
PRONUNCIATION GUIDE. Part III provides information on the pronunciation.
Several examples from Part I will give an idea of the contents. Lets say the reader looks up the phrase
good morning. Turning to the right page, we see the entry:

mohtompan wunne (see mohtompan, wunne)

good morning

The book says see mohtompan, wunne. You

find

mohtompan (see montup)

morning (rising up)

You make a note maybe to see montup. Youre

still dealing with wunne. So you find:

wunne (see wunni)

We refer you to wunni (just below wunne).

You find:

wunni (wunne, oone)

pleasing, favorable, good, beautiful

Here weve given you some other ways to spell wunni, and you may want to see what is said about them.
Now, you can go back to montup. In this way, we have you go to as many places as we think you might go to get
a feel for the underlying meanings of the words we provide in this book. The reader is given the experience of the
interrelated structure of this complex, fascinating language. The original guttural sounds, the euphonic, metrical
beauty of the language are, however, lost through the harsh lessons of American history, and we cannot enter into
pronunciation, tempo and the like (now).
The English language Index locates these roots, words, phrases for the reader. The separate Englishlanguage index has been prepared to facilitate locating specific Algonquian terms. Also the reader should consult
the sections ABBREVIATIONS AND OTHER CONVENTIONS for unfamiliar abbreviations or symbols. In
places where a technical grammatical term is seen, the reader should turn to GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL
TERMS at the back of the book for an explanation of the meaning of the word. Be sure to read the section HOW
TO READ THIS BOOK for information on the uses of the book.
The Index also contains a small number of words, phrases, sentences (about 150) whose meanings are
given there (e.g., hair = meesunk). This small list will supplement the main vocabulary of Part I. Also this list
allow readers to practice word analysis; after you have read something about the grammar in Part III, you should
be able to recognize parts of some of the words, etc. in the Index.

xxix

Part II
Examples are presented in Part II. Different sorts of examples are provided (such as place names, poems,
conversational lesson sheets) . For example, in Part II we give some corrupted place names and show their
etymological derivation to give the reader experience in struggling with this linguistic art of word reconstruction,
and cite references for further practice. For example, Titicut = kehte-tuk- ut (place of principal river).
The contemporary places are analyzed with the word elements given in the beginning of the book. A
more extensive listing of Algonquian place names with derivations can be found in Trumbull (1881, 1974) or
Huden (1962).
An elementary conversational language lesson is provided in Part II. You will also be tested from timeto-time to get you actively involved in learning. All of these are given for the reader to practice word recognition
skills to be used to build upon in the future. For additional practice, the reader may want to read some of the
native writings in Massachusett in the book by Goddard and Bragdon (1988, Part 1), of which a sample is
provided in Part II, and which readers can apply all they have learned.

Part III
In Part III we give the reader a general overview of the Massachusett grammar, and for this purpose we
reproduce a shortened version of the original (1666) work by John Eliot, The Indian Grammar Begun; or, an
Essay to Bring The Indian Language into Rules for the Help of Such as Desire to Learn the Same for the
Furtherance of the Gospel Among Them. According to Eliot, about one-quarter of the grammar, as he understood
it, is contained in those 16 pages that we provide in Part III. THE GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS
(after Eliots article) may be used to understand Eliots terms (e.g. adnoun)
In Part III Eliot also gives you some information about pronunciation such as can be provided on paper
(not much fidelity, in reality). His pronunciation-information is based on what he was taught by his Massachusett
Indian tutor (and servant of 35 years) Job Nesutan, and what is humanly possible to write on paper. Eliot was a
gifted language learner. He impressed the New England Indians with his knowledge of their language, no doubt
one reason for his success in converting to Christianity so many New England Indians. So, Eliot is a reliable
source for written Massachusett (Natick). A careful reading of Rev. Eliots essay will be of benefit to the reader.

In our workshops and seminars held with the general public and Indian tribal councils, we presented many more lessons
under the title Know It By Its Indian Name by Strong Woman and Moondancer.

xxx

in memory of our teachers -< Lillian Mary Fortier <

< Chief Spotted Eagle <
< Princess Redwing of the House of Seven Crescents <

and our late friend,

< Red Thundercloud <
the last fluent speaker of the Catawba language

Aqune Kah Nahnnushagk (peace and farewell)

xxxi

PART I
WORD ELEMENTS
AND
MEANINGS
Massachusett and Narragansett
Languages
Figures 3 & 4, belowFacsimile title pages for John Eliots 1663 Bible (r) and Roger Williams 1643
A Key (l) the main primary sources for the following brief Dictionary (Bible title over)
[Courtesy Annenberg Rare Book and Manuscript Library, University of Pennsylvania]

Bible title page with line breaks:

The Whole Holy his-Bible God Both

Old Testament and also New Testamant
this turned by the servant of Christ who
is called John Eliot Cambridge: Printed
by Samuel Green and Mamaduke Johnson,
1663

_
ALGONQUIAN
DICTIONARY
A(un(2), en)

to, and, for (e.g., en wadchue ohkeit = to

the hill country)
- a connective vowel used for euphony

Abenaki (see waba, ahki for main roots of

word)

dawnlanders, a New England, Canadian Indian tribe

(cf. Wabanaki)

acawmen (see ongkome) (Narr.)

on the other side of, beyond

adcha (see ahchu)

he hunts (e.g., nuttahchun = I hunt)

adchu (see wadchu)

mountain, hill; may imply place of hunting (used in

composition) (cf. ahchu); (e.g., misadchu = a great
mountain)

adene (see wadchu)

mountain, hill (in composition) (e.g., massaadenesuck = great hill brook)

adt (t, ahhut) (see ut)

at, a place, to, in (e.g., nadt = far off)

ae ta (ht) (see ta)

on both sides of (see a e taiseep)

ae taiseep (see ae ta , seep)

on both sides of the river

- ag (1) (see ake)

(e.g., keag = place of)

-ag (2) (-ah, -ak (2), -ogk, -ock, -uck,-aug,

etc.) (see -og (2))

pluralization stem, animate forms (e.g., wampumpeag

= string of white shell beads)

agu (see -ag(1) , og(1))

concealing, hiding, haven, refuge

gushau (see agwe, -shau, m)

he goes below it (for shelter or concealment)

agwattin (see agwe, attin)

under a hill

agwonk (see agwe, -unk (2))

under a tree

agwe (agwu, ogwu)

under, below (e.g., agwattin = under a hill)

-ah (-oh, -uh) (see -ash, -og, -ak)

plural noun/verb ending, animate forms

(obviation);e.g., Ayim anogqsoh=He made the
stars

ahnu, ohanu (hannu)

laugh (onomatopoetic) (e.g.,ahquompi adt

ohanimuk = a time to laugh; e.g., ahhuock = they
laugh)

ahcepe (achepe, chepe)

almost, most

ahchu (see audchaonk)

he strives after

ahhe (see nux)

yes

ahki (aki ) (see ohke, ake)

land, place of

ahkeit (ohkeit) (see ohke, -it)

of or on the earth

-hkon (-ogkon) (see -uhkon) (cf. ahque)

do not do (in composition) (e.g., ontahahkon = do not

remove it)

aho (ehoh)

the end (equivalent to amen), it is so; said at end

of prayers, speeches, other important social event

ahque, aquie (see unq) (cf. unque)

he leaves off, refrains from, does not do (e.g., ahque

pannwah = do not lie to me) (pannwau = he
lies about the truth)

ahquompi

time, be a time (e.g., pohshiquaea ahquompi = noon

time)

ahquompi newutche meetsuonk

(see ahquompi, newutche, meetsuonk)

time to eat

ahshim (see ashim)

ahtuck (ahtuk) (see -ag (2), tuck (2))

orchard

ahtuhquog (see ahtuk, -og (2))

many deer

ahtuk, ahtukq (see tuck (2))

a deer (at the tree?) or roe or hart or roe-buck

ahwk (see -unq, weque)

so far

-ak(1) (see -og (2), -ah, -ash)

pluralization stem for animate nouns

-ak(2)

pluralization stem for ohke, used with pronoun

markers n , k, w

-am, -aum, -om (see um)

-m (see -mag, namans, -mau, auma,
as )

fish (taken by hook) (e.g., paponaumsog = winter

fish)

amaem (mae) (see omm )

it goes away

mae (see m)

he goes away, general departure

mau (see -m)

amareck (see maug) [r-dialect]

fish

-maug (see -m, -aug (2))

fishing-place

amisque (amisq, mecq) (see mecq,

mech)

beaver (water beast) (about 30 distinctions)

-an-

Spread out, going beyond (e.g., Kitthan=Ocean,

great expanse)

-anash (see -ash)

pluralization stem for inanimate forms

(e.g., qussuckquanash = very small stones)

anwsuck (see anna, -suck)

(cf. suckahock, -hogk) (Narr.)

shells (from shellfish)

anit (cf. anue)

used with manit, manitt (used in composition)

(e.g., keihtanit = Great Spirit)

anna (Narr.)

shell (e.g., annachim = nut ; literally, shell around

fruit)

annachim-eash (see anna, min, -eash)

nut-nuts (shell around fruit)

annem (see onom) (Narr.)

ann (unna) (see ussint)

he says to, tells

annock (cf. angqs)

appearance, manifestation (he shows himself)

(
nnu au (annuwan)
annue (annin)

he conquers (basis for name of famous war captain,

Annawan?) (e.g., annnuwaen = commander)
takes hold of, seizes, seizes, puts hands on (e.g.,
kutanneh = you hold me up)

angqs-og (see -og (2))

a star-stars

-antam (see ontam, -antum)

indicating states, activities of mind (in compound

words) (e.g., nontum = I am well minded)

antamunt, anatanunt (cf. -antam)

used in composition with verbs to indicate states of

mind, thinking, feeling, desiring, praying, and the like
(e.g., tabuttantamunt = to be thankful, giving
thanks.)

-antep (cf. -ontop, montup) (see tp)

head (combining form)

nue

- more, rather (used when choosing something)

- above (cf. anit)
- it exceeds, surpasses, expresses more of something
(e.g., anue mohsag = that which is great, a
great thing, the greatest)

anm-wog

a dog-dogs (from annuma = he

holds with his mouth)

-aog (see -og (2))

- pluralization stem for animate forms (e.g.,

wosketompaog = adult males)
- where it goes = aog

ap -hana (Narr.)

trap-traps (for hunting)

api (see appuonk)

sit, be there, to dwell (e.g., appin = a bed)

appau (apwau, appsu) (from "roast"

(ap ))

shellfish (oysters)

appon (see -paug (1), -paug (2))

flat, flat land, still, level (as pond water)

ppu (see appuonk)

remains, abides there, to be and remain (he sits)

(e.g., mattappu = he sits downs or rests)

appuonk (see api, onk)

sitting, seat

apwon (see apwonat)

sitting, seat

apwonat

to roast (e.g., apwou = he roasts or cooks meat)

aquabe

before, on this side of

aqune (Narr.) (from ahque)

peace (see aqune ut) (cf. Wunnohteaonk)

aqune ut (see aqune, ut) (Narr.)

peace place, treaty camp (e.g., aquinnah = peace

camp)

aquene kah nahnnushagk (see aqune,

kah)

peace and farewell (nahnnushagk = farewell)

aquidne (ahquedne) (from edn ?)

island (root implies a sitting, or suspension, as a

floating mass) (e.g., aquidnet = Aquidneck)

aquidnet (see aquidne, -et)

at the island, floating mass-at

as- (Narr.) (see asq)

prefix (preverb)

-s (-us)

suffix for some simple questions (e.g., kussimus =

have you said?; e.g., nwadchanumuns = do I
keep it?)

-s

referring to an animal (cf. as)

as- (hse-)

every, each (e.g., sekesukokish = every day, daily)

ascoscoi (ashkosqui, oshkoshque) (see

ask (1))

green (e.g., askunkq = a green tree)

-ash (-quash, -ganash, -uash, -tuash, etc.)

(many variants,especially with preceeding
double consonants and connective glide
inserts cf. -og (2), -ak) (see Part III)

-ash is the common pluralization stem for

inanimate forms (e.g., nipeash = water places)
as a suffix, the command to one person; e.g,
mattapsh = sit!
suffix for verb participles; e.g., mat mesh
nummanenash = I did not take them
suffix for some transitive verbs (see -ish)
of continuance, still, before (e.g., ash pamantam
= while I live) (e.g., ash wanongkup =
before the sun sets)

shp (hashp)

hemp or fishing-net, spider web (e.g., wutashabpuh

= their nets)

asheyaus (see ask (2), as) (cf. weyaus)

raw flesh

ashkashki (see ask(1))

it is green

-ashim, -oshim, -washim

of animals, beasts (e.g., muchquoshim = wolf)

ashim (ahshim, shim ) (see asi) (cf.

takekum)

spring of water

ashye (ashyee)

reverse direction, back (e.g., asshau = he goes

backwards)

asi

drink thou (e.g., wuttatash = to drink)

ask(1) (askski) (see asq, sk)

green (e.g., askehteau = it is green, raw, raw,

unprepared)

ask(2) (aske)(see asq, sk)

eat raw stuff (cf. Eskimo = ask(2) + mohw )

askn (oskun) (see asq, sk)

a raw hide (undressed)

askug (askk, askooke, skug) (see sk)

a snake or worm (e.g., maskug = a black snake)

skun (see sk) (see asq, -un)

the future (is not yet)

askunkq (see ask (1), -unk (2))

a green tree

asnan (cf. hassen)

rock (in general)

asshan (see asssha)

lobster (he goes backwards)

asq (see ask (2), as (Narr.) )

- gourd, bottle, flask, jug, etc. for water & rattle

- not yet, before that, in future (see asquam) (e.g., asq
nuppomantam = I am still alive; e.g., aspeyu =
He has not yet come (Narr.).
- anything consumed raw (cf. ask) (e.g., oskosk =
grass)

asquam (see asq, sk)

before, not yet

assinek (hassunnek) (see hassen,-ik)

a cave, den (basis for place, Horseneck)

asssha (see ashye, -shau, m)

he goes backwards

asktasquash (see ask (2), ash)

squash, pumpkin (common Indian staples)

asuh (asuk) (see neese ?)

or, after, behind (related to neese = two)

asuhka (asuhke-a) (see asuh, a)

after (e.g., asuhkaa = he goes after him)

-asuonk

suffix meaning a mark, sign, token

t (en, in, ot, it, ut)(see adt)

- at, in, to (e.g., ohteuhkonat = a thing in the

earth) (i.e., a plant)
- suffix (-at) for verbs infinitive (to do, to say, to
keep, etc.) (cf. wussint)

-atch, (-etch, itch, -utch, -ch)

when it is, when it has, involuntary or indefinite

activity;eg. sochepwutch = when it snows

attah (t + tah)

where (e.g., mattah = to where)

-attin (see tn)

mountain, hill (in composition)

attitash (see asi ?, -ash)

blueberries (whortleberries, hurtleberries)

-a (a, au) (see m)

- he goes thither (e.g., ai = he is gone); many

verbs have a (written au), 3rd person singular
- well, it is well (see ou, eu) (possible sound for
yes)

aucp (see kuppi) (Narr.)

a little cove or creek

aucppwese (see aucp, paw, -ese)

a smaller cove, creek

audchaonk (see adchau, -onk (3))

hunting (abstact noun)

-aug (see -og (2))

- pluralization stem for animate forms (e.g., maug =

fishing-place)
- suffix for place of (cf. ake)

a (see a, i)

he goes now (is on his way)

ake (see adt, ke (2), kas) (Narr.,

equivalent to ohke in Massachusett)
(word that appears in many terms with
many variants such as -ake-, -aki-, -akee-,
-auki- )

land, earth, place, ground, country that is not enclosed

(literally, "that which brings forth, gives life"). Ake
is a very important word, and is related to concept for
mother. (e.g., nittake = my land).

auksuhqueau (see m)

he goes to and fro

aumai (see -mau)

he is fishing (he fishes with a hook) (e.g.,

paponaumsog = winter fish)

auog (see au, og)

- they go ( used in composition)

- they went on their way, they journeyed

-auq-, -auqu-, -ockqu- (Narr.)

of a tree, long, tall, deep (e.g., qunnauqussu = He is

tall (like a long tree).

asup-pnnog (see -og (2)) (Narr.)

raccoon-raccoons (face washer) (related to root for

"fan"; fanner)

auwaog (ouwaog) (see -og (2))

people (cf. nuttauwatueonk) (root is auwa =

people); e.g., nuttawaog = my people

auwatuk (see auwaog)

anyone

auwon, awaun (see howan) (Narr.)

any body; literally who; e.g., awun ew = Who is

he (that).

ayeu (see ayu)

ayeuonk (see ayeu, -onk (2))

place, place of residence

ayeuteanin (see -enin)

a fighter, warrior (e.g., ayeuhteu = he makes war,

fights) (cf. matwa)

ayim (ayum)

he makes (e.g., nuttiyam = I make)

ayu (ayeu ) (see yeu)

he is here, there (e.g., noh ayeu kah ppu = he

dwells and abides)

-camoco (see - ko muk )

enclosed place, building (in composition)

capat (kuppadt)

ice

caumpsk (see kenag, -ompsk-)

a whetstone, mill stone, grinding stone (such as for

corn)

caucumsqussuck (see -umpsk, qussuck)

a marked rock

cautntowit (kautntuwwit) (see

kehtanito, ut) (Narr.)

the house of the Great Southwest God, the giver of all

things

-ch

- a suffix denoting involuntary activity (see ch =

it proceeds from)
- running water (imitative) (e.g., schepo = snow,
Narr.)

chaqoh (chaquoh) (see teag)

chaugua (chauguas) (see teag)

what (question)

chekee (cheche)

violently (see chikohteau below)

cheke (checheke) (see chequanappu)

slowly, late (e.g., chekeu = it is late, a long time)

chepachet (see chepi, -et)

a place separated, or apart (a modern place name)

chepaiyeoonk ) (see chepi, ayu ?,-onk (3))

freedom (state of being separate, apart, free)

chepe (see achepe)

most, almost

chepi (see ch-p) (cf. pohq)

separated, apart (e.g., chipohke = unoccupied land)

chequanappu (see cheke, ppu)

he sits still, is as rest

chickoht (chikohteau)(see chekee,

-ohteau) (cf. yote, ntau)

fire1 ("it is fierce or violent")

chikohteau (see chekee, -ohteau, chickot)

it burns, as a fire or torch

chipohke (see chippe, ohke)

unoccupied land (the place apart)

chippachusin (see chippu, -et) (Narr.)

a dividing, separating

chippe (see ch-p)

separate, apart (it is separated) (cf. chipohke)

chippeu (see chippe)

he separates himself, goes apart

chippi (see chepi) (cf., pohq)

a part (it is separated)

Nte= Fire [in general]; Yte = [domestic] fire; Chckot = [destructive] fire; Sqtta= fire in general & a fire spark

chippissuog (see chippe, ussu, -uog,

nnnuock)

a tribe (collectively) (they who are separate, go by

themselves)

chippanonk (see chippe, -onk (3))

a tribe (collectively)

chgan-euck (Narr.)

black bird-black birds (imitative ) (from chogq =

spot ?)

ch-p (ts-p) (see chippe)

ghost, spirit, departed spirit, evil spirit, separated;

(common root: separated) (cf. chippissuog)

chuh

ho! look!

chuppe (see ch-p)

part of it, into parts

cowmmaunsh (Narr.) (see wamosuonk)

I love you

cowauwanemun (Narr.) (see k,

wauonu)

you are lost, out of the way, gone astray from the path

da (see ta)
Duda (affectionate term)

grandmother

-e (see - i) (see Part III)

to, and (an adjectival ending for inanimate forms)

(e.g., wachue ohkeit = the hill country)

- (see u) (see Part III)

ending for some adverbs (e.g., wam = all)

eataw (Narr.)

old, abandoned (see eataw ake)

eataw ake (see eataw, ake) (Narr.)

old, abandoned land

eenntowash (from nan (1), antow )=

speak), -ash ) (Narr.)

speak Indian ! (command to one person)

-ees (see -es (1))

-eg (see -og (2), -ick, -chick, (Narr.))

pluralization stem, 3rd person plural, they who

are___ (e.g., nananuach e g = magistrates)
suffix root, (also -ge) means "the thing that"

-eh (see -wah)

ht (aetawe) (see ogkome)

on or at both sides

-ehte (-ahtu, -ehtu, -uhtu, -ehten) (see ut)

An American Indian tribe is an Indian people all interrelated by blood, marriage or by adoption. In pre-historic
times (pre-European days), a tribe lived in one or more villages.

eiyne (iane) (see unne)

different sorts or kinds of things (e.g., wame eiyne =

all kinds of; e.g., iyanaskehtuash = many
medicines)

-emes (see -es (1))

diminutive, lesser or least (e.g., ogguhsemese =

smallest of something)

en (a, un (2), unne) (see t)

in, at, to (see -enin)

-en, een

of a man, male (cf. nnin)

-enin (-anen, in)

suffix meaning doer of something (e.g.,

adchanin = some hunter, any hunter, a hunter)
general form for man, male

en kussohkoiyeu wadchuut (see en,

kussuhkoe, yeu, wadchu, ut)

into a high mountain

en wadchue ohkeit (see en, wadchu,

ohke, -it)

to the hill country

-es (1) (-is, -ees, -ese) (cf. -emes)

diminutive suffix meaning little, small (e.g., nipes

= small body of fresh water)

-es (2) (see -esu)

adjectival ending for animate forms (e.g., munnhes =

little island; e.g. squsese = litle woman

-ese (see -es (1))

little (e.g., aucppwese = a smaller cove)

-eset, -esett (see es (2), -et)

little (small) place (suffix) (cf. -paugesst), common in

place names such as Massachusetts

-esh-

sudden or violent motion (in composition) (e.g.,

queshau = he leaps, jumps)
motion verbs (to go); e.g. acwmuck notshem
= I came over the water)

-esu (see -es (2))

adjectival ending for animate forms (e.g.,

wompesu = white-like)

-et (-ett) (slurred to -chet, -chan, etc.)

(see ake, ut)

place of, in, at, near (e.g., Pokanoket = at the cleared

land, a modern spelling)

eth (cf. ut)

thither, thus

-etu, -ittu (cf. kin)

of growth (compound words) (e.g., netu = he grows)

-eum (see m) (many variant spellings)

(see Part III)

indicates possession for some nouns (e.g.

numoskehteum = my herb; num-Manittm = my
God)

10

-uck (Narr.) (cf. -noag)

suffix meaning the people of (e.g., Massachusuck

= Massachusett Nation (people of the great hills))

ewchimin-neash (see min, wachu ?, ash)

(Narr.) (see weatchimmineash)

corn (maize), plural ("the plant in the field)

ew (, w, u) (see yeuoh, noh(2), ne

(1)) (Narr.)

he, she, it (e.g., awun ew = who is that?)

-ge (-ege)

means "the thing that (e.g., Puttuckqunnge = the

thing that is long and round [long bread])

hassen (hassun, hussun, ohsun)

a stone (root may imply something that cuts or

penetrates)

-hegan (-igan, -egan, gin)

instrument of, agent, tool for (in compound words)

(e.g., chickgin = hatchet)

hk (see k)
-hock (see -hogk)
-hog (see -hogk)

body (root) (cf. muhhg)

-hogk (-hog, -hock, -hogh) (see hogki)

- any external covering for body of an animal or

man (e.g., muhhg = the body)
- shell, thick shell (see suckahock, metahock)

hogki (see hogk,-i)

it covers, serves as a covering (e.g., wuhhogki = a

shell)

-hom (-ham) (see m)

common endings for some motion verbs using

m, stating a going from one place to another ) (cf.
sohham = soh + m)

hnck -hnckock (Narr.)

goose-geese (imitates honking sound of bird)

hopunck (see uhponk) (Narr.)

a tobacco pipe

hous (see wussi)

howan, awaun (Narr.)

who (singular), someone, anyone, anyone (e.g., howae

missinninnuog = common people)

howanig (see -og (2)), awaunick (Narr.)

who (plural)

htugk (htugh, tug, tugk, tugq)) (see

mtugk)

tree (imitative sound) (e.g., mishuntugk = much

wood)

11

-hu (see -tu)

pluralization stem (cf. -kontu)

hussun-ash (see hassen, -ash) (cf. qussuk)

a stone-stones

-i (See Part III)

- adjectival ending for inanimate forms (e.g., wmpi

= white) (see es (2), -esu)
- denotes present activity (e.g., sokenoni = its
raining now)

-ick (see -shik)

-ie (-i) (other variants ?)

- suffix to denote deceased persons (e.g., nshi =

my late (deceased) father))
- ending for some adjectives (e.g., ohknie = made
of skins)

-ihte (-ihteu) (see -ut)

-ik (-ik, -ek) (see ut)

at, in, place of

-in

of the kind or manner of or relating to verbs of

growth (used in composition)
(e.g., min = m + in = berry, fruit, grain, corn)
- in, at, to (see t)
suffix for animate nouns denoting a doer of
something (see -enin)
relating to verbs of growth

-ineunk

pluralization stem

-is (many variants) (see us (1)) (cf. -es

(1))

small (cf. nuppis)

-ish

- denoting a bad quality of something (used in

composition) (e.g., anish = it stinks)
- denoting continuous action (in composition) (e.g.,
sekesukokish = every day, daily; e.g., wunnish=
farewell)
- suffix for wishing, praying, commands (e.g.,
wadchanish = thou--keep us, protect us, save
us; see poem Keihtanit-m) ; see sh
- suffix for some transitive verbs; e.g.,
cummaugakeamish = I will give you land
(Narr.)

-it (-itt) (see ut)

at, in, place of, it is (suffix)

12

-iyeu, -eiu, -uiu (see yeu) (many variants)

towards, of direction (e.g., sowaniyeu = towards

the south)
suffix, some 3rd person, indicative, singular verbs
(e.g., wunniyeu = he/she is happy)

k(k, hk)

a verb used to indicate continual action or becoming

something (used in composition) (e.g., kche =
kutche = it begins, it originates)

k , c (ku) (see Part III) (cf. ken)

general prefix form for singular and plural nouns &

verbs: you, your, we (many variants exist in
composition such as: ke-, kee-, ko-, k-, ku-, kup-,
kum-, kun-, kut-, kud-, kuh-, kit-, etc.); e.g., keek = k
+ wtu = your house; kuttah = thy heart;
kuttahhou = your heart).

kah (see k)

- and (e.g., misadchu kah wadchu = mountain and

hill)
- same sense as k

kah keen (see kah, keen)

and you

kaukont-tuock (see -tuock) (Narr.)

crow-crows (caw! caw!)

-kauog (see -og (2))

pluralization stem for animate forms

k'chi (kche) (see kt)

large, great entity (a very important root, used in

composition) (e.g., kehchisog = male elders)

ke (1) (k ) (see k)

you (contraction of ke n ) (in composition)

-ke (2) (-ki)

earth, land (in composition) (see ake)

ke (3)

if, however, when, later, subsequently

ke ... ke (see ke (3))

if, ...,then

-keag (see -ke (2), -ag (1))

place of (in composition)

kee (keet (see kt))

keek (see k e k)

your (thy) house (wtu = house)

keen (see k)

you (singular)

keenai (keeneh, keneh, keene, keen)

sharp, keen (used in composition)

keeshk (see sk, sh)

cut through, sever (imitative?)

13

khche (kehcheu)

it is great, superior, old, ancient (e.g., kechissquaog =

female elders)

kehchi (see kt)

finish, done, completion

kehchis (kutchissu) (see kehche)

he is old, he is an old man

kehchisog (see kehchis, -og(2)) (see

kechissquaog)

male elders, seniors (the old ones, ancient ones)

(e.g., kehchisog wantamwog = the old are wise)

kehchissquaog (see kehchis, squa,

-og (2)) (see kehchisog)

female elders, seniors

keht- (keiht-, kut) (see kt)

principal, greatest (in compound words, usually with

inanimate nouns) (e.g., kehtompskut = at the
great rock;e.g. kuttiomp = great buck (deer)))

kehtompskut (see kt, -ompsk-, -ut )

at the great rock

kehtpaquonunk (see kt, pauqua, -unk)

at the great clearing

kehtemaug (see kt , -maug)

great fishing-place

kehteihtukqut (see keht-, -tuk, -ut)

at the great river

kehtanito ut (see keht-, anit, -ut)

the place of the great manit (Kautntowwit or

Cautntowwit)

kehteau (see k, ahteau)

it is very great, vast (cf. kehtoh)

kehtoh (keihtoh) (see k, -ohteau)

name of the sea, ocean ("it is going on", "it is

indefinitely extended")

keihtanit (see keht- , anit)

chief or principal manit (Indian religion)

keihtanit-m (see keihtanit , m)

my great God (O Spirit)

keihto (see kehtoh)

keitotan missi kah kishki (see keitho, otn,

missi, kah, kishki)

the city (village) is large and great

ke k (keek) (see k, wtu)

thy (your) house (wtu = house)

ke n (see keen)

you (singular)

kenag (see ke nai )

that which is sharp, when it is sharp

See Trumbull (1903, pages 268-269) for some idea of the many terms under god. Oral tradition has it that The Great Spirit is called

Kehchitan Manitt (different spellings possible) in Northern Algonquian communities.

14

composition) (see kenag)

sharp, splintered, jagged, thorn-like (e.g., kenehompsk

= a sharp stone)

kenau (kenauau)

you (plural)

ke nawun (cf. neenawun)

we(you, me and all of us)

kennupe

he, she is fast, quick (on foot)

kenugke (see kenawun)

among, mixed (related to ko hukkehtahwha = he

pierces, penetrates)

kenn (kinm) (see annuu)

to bear or carry (used with animate form verbs)

kep- (kup (2)-, kob-)

closed up, shut in (root) (cf. kobpag); e.g, kposh =

sturgeon fish (impenetrable back)

-kequock (Narr.)

pluralization stem (e.g., missckekekequock = many

bass)

kesantam (see kusse, antam)

he has a purpose or purposes

keshyi (keshyii)

speedy

(
ke su (see ke suk )

it warms or is warm (e.g., kussittau = the sun is hot)

ke nai (keneh ) ( ke n , kene, cau- in

ke suk (keesuk) (see ke (2), -uck, kesu-)

- the visible heavens (sky country ?)

- day, daytime (e.g., k e suk kah nukon = day and
night)
- the sun (warmth)

ke suk wunne (see k e suk, wunne)

beautiful day

ke sukanit (see k e suk, anit)

the God of Day

kesukot (kesukod) (see kesuck)

day; it is a day

ketae

of life; e.g. keteaonk = life (abst. noun)

-kin (cf. -etu)

of growth (in composition, inanimate forms) (e.g.,

neekin = it grows)

kishki

broad, great, from side-to-side

kitsuog (see kt, -suog) (Narr.)

cormorants

ko (koh) (cf. k, mo)

a verb used to indicate he is (and has been) (e.g.,

nenukoh = nen + noh + koh = I who continue to be)

koa (see azoi)

gum, tree sap

-kob (see -kep)

closed up, stopped-up (cf. kobpag)

15

kobpag (kuppaug) (see kuppi, kob-,

-pag)

enclosed place, shut in, haven, harbor

-kod- (-kud-, kat)

used with a verb to indicate purpose, wish, desire,

etc. (e.g., nukudwaantam = I will be wise)

kodt

high, top, summit (see kodtuhkoag)

kodchu (kodchhki) (see -ke(2))

fragment, small piece (e.g., kodchhki weyaus = a

piece of meat)

kodtuhkoag (see kodt, ohke, -ag (1))

a high place, summit, top of a hill

- ko muck (see - ko muk )

- ko muk (-komuck, -kamuck)

building, place, place of enclosed space (usually not

a house) (used in composition) (e.g., quon ko muk =
long house)

konnoh (see ukkonnoh, nukkonnoh)

place where something is, at

kontu(1) (cf. quinni)

much, quite a bit, great

-kontu(2) (see -ehte, -ut)

ending of words meaning at, in, place of (cf.

wadchue kontu; e.g., nippekontu = among the
waters)

-kg (see -og (2))

pluralization stem for animate forms (e.g.,

muhhogkg = bodies)

kn (cone)

snow on ground (muhp = soft, falling snow;

schepo = wet, fast, pelting snow)

kshki (see kough ?, kushki)

rough

kttummo-ash (kodtun-ash, kodtummoash) (see -ash)

year-years;e.g., neesecautmmo = 2 years (Narr.)

kough (see koue, kous)

sharp (see kuhquodt)

khquodt (kunkqoudt) (see ks, uhq, ohteau)

arrow ("that which has a point at the end")

koua (see kowa, kenoi, cowes)

pine, fir tree

ks (see koua, cowes) (cf. uhq)

a thorn, briar, a sharp thing (e.g., khquodt =

arrow)

kowas- htugk (see kowaw, tugk)

pine, fir wood (trees)

kowaw (kowa, kowas) (see koua)

pine, fir (especially white pine)

16

kowawese (see kowaw, -ese)

young, small pines, firs

kt (keht-, kehte-, kit-)

principal, greatest, chief person, place or thing (e.g.,

kt kunk = principal stream)

kt (see kt)
kuhhog (see k, hog-)

the body, person, oneself, your body

kuhkuhqueu (see k, uhq) (cf.

quennuckque) (see m)

he goes upwards, ascends progressively

kuhta (kutta, khtape) (see k, ta)

consequently then, subsequently then

kuk (see uhq, kup (1))

rough, hard, harsh, difficult

kunnnnous (see k, naum)

I have seen you (e.g., mat kunnnnous newutche pasuk

nadtuck = I havent seen you for a long time)

kup(1) (cf. kep-)

firm, hard, congealed liquids such as ice, tallow, etc.

kup(2) (cf. kep-)

closed-up, stopped-up

kuppadt (kuppad, capat) (see kuppi,

-ohteau)

ice ("when it is covered", "closed up")

kuppaug (see kobpag)

kuppi (see kup(2))

closed, narrow; "the woods", (a grove)

kuppomachaug (see kup-, mahchagq,

-aug)

thick wood, densely wooded place, a swamp

kushkai (kishki (see kussuhkoe)

it is wide

kushki

rough, difficult, harsh (e.g., kushkimayash = rough

paths or ways)

kussa- (kusso-) (see kesu)

hot, warm (used in composition) (e.g., mohkusse = a

burning coal)

kusse- (kesi-, kes-, kus-)

very much, fully, completely (used in composition)

(e.g., kussuhkoe = high, high land)

kussuhkoe (see kusse-, ohke)

high, high land

kut'hou ( many variants) (see k)

your (plural, used in composition) (e.g., kuttahhou =

your heart )

kutche (kche) (k+ che ) (see wutche)

it begins, originates

17

kutchittushau (see k, kutche, -shau,

m)

he proceeds, goes forward

kutonk (kuttwonk) (see -onk (3))

word (e.g., kutt = he speaks)

kuttuma

unless, except if, very lately

m (me, meh, muh, mup, ma, man, mano,

etc.) (cf. mo)

the, an, a, some, any, it (impersonal prefix) (compare

with words mehtug, mtugk) (used for parts of body,
(
objects of nature; e.g., me tah = the heart; e.g.
manippeno = Have you any water?)

maat (see m, adt)

move (cf. pemat)

mache (matche, machet, machit)

bad, negative (e.g., matchek o mukake = bad-place

land)

machet (see mache)

machipscat (see mayi, -ipsk-, t)

a stone path

machit (see mache, -it)

It is bad, evil, naughty

magke (see missi)

great, big (plural)

magnk (see mag , -onk (3))

gift, conveyance (e.g., magunutche= offering)

magou (mag ) (see root, m-g)

of giving, gift (he gives, offers, presents); e.g.,

mag magnk = he gives offerings; e.g., nummag
= I offer.

mahchagq (machaug) (see mahchi)

swamp; cf. kuppomachaug

mahche

often, in time (indicates passing on)

mahchi

empty (see mahche)

mahtntam (mohtantam) (see mahche,

-antam)

he is old, decaying

mahtshau (see mahch, -shau)

it is completed; it passes away (from maht or matche

= past)

ma (see may)
matchu (see may)
mamonchu (monchu)

he is constantly moving about, is in motion

(frequentative repetition on first syllablemamo)

mmusse (see m, mussi)

all, whole, wholly

18

mmusse ohke (see mmusse, ohke)

the whole earth

-man (1)

pluralization stem

man (2) (mun)

alone, by itself, heaped up (e.g.,

mangai (see mie)

collection or gathering

munnh = island)

manisss (see munnh)

manit-tg (see anit, -og (2))

God-Gods, Spirit-Spirits

manitt (see manit, anit)

that which surpasses, extraordinary, god-like in

ability (little god) (enters many words for deities)

manshk (mansk) (see menuh)

fort, strong hold ("he holds it strongly")

mash (see mishe)

maskeht (moskeht) (see mos, sk, -ke (2))

grass or herb

maskitaush (see ask (1), mskik,

mickaskeete) (Narr.)

grass or herb (plural)

massa, mass, mash (see missi)

big, large (in composition) (cf. Massapog= large

pond)

massaadenesuck (see massa, adene,

-suck)

great hill brook

-mat-

brother (e.g., neemat = my birth brother)

mat (see mache)

bad, not, it is not, negative (see mat ape); matche

manit = Evil Spirit

mat ape (mtta apeu) (see mat, apeu)

she, he is not at home

matashin

it hits, reaches a point

matche (see mache)

bad (e.g., matchemungquot = a bad smell)

mat kunnnnous newutche pasuk

nadtuck (see each entry)

I havent seen you for a long time

matompsk (see mat, -ompsk-)

bad rock, ledge

matchag (matteag) (see mat, teag)

nothing

matche ko muk ake (see mache, ko muk ,

ake)

bad-place land

matta (1) (see missi , mat)

large; e.g., mattannaukanask = mats (large things

spread out on ground (Narr.))

19

matta(2) (see mat)

not, no, bad (used in composition) (see matta peu)

matta ayeuog (see matta (2), ayeonk, og (2))

they don't dwell, they don't have a place ("they

were not")

mattah (see en, attah)

to where

matta neen wonchanet namen (see

matta(2), neen, num)

I will never see you again (words of the dying

Massasoit to Plymouth Colony Governor Winslow)

mattanit (see mat, anit)

The devil (evil Spirit) = matche manit

mtta peu (mat ppu) (see mat, ppu)

a woman keeping away during menstruation ("she

is not at home" (as she's in the "moon lodge"))

mattwakkonk (see matwa -onk (3))

to dance, dancing (may be related to old War dance)

matunuck (mattonuc) (see m, -unk (1),

-uck)

neck of land

matwa-matwaog (cf. mattwakkaonk)

an enemy-enemies (e.g., matwakau = he dances)

-ma-

relating to the mouth such as speaking, eating (in

composition) (e.g., mauema = he is in mourning
(is crying))

-mauog

pluralization stem for animate forms (e.g.,

neyhommuog = turkeys)

mauwewonk (see miyac, -onk (3))

collection or gathering ("a congregation; crowd")

mawnnantuck (cf. montup)

a look out, place of observation

may (m + au) (myi, ma)

a way, path or trail

mayash (see may, -ash)

ways, paths, trails (e.g., nukkne mayash = the

ancient paths (old ways))

myi (see may) (Narr.)

mecq (cf. amisque)

water-being or monster

meech, meetzu (metzu, mwhau)

he eats2, the act of eating with the hands (nummeech

= "I eat)

Three different words are known for "eat". First meech means "he eats 'inanimate' food" like fruit & vegetables. Meech is used
as a transitive, inanimate verb ("he eats it"). Second, the root moowhau or mohowau means, "he eats that which has life"
(including cannibalism); used as a transitive animate verb ("he eats him"). Lastly, the root metesi, meetzu means "eats food (in
general)"; used as an intransitive, inanimate verb. ("he eats"). Other verbs for "eat" include cattup ("hungry") & assame ("to
feed") & natup ("feed, graze").

20

meechummuonk (see meesuonk) (cf.

weyaus)

food (fruits and vegetables)

meetsuonk (see meech, -onk (3))

eating (e.g., meetsu = he eats)

mehtugquash (see mehtug, mehtukq,

-quash)

trees (meh = the)

mehtug (mehtukq, mehtug) (see mtugk)

tree (meh =the)

menhan (see munnh)

island

menuh (see menuhki)

firm, hard, congealed, strong(e.g., mquin = a

feather)

menuhkesu (see menuh, -esu))

he,she is strong, strongly (for singular, inanimate

forms) (e.g., menuhkoshketomp = a strong man)

menuhki (menuhkog) (see menuh)

strong, strongly (for singular, animate forms)

(literally, menuhkeu = it is strong, hard)

menuhkog (see menuh)

strong, strongly (e.g., menuhkonog = a stronghold)

mquin (see menuh, quin)

feather (e.g., Ousa Mquin = Yellow Feather)

mesh, mes (Narr.)

past tense marker; e.g., mesh nowwwon = I lost my

way

(
me tah (mtah) (see m, tah) (nuttah =
my heart; kuttah = your heart; wuttah
= his (her) heart)

the human heart (" to exist" or my ticker)

(imitative ?)

metahock (see -hog; mehtauog = ear)

(Narr.)

the periwinkle used for white wampum beads (see

suckahock); ear-shaped shell

mtewis (see mowesu) (Narr.)

black earth (graphite)

metp-peash (see mie, -ash) (cf montup)

brain-brains

m-g (see magnk)

root for gift, offer

mie (miye, moeu, mowee)

together (e.g., moe pastshakg = you (plural)--draw

near together)

mieog (see miyac)

collection or gathering

micckaskeete (see mishe, ask (1), -et)

(Narr.)

a meadow

michme (see missi)

forever, eternal (michme kah michme = eternity)

mihtuck-neash (see m'tugk , -neash)

tree-trees

21

min (minne) (m + in) (related to meech)

berry, fruit, grain, corn, etc. (very important root)

minneash (see min, -ash)

plural of min, minne ( berries, fruits, grains, corn)

misadchu (see mishe, wadchu)

a great mountain

misadchu kah wadchu (see missi, kah,

wadchu)

mountain and hill

-mis, -is, -us (Narr.)

suffix used as question marker;e.g., chenock

cuppeeyaumis = when did you come?

-mish, -muck, -misk, -uck

of a tree; e.g., wmpimish = chesnut tree

mish a nnek (see mishe, n-k) (Narr.)

squirrel (big scratcher)

mishannock (see mishe, annock) (Narr.)

the morning star (or planet), fixed star

mishash (see mituck, -ash)

fire-wood

mishe,mish, miss, mash, mass (see missi)

(also Narr.)

great, big (for adjectives, adverbs) (e.g., mishe

wtu = a great house)

misheu (missiyeu) (see missi)

it is great, greatly

mishimmayaget (see mishe, mayi, -et)

a great way

mishn (see m) (from m, sh, m)

(Narr.)

he goes by boat (canoe) (e.g., mishn hwwock =

they go by boat); root is oon (floater)

mshquock (see misqui, -ock) (Narr.)

red earth

mishquochuck (see mshquock, -uck)

copper, red earth or red kettle

mishuntugk (see mishe, htugk)

much wood in a forest, etc. (basis for modern

Mashantucket = well-wooded place)

mishtuck-quash (see htugk, -quash)

tree-trees

misqu (Narr.) (see msqu)

(it is) red (e.g., misqushim = red fox), animate

form

misqumaug (see misqua, -maug)

(Narr.)

red fish (salmon) place

misquaw (Narr.) (see msqu )

red (see misqushim)

misqushim (see misqu, -shim) (Narr.)

red fox (red animal)

mishquwtuck (see misquaw, tuck (2))

(Narr.)

red tree (a cedar tree)

misqui (Narr.) (see msqu )

(it is) red, inanimate form

22

misqushkon (see misqu, suckete)

trout

missag (mohsag, msag, mshik) (see

missi)

a great thing

missai (see missi)

it is great

missi, miss (see msh) (cf. mishe) (many

variants) (also Narr.)

great, big, much ( "it is great") (appears with verbs

many words) (e.g., wtu missi = the wtu is
large).

missegen (see missi, en)

it is abundant, there is much of something

missinnege (see missi, nnin)

War Captain (title of head Paneese warrior of

Pokanoket Confederacy in historic times; e.g.,
the old Annawan was the missinnege during the
King Philips War, 1675-1676).

missinnin (see nnin)

person-persons not of ones tribe, race (missin = "he is

a captive"); literally great masses, hoi polloi.

mittamwossis-og (see muttummis, -og (2))

a woman-women

missckeke-kequock (Narr.) (see

-kequock)

bass-many bass

mittake (see m, -t-, ake)

the world

mittick (see mtugk)

wooden stick

mituck-quash (mehtug-quash) (see

mtugk, -quash)

tree-trees

miyac (mine, mueu, etc.) (see mie)

together (used in composition) (see miyeog)

miyeog (see miyac, -og (2))

collection or gathering ("they are assembled")

mo (monko) (see m)

- no, not, past being (used in composition) (e.g., mo

teag = nothing)
- it, the, a (contraction of monko) (used in
composition) (e.g., mhog = the body)

maskug (see m , skug) (Narr.)

black snake

meu (moe, miye, maywe)

jointly, together (e.g., moeonk = meeting)

mocissinass (mokus, mokis, mohkussin )

(see mohw) (root is m-k)

shoes (mocassins) (e.g., ummokis = his shoe)

moeonk (see moeu, -onk (3))

meeting

23

mgagish (magagish)

they are great things (plural for mogki, mogke,

mogge)

mogk (mogki, mogke, magke, mogge)

(cf. missi)

it is great; great (with adjectives, adverbs) (see

mogkeaas)

mogkiyeu (see mogk, yeu (1))

great things

mogkeaas (see mogk, as) (cf.

muhquoshim)

wolf ("great animal") (there are many names for

wolves such as white wolf, black wolf, gray wolf,
etc.; the black was most respected)

mogkunk (see mogk, -unk (2))

a great tree

mohtomegit (see mohtompan, -it)

first born child (male or female), the eldest

mohtompan (mottompan) (see montup,

-an-)

morning ("rising up")

mohtompan wunne (see mohtompan,

wunne)

good morning

mhwha (cf. meech)

he eats him

mne

there is much, abundance

monag (mnak)

cloth (onak , used in composition) (e.g., womponak =

white cloth); related to much.

mnaog (see m, monae, -aog )

many ("they are many persons")

mont

abundance (there is much)

mon&&chu (mamonchu) (see m)

(cf. pe yau )

he goes, departs (from a specific location, person,

etc.) (cf. weechinnineummoncheg)

&&chu , -ish)
monchish (see mon

go! (command to one person)

montup (see antep) (cf. uppaquontup)

the head

m (mi, mow, mo, mw)

black, any dark color (e.g., maskug = black snake)

miyeuash (see m , -esu, -uash)

black (used for inanimate forms, plural), black things

mesu (see m , -esu)

(he, she is) black (used for animate forms, singular)

(e.g., msketomp = a black man)

mesuog(see m , esu, -og (2))

black (used for animate forms, plural)

mi (see m )

(it is) black (used for inanimate forms, singular)

mnaeu (see mne, ay-u)

deep (as a stream or valley) ("there is much")

24

mnoi (see mnaea)

mshipsk (see msi, -ompsk-)

smooth stone

ms (see msu)

a moose (he trims trees)

msi

smooth, bald, bare (e.g., mukki = a male child)

msu (see ms)

he trims, cuts, cuts smooth, shaves

(a moose-like animal had this name)
bear (animal) (black ?) (he devours or licks his
paw)

mwk (mosk)
mos (see pish)

future, time to come (used in composition) (e.g.,

mosnunnup = I must die)

mosk (see mwk, mosq, pauknnawwaw)

(black?) bear (animal) (from root to lick)

moskeht (maskeht) (see mos, ask (1))

grass or herb (e.g., nummoskehteum = my herb;

nummoskehteumash = my herbs)

mosketu (cf. moskeht)

medicine (iyanaskehtuash = many kinds of

medicines)

moskituash (see moskeht, -ash)

a place of reeds and rushes (e.g., moskeht = grass,

herb)

mosq-uog (see mosk, -uog)

bear-bears (animal)

mowshuck (see mowesu, -uck) (Narr.)

iron-metal (black metal)

mowsu (see mi, mesu)

(he, she is) b lack or dark colored, animate form

mwisucki (see mi, suck)

(it is) black or dark colored, inanimate form

-mp- (cf. -omp)

wait, standing (the root)(e.g., kompau = he stands

erect)

msh (see m, sh)

great intensity, greatness (root for word missi)

mskik (see ask (1), sk)

grass (imitative)

msqu (musqui, mishqui, msque) (cf.

wunnam)

it is red (e.g., mshquock = red earth), inanimate

form

mtah (see me tah )

the (human) heart (e.g., nuttah wunnegen = my heart

is good)

m tugk (see m, htugk, tugk)

wood, tree

muckqutu (Narr.)

swift, as a river (e.g., kummummuckquete = you are

very swift)

25

muhp (see schepo)

snow (soft downfall)

muhquoshim-wog (see mhwha, -shim,

-wog)

wolf-wolves (live-flesh-eating-animal)

mugquomp (mugwomp) (see mogki,

-omp)

war captain (a great man)

muhhg (see m, -hogk)

the body (e.g., wuhhog = his body)

mhkoas (see mwk, as)

wolf (hungry animal)

mhkos (see mukqs, -unq)

a nail, talon, claw, hoof

mukki-og

a male child-children (from mukkukki = "bare,

naked")

mukqs (from uhquea)

awl (pick)

mukukki (see mukki ?)

bald, smooth

mun (see man (2))

munnh (see munnh)
munnannock (see munnh,
nanepauzshad) (Narr.)

name of the sun or moon (from anogqs = star or

munnh = island)

munnisses (see munnhes)

munnhan (see munnh)
munnh (see man(2))

island (from mnunnu = "dry place)

munnhko muk (see munnh, , ko muk )

island place

munnhes (see munnh, -es (1))

little island (diminutive of munnh)

muppisk (muppusk) (see poskeu)

the back (e.g., nuppisk = my back)

muskechuge (see moskeht, -ge)

place where rushes grow (rushes are used for mats to

cover the wtu).

muskesuk-quash (see -quash) (from

kesuk?)

eye-eyes, face-faces

muski (see msqu )

(it is) red (inanimate forms), inanimate form

musquantam (see muski, -antam)

he is angry (he is blood-minded)

musse t

foot (e.g., nusse t = my foot; e.g., pomushau = he

walks)

mussi (cf. missi)

whole (e.g., mmusse = all, whole, wholly)

26

mutte

very, exceedingly

mutte wunne (see mutte, wunne)

very good (it is exceedingly good)

muttn-ash (see -ash)

mouth-mouths

muttummis (see muttn)

woman

n (cf. neen, noh (2)) (see Part III)

general prefix form for nouns & verbs: I, my,we, our

(many variants exist in composition such as: ne-, nee-,
no-, n- , num-, nun-, nuk-, nup-, nit-, nitt-, nuss-,
etc.); e.g., neek = n + wtu = my house; nuttah =
my heart; nontum = I am well minded;
nowatamumun = we (exclusive) understand;
nuttahhun = our heart; nseentam = I marry; neen
womasu sagimus = my beloved sachem).

-n- (see num-)

action by hand; e.g., kukkeechequabeenitch = you

will be hanged

na

there, and (a location reference) (e.g., na ohteau =

there is)

naa (no) (see nau (1))

nachick (nashik ) (see n, -ik)

a corner , angle, boundary place

nag (neg, nahoh, nagoh)

they, them (e.g., wame neg = all they who)

nagum (noh (2))

he, she, it (see noh (2))

nagumau (cf. nag)

he, she (used in composition for a prefix, plural forms)

ngunt (cf. punnuck)

bank, dune, sand dune (bank), a sandy place,

("sand"), imitative ?

nagwa (nauga) (see naukot)

nahoh (neg, nag, nagoh) (see nag)

it makes an angle or point (used in composition) (e.g.,

nompsk = point of a rock)

nain (see na or n ?)

to that

naiag (see n, -ag (1))

a point of land, angle, angular, pointed ("where it

makes an angle") (cf. Narragansett)

nompsk (see n, -ompsk-)

point of rock

Alleged words of Hobomock to the dying Massasoit, Ousa Mequin, recorded by E. Winslow (1624).

27

naiyag (see naiag)

nka (naaka)

stop (doing something) (a command)

nmans (namohs) (see -m)

fish

nmaus (see -am, as)

fish (fish-animal)

namaussuck (see -am, as)

many fish

na mo (see ne, mo)

there was

namonk (see num, -onk (3))

sightfulness, see it (e.g., nunnaum = I see (it))

nan (1) (cf. nnin)

denoting sameness, likeness as, identity, native,

indigenous (e.g., ne nan qussuk = this same stone)

nan (2) (see neut)

narrow, slender, scanty, tight

nanashauwe (see nashawe, -shau)

between (e.g., nashaue mayash = between the paths)

nane (see na, ne (2))

any (see nanetonoh)

nanetonoh (see nane, -toh(2), -oh)

anywhere

naneswe (see nashawe, nees)

both (see title of Eliots Bible)

nan

it increases more and more (e.g., nano missi = it

becomes greater)

nano missi

it becomes greater

nanoh (see nan)

moreover

nnumiyeu (see nannumit, -iyeu)

northward, the north

nanumit

the north wind

na ohteau (see na, -ohteau)

there is

napache (see na, pache)

as far as

napanna tahshe

five (e.g., napannatashnash wauchash = the five

hills)

nashauanit (see nashaonk, anit)

the spirit of God (manit)

nashaonk (see nashaui, -onk (3))

breath, the spirit of man

nashaueake (see nashaui, ake)

half-way place

nashaui (nashaue, nahshowe ) (see noeu,

nees, -shau)

midway, between (see nashaueake)

nashaway (see nashaui )

28

nashawe (see nashaui)

midway (e.g., nashaue sepuwusash = where the

brooks (or streams) meet)

nashik (see n, -ik)

at the corner (e.g., yau ut naskik ohke = the four

corners of the earth)

nashin (n)

it makes an angle

nashpe

with, using, having, means of, by act of

nataw (natw)

seek, try

natchau (see nau (1), nauwut)

far away, too difficult to visit frequently

natwontam (see n, -ontam )

meditating, praying

nau (1) (n, naa, naw)

far away, too difficult to visit frequently (e.g., nawot

= a great way off)

nau (2)

clam

naukot (cf. nequt, pausuck)

one

num (see namonk )

he sees it

naumoquok (see -quock)

a heap, pile

naush (see nashaui)

nat (see na, ut)

thereon, thereat, thereat, therein

nant ( see na, ut) (Narr.) ( cf. nont)

only, alone; e.g., pausuck nant manit = there is only

one god (Narr.)

nauwut (nadt) (see nau (1), w)

far off, away

nawutche (see na, wutche)

therefrom, thence, hence

nawhutchee (nahwutche) (see ne (2),

wutche)

many

naynayomewot (Narr.)

horse (imitates sound of animal)

nay (see nayu)

nayu (nay) (na + yeu (1) ?)

point ("this is")

ne (1) (see n)

I (contraction of neen)

ne (2) (neh, nneh)

this, that (singular, animate forms) (e.g., ne teag =

this thing)

neane

likewise, so, as

29

-neash (see -ash)

pluralization stem for inanimate forms (e.g.,

minneash = small berries, fruits, corn)

necwme (negone) (see nequt)

first, original, before

neechipog (see nees, -pog ?)

dew

neek (see ne k )

my house

neemat (see n, -omp)

my (birth ) brother ( male is speaking)

neen (see ne n )

I (many variants exist in composition; see n, w)

neenawun (nenauwun) (cf. keenawun)

we, they (we but not you)

nees (neese, nish)

two

neeshaog (see neese, -og(2)) (Narr.)

eels (they go in pairs) (other terms for and types of

eels; sassamaquock, nquittconnaog, which have
the roots single, straight, long, fish)

neetompas (see n, -omp)

my brother ; my sister (wehahtu = my sister is

related to the word wtu )

neg (see nag)

negone (negonne) (see necwme)
negonuhka (negonneka) (see necawme,
k, a, m)

he goes before, leads

neh (nneh) (see ne(2))

this, that

nehta (neit) (see ne (2), ta)

then

neimpaog (see -pauog) (Narr.)

thunder

neit

then, at that time

n e k (see nequt)

- one by one, singly;

- my house (see neek)

nekotw (see naukot)

ne n (see n) (variant of neen)

I (singular) (e.g., nan nnoh = I am he)

ne nan qussuk (see ne, nan, qussuk)

this same stone

nenuh

that (aforementioned) (used for inanimate forms)

nepattau (quentau)

it stands there (e.g., neepau = he stands, rises)

nepus (nepuz) (see pom-)

month, one moon, lunar month, sun

30

nepauzshad (nanepauzshad) (see n,

paspishau , pomushau)

moon (root means night walker, night traveler)

nepun (cf. sequan, papone)

summer (latter part of), harvest time

nequt (nquit) (cf. pasuk, naukot)

one

nequtta tashe (see nequt)

six

nequttash (qutta)

plural of nequatta

neshteag (see ne (2), sahke, teag)

its length

nesusuk tahshe (enada)

seven

ne tat (wetompasin) (see wtu, -omp, -

a sister, any sister (female is speaking)

in)
ne teag (see ne, teag)

this thing

ne tomp (see ne (1), -omp) ( ne top is

Narr. word for my friend)

my friend. (This root found in many words. Main root

has the form: t-op = friend, relative)

ne tomp -pauog (see ne tomp , -pauog)

my friend-friends

ne tompoag (see n e tomp, -ag (2))

my friends

net (see n, -etu) (nekit) (cf. wtu,

ne tomp )

a bringing forth (he (it) grows or he is born)

neuh (see na)

there

neut (neuta)

short, scant, lacking

nyhom-muog (see -mauog)

turkey-turkeys (imitative sound of bird)

n-g (n-k) (cf. ussosu)

he scratches, tears things (onomatopoetic root) (e.g.,

nekussosu = he cuts or gashes)

newutche (see ne, wutche)

for, from, therefore, because

nickmmo (Narr.)

a solemn feast or dance (celebration or mourning

ceremony). Nickmmo is a complex spiritual term.
The essential meaning of nickmmo is to give
away. See Roger Williams (1643, pages 190-193).
(Authors not sure of the roots, but n (I) and m (go)
seem to be in the word, and nohkeau (down to the
earth) may be related.

nnnuock (cf. ninnimissinwock,

eniskeetompauwog) (Narr.) (see nnin,
missin, -enin, ne tomp , -uock, -uwock, pauwog) (cf. chippissuog)

general names (Narragansett language) Indians;

nnnuock = People of our Tribe ; ninnimissinwock =
Indian People not of our tribe; eniskeetompauwog =
Indians in general

31

ninnimissinwock (Narr.) (see nnin,

missin, -uwock (cf. nnnuock,
chippissuog)

Indian People not of our tribe

nipeash (nipsach) (see nippe, -ash)

water (plural of nippe)

nipes (see nippe, -es(1))

small body of fresh water (diminutive of nippe)

nippawus (nepuz) (Narr.)

the sun

nippe (nuppe) (see ne (2), p, -pog,

-paug(1))

water (fresh) in general (related to ppu) (e.g.,

massapog = big lake; e.g., Nipmuck = fresh water
fishermen)

nips (see nipes)

nish(1)

these things

nish(2)

three

nishnoh (see nish(1), noh (1))

each, every

nishanuh (see nish (1), nuh)

these (inanimate forms)

nissawnawkamuck (see n,
sanauckamuck, -kamuck) (cf. nittake)
(Narr.)

this is my land (enclosed place as a garden, territory)

nissim (see ussinat)

I say

nttauke (natick) (see n ,-t-, ake)

(this is) my land. (This is the Indian name of the

village (Natick) John Eliot made into the first praying
town of Christianized Indians).

n-k (see n-g)

"he scratches, tears things" (onomatopoetic root for

otter or other fur bearing animals)

nkke-kquock (see -quock) (Narr.)

otter-otters (from n'g or n'k = he scratches, tears

things (imitative))

nnppi (see n, ppu)

dry (no water)

nnn (Narr.) (see neen or nan (1))

man (human being); root is he is like me (nan-nan

combined?)

nnnnuog (see nan, nnn, -uock, -nuog)

(Narr.)

man-men, male human being or beings of same race

or tribe (literally, they are just like us or were all
alike)

nninuoh kah squa (see nnn, kah, squa)

man and woman (people of ones own race or tribe)

32

n(1) (see naa)

far off (related to motion) ("to that place") (e.g.,

nadt = afar off)

no (2)

at that place

nadt (see n (1), adt, nauwut)

afar off

nadtuck (see nadt)

a long time

-noag (see -ag (1), -eck) (from nnin +

-og(2) ?)

people, folk of an area (suffix) (e.g., Wampanoag =

The people of the first light or dawnlanders,
among other translations)

nahtuk (see noeu, -tuk )

in the middle of the river

nontum (see n, -antam)

I am well minded, I am glad, I rejoice

neu (noe)

in the middle of

nogque

toward (e.g., npadtinayeu = towards the

southwest)

noh (1) (nuh)

this or that man

noh (2) (nagum) (see n, w)

he, she, it (many variants exist in composition such as

we-, wut-, wun-, wum-, um-, - , m-, etc.); e.g.,
week = w + wtu = his/her house; womantam = he
loves it; wuttah = his heart; shoh = the father of
him.

noh ayeu kah ppu (see each word)

he dwells and abides

nohham (nohhm) (see noh (2), m)

he goes by water

noh nan (see noh, nan)

this same person

nokuskau (nockuskaw)

to meet

nokuskauisuck, nockuskawisuck (see

nokuskau, -uck) (Narr.)

at the place of meeting

(
nompbee (see noh (1), p a )

instead, again

nont (cf. nant, (Narr.))

- used as a verb to be (e.g., nen nont =I am)

- only (e.g., pasuk nont God = there is only one
God)

nhteau (see n (1), -ohteau)

it is far off

nont (see n)

to say (nussim = I say)

nkeu (see n, nukon)

he goes downward, descends

33

nsup-paog (smhup-paog) (see

-sum, upp , -pauog) (Narr.)

beaver-beavers

nsukau (see nswe, m)

he pursues, follows

ntau (nteau) (see yote)

fire, devouring element (e.g., nnantissu = I am on

fire(I have a fever))

nwamnammum (see n, wam (1), um)

I am pleased with it

nwomantam (see n, -antam)

I love (e.g., kwomonsh = I love you)

nop (see p)

salt water (undrinkable water)

npadtinayeu (see -iyeu)

towards the southwest

npeshwog (see nuppoh, psuk, ptwu, -og

(2)) (Narr.)

wild fowl in general (imitative of flock at take-off)

-nuaog (see -og (2))

pluralization stem for animate forms

-nuhta (see -tu)

nukkne (nukkon) (nukane) (see quinni)

ancient, old, very first (see nukknemayash)

nukknemayash (see nukkne, mayash)

the old ways ("ancient paths")

nukkneseip (see nukkn, seip)

ancient river

nukkonnoh (see n, konnoh)

those (animate forms)

nukun (see n)

night (from root meaning "descending") (e.g., nkeu

= he descends)

-num- (-um-, -un-, -am-, -n-)

action by the hand ;tohqunnum = he takes (by

hand))

&&chu ) (Narr.)
nummauchmin (see n, mon

I go

nummissoomis

my grandfather (Native speaker spelling; in Goddard

& Bragdon, 1988)

nun (see nnappi)

dry (related to munnh = "a dry place")

nunkane (nonkane)

light in weight (e.g., nunkomp = nunkane + omp = a

young man (a man light in weight))

nunnohake (see nun, ake)

dry land

nunobpe (nun, nanabpi, nunabpi) (see

nun, nnapi, ppu, ohke)

earth, dry land (it is dry)

34

-nuog (see -og (2))

pluralization stem for animate forms (e.g., nnnnuog

= men, real human beings (literally, we are all
alike))

nunnukque (see uhq)

dangerous

nunnatwontam (see n, -antam)

I meditate, pray

nup (see nuponk)

die (e.g., mosnunnop = I must die)

nuppe (see nippe)

nuppoh

a bird wing

nuponk (see n, -onk (3))

death; literal meaning is to go away or sleep or fly

away (cf. nuppoh) (e.g., nup or nupp = he died)
small body of fresh water (diminutive of nip)

nuppis (see nippe, -is)

nussu (nusseu) (see n, ussu ?)

alone (he does by self ?) (e.g., nonsiyue = all

alone)

nuttah (n tah) (see n, tah)

my heart (cf. wunntu nitta= my heart is good, pure,

Narr.)

nuttah wunnegen (see nuttah, wunne)

my heart is good (meaning that I tell the truth)

nuttauwatueonk (see n , auwaog, -onk

(3))

my kinsman, kinswoman

nut'hum, nutt'hum (many variants) (see

n)

our, we (plural suffix used in composition (e.g.,

nuttahhou = our heart)

nuttan u kk wunnikke te am
kuttabotomish (see n, wunne, keteau,
taubotne)

I am pretty well, thank you (nuttin = I say)

nux (see a, ou, ahhe)

yes (used in writing; in speech, a nasal o or a means

yes)

nux wunne nwaonk (see nux wunne)

yes, I agree (good talk) (nwaonk = a saying)

(8) (see oo)

a linguistic spelling device called a digraph used to

show a double letter "oh": oo
is pronounced like oo
in moody or "book") (e.g., oom = m = 8m)

as (oaus, howaas) (in comp., -as-, -us)

(cf. ashim)

animal, wild beast, living creature (e.g., mogkoas)

35

occape, onkuppe (see t, menuh, kup (1))

strong liquor (fire water)

-ock (1) (uck,-ag) (see -og (2))

pluralization stem, animate forms (cf. mishquock)

-ock(2) (see ake)

suffix meaning land, place of

og (1) (see agu)

a modern spelling (e.g., Watchoog = hill country)

-og (2) (many variants esp. w/ preceding

double consonants and connective inserts)
(cf. -ash) (see Part III)

common pluralization stem for animate forms (e.g.,

mukkiog = boys)

og (3) (ag) (see ake)

slurred spelling in modern place names

og (4)

cavity, insides of animal, etc. (used in composition)

(e.g., wonnogs = a hole)

ogguhse (oggus)

small, little in quantity (e.g., oggusepaug = small

pond; anue ogguhse = much less)

ogguhsemese (see ogguhse, -emes))

least of an amount, smallest of (e.g, oggusemse nippe

= very little water)

oggusepaug (see ogguhse, -paug (1))

small pond

(
ogketam u nt (see ogque)

to read, to count (e.g., ogketam = he counts or reads)

ogkome (see ongkome)

on the other side of, over against

-ogkon (-hkon) (see -unkon)

ogkoswog (see ogkosse, -og (2))

few (plural, animate forms)

ogkosse (see ogguhse)

ogqu (agque, ogqueu) (see nogque)

like to, in the manner of

ogue (see ake)

slurred spelling

ogquhquishshin (see ogque)

it lies _______

-oh (-ah, -uh)

ohk (see ake, kas) (cf. -k o muk)

noun ending, animate forms (e.g., wuttuhminneoh

= strawberries)
ending for some animate nouns following a
transitive verb called obviation (e.g., ayim
anogqsoh = he made the stars)
suffix for third person animate nouns (e.g.,
wetamoh = the brother of him [obviative case])

land, earth, place, ground, ones nation or country, that

which is not enclosed; words means literally Mother
Earth; appears in many words.

36

ohkee (see ohke, -e)

earthen, of earth

ohkehteau (see ohke, -ohteau)

a plant ("thing in the earth)

ohkeit (see ahkeit, ohke, -it)

of the earth, on the earth

ohkeiyeu (see ohke, -iyeu)

towards the earth

ohki (see ohke, ake)

oho (see agu)
-ohta (-ohtag, -ohteau)

in compound words, that which belongs to, has

nature of belonging to (used in many words) (cf.
ohtomp)

ohtauunt (see -ohteau)

to possess, to have

-ohteau (see teag)

in compound words, that which has quality of,

belongs to. has nature of (used in many words)
(e.g., ohkehteau = a plant)

ohteuhkonat (see ohke, t)

to plant

ohtomp (see -ohta, -omp)

a shooting bow (literally, that which belongs to a

man)
bow and arrows

ohtomp kah kuhquodtash (see each

entry)
kas (ohkas) (see as) (cf. ohke)

mother (e.g., nokas = n + kas = my mother)

okasu (see kas, ohk, as, ch)

a mother (the living producer, giver of life on

earth)

a fish hook and line

oman (see m )

boundary line based on a fishing boundary

ommohkeyae (see m , mohtompan)

of rising up

omm (see munat)

it goes, it goes from

-omp (cf. n e tomp) (see t-op)

- tribesman, free, not a slave (he stands erect)

- a man, friend, relative (used in composition) (e.g.,
neetompas = my sister)

ompeu (see -omp)

he is free, unbound

-ompsk- (-ompsq-,-ompsc- -ipsk-, -aumsc-)

a standing, upright hard rock (e.g., kehtompskut =

at the great rock; e.g., modern place name,
Swampscott; also stone in Narragansett.
whetstone, flint (e.g., caumpsk = a whetstone
stone, millstone, grinding stone for corn and other
uses)

37

ompskut (see -ompsk-, -ut)

at the rock

nt, auont (see a, m )

to go to a place or some thing (e.g., nuttm = I go)

-onganash (see -ongash)

-ongash (-onganash) (see -ash, -onk (3))

pluralization stem for verbs ending in -onk (3) (e.g.,

waantamongash = wisdoms)

ongkome (see ogkome) (cf. acawmen)

on the other side (e.g., ogkomutsepuut = beyond the

river)

ongkoue

beyond, end-place

onk (1) (ong)

and, than (e.g., anue missukeu onk neen = he is more

great than I)

-onk (2), -uck, ick, -it, -eg (also Narr.)

at, in, place of

-onk (3) , -unck, -onck, -onckon

suffix for abstract nouns or actions (e.g.,

watamonk = wisdom)

onkatog (see onk (1), kah)

other, another

onom (annem) (Narr.) (cf. wunnm)

paint, pigment for painting

-ontam (see -antam)

Indicating states of mind (e.g., wauntam = he is a

wise man, councilor)

-ontup (-ontop)

top, summit (combining form) (cf. montup)

ontseonk (see ontseu, -onk (3))

offspring (e.g., nutontseonk = my offspring)

ontseu

he descends, comes from

ontu (see -ut)

oo (, 8, m, um-, wum-, others)

- Letters oo as in food; in composition, written

- as number eight 8 or ( e.g., m = oom = 8m)
- negation, negative (e.g., unne = "none")

ch (che, chi) (see kutche, wutche)

it proceeds from. (A very important root meaning

origin, source, causation; basis for word ohke)

che (see ch)

chi (see ch)
gk (see nk)

dish, bowl, plate

hmaus (see as)

owl (animal that says oohoo)

hqui (see ohkee)

section of land, a neck of land

38

hk (see askug)

worm

m ( -eum, -um)

-m, -eum, -um used as a suffix with some nouns to

show possession (e.g., nummehtugkm = my tree;
see Part III)
- he goes, comes from a place (opposite of a).
- m and a are the basis of many motion verbs
in 3rd person singular.
The main ones are as follows (see each entry):
maeu

mon&&chu
wapeu
wmsu
kuhkuhqueu
nkeu

pe yau
assshau
kutchittshau
pastshau
petukau
petutteau
sohham (sohm)
negonuhkau
asuhkau
nsukau
pomushau
a
pteu
nohhm (nohham)
pummohham
panneau
wauonu
auksuhqueau
gushau
queshau

m (see omm )

it goes from

munat (wmunat) (see m)

to go or come from (the motion verb, very irregular

inflections) (e.g., m, mun, wm = he goes or
comes, went, or came)

ne (see wunni)
ni (see ne, ake) (see noi) (Narr.)

deep or low land

39

noi (see peshaui) (Narr.)

- blue, color of deep water

- deep

nk (see gk)
shoh (see osh, omm , -oh)

the father of him (obviative) ("he comes from him", a

verb)

t (see yote)
-op,- ip, -up

suffix denoting simple past tense; nummeech = I eat;

numeechup = I ate

opponenahock (see apwonat , -hock)

(Narr.)

oysters

-oq (-ock) (see uhq)

osh (nosh) (see ch)

his father (e.g., shoh (he comes from him) = the

father of him (obviative))

-oshim (see ashim) (see as)

of animals; e.g., muchquoshim = wolf

osqua (osqoah)

further on, furthermore, afterwards

otan-ash (see -ut, en, -ash)

village-villages (nowadays also could mean towntowns, etc.) (e.g., kehtotan = a great village)

otanemes (see otan, -emes)

small village

osa (ousa) (wesaui)

(it is) yellow;e.g., Ousa Mequin= Yellow Feather

was The Massasoit who met the Pilgrims at Plymouth,
1620

oskn (askun) (see asq)

ou (au)

raw animal skin (undressed hide) (ohkn = a dressed

skin)
well, it is well (similar sound for yes -- see nux)

ousa (wesaui) (see osa)

(it is) yellow

ouwn

mist

p (pe, pu, pi ) (cf. nippe)

water (universal root term) (used in compound words)

(e.g., peake = water-land); e.g., Patuxet = place
of little falls.

(
pame (paamu, pame)(see p a )

40

(
p a ( pah-, p-, peh-, pu-, p)

p-

- all about, in one direction (prefixed to many words

of motion) (cf. panne )
- yet, while, continue (applied to an indefinite goingon (e.g., paht = run, flow)
- when prefixed to words of motion (like pomushau),
means all about, in some direction
-

prefix added to words to express wish or desire

(e.g., pwwaantam let me be wise)
as a prefix, [also spelled pe-] means to, toward
as in peyau = He comes to (cf. soh-)

pache (see pummeu, pame)

up to, as far as, until

pacheshin (see pache)

it comes to, extends as far as

-pag (see -paug (1))

it may be, perhaps

pagwodche
pahcu (see pohque)
pahke (see pohqui)

it is clear, plain, evident

phsu (see ps)

pahtatunniu (puhtadtuniyeu) (see p-,
-iyeu)
(
paht (see p a , ch)

westward, towards the west

run, flow

(
padkodche (pogkodche) (see
pohshane)

pakodjteau-un (see padkodche , un (2))

thoroughly, completely (e.g., pogkodche nussauknum

= I am very tired)
it is finished, it is done, it is completed

pme (see pame)

pamishik (see pame, -ik)

where it extends

pamushau (pahmushau, pomushau) (see

(
p a , musset, -shau)

walk, walking (he who goes on foot, walks, passes

by)

panna

open, spread out land, materials

(
panne (see p a , pannea)

away, another way, off of, persistently (from penouwe

= strange")

pannea (see panne, m)

he errs, goes wrong, out of the way

-pannog (see og(2))

pluralization stem (e.g., ausppnnog = racoons)

41

pannwa (see panne, , nwau = he

talks)

he deceives, he talks lies

pap (papone) (Narr.)

of northland, winter (e.g., paponaumsog = winter

fish)

papan (papane)

well, proper

papaquantuck (see pohque, -uck)

broken [many times] land

papauchau (see qutchikque, a)

turns aside (e.g., papaume ahhuttche wayont = at

the time of the sun going down)

(
papaume (see p a , pame)

concerning, about

papne (see pap, -e) (Narr.)

winter (e.g., papanaumsuog = winter fishes, Narr.)

papnetin (see pap, papone, -in)

(
paps (see p a , pewe) (Narr.)

west wind

pascoag (see pohq, -og(2))

place separated or apart (modern place name)

-pash (see -ash)

pluralization stem for inanimate forms

pashk (paashk) (see pohq)

burst out (see paspishau below)

paskkgun tahshe (paskugit)

nine

paspishau (see pomushau, pashk)

he rises and comes forth (of the rising sun)

ps (phsu, pausaw (Narr.))

near, nearby, proximity, neighborhood; e.g. Pasawut

kitonckquwa = He cannot live long, Narr.)

psche (see ps)

a little way, away

pastshau (see passo, -shau, m)

he goes or comes near

pasuk (see pasukonk ) (cf. nequt)

one (pasuk = it is one)

pasuk nant manit (see pasuk, nant,

manit)

there is only one Creator (or God)

pasukonk

unity, completeness, being one, a unicity

paswa (pasue) (see pas )

lately (e.g., pasw e se= soon)

a young child (papoose)

patuck (see pautuk)

-pau (1) (-paw, -pam, -pan-, -pown)

falls in stream, water falls, rapids (in composition)

(e.g., Pawtucket = place of the waterfalls)

-pau (2) (see -paw)

little, small (in composition) (e.g., Pautuxet = at the

little falls)

42

pauchau (pohchau, pahchau)

he turns, deviates (e.g., Pauchaug = place where we

change our route, a modern place name)

pauchautaqun-nash (see paucha, -qunne,

-neash) (Narr.)

branch-branches

paucutun (see pohquetthun)

-paug (1) (many variants) (see p, -aug)

water at rest (cove, pond, pool, lake, etc.) (literally, pe

+ ake = water-place)

-paug (2) (see p-k)

flat, flat land, low land

-pauges (see -paug (1), -es (1))

little pond (diminutive of -paug (1))

-paugeset (see -paug (1), -es (1), -et)

place of little pond, diminutive of -paug (1)

-paugset (see -paugeset)

-pauk (see -paug (1))
paugutemisk (Narr.)

oak

pauknnawwaw (cf. mosk, mosq) (Narr.)

bear (animal) (from pohkenauau = "he goes in the

dark or at night" ?)

-pauog (see -og (2))

pluralization stem for animate forms (e.g.,

potoppauog = whale-whales)

pauqua (see pohque)

clear, open bare, shallow (e.g., kehtpaquonunk = at

the great clearing)

pauqu'un (see pohqu'un)

pauquettahhun (see pohquetthun)
pauquunakeet ( or pauquunohkeit

at the place of the cleared land (translation of name of

the place of Pokanokets and the name of historic
tribe/nation Pokanoket (Wampanoag presently))

pautuk (see pau-, -tuk)

falls in a tidal river; e.g., Pautuxet = at the little falls

pautuck (see pautuk)

pau wau (see waw, tau puwau)

an Indian priest or Holy Man (cf. Powwas (spiritual

leader), powwow)

-pauwog (see -og (2))

pluralization stem for animate forms (see nnnuock

for example)

-paw (-pau (2))

little, small (in composition)

-pawca (-pawcq) (see pohq)

divided, separated (slurred modern fragment)

43

pawq (see pawca)

pawtuck (see pautuk)

( (

pawtuckq (see p e t u kqui)

pe (1) (pee, pi) (see pewe)

small, little (e.g., peantam = he prays. Literally,

peantam = he/she is small (humble) minded)

pe (2) (see p)

of water (in composition) (cf. nippe)

pe (3) (-pish, -pich)

future marker (cf. pemat)

-peag (see -paug (1))

peak o muk (see pewe, k o muk)

a little house

-peash (see -ash)

pluralization stem (e.g., metppeash = brains)

peake (see pe (2) ake)

water-land, water-place (root is p-k)

peawe (see pewe)

pee (pi) (see -paug (1))
peemayagat (see pewe, mayi,t)

a little way

pem- (see pom-)

pemat (pe (3) + maat)

live

pemisqui (Narr.)

(it is) crooked, winding (root = pem)

pemsquamku (see pemisqui)

(
Penashmwock (see p a , -shim, -wock)
(Narr.)

hardwoods (birch)
animals, beasts in general

pequan (see pequawas)

grey fox (for Pequot Tribe) ("circler")

pequawas (Narr.)

a fox (grey fox)

pesi (pisi, puk) (see pohq) (Narr.)

fog, smoke, dense enough to hinder eyesight

pesk (pesh, pish) (see pohq)

bloom, blossom, burst forth (see pshaui)

pshaui (see uppshau) (Narr.)

- blue (paint) (probably a mistake in Roger

Williams, 1643); (see noi)
- a flower (blue one)

pskatuk (see pisk(2), -uk)

at the branch, crotch

psuponck (see pesi, -k o muk) (Narr.)

hot house (sweat lodge, man-made or natural)

pe tau

he puts it into

44

petukau (see pe tau , a)

(
pe tuk qui (puttukki) (see p e tau,
uhque)

he goes in, enters, is going in

round, round about ("turning at the end") (cf.
petuckqunneg) (The root is p-t)

petuckqunneg (see pe tuk qui, qunneg)

round loaf of bread or cake

petutteau (see pe tau , a)

he goes in, enters (e.g., petutteau wtuomut = he

entered the house (wtu))

pe yau (cf. mon&&chu ) (see a)

he comes3 (e.g., paomon = to come (the future))

be there

peyom (see pe yo , p e yau)

it comes

pewe (peawe) (cf. ogguhse)

it is little, small (our word "peewee")

peyunk (see pe yau )

you (plural) come (come in, come to, etc.) (e.g.,

peyaush! = you (singular) come!

-pii-, -pe-

enclosed, inside; e.g., ptitees! = you (sing.) come

in!

pe yo (see p a , yo)

pich (pish) (see pe (3))

-pisc (-pish-, -pi sch) (see -pisk (2))

fork in river, fork-tailed bird (in composition)

-pish (-pisc, -pisch, pitch)

- fork in river, fork-tailed bird (see -pisk (2)) (in

composition)
- a verb indicating time to come, future (e.g., pish
muhp = It will snow (Narr.))

pishagqua (see pissagk)

muddy or miry

-pisk (1)

bloom, blossom, burst forth (in composition)

-pisk (2) (-pisc, -pish) (see pohq)

fork (as in a river) (in composition)

-pisk (3) (see -ompsk-)

rock (in composition)

pissagk (pishagqua) (see -s-sk)

mud, mire, sticky stuff, dirt, rotten (e.g.,

pishagquapaug = muddy or miry pond)

-pit-

tooth (root word);e.g., neepit = my tooth

pitch (see pish)

-pittae, -petae

hot action by fire (adjective or adverb)

The reader must distinguish among three similar root words for "come": peeyau (or peyau) meaning "come from
some place", and pe, pee (to be present) and petite (to come, go into an enclosed structurelike a wetu).

45

p-k (1) (see pohk)

separated (the root)

p-k(2) (see -paug (1), -paug (2))

still, level, flat (as water or land) (the root)

p-kw (see pohque)

clear, open (such as land) (the root) (cf.

pauquunaukeet = Pokanoket= at the cleared land)

-poag (see -paug (1))

pochaak (see ptsai)

corner

p o dunk

where you sink in mire (action imitative) (a location &

tribe)

pchoag (pachauog) (see pochaak,

-ag (1))

in a corner

-pog (see -paug (1), -paug (2))

pogatan (see pohquettahun)
pogue (see -paug (1))
pohk (pk, p-k, pohki, pahke) (see pohq)

- the result of separation, dividing, openness, through,

clearness, pervious, transparency. (cf.
pohquadchickohke)
- dark, in the shadows (smoky?) (e.g., pohkeni = its
dark)

pohki (see pohqui, pohk)

pohq (pogh, poqu, posk, pok)

act of separating, dividing, opening, breaking (a root

for many words) (e.g., pohquag = a hole)

pohquadchickohke (see pohquodche,

ohke)

open country

pohquag (see pohque, -ag (1)?)

a hole (as in a bead)

pohqushinne (see pohque, pohshane)

open (as land)

pohque (pohque, pahke) (see pohq, -e)

clear, open, bare, shallow. (The root is p-kw = of

land)

phquettahun (see pohque, ta or tath ?, un

(2))

broken up, divided, cultivated

pohquun (see pohque, un (2))

cleared, divided (as a field)

(
po hqui (pohki, pahke) (see pohq, -i)
pohquodche (see pohque, -e)

clear, transparent, pure, shallow (of water)

outdoors, without (cf. pohquadchickohke)

46

pohsh (psh, pj)

the fact of division or partition (see pohshe)

pohshe (see pohsh, -e)

half, part of

pohshequaeu ahquompi (see pohshe, que,

ahquompi)

noontime

pohshi (psh, pj) (see pohq, pohk)

- fact of division or partition or separating

- a half (e.g., pohshinum = he divides it in two)

pohshane (see pohque)

freely, completely, thoroughly

pom- (pem- ) (see pomussu)

journey, passing by (not a word or root, but a fragment

seen in composition)

Pmantam, pommontam (see pom-,

-antam)

he lives (cf. paumpantam, Narr.

pomantamonk (see pmantam)

living life in general (organic matter) (e.g., pomantog

= when he lives)

pommeu (see pomushau)

it crosses, goes across (used in composition)

pommontam (see pom-, -antam)

I live

poapu (pohpu) (see puhqui)

(
pomushau (see p a , musset, -shau)

he plays, is playing

pomushaonk (see pem, -shau, -onk (3))

(
pomussu (see p a , usse na t )

walking, a journey

walk, journey (he goes on foot, he walks, journeys,

passes by )

walking (basic root)

-pon (1)(see -pau(1))

-pon(2)

little (in composition of modern fragments)

-pn

cease (in composition of modern fragments)

-psi

embark, start (in composition. modern fragments)

ptau (ptaeu)

he blows (whales, whaling)

(
ptsai (pchag, pchag) (see p a , -ag
(1))

corner, recess

puntuck (see pautuk)

poquahock (Narr.) (see pohq, -hogk)

a round clam (the modern-day quahog from word

pohkeni meaning closed)

posh (see pohq)

bursts forth

47

poskeu (see pohque)

he is naked (e.g., poskinnau = he buries him)

psuk

bird (imitative, flock take-off?) (e.g., wompsikuk =

eagle (great white bird))

( (

p-t (see p e t u kqui)

round, round about (the root)

pteu (see ptwu, m)

he goes by flying (imitative of an arrow being

released?)

ptwu (twu) (see pteu)

bird ("he moves in the air") (onomatopoetic)

( (

ptukhi (see p e t u kqui)

(
pu- (p a , pah-, p-, peh-, p)

all about, in one direction or another (prefixed to

motion words)

puck (see -paug(2))

flat (see pucksun)

pucksun (see puck, hussun)

a flat stone

pughquo (see pohque)

puhpequon (see puhpkki)

a musical instrument (flute)

puhpegk (see puhpkki)

a musical instrument

puhpkki (see pukqui)

it is hollow (e.g., puhkuk = a head)

puik (piutk, piog)

ten

pukqui

it goes through, continues through (a hole)

(
pum (pummoh) ( see p a , munat, -oh)

sea, open sea ("that which goes all about", "is

everywhere in motion") (e.g., pumupsk = rock in the
sea)

pummee

oil, fluid grease, warm melted fat

pummoh (see pum, -oh)

sea, open sea

pummohham (see pummoh, -ham)

he goes by sea

pummu (see pommeu)

he shoots

punnuck (see -uck) (cf. ngunt)

bank, dune, sand bank (dune)

punnuckqukontu (see punnuck, que-,

-kontu(1))

on the bank of the river

pussoqua (see pissagk)

rotten meat

pussogh (Narr.)

wild-cat (he scents an animal)

48

q-p (see t-p)

freezes (root word)

qua- (quan-, quo-, etc.)

a common connective vocal filler (a sound added to

some words to make them easier to pronounce, esp.
words ending in k with a kw sound); e.g., to make
plural tummunk (beaver), the grammar says add -og
but you need qua to say tummunkquaog

-quanash (see -ash)

pluralization stem, inanimate forms (e.g.,

qussuckquanash = stones)
pluralization stem for animate forms (e.g.,
tummunkquaog = beavers)

-quaog (see -og (2))

afternoon (from quttaueu = hesunsinks)

quttuhqu o hqu wunne (see

(
quttuhqu o hqu , wunne)

good afternoon

quaquish (see sh)

run (as water) (e.g., quogqu e s = he runs))

-quash (see -ash)

pluralization stem (e.g., mishtuckquash = trees)

quttuhqu o hqu

-quaw (see -waw)

que- (queh-)

high, elevated, tall, up from (in composition)

quequcum-muog (see -mauog)

duck-ducks (imitative) (from ququssu = "he

quacks")

quequcham (see queshau)

it leaps and bounds

quehpee (see que-, pee)

up from the water

quenappu (see api)

he sits on (it), rests on it

quenau

as soon as

quequan

it shakes, trembles (such as an earthquake) (e.g.,

quequanne = shaking marsh)

queshau (quehshau) (see -esh, -shau)

he leaps, jumps

-quethe (see -tu)

quenne (see quinni)

quin, quinuhtug (tugh-k) (see tugk)

spear, lance

quinne (from koneu = "he sleeps")

few, many (used with numbers & time) (e.g., ogguhse

quinne = a few days)

quinni (quunni, -qunn-, -qun-)

it is long , extended, tall, "it is long"; e.g., quinashin =

long stone (used as a pounding stone for corn, etc.)

49

quinnipaug (see quinni, -paug (1))

long pond

quinnupe (see quinni)

everyplace, all around, it turns

quinnupohke (see quinnupe, ohke)

everywhere on earth

qunnuppe (quaquinnippe)

around about

quinnuppinuk (see quinnuppu, -uk)

where we change our route

quinnuppu (see quinni, pu- ?)

he turns, changes course

qunne (see quinni)

qunnuckque (see qunni, uhque)

it is high

quinogok (see quinni)

they are (they that are) long (?)

qunnamug (see quinne, -maug) (Narr.)

long fish (eel, lamprey)

qunneg

an object (cf. petuckqunneg)

qunnuhqui (see qunnunkque )

tall, long (see qunnuhquitugk)

qunnuhquitugk (see qunnuhqui, tugk)

tall tree

-quoag (see -og (2))

pluralization stem used for animate forms (e.g.,

tummckquoag = beavers)

-quock (-quok) (Narr.) (see -og (2))

pluralization stem (e.g., mishquock = red earth)

-quog (see -og (2))

pluralization stem, animate forms (e.g., askkquog =

snakes, serpents, worms)
he runs

quogque su&& (see queshau)

quon (see quinni)
quon ko muk (see quon, -komuk)

long house, long enclosed place

quoquinna (see quinni)

long tail (a panther, mountain lion, other wild-cat)

quons (see quinni)

quoshe (see quinni, -shau ?, -e?)

goes before in time, anticipates

qu sha , -quss (see a)

he fears him (related to quttianittuonk ?)

qushkeu

he goes back, returns

qussuck-quanash (see qussuckun, quanash)

rock-rocks (related to heavy)

qusscqun (Narr.)

it is heavy (see qussuck)

qussockomineawug (see qussuck, min, aug (1))

cherry tree (tree with stone fruit)

50

qut

but, except for , and _____ (shift of topic)

qutchikque (see quttukqshau, -e)

turning

quttinittuonk (see -onk (3))

respect, honor (e.g., quttinumau = he honors, shows

respect, to him)

quttiantam (see quttianittuonk , -antam)

he honors it (respects it)

quttukqsheau (quttukqshau) ( see

qutchikque)

turns, makes an angle (of a border)

schem4 (schim) (see kt, sohk) (Narr.)

the strong one (tribal leader -- akin to "chief"); also a

small, brave bird

sachimo comaco

The sachems wigwam5

saconk (see sauk)

sague (see sauk)
sahchauk (see sahke, ohke)

length, as far as it extends

sahke

as long as (e.g., toh sahke = while the earth exists)

sampwi (see saumpwi)

it is right, just, straight

sanauckamuck (see ake, -k o muck)

(Narr.)

Land enclosed like garden, farm

sanomp (cf. n e tomp)

Man in general (married?)

sapose (sepose)

stream

sasmin-neash (see min, -neash ) (Narr.)

cranberry-cranberries

-sa

Action by heat (animate form)

sauk (see sague)

outlet of a river or brook; a stream flowing out of a

pond or lake

saumpwi (samwpi)

straight, right, just

sauncksqua (see sonksq, squa)

sachems wife

saunqui (see sonki)

Sagamore was used by Europeans to refer to a village subchief (less than village sachem)
From Winslow (1624), perhaps one of the first written recordings of the Wampanoag language of Massasoits
people

51

saup

tomorrow

schis (see -is)

little

s (sog)

bitter, sour

seep (see sepi)

it is extended

-seet-

foot (root word) (cf. musseet)

sip (see sepi)

seppog (see s, -pog)

salt water

-sem (-shim, -sum, -som) (cf. ashim,

- oshim)

animal, beast, living creature (in composition)

(cf. muckquashm)

-sen-, -sun-

stone, rock (roots) (e.g., sunnckhig = a stone trap for

hunting)

sog (see s) (cf. siogke)

seogee (see sauk)
sep (seep) (see sepi)
sepe (cf. spu)

it is long, it spreads out, extends (e.g., seepsin = he

sleeps (literally, he makes himself long))

sepi (sep, seep, sip) (see sepe)

a river, usually a long on (e.g., Mississippi = big

river)

spu (see sepi)

sepuash (see sep, -ash)

rivers, plural of sep

sepues (see sepi, -es)

a short river, brook or stream (diminutive of sepi)

sequan (see s-k)

Spring season (when water runs (again)) (e.g.,

sequanamuquock = spring fish)

seskq (sesikw) (see s-s-k)

rattlesnake (imitative of rattling)

sh (see msh, -ish)

of swift, violent motion (cf. quaquish)

-sh

suffix for command to one person (e.g., mattapsh =

yousit!

-sh-

lower, inferior quality; e.g., wequashim = (degraded)

moonlight, Narr.

-shk-

root for violence, disaster, explosion, a great noise

(e.g., peskhommin = to thunder), also used to
describe loud English 17th c. guns

shanuh

these (inanimate forms)

52

-shau (sh + a ?)

indicates a passing, a lessening of something

(distance, morals, etc.), falling off of motion, etc.;
(-shau appears in many human-motion verbs, such as
pomushau)

-shauog ( see -og (2))

pluralization stem for animate forms

shawwunk(see nashaui, -unk)

place where two streams meet (modern term)

-shik (-chek, -ick, -kick, -chick)

pluralization stem for 3rd person, plural verbs (e.g.,

kamotakick = they who lieliars, Narr. )

-shim (see -sem)

shim (see ashim)

shwosuk tahshe

eight

sickssuog, sikkissuog-quahog (see

sohkissu, -og (2)) (cf. poquahock)

the long black clam-clams (spittler, imitative of

spitting sound)

-sim (see -sem)

animal, beast

-sin

of lying down (cf. sipsin)

siogke (see seog)

it is hard (as stone), difficult (e.g., ne siogkok = a

difficult matter)

-sip (-sup) (cf. wuttatash)

to drink (used in composition)

sipi, sip (see sepi)

sipsin (see sipi, -sin)

it lies there, is streched out

-sk (cf. ask (2))

green (new, raw, uncooked, young) (cf.

askug or asktasquash)

-sk-

broken up, plowed, cultivated (as land)

(onomatopoetic)

s-k

pour out, rain (onomatopoetic root) (cf. sokenum)

skeetomp (see wosketomp)

a man (common Algonquian term)

skug (see askk)

snake, serpent

schepo (see koon)

snow, wet falling (?)

-sog (see -og (2))

pluralization stem for animate forms (e.g., horsesog =

horses)

soggoh (see siogke)

53

soh- (cf. p-, pe )

forth, from, out of, out from, movement from a place

(prefix) (cf. sohham)

sohham (sohm) (see soh-, m)

he goes forth

sohk (soit, soyt)

King, he rules (see Sachem)

sohke (suhkoe) (see soh-, -ohteau)

he pours out

sohkenum (see soh-, -num-)

he pours out

sohkissu (suhkissu) (see soh-)

it pours out

sohkom (see Sachem, sohk, Sontim =

master))

he has mastery; (cf. Massasoit = great leader); e.g.,

sohkohsuonk = victory, mastery

sohkunkquodt (from sonkin ?)

height, elevation (e.g., sohkonkeg = the height of it)

sohteau (see soh-, -ohteau)

it is so long, it extends

sokenun (sokanon, sokanunk) (see sohke,

s-k)
som- (see sem-)

rain

songi (see sonki)

sonki (sonkqui)

cool to touch or taste (e.g., ohke sonkqui = the earth

is cold)

sonkin (see soh-)

it springs up, shoots up (as a plant)

sonkippog (see sonki, -pog)

cool, cold water

sonksq (see sohk, squa)

woman who rules

sowan

south (e.g., sowane = of the south)

sowaniyeu (see sowan, -iyeu)

southward, towards the south, southwest (sacred

direction)
south land, place

sowanohke (see sowan, ohke)

squa (squaw)

a woman, female, human female(e.g., squshim =

female animal)

squam (see squi, -m)

red fish (msquam)

squshim (see squa, -shim)

a female four-legged animal

squi

(it is) red, bloody

squo (squnck)

skunk, stinking animal, (skunk" = sprayer")

squtta (see footnote for chickot)

fire (domestic, lit tobacco, related to Fire Spirit)

54

s-s-k

rattling ( onomatopoetic root) (e.g., seskq =

rattlesnake)

-s-sk-

sticky (like mud) (cf. pissagk) (root word)

-ssum

action by fire (makes the stone hot)

-suck (-sucks) (Narr.)

pluralization stem (e.g., namaussuck = many fish)

suckahock (see sucki, -hock) (Narr.) (cf.

metahock)

dark (purple) shells (see wampum)

suckete (see soh-)

a mist

scki (cf. mi) (Narr.)

(it is) black or very dark colored, inanimate form

(more at purple); (cf. suckahock ); suckesu is animate
form

suckinit (see scki) (cf. m ) (Narr.)

blackish in color

-sum (see -sem)

sun

is it?, do you ? (e.g., sunnamatta? = is it not?;

sun kenum = do you see it?))

sunnattunniyeu (cf. nmummiyeu ) (from

sonki ?) (see -iyeu)

northwards, towards the north

animal, beast;
root for action by heat (e.g., chckosum = he
burns it)

sunqui (see sonki)

-suog (see -og (2))

pluralization stem for animate forms(cf.

papanaumsog)

t ( see adt, ta)

be at, in a place (cf. teag)

-t-

accommodating t, inserted between vowel-vowel

sequence when affix separated by root/stem; e.g
ntauchamen = n + (t)auchau + men = I hunt, Narr.
See Ind. Gram Dictionary (Appendix), Moondancer,
2001
exist, dwell, in, at, of, there, maybe, perhaps

ta (da, taa, tah)

tabuttantamoonk (see taubot,- antam, onk (3))

Thanksgiving (Thankfulness)

tah (see ta)

exist, dwell (e.g., m e tah = the heart)

55

tahki, tak-, taki-, taq-, tauk- (see t-k)

(Narr.)

it is cold

tahsh

used with some numbers (e.g., shwosuk tahshe = 8)

tahth (tahshe, tath)

so many

tahkes (see t-k, kees) (Narr.)

(it is) a little cold (diminutive of tahki)

tahshin (tashe, tohse, tahshe)

toh (2))

(see

- so much
- how much, how many ? (see entry for napanna)

tashnash papnash ? (see tashin, -ash,

papon)

how many winters ?

takone (see tugk, -e)

wild lands, forest (the woods)

takekum (see tahki, t-k) (Narr.)

cold spring (implying drinking water)

takuah (takua) (see ta)

it exists

tan (utan)

there (used in composition)

tanyeu (uttiyeu) (see tan, yeu(1))

which (singular)

tpi (taupi)

enough, sufficient (see tabot)

taquatsha ( see t-p) (Narr.)

frozen

taquttin (see t-p, q-t)

frost (e.g., ake tequatsha = frozen ground)

tatackom-mog (see -og (2))

porpoise-porpoises

tatt (Narr.)

I do not know (e.g., tatt n e top = friend, I do not

know)

tabot (see tpi, -antam) (Narr.)

he is thankful (tabot neanawyean = I thank you)

tabot neanawyean (see taubotne, tpi,

-antam) (Narr.)

I thank you (tabotne = thanks for that)

tau pauwau (see tpi, pauwau ) (Narr.)

wise speaker (cf. Powwas)

-teaonk (see onk (3))

of teaching, instruction

tawhitch (Narr.) (cf. toh waj)

why

teg (see t, -ag(1))

thing, something, anything, what, money

-teaqua- (-teaqun-, -teaguun-, -teaug-)

(Narr.)

what, thing, money

56

-tenash (see -ash)

pluralization stem, inanimate forms (e.g.,

muhpittenash = arms (of the body))

terrapin

turtle ("walks to water" ?)

t-g

repeated strokes (root word) (cf. togku)

th (tha)

the (with dates)

-tinnea-, -tin- (also Narr.)

sounds in words with no apparent meaning, called

ornamentation by Eliot; e.g. cuttineapmmishem =
k + (tinnea)pum + em = will you pass by?)

-tippoc-, -tuppoc-

of night

t-k (see takekum)

spring of water (root word)

t'makwa (cf. nosup, tummnk, amisk)

(Abenaki language)

beaver ("ugly teeth) (cf. The Tomaquag Museum in

Exeter, RI)

tn (dn)

mountain, hill (root word) (e.g., agwattin = under a

hill)

togkonk (see t-g, togku)

repeated strokes (onomatopoetic)

togku

he strikes, deals a blow (onomatopoetic)

togwonkanompsk (see togkonk, -ompsk-)

a mill (pounding) stone

toh (1)

maybe, perhaps, whoever, whatever, however, I wish

(it may be)

toh (2)

where, who, what, how (a question)

tohknogque (see toh (1), konnuh)

although

toh kutinukkeetteam ? (see toh, (2), k,

-ontam )

how are you?

toh waj (cf. tawhitch, Narr.)

why

toh wutteein? (see toh, wuttin)

where have you been?

tokekommuit (see takekum, -it)

at the spring or water source

tom (tan)

stretch

tomheganompsk (see togkonk, -an-,

-hegan, -ompsk-)

tomahawk-stone (quarry)

-tg (see -og (2))

pluralization stem, animate forms (cf. manittg)

57

tn (tor)

turtle, tortoise (basic root) (see tnuppasog)

tnuppasog (see ta, nuppe, toueu, ppu)

turtle/tortoises (he is near water or he remains

solitary on land)

tp (see t-p)

dew

tpu (see tp, pu-)

there is a white frost

twu (see ptwu)

t-op (see n e tomp)

friend, kinsman (root word)

torube

snapping or sea turtle ( from tor, tn roots)

torup

snapping or sea turtle, (root is tor )

toueu (towew)

deserted, solitary, unoccupied (e.g., touohkpmuk =

the forest (literally, a solitary place))

touohpen (tiusk, toyusk)

a bridge

tp (see montup)

head (root word)

t-p ( q-p, t-k)

freezes (root word); e.g., taquttin = frost

tseppi (see ts-p)

separated (root for the place Chappaquiddick)

ts-p (see ch-p)

separated (root word)

-tu (many variants)

pluralization stem

-tuash (see -ash)

pluraliztion stem, inanimate forms

-tuc (-tuch, -tuk, -tug)

water in motion such as a river or stream (in

compound words)

-tuck (1) (-tk, -tic)

water in motion such as a river or stream (in

compound words)

tuck (2) (see tugk)

tree

-tucks

narrow river, diminutive of tuk

-tucksis (see tukes)

-tug (see -tuc)

tughk( see , tugk)

tugk (tugq) (see m'tugk)

wood, tree (taug, tawk or htugk is imitative of treestruck sound)

58

-tuk (-tukq)

a tidal river, a broad river, an estuary (used in

composition; e.g., quinne-tuk-ut = at the long river
= Connecticut)

-tukes (see -tuk, -es (1))

narrow river, diminutive of tuk

tukk (see -tuk)

it waves, flows in waves

tukkog (see tukk , -og (2))

plural for tukk

tummck-quaog (cf. tummnk-quaog)

(see tummussum, -quaog) (Narr.)

beaver-beavers (he cuts off trees")

tummussum (see tummock)

he cuts it off (nuttummussum =" I cut")

tunk (see tugk)

-tuock (Narr.)

pluralization stem (cf. kaukonttuock)

tuppuhqueu

it turns or rolls (e.g., tuppuhquamash = beans)

turupe (see tnuppasog)

turtle

-tux (see -tukes)

u (see yeu)

-uash (see -ash)

- this (see yeu)

- adverb ending (e.g., wamu = all) (cf. -`e)
- connective glide before vowels as in uash
pluralization stem (cf. miyeuash)
- u = prefix form for possessive and 3rd person
verbs (he/she, they); c.f. unnham

-uck (cf. -ut)

place of (e.g., wetumuck = at, in, from the wetu)

ud (see -ut)
-ug (see -og(2))
-uh (-ah, -oh) (see oh)

noun ending, animate forms (obviation)

-uhk-, uhk-

permanence, of continuation

-uhku

floating, appearance of

-uhkon (-hkon, -ogkan)

do not do (a suffix, used in composition) (e.g., kumt

uhkon = do not steal)

uhpuck (see upp )

eats

(
u hponk (see -upp , -onk (3))

tobacco pipe (abstract noun) (e.g., u hpunkash =

pipes and tobacco)

59

-uhq-, uhk-

permanence, continuation

uhq (uhk) (uhquan, uhquon)

(cf. kous)

a point or sharp extremity (enters into many words)

(e.g., uhquan = a hook, fish hook)

uhque (see uhq)

it is at the end of, border, point of extremity

uhquan (uhquon) (see uhq)

hook, so shaped

hque (ukque) (see uhq, weque)

at extremity

-uhtu (see -ut)

-uhtug (see -unk (2))

tree, wood (in compound words) (e.g., mishuntugk =

much wood)

-uk (see -ut)

at, in, near, place of

ukkonnoh (konnoh, ukkonnoh)

these, those (used for plural, animate forms)

ukoh (nen ukoh) (see ko)

I am

ukque (uhque) (see weque)

um- (see w, m)

suffix (-um) for some simple verbs such as

nwaumaum = I am pleased with it

umpe

string (cf. wampumpeag)

-umpsk (-umsqu) (see -ompsk-)

of stones, rocks

un (1)

at, in , where something is

un (2) (us (1))

thus, to there

unishshin (anshik) (see un (2), -shau,

shik)

it lies there, thus

-unk (1)(see -uck)

of land (in composition) (seen in many modern place

names)

-unk (2) (-untukq)

at extremity, end of
suffix for adverbs or adjectives (e.g.,
toukomukukque = of the forest or wilderness)

a standing tree, products of wood, wood (in

compound words) (cf. mishuntugk)
a plural ending for large collections of things; e.g.,
ohkununk = animal skins (dressed)
of continuing action

unnai

true, "it is so, it is true"

unnamoi

it was done

60

unnantam u nt, anantamunt (see

antamunt)

to think, suppose, have in mind; e.g., nuttenantam = I

think

unne

thus, to

unnogque (see un (2), ogque)

towards

unnome

within

unnham (anhom)

he sings songs (e.g., anhomk = sing!)

unnwonat

to say (e.g., nussim = I say)

-unq (see -uhq)

unqua (see ongkoue)

-unum (cf. num-)

denotes (in composition) action by the hand or

physical activity (e.g., pohqunnum = he breaks it
with his hands)

-uock (Narr.) (see -og (2))

pluralization stem, animate forms (cf. nnnuock)

-uog (see -og (2))

pluralization stem, animate forms (cf. mosquog)

up- (see w)

prefix for 3rd person singular/plural possessive nouns,

verbs;e.g., up-Biblum = his Bible

-up (see op)

past tense suffix

uppaquntup (see -ontop) (Narr.)

the head

uppeshau (see pashk)

a flower ("it bursts forth") e.g., peshanash =

flowers)

-upp (-uhp) (see uhpuck)

eat, chew, satisfy appetite (in compound words) (e.g.,

kodtupp = he is hungry)

-upsk- (see -ompsk-)

us (1)

little, small, young, thus, to there (e.g., ussqua = us

+ squa little woman)

-us (2) (see -s)

suffix ending for a question

uspunneake (see uspunnumun, ake)

high land

uspunnumun (see un)

elevated, high, lift (ashp is also a root)

usseh (see usseu)

you tell me

61

uss e nt (see ussu, t)

usseonk (see ussu, -onk (3))

doing, dealing, action

to do, perform, accomplish (many words come

from this word) (e.g., ussu = he does, or did)
- to say (e.g., nag us = say to them)

usseu (see ussu)

ussint (wussint)

to say (e.g., nussim = I say)

ussishau (see uss e nt, -shau, a)

he goes quickly, runs to (cf. quaquish)

ussosu (cf. tummussum)

to cut (e.g., n e kusssu = he cuts or gashes)

ussu (usseu)

he does, moves, did (denoting an active, animate

object) (e.g., na ussishash = make your escape, run
away)

ut (many variants exist -- see t) (cf. adt)

- the term -ut is a common suffix meaning: at, in,

where
something is, place of, near (e.g., kehtompskut =
at the great rock). Also used as a preposition (e.g.,
ut ohkeit = on the earth)

ut sepuunt (see -ut, sepi)

at or near the river

uttiyeu (tanyeu)

which thing (singular) used for a question

uttiyeush

which (plural, used for a question)

uttoh

whatever

uttu (see -ut)

w (u, wu) (see Part III)

general prefix form for nouns & verbs: he, she,

his, her, it, their, they (many variants exist in
composition such as: we-, wu-, wut-, wun-, wum-,
wom-,-, um-, un-, up-, uk-, etc.); e.g., week = w
+ wtu = his/her house; womantam = he loves
it; wuttah = his (her) heart; wunnonkou = it is
evening; wumm = it comes from here).
also a connective glide as in -wash.

wantamonk (see waw, -antam,

-onk (3))

wisdom (e.g., nwaatam = I am wise)

wa (1)

and (cf. wanah); standard form is kah, ka for and;

e.g.,. keen kah neen = you and me

wa (2)

little (cf. wa-wa)

62

wabe (cf. waban)

it is above (the wind)

wapu (wapeu, wabeu) (see wabe,

m)

he goes up, rises

waba (see waapu)

white, the light (cf. Wabanaki)

waban (waupi) (see waapu)

the wind (it is above)

Wabanki (see waba, ake)

Literally, dawnlanders, Wabanaki is the Five Nation

confederacy of northern New England and Canadian
Indians (Abenaki, Malecite, Passamaquoddy,
Micmac, Penobscot)

wache (wa(1) + ch ?)

because of

wachu (see wadchu )

hill, mountain

wadchanish (see -sh)

thoukeep, protect, watch over us (see poem,

Keihtanit-m)

wadchu (related to wa-wa ?)

mountain, hill (something to be climbed) (e.g.,

misadchu kah wadchu = mountain and hill)

(
wadchu ash (see wadchu, -ash)

plural of wadchu = mountain

wadchue kontu (see wadchu, -kontu (2))

in the hill country

wachue ohkeit (see ohkeit, wadchu)

the hill country

wadsh (wadtch) (cf. wutche)

nest (especially a birds) (born, proceeds from)

wdchumes (see wadchu, -emes)

small mountain, hill

waenu (see wnu)

wag (?)

when he goes or proceeds from

-wah (-eh) (other variants)

caused by, issuing from (suffix of a verb)

wam(1)

be satisfied with (stem word)

wam(2) (see wmpi)

white, the light, dawn (cf. wampum, Wampanoag)

wame (1)

enough , sufficient (e.g., ohkewamut = land

enough)

wame (2) (see wam (1), -, -u)

all, entirely, in the whole (e.g., wame neg = all they

who)

wame eniskeetompawog wunnegin (see

wame (2) eniskeetompawog, wunnegin)

all tribes are welcome (for example, at a Powwow)

63

wmunat (see munt)

wamosuonk (see wame (2), -onk (3))

love (abstract noun) (e.g., nwomantam = I

love)

Wampanaog (Wpanak) (see wam, -noag)

Name of Indian tribe/nation, Dawnlanders,

Easterners, People of the Early Light , inter alia

wampam (wompam) (see wmpi)

white money (wampum) as incorrectly translated

by scholars. Wampam is a general term for beautiful,
handmade, artwork from coastal seashells and strung
onto belts of sinew. Wampum was used for trade,
treaties, status, occurrence of important events,
jewelry, ceremonies, rituals, and many other reasons.
Europeans converted its Indian uses into European
concepts of money, capital and the like. (see
suckahock, metahock)

wampum (see wampam)

wampumpeag (see wam (2), wampam,
umpe, -ag (2))

white shell beads (literally, white string of beads)

Also referred to both white and dark beads by the
Europeans in historic times.

wamut (wamet) (see wame (1), -ut)

enough (singular or plural)

wanah (see wa (2))

and

wanashque (see wanask)

wanashquodtinnu wadchuut (see
wanashque, wadchu, ut)

(when) on the top of the mountain

wanask (cf. kodtukoag) (see wanasq)

summit, top place, end of, end-place

wanasq, wanaski (wanashque, wanasque)

upon the top, end of, end-place

wanasquatucket (see wanasq, -tuck(1), et)

at the end of the tidal river (name for Providence

River)

wanne (cf. howan, unne)

not any (e.g., wanne howane = there was no one left

alive)

wap (see wmpi)

white, the light, dawn

wapwa (see wepu)

a strait or narrows

wapasem (see wap, -sum)

opossum (white animal)

wapway (see wapwa)

narrow passage, crossing place

64

-wash (see -ash)

pluralization stem, inanimate forms (e.g.,

mehtauogwash = ears)

washe

river

watchu (see wadchu)

wau (1) (see waw)

wise (cf. pau wau) or loving

wau (2)

little

waubos

crossing, passage, fording

waucho (see wadchu)

wauchu (see wadchu)

wauch u ash (see wadchu, -ash)

plural of wadchu = mountain, hill

waki (see wa-wa, -ke (2)) (Narr.)

(it is) crooked

waumausu (see wamosuonk)

loving (e.g., womonausu = he acts lovingly, is kind

or loving)

waumsu (see w, m)

he goes down (downhill)

wauompeag (Narr.)

plural of wampam

wauntam (see wau (1), -antam)

(he is ) a wise man, councilor

wauonu (see w, m)

he goes astray, wanders

wapi (see pemisquai) (Narr.)

the wind (it is windy)

waw (-wau)

know, known (cf. wauontam)

-waw (-quaw) (Narr.)

wa-wa (see wa (2))

state of, condition, status; e.g., Segousquaw =

widow
round about

waweh (wawehtaw)

to know, to acknowledge

wayau ( see a)

goes away, as the setting sun; literally the sun

went down (e.g., wayont = setting of the
sun)

weatchimn (see ewachimineash, min,

weatchimneash) (cf. meech)

corn (Corn is the miracle food of the Indians in New

England; literally, the plant growing in the field)

weatchimneash

weatchimn plural

weche (wechee, wichci) (cf -wet-)

together with,along, with; e.g., wche peyau keemat =

he is coming with your brother

wechekum (see weque, -ke (2) un (1)) (cf.

kehtoh)

the sea shore (great land beyond the earth)

65

wechu (see wtu)

wecq (wesq) (see weque)

end of, furthest away

weeche (see weche)

weechinnineummoncheg (teashiyeuonk)
&&chu , -eg)
(see weche, nnin, m, mon

family (they go with him) (e.g., weechiyeumuk =

he was with me) (e.g., assamau = he gives
nourishment)

week (see wk (2))

ween

around, circling, wending

wnu (waenu) (see ween)

round things, round about

weenwas (wins) (see ween)

onion, wild shallot

wees (weis)

fat, meat that is fat

weetomp (see wtu, -omp)

friend, kinsman (implies live-in relative)

-weewe- (-wong- ,-wok-)

bent, crooked

wehquohke (see wehque, ohke)

end of the earth

wek (1) (wecq, wesq) (see weque)

wk (2) (week) (see w, wtu)

his (her) house (e.g., wekitteau = he builds his

house)

wehqshi (weekshik) (see weque, -shik)

it extends to, goes as far as, at the end of

wenmin-neash(see min) (?)

grape-grapes (from wenomis = vine)

wenshik (see ween, -shik)

where is curves, bends

wepu

a strait or narrows

wehque (see weque)

at the end of(e.g., wehque paugeset = at the end of

the small pond)

(
we konne (-wek-, -week-)

it is sweet

wpe (Narr.)

A word prefixed before a verb (preverb) to mean an

accusation, demand, judgment; e.g.,
Wpe cukkmmoot = you have stolen!

weqaui

light in color (e.g., wequash = swans)

weque (wehque)

at the end of

wequeake (see weque, ake)

at the end of the earth

wequshim (see wequai, -sh-) (Narr.)

moonlight ( moon with not much radiating light)

66

wequishin (weekshin, wehqshik) (see

weque)

it ends

wera (probably the r-dialect of

southwestern New England such as
Wampano) see wunni

good

wesaui (osa, ousa) (Narr.)

yellow

wesq (wek, wecq) (see weque)

end of, furthest away

wsuonk (see ussint)

name (e.g., ussoweneg Joe = my name is Joe)

weta

the woods (forest)

-wet-

accompamny, go with (e.g. awetawtuock = he takes

a wife)

wt (weet, wig) (see wtu)

house, dwelling

wtu (wechu, weetu, witeo) (see wt) (see

Part III)

a wigwam, small one-family home made of wood.

(The word wtu most nearly means a wooden home
our family moves about our land)

wtuake (see wtu, ake)

wtu place (a village, camp)

wtuomemese (see wtu, -ese)

little house (Woman lived here each month during

their menstrual cycles (moon cycles), not working or
engaging in sexual relations. Some cultures call these
buildings moon lodges)

wewen (weewen, woron) (see wewee,

wor)

bending, curving, circling, back-turning, ox-bows

weyaus (see as)

meat, flesh

wichci (see weche)

wico (see weque)

slurred spelling, modern place names

wik (1) (see wet)

dwell, end of, end-place

wik (2)

end of, end-place

willi (see wunni)

winni (see wunni)
winski (see weenwas, -ke (2))

onion country

wirri (see wunni)

wisq (wishq)

vessel for liquids, etc. (root means animal bladder;

imitative of urinating ?)

67

wohkons (wohkonssin) (see hassen)

fort

-wock (Narr.) (see w, -ock, -og (2))

pluralization stem (e.g., muckquashimwock =

wolves)

-wog (see -og (2))

pluralization stem

woh

would, should, could, can, may (e.g., uttoh woh yeush

en nnih ? = can these things be?); e.g., sun woh
ktam ? = will you smoke?)

wohsi (weq?)

shining, glistening, slippery (such as rocks)

wohtamk

understand ye (plural)

woi (wee)

oh!, were it so!

wom (wm)

downhill, winding down

womantam (see w, -antam) (see

nwomantam)

he loves it

womntamk wanegik (see w, -antam,

wunne)

love that which is good

womonittutteuh (see w, -antam, n, -uh)

let us love one another

wmp (see wam (2))

white (basic root) (cf. wampam, wompsikuk)

wompanniyeu (see wam (2), -iyeu)

eastward, towards the east (wutchewoiyeu also used

for east)

wompasq (wompaskit)

swamp, marsh, bog

wompau (see wmpi)

day

wmpimineash (see wmp, min, -neash)

chestnuts (white nuts)

wmpi ( wmp)

(it is) white (singular, inanimate forms) (e.g.,

womponak = white cloth)

wompishocki (see wmpi, k, i)

gray in color ("turning white")

wompesu (see wmpi, -esu)

he (she) is white (singular, animate forms) (e.g.,

womposketomp = a white man)

wompesuog (see wmpi, -esu, -og (2))

(they are) white (plural, animate forms)

wompsikuk (see wmpi, psuk)

eagle ("great white bird") (e.g., wompsikuk mtah =

eagle heart); in 1624 Winslow recorded a
Pokanoket Indian saying wobsacuck

68

wompiyeuash (see wmpi, yeuash)

(they are) white (plural, inanimate forms)

wonk

also, again, and

-wonk-

bent, crooked; e.g., wonki = it is bent, crooked

wonkuttog (see wonk) (cf. onkatog)

other, another

(
wonqu ssis (see wonk, wnki)

a fox (bend, circle about), or small fur-like animal

wmiyeu (see wmussu, -iyeu)

downward

wmsuonk (see wmussu, -onk (3))

a steep descent

wmussu (wmsu) (see waumsu) (see

m)

to go downward; literally, he goes down

wm (see wom)
wu (see wu)

egg (see kas)

wosketomp-aog (see n e tomp)

an adult male-adult males or person-people of ones

own people (a young brave-braves)

wososki (wososhki) (cf. pissagk)

marshy, muddy

wo (wu) -wanash (cf. kas, as,

weyaos, sh)

an egg-eggs

wuche (see wutche)

wuchpoquamin-neash (see w, chippe ?,
min, -neash)

pear-pears

wugche (see wuche , wutche)

wumm (see munat)

it comes from there

wummmomo (see w, mm)

it says the truth

wungum (see wongun)

crooked, bent

wunipach (see wunnepog)

acorn (nut from tree with leaves resembling hands;

nach = hand; nunnutcheg = my hand)

wunna (Narr.)

Very, much; e.g., Wunna kukkssaquam = you sleep

much
red paintings on Indian garments, faces, bodies, etc.
from pine and red earth (red earth = mishquock)

wunnm (Narr.) (see w, wunni) (cf.

msqu )
wunnash (see wanaski)
wunnashowatuckqut (see sh, -tuck, -ut)

at the crotch of a river

wunnugun (see un (1), wewen, ake)

dish, bowl, plate, so shaped

69

wunnegen (see wunni)

it is good, it is pleasant, it is a fair thing

wunntu (see wunni)

he is a good man (cf. wunntu nitta = my heart is

good, pure)

wunniyeu (see wunni, ayu)

he is happy

wunni (wunne, willi (l-dialect), wirri (rdialect), -ne-, -wune-, -unne-, -unna-,
- tunna-, -wun-)

pleasing, favorable, good, beautiful; (literally, it is

good) (e.g., wunniyeu = he is happy)

wunne (see wunni)

it is good

wunneganash (see wunnegen, -ash)

happiness, good things ( wunnegen plural)

wunnegin (see wunne)

welcome

wunnegin ne top (see wunnegin, ne top

(Narr.)

welcome, my friend

wunnish (see wunne, -ish)

fare you well

wunnohteaonk (see wunni, -ohteau,

-onk (3))

peace (e.g., wunnhteahuau = he makes peace)

wunnepog (see wunne, -paug(2))

leaf

wunnonkou

it is evening (from nukkonau = he departs)

wunnohke (see wunni, ohke)

good land

wuske, wusk-, wask-

young, new (e.g., wuskenin = young man)

wushwunan (Narr.)

hawk (imitates sound of bird)

wuskowhan

pigeon or dove (imitates sound of bird)

wussi (wussa)

beyond, on the other side of, over

wussinnat

to say (root means mouth); e.g., nussim = I say

wussoquat (Narr.)

walnut tree (related to sussequnut = to anoint with

oils)

wusuhkwah

to write (stem word), from paint

wussuhwhonk (see wusuhkwah)

book (e.g., nwomontam

wussukhonk = I love a book)

wut-

name of a place or people (prefix) (e.g., wutohkit = an

inhabitant of)

Oral tradition has it that there is no word for good-bye in this language.

70

wutche (w + che) (wutji, tch, ch)

from, because of, on behalf of, therefore, it proceeds from(

wut'hou, wutt'hou (many variants)

w)

their (used in composition)

(see

wuttamuog (see wuttatash) (Narr.)

tobacco (what they drink)

wuttah (see w, mtah)

his (her) heart

wuttahminneoh (see wuttah, min, -oh)

strawberries (heart shaped berries)

wuttatash (from -sip or asi ?)

drink thou

wuttohkohkminneinash (see wuttah,

min,-ash)

blackberries

wutuhshame (cf. onkome)

on this side

wuttin (wuttinne)

he himself, she herself (pronoun phrase)

-y-

connective glide

y (y)

yonder

yau (see yaw)

four

yau ut (see ya, ut)

four times

yau ut nashik ohke (see each word)

in the four corners of the earth ("four directions")

yaw (yau, yoh)

four

yeu (1) (u)

this thing

yeu (2)

this place ("at this place, here)

-yeuash (see -ash)

pluralization stem, inanimate forms (e.g.,

wompiyeuash = white things)

yeug

these men

yeuoh (noh (1))

this or that man (cf. ewo = he, him, (Narr.))

yeush (nish)

these things

yeush nukkne yeuukisk (see yeush,

nukkne)

these are ancient things

yeuyeu (see yeu (2))

now

yo (yeu) (Narr.)

here, there, where, hence, thence, this,thus

71

yo chippachusin (see yo, chippu, -shik)

(Narr.)

where the way divides

yo mtnnock (Narr.)

at the right hand-side

yo nmnnatch (Narr.)

to the left hand-side

yte (nte, chickoht, squtta) (see ntau)

(Narr.); see foot note for chickoht

domestic fire (e.g., mttapsh yteg ! = yousit by

the fire!; e.g., Yotanit = Fire Spirit)

yowa

thus

y wque (see yowa, weqa) (Narr.)

thus far

yo wuchesee (yo, wuche)

from thence

pakodjteau-un

it is finished, done, completed

72

PART II
EXAMPLES

73

Earliest Recorded Indian Dictionary, 1634

In 1634, William Wood wrote an expository work of his experiences in the New World, entitled
New Englands Prospect, which summarized his experiences among the Massachusuck (Massachusett
Indians, People of the Great Hills).
What follows is a partial reprint of the last portion of his book--a list of the words and phrases he
picked up from the Native Americans living in north-shore Massachusetts. This nomenclator (as he
called it) is a vocabulary listing of words from the dialect on the north shore of Boston (Naumkeag
region), and represents perhaps the first extensive vocabulary listing of regional Algonquian words and
phrases. The impression one gets of Woods work is a remarkable similarity to Natick, Narragansett.
Try to identify words and find as many roots/stems as possible with the following hints: Wood
writes a d sound for Eliots/Williams t; we note a g for k. Look for words close to those in
Understanding Algonquian Indian Words.

74

Aberginian - an Indian
Abamocho - the Devil
Aunum - a dog
Ausupp - a raccoon
Au so hau nouc hoc - lobster
Assawog - will you play
A saw upp - tomorrow
Ascoscoi - green
Ausomma petuc quanocke - give me some
bread
Appepes naw aug - when I see it I will tell
you my mind
Anno ke nugge - a sieve
An nu ocke - a bed
Autchu wompocke - today
Appause - the morn
Ascom quom pauputchim - thanks be given
to God

Et chossucke - a knife
Eat chumnis - Indian corn
Eans causuacke - four fathoms
Easu tommoc quocke - half a skin of beaver
Epimetsis - much good may your meat do
you

Bequoquo - the head

Bisquant - the shoulderbones
C

Chesco kean - you lie

Commouton kean - you steal
Cram - to kill
Chickachava - osculari podicem6
Cowimms - sleeps
Cocam - the navel
Cos - the nails
Conomma - a spoon
Cossaquot - bows and arrows
Cone - the sun
Cotattup - I drink7 to you
Coetop - will you drink tobacco
Connucke sommona - it is almost night
Connu - good night to you
Cowompanu sin - Good morrow
Coepot - ice

Gettoquaset - the great toe

Genehuncke - the forefinger
Gettoquacke - the knees
Gettoquun - the knuckles
Gettoquan - the thumb
Gegnewaw og - let me see
H

Haha - yes
Hoc - the body
Hamucke - almost
Hub hub hub - come come come
Haddo quo dunna moquonash - where did
you buy that
Haddogoe weage - who lives here
I

Isattonaneise - the bread

Icattop - faint with hunger
Icattoquam - very sleepy
K

Kean - I [you?]
Keisseanchacke - back of the hand
Ksitta - it hurts me
Kawkenog wampompeage - let me see
money
Kagmatcheu - will you eat meat
Ketottug - a whetstone
Kenie - very sharp
Kettotanese - lend me money
Kekechoi - much pain

Dottaguck - the backbone

Docke taugh he necke - what is your name

Matchet - it is naught
Mattamoi - to die
Mitchin - meat
Misquantum - very angry
Mauncheake - be gone
Matta - no
Meseig - hair

Latin for "kiss my ass".

Smoke. In 17th c. use to drink tobacco was to
smoke.

75

Mamanock - the eyebrows

Matchanne - the nose
Mattone - the lips
Mepeiteis - the teeth
Mattickeis - the shoulders
Mettosowset - the little toe
Metosaunige - the little finger
Misquish - the veins
Mohoc - the waist
Menisowhock - the genitals
Mocossa - the black of the nail
Matchanni - very sick
Monacus - bows and arrows
Manehops - sits down
Monakinne - a coat
Mawcus sinnus - a pair of shoes
Matchemauquot - it stinketh
Muskanai - a bone
Menota - a basket
Meatchis - be merry
Mawpaw - it snows
Mawnaucoi - very strong
Mutcheou - a very poor man
Monosketenog - what's this
Mouskett - the breech
Matchet wequon - very blunt
Matta ka tau caushana - will you not trade
Mowhacheis - Indian gold

Noei pauketan - by and by kill

Nenetah ha - I'll fight with you
Noei comquocke - a codfish
Nepaupe - stand by
No ottut - a great journey
Necautauh hau - no such matter
Noewamma - he laugheth
Noeshow - a father
Nitka - a mother
Netchaw - a brother
Notonquous - a kinsman
Nenomous - a kinswoman
Nau mau nais - my son
Taunais - my daughter
No einshom - give me corn
Nemnis - take it
Nenimma nequitta ta auchu - give me a span
of anything
Nees nis ca su acke - two fathom 8
Notchumoi - a little strong
Negacawgh hi - lend me
Nebuks quam - adieu
Noe winyah - come in
Naut seam - much weary
Noe wammaw ause - I love you
Net noe whaw missu - a man of a middle
stature

Ottucke - a deer
Occone - a deerskin
Oquan - the heel
Ottump - a bow
Ottommaocke - tobacco
Ottannapeake - the chin
Occotucke - the throat
Unquagh saw au - you are cunning
Ontoquos - a wolf

Nancompees - a boy
Nickesquaw - a maid
Nean - you [I, me?]
Nippe - water
Nasamp - pottage
Nota - six
Nisquan - the elbow
Noenaset - the third toe
Nahenan - a turkey
Niccone - a blackbird
Naw naunidge - the middle finger
Napet - the arm
Nitchicke - the hand
Notoquap - the skin
Nogcus - the heart
Nobpaw nocke - the breastbone
Nequaw - the thighs
Netop - a friend
Nonmia - give me
Noeicantop - how do you
Nawhaw nissis - farewell

Pow-wow - a conjurer or wizard

Petta sinna - give me a pipe of tobacco
Pooke - colt's foot9
Pappouse - a child
8

One fathom is 6 ft.

any of various plants with large rounded leaves
resembling the foot of a colt; especially : a
perennial composite herb (Tussilago farfara)
with yellow flower heads appearing before the
leaves; used medicinally.
9

76

Petucquanocke - bread
Picke - a pipe
Ponesanto - make a fire
Papowne - winter
Pequas - a fox
Pausochu - a little journey
Peamissin - a little
Peacumshis - work hard
Pokitta - smoke
Petogge - a bag
Paucasn - a quarter
Pausawniscosu - half a fathom
Peunctaumocke - much pray
Pesissu - a little man
Pausepissoi - the sun is rising
Pouckshaa - it is broken
Poebugketaas - you burn
Poussu - a big-bellied woman
Q

Quequas nummos - what cheer

Quequas nim - it is almost day
Quog quosh - make haste
Quenobpuuncke - a stool
Quenops - be quiet
S

Sagamore - a king
Sachem - idem
Sannup - a man
Squaw - a woman
Squitta - a fire spark
Suggig - a bass
Seasicke - a rattlesnake
Shannucke - a squirrel
Skesicos - the eyes
Supskinge - the wrist bones
Socottocanus - the breastbone
Squehincke - blood
Siccaw quant - the hams
Suppiske - ankle bones
Seat - the foot
Seaseap - a duck
Suckis suacke - a clam
Sequan - the summer
Soekepup - he will bite
Sis - come out
Squi - red
Swanscaw suacko - three fathoms
Sawawampeage - very weak

Succomme - I will eat you

Sasketupe - a great man
T

Taubut ne an hee - thanks heartily

Tantacum - beat him
Tap in - go in
Titta - I cannot tell
Tahanyah - what news
Tonagus - the ears
Tannicke - a cranny
Thaw - the calf of the leg
Tahaseat - the sole of the foot
Tasseche quonuck - the instep
Tonokete naum - whither go you
Tannissin may - which is the way
Tunketappin - where live you
Tonocco wam - where have you been
Tasis - a pair of stockings
Tockucke - a hatchet
Towwow - a sister
Tom maushew - a husband
Tookesin - enough sleep
Titto kean I catoquam - do you nod and
sleep
Tau kequam - very heavy
Tauh coi - it is very cold
W

Wampompeage - Indian money

Winnet - very good
Web - a wife
Wigwam - a house
Wawmott - enough
Whenan - the tongue
Whauksis - a fox
Wawpatucke - a goose
Wawpiske - the belly
Whoe nuncke - a ditch
Wappinne - the wind
Wawtom - understand you
Wompey - white
Wa aoy - the sun is down
Waacoh - the day breaks
Wekemawquot - it smells sweet
Weneikinne - it is very handsome
Whissu hochuck - the kettle boileth
Waawnew - you have lost your way
Woenaunta - it is a warm summer
Wompoca - tomorrow
Wawmauseu - an honest man

77

Weneicu - a rich man

Weitagcone - a clear day
Wawnauco - yesterday
Y

Yeips - sit down

Yaus - the sides
Yaugh - there
Yough yough - now
Yoakes - lice

78

Selected New England Place Names

The place name selections given below are based on proximity of the name with the original
term. This simplifies the etymological derivation for the beginning student. Be aware that most
present-day place names derived from Algonquian languages are very hard to reconstruct; e.g.,
Horseneck. You need to consult a reference such as Huden (1962) for the meanings. The meanings
are obtained by hard detective work. Some of the original names of places where Indians lived for
10, 000 years are lost forever.
In the left hand column of the table below we give the present name of a town, city, etc. and
what we believe was the original name from the Massachusett language Algonquian roots and other
combining forms. On the right side is the translation. For example, the place now called Nepaug,
which means the place of fresh water, comes from Algonquian nipaug.
The meanings we assign are based purely on a literal meaning of the Algonquian roots, and
are not the most elegant or full-bodied translations one finds, for instance, in the book by Trumbull
(1881, 1974). The hyphens used in the Algonquian terms show the basic root-elements of the place
names.
Aquapauksit = ukque-paug-es -it
Chappaquiddick = tseppi-aquidne-ake
Connecticut = quinneh -tukq-ut
Kenunckpacook = qunnunkque-paug-ake
Kittemaug = kehte-maug-ut
Kuttuck (now Titicut) = kehte-tuk-ut
Massachusetts = massa-wadchu-ash-et
Massaco = massa-sauk
Mashantucket = massa-tuck-et
Mistik = missi-tuk
Nepaug = nip-aug
Norwalk = nay-aug
Oxecoset = oggusse-koua-es -et
Pachaug = pachau-aug
Patuxet = pau-tux-et
Pawtucket = pau-tuck-et
Qunnapaug = quinni-paug
Saugatuck = sauki-tuk
Tomheganomset = tomheg 'n-ompsk-ut
Wachuset = wadchu-es -et
Watchoog = wadchu-ake

at the end of a small pond

separated island land
on the long tidal river
land at long pond
great fishing place
place of principal river
at or near the great hills
the great outlet
place of great trees (well-forested)
great tidal river
place of fresh water
a point of land
place of small pine, fir trees
a turning place
place of little falls
at the great water-falls
a long pond
tidal river outlet
at the ax (tomahawk) rock
place of little hills
hill country

Now we will test your knowledge. Try to decipher the following words.
Answer given in footnote.+
+

Mississippi = big river; Wequapaug = at the end of the pond; Misquamicut = red-fish
(salmon) place; Chepatchet = boundary place; Woonsocket = place of steep descent.

Mississippi (not a New England name)

Wequapaug
Misquamicut
Chepatchet
Woonsocket

For further practice, see the Roger Williams (1643) classic, Huden (1962), Masthay (1987) or
Trumbull (1881, 1974) and Strong Woman and Moondancer, A Massachusett Language Book (1988).
Also, examine Figures 1 & 2 for many place names. Reconstructing the ancient names of places
where Indians dwelled for over 10, 000 years (and still do!) is a very spiritual process.

80

Lesson Sheet
Basic Conversational
Natick-Massachusett
Here we give you a conversational lesson. This lesson is adopted from the one used by Chief
Spotted Eagle of the Nipmuck in his classes at The Algonquian Indian School in Providence, RI
which he held for years.
For the roots of the words, you must go to Part I of the book.
You have to try pronouncing the words just as they are written. The words are written
phonetically--what you see is what you say. The stress is indicated by () and oo is pronounced like
moody. Note that two same-letter consonants blend into one sound; for example nuk-kon. In
English we do the same thing in words like supper, butter, middle, winner, etc. Lastly the
letters om an represent nasal sounds as in pomp or French blanc.

This is only one sample of the lessons prepared by The Aquidneck Indian Council for The Massachusett
Language Revival Project. In our seminars held with Indian Councils throughout the area, many more lessons
were provided.

81

Greeting of the Day Lesson

Mot-tomp-an wu-nee
Good morning
Toh kut-in-uk-keet-te-am?
How are you?
Wun-nik-keet-e-am tau-bot-nee
Fine, thank you
Kah keen?
And You?
Mut-t-e wun-nee
Very Good
Ke-sukw wun-eeg-in
It is a beautiful day
Nux wun-nee-noo--onk
Yes, I agree (good talk)
Poh-she-qu -e-u ah-quom-pee
Its noon time
Ah-quom-pee ne-wut-chee meet-suonk
It is time to eat
Qut-tuk-quaw-quaw wun-nee
Good Afternoon
Mat kun-nun-o-us ne-wut-chee pas-uk no-ad-tuk
I havent seen you for a long time
Toh wut-teeg-in?
Where keep you?
Nut-tay-ee ut on-kat-og o-tan-neem-es
I dwell in another village
Wun-non-quay-ee wun-nee
Good evening
Nuk-kon wun-neeg-in
It is a beautiful night

82

An-nock-suck mon-at-tash
There are many stars
Kah nux poh-kok
And yes, clear skies
Mat pas-suck mat-toks
Not one cloud
Kah pas-suck o-koo-muss ne-poz-shad wun-neeg-in
And a beautiful Grand Mother moon
A-queen-ee kah nah-hon-nush-shagk
Peace and farewell

Nock-us-kor-at-tit-ee-ah wonk tee-an-uk

Let us meet again soon
Ap-poo nan-au-ant-tam-o-ee
Remain careful (take care)
paj-air
until (in departing of a friend)
(Moondancer Strong Woman, 1996, based on work of Chief Spotted Eagle of the
Nipmuck Nation; Algonquin Indian School, RI Indian Council).

There is no word for good-bye

in the language

83

Keihtanit-m
Keihtanit-m (O Spirit) is the name of a Spiritual poem translated into Natick-Massachusett.

The next page contains the poem in the original English and our Natick-Massachusett translation.
Analysis of the lines will give the reader some more practice in word-analysis.

Selected from Wampumpeag (1996). Newport, RI: Aquidneck Indian Council.

84

O Spirit

Keihtanit-m

O Spirit
That gives us our breath
Watch over us

Keihtanit-m
magunutche nashaonk
wadchanish

O Spirit
That gives us our food
Watch over us

Keihtanit-m
magunutche meechummuonk
wadchanish

O Spirit
That gives us our family
Watch over us

Keihtanit-m
magunutche weechinnineummoncheg
wadchanish

O Spirit
That gives us our happiness
Watch over us

Keihtanit-m
magunutche wunnegenash
wadchanish

O Spirit
That makes all living
Watch over us

Keihtanit-m
magunutche pomantamonk
wadchanish

O Spirit
That makes us one with you
Watch over us

Keihtanit-m
kesteau yau ut nashik ohke
wadchanish

O Spirit
You are the only One
Watch over us

Keihtanit-m
pasuk nant manit
wadchanish

85

WAMPANOAG PRAYER
Translated by Authors

86

Nuppeantam
Keihtanit, nummag ne wuttamauog
Ohke, nummag ne wuttamauog
Okummus nepauzshad, nummag ne wuttamauog
( ( (
Wutttch i kk i nneasin nippawus, nummag ne wuttamauog
Taubot neanawayean
Nummag ne wuttamauog adt yau ut nashik ohke:
wompanniyeu
sowanniyeu
pahtatunniyeu
nannummiyeu
Taubot neanawayean newutche wame netomppauog:
neg pamunenutcheg
neg pamompakecheg
puppinashimwog
mehtugquash kah moskehtuash
namohsog
Quttianumoonk weechinnineummoncheg
ahtuk
mosq
mukquoshim
tunnuppasog
sasaso
Keihtanit, nummag ne wuttamauog

87

I pray
Great Spirit, I offer this tobacco
Mother Earth, I offer this tobacco
Grandmother Moon, I offer this tobacco
Grandfather Sun, I offer this tobacco
I thank you
I offer this tobacco to the four directions
to the east
to the south
to the west
to the north
I thank you for all my relations:
the winged nation
creeping and crawling nation
the four-legged nation
the green and growing nation
and all things living in the water
Honoring the clans:
the deer
the bear
the wolf
the turtle
the snipe
Great Spirit, I offer this tobacco

88

One of the Longest Words Ever

Recorded in the New England
Indian Algonquian Languages

89

The following 61-letter word is from Natick-Massachusett. Standard pronunciation

guides are included.

nup-pahk-nuh-t-pe-pe-nau-wut-chut-chuh-qu-ka-neh-cha-neh-cha-e-nin-nu-mun-n-n o k

Translation: our well-skilled looking-glass makers.

See how many roots you can locate in the word. Happy hunting!

90

Sample of the Wampanoag Indian Language

A Deed for Land Sold by Schem Aspohteamuk
to Naatomppam (Peter Kappassuammog) in the Year 1700

Source: Goddard, Ives and Kathleen J. Bragdon (1988). Native Writings in Massachusett (Parts 1
& 2). American Philosophical Society Memoir 185. Philadelphia: The American Philosophical
Society, [pages 339-341].

91

Massachusett

Aprin 17 tayus qut kottumoo 1700

yu makohteae wussukquohhonk nen aspohteamuk ye nummakun nittokeim ohtag
ontsonttuit nogkomae nanogquttinneiyu asuh maquomwittinneiur -- [.] neit ontsontuit at
sonkkuttashonk ogksemese wuttchekussuiyu ootche kehpishon kohkinnonk
ohquonnohtug wunnepauin wuske chikkuppusseuhtuhkoom nuh uppaukinnohtugkoo
chikkuppeuhtukoom -- neit [k] kuhkinnonk neeoche [kepish] kehpishshon nogque
nanogquttinneiyu yapache wompsukkookquoppet ohquonpam [we] wunnepauwun
koowa nen aspohteamuk yuuh koowa nittchesquohquohtohwomp [yuuh koowa] neit
kohkinnonk qutchikqushau nogque wutchekussuiyu an ohquanpa[pa]kak neit an
pootuppakaak wutwutchekussuiyu nonoh nogque ogk[.]semese [w] womppanniyu an
ohquonpagkak ooche kehpishshon kohkinnonk nogque in sinnotniyu ne wun noosshon
onttauont yapache wutchoohwushonat neohtag nuppussuppaquequm [uh] soowetamun
mopakamesik ogksemese ohquanpashau nogque wutchepeapamae neit kehpishau
kohkinnonk nogque in quaquttaunuat at sonkkuttashonk nepatta keche pogkohtimmus
ohquanpam [.] neit kohkinnonk qutchikqushau nogque in womppanniyu nont ye
wunnooswushshon sep nogque nanogquttinneuhtugquae
yapache [at] ontsontuit ut watoohquashau[i]
onk nen aspohteamuk [oh] yu nittok nittinnummauwon naattomppam asuh peter
kappassuammog newutche nittaphoommonkqun nittinummauwon nishnoh teag ok kah
muhtugquash kah moskehtuwash kah [nenoh] nesh noh teag
noh attannegik kah noh wutche nuppeash
nen aspoh[p]teamuk yu makoo ok ninnechonsog asuh aiyane nuppummetuonk
matta ooweogkehte[.] oonau t sake [oke] ohkeyuit -- nashpe yu ninnitchek -- X
wonk nen Jacobhedge na yu ninitchek --X
nen Ropen wapunnit nayu nitchek -- X
nen monn[o]shkoog na ya ninnitchek--X

92

English

April 17, and the year 1700.

This is a land-sale writing. I Aspohteamuk sell this land of mine that lies at
Ontsonttuit in the (un)nogkom-direction southwestward or westward -- then at
Ontsontuit where it sonkkuttashonk a little northwestward, the boundary goes from
there along the shore of the river. There stands a young cedar tree (?), nuh
uppaukinnohtugkoo the cedar tree (?). Then the boundary proceeds from there towards
the southwest over to Wompsukkookquoppet along the shore of the pond (?). There
stands a pine tree. I Aspohteamuk have marked (?) this pine tree. Then the boundary
turns toward the northwest where the shore of the pond runs (?), then where the bay
runs (?) northwest, nnoh towards a little eastward, where the shore of the pond runs (?),
from where the boundary goes towards the north. It follows along that onttauont until it
goes into the water where lies the pond (?) named Mopakamesik. (For) a little ways it
runs along the water towards wutchepeapamae. Then the boundary goes towards
quaquttaunuat where it sonkkuttashonk. There stands a big white oak along the shore of
the pond. Then the boundary turns towards the east, and it only follows along this river
towards the southwest river over to Ontsontuit where (?) it goes to the beginning.
And I Aspohteamuk convey this land of mine to Naattomppam, or Peter
Kappassuammog, because he makes satisfaction to me for it. I convey to him every
thing--land, and trees, and grass, and everything that grows there and some of the
waters.
This land which I Aspohteamuk sold, my children or my posterity of any kind
(shall) not meddle with it as long as the earth exists.
By this hand of mine (X).
Also I, Jacob Hedge, na this is my hand (X).
I Ropen Wapunnit, this is my hand (X).
I Monnoshkoog na this is my hand (X).

93

Translation Exercise
On the following page is a poem entitled Kehchisog (The Elders). It is written in
English. Translate this poem into Natick-Massachusett. There is no correct answer, only a
Spiritual interpretation you give.

94

Kehchisog (The Elders)

The Elders pray for the rising of the sun

The Elders pray for the setting of the sun
We pray for the Elders
Elders, please pray for the rising of the sun
Elders, please pray for the setting of the sun
The sun rises
The sun sets
The Elders pray

Kehchisog is selected from Wampumpeag, (1996). Newport, RI: Aquidneck Indian Council.

95

PART III
INTRODUCTION TO
MASSACHUSETT (NATICK) GRAMMAR
A reprint of :
John Eliot (1666). The Indian Grammar Begun; or, an Essay to Bring The Indian Language
into Rules for the Help of Such as Desire to Learn the Same for the Furtherance of the Gospel
Among Them. Cambridge, MA: Marmaduke Johnson. (abridged). [Courtesy of the John Carter
Brown Library at Brown University.]

The reprint of Eliots The Indian Grammar was made from 35mm film converted to
electrostatic prints by Micro Image III, Inc. of Everett, MA, and then photocopied. The
photocopy was illegible in a number of places. It was decided that the abridged text should be
retyped since it is so important for readers to understand the bare elements of Natick grammar
provided by Eliot. Adherence to the original text was maintained as much as possible.
Uninformative Latin phrases and the like were omitted and replaced by the ellipsis (). A few
printers errors were corrected in the reproduced text. The special digraph (oo ) is replaced by the
infinity sign, . See GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS for unfamiliar terms in
Reverend Eliots essay.
Figure 5. Facsimile of title page of Indian Grammar Begun, 1666
[Courtesy Annenberg Rare Book and Manuscript Library, University of Pennsylnavia]

96

Grammar is the Art or Rule of Speaking.

There be two parts of Grammar:

1. The Art of making words.
2. The Art of ordering words for speech.
1. By various articulate sounds.
The art of making words, is
2. By regular composing of them.

Syllables.
Words.

Articulate sounds are composed into

The various articulate sounds must be distinguished

Names.
Characters.

By

These Names and Characters do make the Alpha-bet.

Because the English Language is the first, and most attainable Language which the
Indians learn, he is a learned man among them, who can Speak, Reade, and Write the English
Tongue.
I therefore use the same Characters which are of most common use in our English
Books; viz. the Roman and Italick Letters.
Also our Alpha-bet. is the same with the English, saving in these few things following.
1. The difficulty of the Rule about the Letter [c], by reason of the change of its sound in
the five sounds, ca ce ci co cu ; being sufficiently helped by the Letters [k and s.]: We therefore
lay the Letter [c], saving in [ch]; of which there is frequent use in the Language. Yet I do not put
it out of the Alpha-bet, for the use of it in other Languages, but the Character [ch] next to it, and
call it [chee].
2. I put [i] Consonant into our Alpha-bet, and give it the Character [j], and call it ji or
[gi], as this Syllable soundeth in the English word [giant]; and I place it next after [i vocal]. And
I have done thus, because it is a regular sound in the third person singular in the Imperative
Mode of Verbs, which cannot well be distinguished without it: though I have sometimes used
[gh] instead of it, but it is harder and more inconvenient. The proper sound of it is, as the English
word [age] soundeth. See it used Genes. 1.3, 6, 9, 11.
3. We give (v) Consonant a distinct name, by putting together ( f) or (uph), and we
never use it, save when it soundeth as it doth in the word (save, have), and place it next after (u
vocal.) Both these Letters (u Vocal, and v Consonant) are together in their proper sounds in the
Latine word (uva a Vine).
4. We call w (wee) because our name giveth no hint of the power of its sound.
The consonants (l. n. r.) have such a natural coincidence, that it is an eminent variation of
their dialects.
We Massachusetts pronounce the n. The Nipmuk Indiands pronounce l. And the
Northern Indians pronounce r. As instance:

We say

Anum (um produced)

Nipmuck, Alum
Northern, Arum

A Dog, So in most words.

Our Vocals are five: a e i o u. Diphthongs, or double sounds, are many, and of much use.

97

ai

au

ei ee

eu

eau

oi oo .

Especially we have more frequent use of [o and ] than other Languages have: and our
[] doth always sound as it doth in these English words (moody, book).
We use onely two Accents, and but sometime. The Acute() to shew which Syllable is
first produced in pronouncing of the word; which if not attended, no Nation can understand their
own Language ...
produced with the accent, is a regular distinction betwixt the first and second persons
plural of the Suppositive Mode; as

Naumog, If we see : (as in Log .)

Naumog, If ye see : (as in Vogue)

The other Accent is (^), which I call Nasal; and it is used onely upon () when it is
sounded in the Nose, as oft it is; or upon () for the like cause.
This is a general rule, When two (o o) come together, ordinarily the first is produced;
and so when two () are together.
All the Articulate sounds and Syllables that ever I heard (with observation) in their
Language, are sufficiently comprehended and ordered by our Alpha-bet, and the Rules here set
down.
Character.
a
b
c
ch
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m

Name.

bee
see
chee
dee
ef
gee as in geese

ji as in giant
ka
el
em

Character.

Name.

n
o
p
q
r
fs
t
u
v
w
x
y
z

en
pee
keh
ar
es
tee
vf
wee
ex
wy
zad.

Here be 27 Characters: The reason of increasing the number is above.

And I have been thus far bold with the Alpha-bet, because it is the first time of writing
this Language; and it is better to settle our Foundation right at first, than to have to mend
afterwards.
Musical sounds they also have, and perfect Harmony, but they differ from us in sound.
There be four several sorts of sounds or Tones uttered by Mankinde
1. Articulation in Speech.
2. Laughter.
3. Ltation and Joy: of which kinde of sounds our
Musick and Song is made.

98

4. Ululation, Howling, Yelling, or Mourning: and of that kind

and Song made.

of sound is their Musick

In which kinde of sound they also hallow and call, when they are most vociferous.
And that it is thus, it may be perceived by this, that their Language is so full of () and
Nasal.
They have Harmony and Tunes which they sing, but the matter is not in Meeter.
They are much pleased to have their Language and Words in Meeter and Rithme, as it
now is in The Singing Psalms in some poor measure, enough to begin and break the ice withall:
These they sing in our Musicall Tone.
So much for the Sounds and Characters.

Now follows the Consideration of Syllables, and

the Art of Spelling.
The formation of Syllables in their Language, doth in nothing differ from the formation of
Syllables in the English, and other Languages.
When I taught our Indians first to lay out a Word into Syllables, and then according to the
sound of every Syllable to make it up with the right Letters, viz. if it were a simple sound, then
one Vocall made the Syllable; if it were such a sound as required some of the Consonants to
make it up, then the adding of the right Consonant either before the Vocall, or after it, or both.
They quickly apprehend and understand this Epitomie of the Art of Spelling, and could soon
learn to Reade.
The Men, Women, and up-grown Youth do thus rationally learn to Reade: but the
Children learn by rote and custome, as other Children do.
Such as desire to learn this Language, must be attentive to pronounce right, especially to
produce that syllable that is first to be produced; then they must Spell by Art, and accustome their
tongues to pronounce their Syllables and Words; then learn to reade such Books as are Printed in
their Language. Legendo, Scribendo, Locquendo, are the three means to learn a Language.
So Much for the Rule of Making Words.

Now follows the Ordering of them for Speech.

The several sorts of words are called Parts of Speech, which are in number Seven.
1. The Pronoun.
2. The Noun.
3. The Adnoun, or Adjective.
4. The Verb.
5. The Adverb.
6. The Conjunction.
7. The Interjection.
Touching these several kindes of Words, we are to consider,
1. The formation of them asunder by themselves.
2. The construction of them, or the laying them together,
to make Sense, or a Sentence.

99

And thus far Grammar goeth in concatenation with Logick: for there is a Reason of
Grammar. The laying of Sentences together to make up a Speech, is performed by Logick: The
adorning of that Speech with Eloquence is performed by Rhetorick. Such a use and accord there
is in these general Arts.
In the formation of words asunder by themselves,

1. The general Qualifications, or Affections of

words.
Consider 2. The Kindes of Words.

1. In resepct of their Rise whence

they spring.
The Qualifications are 2. In resepct of their Consorts, how
they are yoked.

1 Original words ...

2. Ort words sprung out of other :

In resepct of their Rise some are

Nominals : or Verbs made out of
Nouns.
ChieflyVerbals : or Nouns made out of
Verbs.

Simple words : one alone.

In respect of Consorts, some areCompounded words : when two
or more are made into one.
This Language doth greatly delight in Compounding of words, for Abbreviation, to speak
much in few words, though they sometimes be long; which is chiefly caused by the many
Syllables which the Grammar Rule requires and suppletive Syllables which are of no
signification, and curious care of Euphonie.
So much for the common Affection of words.

Now follow the severall Kindes of words.

Nouns.
1. Chief leading words;
Verbs.

There be two kindes : 2. Such as attend upon, and belong

unto the chief leading words.

100

1. Such as are proper

to each; as Adnouns.

Adverbs.
Attendants on the Chief , are
2. Such as are of common

Pronouns.
use to both as

Conjunctions.
Independent Passions or Interjections come under no Series or order, but are of use in
Speech, to express the passionate minde of man.
Touching the principal parts of Speech, this may be said in general, That Nouns are the
names of Things, and Verbs are the names of Actions; and therefore their proper Attendants are
answerable. Adnouns are the qualities of Things, and Adverbs are the qualities of actions.
And hence is that wise saying, That a Christian must be adorned with as many Adverbs
as Adjectives: He must as well do good, as be good. When a mans virtuous Actions conclude
that the man is well adorned with Adverbs, every one will conclude that the man is well adorned
with virtuous Adjectives.
_____

1. Of the Pronoun.
Because of the common and general use of the Pronoun to be affixed unto both Nouns,
Verbs and other parts of Speech, and that in the formation of them; therefore that is the first Part
of Speech to be handled.
I shall give no other description of them but this, They are such words as do express all
the persons, both singular and plural: as

Neen I .

Neenawun or kenawunWe.

Sing .Ken Thou.

Plu.KenaauYe.
Noh or Nagum He.
Nahoh or Nagoh,They.

There be also other Pronouns of frequent use:

As the Interrogative of Persons: sing. Howan. pl. Howaning, Who.

sing.Uttiyeu or tanyeu.
The Interrogative of things;
pl.Uttiyeush, Which.

sing . Yeuoh , This or that man. Noh

of persons :

pl. Yeug, These men. Nag or neg, They.

Demonstratives
of things : Yeu This. Ne This.

Yeush These. Nish These.

101

 Nawhutchee, some.Tohsuog?

Howmany ?
Monaog, many. Tohsunash

Distributives; as

But because these are not of use in affixing to other Parts of Speech, they may as well be
reckoned among Adnouns, as some do; though there is another Schesis upon them, and they
attend upon Verbs as well as Nouns.
The first and second persons are of most use in affixing both of Nouns and Verbs, and
other Parts of Speech.
The third person singular is affixed with such Syllables as these, Wut. wun. um. . &c.
having respect to Euphonie: And sometime the third person, especially of Verbs, hath no affix.
These Pronouns, (Neen and Ken) when they are affixed, they are contracted into Ne and
Ke, and varied in the Vocal or Vowel according to Euphonie, with the word it is affixed unto; as
N, K , &c.
If the word unto which it is fixed begin with a Vocal, then a Consonant of a fitting sound
is interposed, to couple the word and his affix with an Euphonie: as Nut. kut. num. kum, &c.
I give not Examples of these Rules, because they will be so obvious anon, when you see
Nouns and Verbs affixed.
_____
2. Of a Noun
A noun is a Part of Speech which signifieth a thing; or it is the name of a thing.
The variation of Nouns is not by Male and Female, as in other Learned Languages, and
in European Nations they do.
Nor are they varied by Cases, Cadencies, and Endings: herein they are more like to the
Hebrew.
Yet there seemeth to be one Cadency or Case of the first Declination of the form
Animate, which endeth in oh, uh, or ah; viz. when an animate Noun followeth a Verb transitive
whose object that he acteth upon is without himself. For example: Gen. 1.16. the last word is
anogqsog, stars. It is an Erratum: it should be anogqsoh; because it followeth the Verb ayim, He
made. Though it be an Erratum in the Press, it is fitter in some respects for an Example.

1. Genera, or kindes of nouns.

In Nouns, consider
2. The qualities or affections thereof.
The kindes of Nouns are two; according to which there be two Declensions of Nouns, for
the variation of the number.
Numbers are two: Singular and Plural.
The first kinde of Nouns is, when the thing signified is a living Creature.
The second kinde is, when the thing signified is not a living Creature.
Therefore I order them thus:

Animate.
There be two forms or declensions of Nouns :
Inanimate.
1. The Animate form or declension is, when the thing signified is a living Creature: and
such Nouns do always make their Plural in (og); as,

102

Wosketomp, Man. Wosketompaog. (a) is but for Euphonie.

Mittamwossis, A Woman. Mittamwossissog.
Nunkomp, A young Man. Nunkompaog.
Nunksqua, A Girl. Nunksquauog.
Englishman.
Englishmanog.
Englishwoman.
Englishwomanog.
So Manit, God. Manittg.
Mattannit, The Devil. Mattannittg.
So Ox, Oxesog. Horse, Horsesog.
The Stars they put in this form:
Anogqs, A Star. Anogqsog.
Muhhog, The Body. Muhhogkog.
Psukses, A little Bird. Psuksesog.
Ahtuk, A Deer. Ahtuhquog.
Mukquoshim, A Wolf. Mukquoshimwog.
Mosq, A Bear. Mosquog.
Tummunk, The Beaver. Tummunkquaog.
Puppinashim, A Beast. Puppinashimwog.
Askk, A Snake or Worm. Ask kquog.
Namohs, A Fish. Namohsog. &c.
Some few exceptions I know.
2. The Inanimate form or declension of Nouns, is when the thing signified is not a
living Creature: and these make the Plural ash; as
Hussun, A Stone.
Qussuk, A Rock.

Hussunash.
Qussukquanash.
Of this form are all Vegitables:

Mehtug, A Tree. Mehtugquash.

Moskeht, Grass. Moskehtuash.
And of this form are all the parts of the Body: as
Muskesuk, The Eye or Face. Muskesukquash.
Mehtauog, An Ear. Mehtauogwash.
Meepit, A Tooth. Meepitash.
Meenan, The Tongue. Meenanash.
Mussissittn, A Lip. Mussissittnash.
Muttn, A Mouth. Muttnash.
Menutcheg, A Hand. Menutchegash.
Muhpit, An Arm. Muhpittenash.
Muhkont, A Leg. Muhkontash.
Musseet, The Foot. Musseetash.

103

Of this form are all Virtues, and all Vices: as

Wantamonk, Wisdome.

Waantamongash, or onganash.

All Verbals are of this form, which end in onk, and make their plural in oganash or in
onganash.
All Virtues and Vices (so far as at present I discern) are Verbals, from their activity and
readiness to turn into Verbs.
All Tools and Instruments of Labour, Hunting, Fishing, Fowling, are of this form. All
Apparel, Housing: all Fruits, Rivers, Waters, &c.
So Much for the kindes of Nouns
The common Affections or Qualifications are two:

1.The affixing of the noun with the Pronoun.

2.The ranging them into several Ranks.

1. The way of affixing of Nouns, is the putting or using of the Noun in all the three
persons, both Singular and Plural.
This manner of speech being a new thing to us that know the European or western
Languages, it must be demonstrated to us by Examples.
Metah, the heart.

Nuttah, my heart.
Sing. Kuttah, thy heart.
Wuttah, his heart.

Nuttahhun, our heart.

Pl. Kuttahhou, your heart.
Wuttahhou, their heart.

Menutcheg, A Hand.
Nunnutcheg, my hand. Nunnutcheganun, our hand.

Sing . Kenutcheg, thy hand. Pl.Kenutchegan, your hand.

Wunnutcheg, his hand. Wunnutchegan, their hand

Nunnutcheganash, my hands.
Sing.Kenutchegash, or kenutcheganash, thy hands.
Wunnutchegash or wunnutcheganash, his hands.
Nunnutchegannonut, our hands.
Plu.Kenutcheganwout, your hands.
Wunnutcheganwout, their hands.
Wtu, A House.
Neek, my house.
Neekun, our house.
Sing. Keek, thy house. Pl. Keekou, your house.
Week, his house.
Weekou, their house.
ut, in

104

Neekunonut, in our house.

Neekit, in my house.
Keekuwout, in your house.
Sing. Keekit, in thy house. Pl. Weekuwout, or wekuwomut,
in their house.
Weekit, in his house.

Hence we corrupt this word Wigwam.

So much may at present suffice for the affixing of nouns
Now for the ranging of them into ranks.

The Primitive.
There be three Ranks of Nouns; The Diminutive.
The Possessive.
The same Noun may be used in all these Ranks.
1. The primitive rank expresses the thing as it is: as Nunkomp, a Youth. Nunksqua, a
Girl. Ox. Sheep. Horse. Pig. So Hassun, a stone. Mehtug, a tree. Moskeht, grass or herb.
2. The diminutive rank of Nouns doth lessen the thing, and expresses it to be a little one;
and it is formed by adding, with a due Euphonie (es) or (emes) unto the primitive Noun. For
Example, I shall use the same Nouns named in the first Rank, here in the second Rank: as
Nunkompaes or emes. Nunksquaes or emes. Oxemes. Sheepsemes. Horsemes. Pigsemes.
Hassunemes. Mehtugques, or Mehtugquemes. Moskehtuemes.
And so far as I perceive, these two endings (es and emes) are degrees of diminution:
(emes) is the least.
3. The possessive Rank of Nouns, is when the person doth challenge an interest in the
thing. Hence, as the other Ranks may be affixed, this must be affixed with the Pronoun.
And it is made by adding the Syllable (eum or m, or um) according to Euphonie, unto
the affixed Noun. For Example: Num-Manittm, my God. Nuttineneum, my man.
Nunnunkompm. Nunnunksquaeum. Nutoxineum. Nusheepseum. Nuthorsesum. Nuppigsum.
Nuthassunneum. Nummehtugkm. Nummoskehteum. Nummoskehteumash.
Both the primitive Noun, and the diminutive Noun, may be used in the form possessive; as
Nutsheepsemeseum, and the like.
Nouns may be turned into Verbs two wayes:
1. By turning the Noun into the Verb-substantive form: as Wosketompo, He became a
man. Of this see more in the Verb Substantive.
2. All Nouns that end in onk, as they come from Verbs by adding (onk) so they will turn
back again into Verbs, by taking away (onk) and forming the word according to the Rule of
Verbs; as
Wantamonk is Wisdome; take away onk, and then it may be formed Nwaantam, I am
wise. Kwaantam, Thou art wise, &c. Waantam, He is wise, &c.
_____

105

3. Of Adnouns
An Adnoun is a part of Speech that attendeth upon a Noun, and signifieth the
Qualification thereof.
The Adnoun is capable of the both the Animate and Inanimate forms; and it agreeth with
his leading Noun, in form, number, and person.
For example: Rev. 4.4. there is Neesneechagkodtash nabo yau appuongash, Twenty four
thrones. And Neesneechagkodtog yauog Eldersog, Twenty four Elders. Here be two Nouns of
the several forms, Animate and Inanimate; and the same Adnoun is made to agree with them both.
The Inanimate form of Adnouns end some in i, and some in e.
The Animate form in es, or esu: and those are turned into Verbs by taking the affix. As
Wompi, White Wompiyeuash.
Mi, Black.
Miyeuash.
Menuhki, Strong.
Menuhkiyeuash.
Nchumwi, Weak.
Nchumwiyeuash.
The same words in the Animate form:
Wompesu.
Wompesuog.
Mesu. Mesuog.
Menuhkesu.
Menuhkesuog.
Nchumwesu. Nchumwesuog
Put the affix to these, and they are Verbs.

Numerals belong unto Adnouns, and in them there is something remarkable.

From the Number 5 and upward, they adde a word suppletive, which signifieth nothing,
but receiveth the Grammatical variation of the Declension, according to the things numbered,
Animate or Inanimate. The Additional is (tohs) or (tahsh) which is varied (tohsog, tohsash,
or tohshinash).
For Example:
1
2
3
4

Nequt.
Neese.
Nish.
Yau.

6 Nequtta tahshe.
7 Nesausuk tahshe.
8 Shwosuk tahshe.
9 Paskgun tahshe
10 Piuk. Piukqussuog, piukqussuash.

tohsuog .
tohsuash.

5 Napanna tahshe

As for Example:
Then from 10 to 20 they adde afore the numeral (nab or nabo) and then it is not needful
to adde the following additional, though sometimes they do it.
11 Nabo Nequt.
12 Nabo Neese.

16 Nabo Nequtta.
17 Nabo Nesausuk.

106

13 Nabo Nish.
14 Nabo Yau.
15 Nabo Napanna.

18 Nabo Shwosuk.
19 Nabo Paskgun.

kodtog.
kodtash.

20 Neesneechag

Then upwards they adde to Neesneechag, the single Numbers to 30, &c.
30 Nishwinchag kodtog, kodtash.
40 Yauunchag kodtog, kodtash.
50 Napanna tahshinchag
kodtog, kodtash.
60 Nequtta tahshinchag
kodtog, kodtash.
70 Nesausuk tahshinchag kodtog, kodtash.
80 Shwosuk tahshinchag kodtog, kodtash.
90 Paskgun tahshinchag kodtog, kodtash
100 Nequt pasuk kg. kash.

kodtog.
kussuog.
or
kodtash.
kussuash.

1000 Nequt muttannonganog

The Adnoun is frequently compounded

contracted: as

with the Noun, and then usually they are

Womposketomp, A white man.

Msketomp, A black man.
Menuhkoshketomp, A strong man.
Meuhkekont, A strong leg. Qunuhtug, of qunni, long
Mehtug, Wood or Tree. And this word is used for a Pike.
When the Noun becometh a Verb, then the Adnoun becometh an Adverb.
There is no form of comparison that I can yet finde, but degrees are expressed by a word
signifying more: as Anue menuhkesu, More strong: And Nano More and more. Mcheke, Much.
Peesik or Peasik, Small.
______
[ About one-quarter of the grammar is here given. The balance is almost entirely devoted to the Verb and
its conjugation ]

107

GLOSSARY OF
GRAMMATICAL TERMS
This brief nontechnical glossary is presented for the readers convenience in
understanding the technical terms used in this book and by the grammarian John Eliot (Part III).
Eliot uses British spellings, old fashioned words, and to many readers, he has a strange style of
writing.
Readers who use Trumbulls 1903 dictionary or other technical works may be assisted by
our list of terms in this glossary.

Term

DEFINITION

Abstract noun

Nouns ending in -onk, -onck are "abstract nouns" (indicating a collection

or classification, state of being or action or abstract ideas <justice, love,
truth, strength, &c>).

Accent

see acute, circumflex.

Accommodating t

The letter t is often inserted between prefix/stem and stem/suffix when the
stem begins or ends in a vowel; e.g., the Narragansett word, My land =
nittauke = n' + (t)auke, where the "accommodating /t/" occurs before the
stem auke (land).

Acute/accent

an accent mark used to show which syllables are stressed;

e.g., naumg stresses the second syllable mog (pronounced like vogue).

Adjective
(Adnoun)

a word used to modify a noun; e.g., wmpi = (it is) white (inanimate
form) as in womponak = the white cloth.

Affection

affixing a noun with a pronoun by singular or plural reference (see affix,

singular, plural).

Affix

a prefix, suffix or infix used to change word meaning (see prefix, infix,
suffix). An essential aspect of the language.

Adnoun

Eliots old-fashioned word for adjective.

Adverb

a word used to modify a verb; e.g., checke = slowly.

108

Animate form

an important declension of a noun and other speech parts by referring to a

living thing; e.g., animate plural form is -og such as Manittg (Gods) is
the plural of Manit. Animate form usually refers to human beings,
spirits, animals, some trees, and others things but this is sometimes
arbitrary, and you cant always be sure. See inanimate form.

Cadence

the rhythm or modulation in voice, pitch, etc.; the tempo of a speaker.

Circumflex

the upside-down-v symbol ^ is used to indicate a nasal sound,

usually on the letters a () and o () and sometimes on u (). (see
nasal).

Conjugation

The inflected forms of a verb that indicates the verbs tense, person,
number, voice and mood ; e.g., Eliot conjugates in 30 pages the verb
wadchanat (to keep, protect, save) telling you all possible ways to
inflect this verb (present tense, past tense, future tense, etc.).

Conjunction

a word like and, or, but which conjoins or connects words; e.g., kah =
and.

Connective glide

Letters (usually u, w, y) that occur before vowels in

speech; e.g., for the Narragansett word nnnnuock, we
might say "Nuh-NIN-nuh-wahck (the connective glide is
w).

Consonant

all letters of the alphabet except the vowels (vocals).

Contraction
(Abbreviation)

shortening of a word such as don't = do not; e.g., ne (I) for neen; e.g.,
misadchu is contracted from two words, mishe + wadchu = a large
mountain. This occurs in almost every word and causes difficulties for the
student.

Declension

inflected form for a noun or pronoun by animate/inanimate reference or

singular/plural reference; e.g., an inanimate form (declension) for plural
nouns is given by the suffix -ash such as: hussan (stone, singular) and
hussanash (stones, plural).

Dialect

a variety of a language with regional differences in spelling, pronunciation,

vocabulary, etc. Natick & Narragansett are n-dialects of the MassachusettNarragansett languages of the Algonquian language family. The other
regional dialects of the region are r-dialect of southwestern New England
(such as Wampano)and L-dialect of Northern (north-west) New England
(such as Nipmuck).

Digraph

shorthand symbol for oo -- two letters oh smashed together, and

pronounced like the oo in moody or book; e.g., as koo g. Sometimes in
used for oo ; e.g., askg. We use in this book.

Diminutive

word indicating something smaller in size, etc.; e.g., nipes

is diminutive of nippe (water).

109

Diphthong

double sound; in Eliot some diphthongs are: ai, au, ei, ee, eu eau, oi, oo,
.

Etymology

the study of the origin of words; e.g., the Latin word salary originally
meant salt (as thats how soldiers were paid in ancient Rome -- they
were worth their salt); see root.

Euphony

spelling and sound changes (adding or dropping letters) in a word to make

it easier to pronounce; e.g., the plural of qussuck is made by adding ash,
but we also add (for euphony) the letters quan to give qussuckquanash =
rocks. Also -ash is the pluralization stem for wtu to give wetuomash =
many wigwams. These spelling and sound changes occur very often in
the language.

Frequentative

The "frequentative" or emphatic function is used to emphasize iterative

action or activity that is repetitious as in the word he is constantly
moving = mamonchu (duplication on mamo).

Glottal stop

The "glottal" sound is pronounced by stopping the air at the voicebox and
then suddenly releasing it. English slang "huh uh" contains a glottal stop
before the 'uh'. Sample words in Englishstop, milk

Grammar

the study of the forms and structures of a language; the rules for changing
the meaning of words and sentences in a language. Massachusett grammar
is very complicated, but necessary for understanding the language.

Imperative

Imperative Mode refers to commands or pleadings such as mattapsh =

yousit down!

Inanimate form

a declension of nouns and other speech parts by referring to something

not alive; e.g., inanimate plural form is ash as in hussanash (stones), the
plural form of hussan (stone). See animate form.

Indicative

Indicative mode is a simple statement or question

(intransitive verbs).

Infinitive

Infinitive mode of verbs of the form to____ such as to roast =

apwonat; verbs end in at.

Infix

letters placed in the middle of a word to change meaning; cf. prefix,

suffix.

Inflection

change in the form of a word to change meaning of word; in general,

inflection is not by case, cadence, ending or gender in Natick; e.g., an
(
inflection of the word me tah (the heart) is nuttah (my heart).

110

In composition

as used in writing (or relating to compound words); e.g., esh is not a word
but letters esh indicate sudden or violent motion such as queshau = he
runs. Also refers to variants of basic roots/stems dues to rules of grammar
or speech laws, or spurious missionary recordings which alter the base
elements.

Interjection

an exclamation such as oh! or hey!; e.g., woi (wee) =

oh!

Intransitive verb

a verb not requiring an object in a sentence; e.g., she reads well (no
object of verb read) (cf. transitive verb); e.g., pomushau = he walks, is
on a journey.

Language

what we speak or write to communicate; also includes nonverbal or body

language (paralinguistic phenomena).

Linguistics

the scientific study of human language.

Locative

a locator word indicating where something is; e.g., ut is a locative

meaning at, in, where something is such as kehtompskut = at the great
rock.

Morpheme

a distinctive arrangement of phonemes having no smaller meaningful parts

(as the free form pin or the -s of pins). The smallest units of meaning in a
word.

Nasal

a sound produced in the nose, characterized by resonance produced through

the nose, and much used by Indians; indicated by the circumflex ^; e.g., ,
or are nasal sounds. Also the letters am, om or an, on are pronouced
nasally.

Nominal

a verb made from nouns; e.g., wosketompo = he became a man.

Noun

name of a person, place, thing , idea; e.g., wtu = wigwam (house);

e.g., wantamonk = wisdom.

Object

nouns that are persons or things (see transitive verb, intransitive verb).

Obviation

We define simple obviation: when two nouns (or a pronoun and an animate
noun) in the 3rd person (he/him, she/her, or they/their, or a persons name)
are used in the same sentence with a verb so that the animate noun or
pronoun which is the object of a verb, and the verb take the obviative
endings -ah, -oh, -uh. Used by Eliot (but not by Williams) e.g., in Eliots
Bible, we have Ayim anogqsoh=He made the stars. A hypothetical
obviative Narragansett construction is: Mesh nishuh attuckah = He killed
a deer

Onomatopoetic(imitative) word named after a sound from nature (a bird cry, cutting sound, rain
sounds, etc.);e.g., Narragansett word for one goose (hnck ) is named
after the honking sound they make.

111

Particle

an uninflected word that changes the meaning of words such as: (in
English) up, down, on, off ( sign on, sign off); in Massachusett ut is an
inseparable particle for locatives (location words) such as: kishke
mayut = by the wayside; e.g., -iyeu is a particle (suffix)
used for directions such as sowaniyeu = southward.

Parts of
Speech

In Massachusett we have 8 parts: pronouns, nouns, adjectives (adnouns),

verbs, adverbs, conjunctions, interjections, and prepositions.

Phoneme

any of the elementary units of the speech/sound system of a language that

correspond to a set of similar speech sounds. The smallest identifiable
units of sound in a word.

Phonetic
Spelling

writing words just the way they sound in speech; Natick-Narragansett are
written phonetically (for the most part).

Phonology

the study of speech sounds and speech patterns; study of

pronunciation.

Plural

more than one in number; e.g., wtu = wigwam (singular), and wetuomash
= wigwams (plural); see singular, animate form, inanimate form.

Pluralization stem

suffix making a word plural; e.g., -ash is a pluralization stem for inanimate
nouns; -og is a pluralization stem for animate nouns (see plural).

Possessive

a type of pronoun (see Table of Pronouns, below) or qualification (e.g.,

num-Manitm = my God).

Participle

Verb participles involve , inanimate noun and transitive verbs ending in

ash; e,g, mat mesh nummanenash = I did not take them.

Present definite

Verbs which describe action occurring right now; e.g., sokenoni = It is

snowing now.

Prefix

added letters to front of a word to change the meaning; e.g., meh- or m

(
is a prefix meaning the, a as in m e tah = the heart. See n, k, w.

Prenoun

An element prefixed to a noun to alter its meaning (roughly an adjective

like black = mi which can modify many roots/stems). Some languages
indicate a prenoun with a hyphen.

Preposition

words in English like in, at, to that link words together; e.g., in
Massachusett t is a preposition meaning in, at, to.

Preterit verb

a verb expressing past action or state of being; e.g., monchp = he

departed.

Preverb

A preverb is used with verbs to indicate actions toward a speaker or

participant (roughly an adverbial modifier such as negative market mat-).
Some languages indicate a preverb with a hyphen.

112

Pronoun

words affixed to nouns, verbs, and other speech parts ; e.g., neen = I;
keen = you (thou); noh or nagum = he, she, it; In Part I, see n, k. w.
(see Table of Pronouns, below).

Qualification

the rank of a noun, of which Eliot talks of primitive rank (actual

thing), diminutive rank (the diminutive form), and possessive rank
(using a possessive pronoun for some nouns).

Rank

see qualification.

Reduced vowel

If a stem ends in a consonant and a suffix begins with a consonant, a

reduced vowel (usually /a/, /e/, /i /) is usually added between the stem and
the suffix.

Revival of language

The bringing back of a language or parts of it to some

degree.

Root (radical), stem

essential meaning of a word. Language words usually broken up as prefixroot-suffix; e.g., s-s-k is a root meaning a rattling sound; e.g., ts-p is a
root meaning separated; wmp (white) is a common root (or radical).
A word stem is a modified root (e.g. calls is a stem for the root call);
we may cite a stem or a root to give you the basic meaning.

Semantics

the meaning of words, phrases, sentences -- a major focus

of this book.

Singular

one of something (see plural); e.g., wtu = wigwam

(singular), and wetuomash = wigwams (plural).

Subjunctive

A verb mode referring to subordinate sentences (being that you have

come, When it snows)

Suffix

added letters to end of a word to change the meaning; e.g., the suffix for
abstract nouns or actions is -onk such as watamonk = wisdom; -ash
and -og are common suffixes for pluralizing words.

Syllable

a single sound in a word; e.g., wtu is two syllables: wee,

tu .

Syncope

Shortening of words (loss of letters or syllables in words). In English ,

hello becomes hi.

Syntax

sentence structure, the grammatical arrangement of words, phrases and

sentences more than just the rules of grammar. In Massachusett, the
rules for making new words, phrases,
sentences are extremely complex and not completely understood.

Transitive verb

verb requiring an object; e.g., she reads the book well (cf. intransitive);
e.g., pokshau = he breaks (an object) with force or violence.

113

Verb

action words or states of being ; e.g., queshau = he

leaps; e.g., nwaantam = I am wise. Verbs are very
complicated.

Verbal

nouns made from verbs; e.g., wantamonk = wisdom.

Vocals

spoken sounds in Massachusett: a, e, i, o, u.

Vowels

see vocals.

Word-analysis

the breaking down of a word into its parts and the recognition of the
original meaning of each part. Word-analysis is the main focus of this
textbook.

114

TABLE OF ENGLISH PRONOUNS

SUBJECTIVE POSSESSIVE

OBJECTIVE

first person singular

second person singular
third person singular

I
you
he , she , it

my, mine
you, your
his, her, hers, its

me
you
him, her, it

first person plural

second person plural
third person plural

we
you
they

our, ours
your, yours
them, theirs

us
you
them

singular or plural

who

whose

whom

For example, the third person singular is : he , she , it, his, her, hers, its, him.

115

SOURCES
Several authoritative sources both formal and oral-traditional were consulted for
compiling the Algonquian word elements. We list some additional sources for readers interested
in more general knowledge on culture and language, covering the period up to 2001.

Aquidneck Indian Council Research and Field Notes, 1994-2001.

George Aubin (1972). A Historical Phonology of Narragansett. Providence, RI: Ph.D.
Dissertation, Brown University.
Frederic Baraga (1878, 1992). A Dictionary of the Ojibway Language. St. Paul, MN: Minnesota
Historical Society.
Leonard Bloomfield (1946). Algonquian. In Linguistic Structures in Native America. H. Hoijer
(ed.). New York: Viking Fund Publications.
Kathleen J. Bragdon (1996). Native People of Southern New England, 1500-1650. University of
Oklahoma Press.
Chief Spotted Eagle (no date). Language Lessons. Providence, RI: The Algonquian Indian
School, Rhode Island Indian Council.
Chief Wise Owl (1994). Nipmuck Language.
Victoria Fromklin and Robert Rodman (1974). Introduction to Language. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Burkhard Bilger (1994). Keeping our Words. The Sciences. (Sept./Oct.).
Josiah Cotton (1830). Vocabulary of the Massachusetts (Natick) Indian Language. Cambridge,
MA: Massachusetts Historical Society Collection, Serial 3, Vol. II.
John Eliot (1663). The Holy Bible: Containing the Old Testament and New Translated into the
Indian Language by John Eliot. Cambridge, MA: Samuel Green and Marmaduke Johnson.
(second edition, 1685.)
John Eliot (1666). The Indian Grammar Begun; or, an Essay to Bring The Indian Language
into Rules for the Help of Such as Desire to Learn the Same for the Furtherance of the Gospel
Among Them. Cambridge, MA: Marmaduke Johnson. Reprinted (abridged) in Old South Leaflets
3(57), Boston, 1896; also reprinted in Massachusetts Historical Society Collection, Serial 2,
Volume IX, Boston, MA, 1822 (with notes by P.S. Duponceau, and an introduction and
supplementary observations by John Pickering).
John Eliot (1672). The Logic Primer; Some Logical Notions to Initiate the Indians in the
Knowledge of the Rule of Reasons, etc. Cambridge University Press.

116

Ives Goddard (1978). "Eastern Algonquian Languages". In Bruce Trigger (ed.), Handbook of
North American Indians, vol. 15 (Northeast.). Washington: Smithsonian Institution.
Ives Goddard (1981). Massachusett Phonology: A Preliminary Look. In Papers of the Twelfth
Algonquian Conference, ed. William Cowan, 57-105. Ottawa: Carlton University.
Ives Goddard (Volume Editor, 1996). Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 17.
(Languages) Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.
Ives Goddard and Kathleen J. Bragdon (1988). Native Writings in Massachusett. (Parts 1,2).
Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society.
Daniel Gookin (1792). Historical Collections Of The Indians Of New England: Of Their Several
Nations, Numbers, Customs, Manners, Religion, And Government, Before The English Planted
There. New York: Reprinted Edition (1972), Arno Press.
Walter P. Hagenau. (1962). A Morphological Study of Narragansett Indian Verbs in Roger
Williams A Key into the Language of America. Providence, RI: Brown University (M.A.
Thesis).
John C. Huden (1962). Indian Place Names of New England. NY: Heye Foundation
Lyda E. LaPalombara (1976). An Introduction to Grammar: Traditional, Structural,
Transformational. Cambridge, MA: Winthrop Publishers.
C. Masthay. (1987). New England Indian Place Names. In R.G. Carlson (ed.), Rooted Like the
Ashes: New England Indians and the Land. (Revised Edition). Naugatuck, CT: Eagle Wing
Press, Inc.
Experience Mayhew (1722, 1855). Letter of Exp. Mayhew, 1722, on the Indian Language.
New England Historical and Genealogical Register, Vol. 39, pp. 10-17.
Moondancer (1996). Wampumpeag. Newport, RI: Aquidneck Indian Council.
Moondancer Strong Woman (2000). The word squaw in historical and modern sources: a
position paper. Newport, RI: Aquidneck Indian Council (re-printed [in part] in Indian Country
Today, July, 2000).
Moondancer Strong Woman (2000). Indian Grammar Dictionary for N-Dialect: A Study of A
Key into the Language of America by Roger Williams, 1643. Newport, RI: Aquidneck Indian
Council.
Moondancer Strong Woman (2001). Introduction to the Narragansett Language: A Study of
Roger Williams A Key into the Language of America. Newport, RI: Aquidneck Indian Council.
Benjamin R. Nichols (1882). Index to Cottons Ms. Vocabulary of the Massachusetts (Indian)
language. Boston, MA: Manuscript of the Massachusetts Historical Society.

117

David H. Pentland (26 Aug. 1996). "The Menominee Language in Comparison to English."
(Internet version: http://www.menominee.com/treaty/Pentland.html).
Personal Communications, Members of the Maliseet Tribe, Tobique Band, N.B., Canada, 1999James C. Pilling (1891). Bibliography of the Algonquian Languages. Bureau of American
Ethnology Bulletin 13, Washington.
J. Dyneley Prince and Frank G. Speck . (1904). Glossary of the Mohegan-Pequot Language.
American Anthropologist, N.S., Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 18-45
Sidney S. Rider (1904). The Lands of Rhode Island as They were
Known to Counounicus
and Miantunnomu When Roger Williams Came in 1636. Providence, RI: Sidney S. Rider.
William S Simmons. (1978). Narragansett. In Bruce Trigger (ed.), Handbook of North
American Indians, Vol. 15 (Northeast). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 190-197.
Strong Woman (1999). Succotash. Newport, RI: Aquidneck Indian Council, Inc.
Strong Woman Moondancer (1996). Know It By Its Indian Name. Newport, RI: Aquidneck
Indian Council.
Strong Woman Moondancer (1998a). Bringing Back Our Lost Language. American Indian
Culture and Research Journal, vol. 22, no. 3.
Strong Woman Moondancer. (1998b).Our Indian Languages Carved in Stone, Narragansett
Indian News, vol. 3, no. 4, Apr. 23
Strong Woman Moondancer (1998c) The Rabbit Story Gatherings: The Enowkin Journal
of First North American Peoples, Vol. IX, Fall.
Strong Woman Moondancer (1998d). A Massachusett Language Book, Vol. I. Newport, RI:
Aquidneck Indian Council.
Strong Woman Moondancer (2000-1). Nkas-I Come from Her. (audiocasette)
Iron Thunderhorse (2000). A Complete Language Guide To The Wampano/Quinnipiac R-Dialect
Of Southwestern New England. ACLI Series # 3. Milltown, IN: ACQTC/ACLI.
Milton A. Travers (1976). One of the Keys, 1676-1776-1976. The Wampanoag Indians
Contribution. A List of Words and Definitions from the Language of the Historical Indians of
Southeastern Massachusetts, Cape Cod, Marthas Vineyard, Nantucket and Rhode Island. The
Dartmouth, Massachusetts Bicentennial Commission.
Bruce G. Trigger (Volume Editor, 1978). Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 15
(Northeast). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.
James H. Trumbull (1880). The Indian Tongue and its Literature as Fashioned by Eliot and
Others. In The Memorial History of Boston, Including Suffolk County, Massachusetts, 16301880. J. Winsor (ed.). Boston: James R. Osgood.

118

James H. Trumbull (1881, 1974). Indian Names of Places etc. in and on the Borders of
Connecticut With Interpretations of Some of Them. Hartford, CT: Case, Lockwood & Brainard.
James H. Trumbull (1903). Natick Dictionary. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 25,
Washington.
Roger Williams (1643). A Key into the Language of America:, or, an Help to the Language of
the Natives in that Part of America called New-England. Together, with Briefe Observations of
the Customes, Manners and Worships, etc. of the Aforesaid Natives, in Peace and Warre, in Life
and Death. On all which are added Spirituall Observations, General and Particular by the
Author of chiefe and Special use (upon all occasions) to all the English Inhabiting those parts;
yet pleasant and profitable to the view of all men. London: Gregory Dexter. Reprinted (1973) by
Wayne State University Press, J. J. Teunissen and E. Hinz (eds.).
Edward Winslow (1624 ). Good Newes from New-England : or a true relation of things very
remarkable at the plantation of Plimoth in New England London.
William Wood (1634). New England Prospect. A True, lively, and experimentall description of
that part of America, commonly called New England: discovering the state of that countrie, both
as it stands to our new-come English Planters; and to the old native inhabitants. Laying down
that which may both enrich the knowledge of the mind-travelling Reader, or benefit the future
Voyager. London: Tho. Cotes.

119

This alphabetical index locates the words, phrases and sentences from Part I of the book.
Also, a supplemental list of about 100 terms are defined in this Index itself (e.g., a head = puhkuk).
You should try to analyze these words with the knowledge obtained from Eliots grammar rules
and the roots, etc. we give in Part I; youll be surprised how many words you can recognize (or
parts of) with a little work.
Be sure to look under a, he, I, it, and the for many phrases and sentences.
We follow the convention of using he for third person, singular pronouns (he, she, it)
(e.g., he comes). He comes is understood to mean he comes or she comes. The same
logic applies to the possessive pronouns (his hand is understood to mean his hand or her
hand).
A
a bad smell....................................................19
a brave-braves...............................................69
a burning coal ...............................................17
a difficult matter53
a few days.....................................................49
a fighter, warrior.............................................7
a great man ..................................................26
a great mountain..1, 13, 22, 23, 63
a great thing ..................................................23
a great way....................................................22
a head = puhkuk
a little way ..............................................42, 44
a man ......................................................34, 37
a nose = wutch
a place of reeds and rushes ...........................25
a plant ...........................................................37
a saying.........................................................35
a sharp thing .................................................16
a stream flowing out of a pond or lake .........51
a strong leg = menuhkekont
a strong man = menuhkoshketomp
a time to laugh ................................................2
a way ............................................................20
a white man ..................................................68
abandoned.......................................................9
abandoned land...............................................9
Abenaki ..............................................1, 57, 63
abundance.....................................................24
accommodating t (see -t-)

acorn..69
action ........................................................... 62
action (by hand) ................................10, 27, 34
action by fire (see '-ssum)
action by heat (see -sum)
activities of mind .......................................... 4
adult males..................................................... 4
afar off ......................................................... 33
after.......................................................2, 6, 39
afterwards .................................................... 40
all ................................................................. 18
all alone ....................................................... 35
all tribes are welcome .................................. 63
all, entirely................................................... 63
all kinds of ................................................... 10
almost ........................................................ 2, 8
alone .......................................................19, 35
alone ............................................................ 35
also, again, and ............................................ 69
although ....................................................... 57
amen .............................................................. 2
among .....................................................15, 33
an object....................................................... 50
ancestors = wutchettuonganog
ancient.......................................................... 34
ancient river ................................................. 34
and (see kah, onk) ............................................
and you ........................................................ 13
and, than ...................................................... 38
angle .......................................................27, 29
animal .....................................................35, 52
animal skin................................................... 40

120

animal, beast, living creature........................52

animals, beasts in general .............................44
Annawan.........................................................3
anticipates.....................................................50
any ..........................................................18, 28
any body .........................................................7
anyone ......................................................7, 11
anywhere ......................................................28
appearance ......................................................3
Aquidneck ..........................................5, 81, 84
arm = muhpit
arms (of person)............................................57
around...........................................................66
around about .................................................50
around, circling, wending .............................66
arrow.......................................................16, 48
as far as.......................................28, 41, 51, 66
as far as it extends.........................................51
as long as ......................................................51
as soon as......................................................49
as (like) = neane
a strait or narrows .........................................64
at (see adt, ut)
at extremity..................................................60
at or near the river.........................................62
at that place...................................................33
at the branch, crotch .....................................44
at the cleared land.........................................10
at the crotch of a river...................................69
at the end of ......................................60, 64, 66
at the end of the earth ...................................66
at the end of the pond ...................................66
at the great clearing ......................................14
at the great river............................................14
at the great rock ........................14, 37, 62, 111
at the island.....................................................5
at the place of .........................................33, 43
at the place of meeting..................................33
at the right hand-side ....................................72
at the rock .....................................................38
at the spring or water source.........................57
at, in , where something is ............................60
at, in place of ....................................12, 16, 38
at, in, near, place of ......................................60
at, in, to...........................................................6
at the great rock ......................................14, 62
at the little falls .............................................42
at the place of the cleared land .....................43
at the time of the sun going down.................42
awl (pick)......................................................26
B
bad ..........................................................12, 18
bad rock, ledge .............................................19
bald ...............................................................26
bald, smooth .................................................26

bare(naked) .................................................. 26
bass .........................................................15, 23
bass-many bass .......................................15, 23
be at ............................................................. 55
be there .....................................................4, 45
beans ............................................................ 59
bear (animal)...........................................25, 43
beard = wishit
beast = puppinashim
beasts = puppinashimwog
beautiful day ................................................ 15
beaver .....................................3, 34, 49, 57, 59
beavers........................................34, 49, 50, 59
because ........................................................ 31
because of ...............................................63, 71
bed ................................................................. 4
before..........................................4, 5, 6, 30, 50
before the sun sets.......................................... 5
behind (location) = wuttt
behold = kusseh
below ....................................................2, 8, 42
bends............................................................ 66
bent, crooked ............................................... 66
berry............................................................. 22
between........................................................ 28
between the paths......................................... 28
between streams, brooks (see shawwunk)
beware = ahque
beyond ..........................................1, 38, 65, 70
beyond the river ........................................... 38
big lake ........................................................ 32
bird............................................................... 48
bird wing...................................................... 35
bitter............................................................. 52
bitter, sour.................................................... 52
black .......................................................24, 25
black earth ................................................... 21
black earth (graphite)................................... 21
black snake .........................................6, 23, 24
black wampum............................................. 21
blackberries.................................................. 71
blackish........................................................ 55
blacksnake ................................................6, 24
blood, his = sqheonk
bloom, blossom, burst forth ....................44, 45
blue .............................................................. 40
blue flower................................................... 44
bodies......................................................16, 69
body ......................................11, 17, 23, 26, 57
bog ............................................................... 68
book ........................................................35, 70
border........................................................... 60
born.............................................................. 63
both.................................................1, 9, 28, 64
both sides ....................................................... 9
boundary line (fishing boundary) ................ 37

121

congealed..................................................... 21
congealed liquids ......................................... 17
Connecticut.................................................. 59
connective glide (see u, w, y)
consequently then ........................................ 17
consumed raw ................................................ 6
continuation, permanance = -uhkcool water .................................................... 54
copper .......................................................... 22
cormorants ................................................... 15
corn.............................8, 11, 12, 22, 30, 37, 65
corner..........................................27, 29, 46, 47
corner, recess ..........................................27, 47
councilor ...................................................... 65
cranberry-cranberries................................... 51
crooked .......................................44, 65, 66, 69
crooked, bent ............................................... 69
crooked, winding ......................................... 44
crossing place .............................................. 64
crossing, fording .......................................... 65
crow-crows .................................................. 13
congregation ...............................19, 20, 21, 23
crowd ........................................................... 20
cut through................................................... 13

boundary place .............................................27

bow and arrows ............................................37
boys ..............................................................36
brain, brains, ...........................................21, 44
bread = petuhqunneg
breath............................................................28
briar ..............................................................16
bridge............................................................58
bringing forth................................................31
broad.................................................14, 15, 17
broken [many times] land .............................42
broken up, divided, cultivated .....................46
building.....................................................8, 16
burns ...............................................................8
burst out........................................................42
bursts forth..............................................47, 61
but.................................................................51
by act of ........................................................29
C
can or may = toh
can these things be ? .....................................68
canoe.............................................................22
carry..............................................................15
caused by, issuing from ................................63
Cautantowit (Great Spirit) ..............................8
cave.................................................................6
cavity ............................................................36
cease .............................................................47
cedar tree ......................................................22
ceremony (see Nickommo)...........................31
cherry tree.....................................................50
chestnuts .......................................................68
child........................................................25, 26
circling..........................................................66
clam ..................................................29, 47, 53
claw ..............................................................26
clear, open (such as land) .............................46
clear, transparent pure, shallow (of water) ..46
cleared, divided (as a field)...........................46
closed................................................17, 46, 47
closed up.......................................................15
cloth........................................................24, 68
cold .........................................................54, 56
cold water-spring ..........................................56
collection ....................................19, 20, 21, 23
collection or gathering................19, 20, 21, 23
come (come in, come to, etc.).......................45
command mode (see -ash, -sh. -ish)
commander .....................................................3
common people ............................................11
completely ..............................................17, 47
completeness ................................................42
completion ....................................................14
concealing, hiding...........................................1
concerning ....................................................42

D
dangerous..................................................... 35
dark (purple) shells (see wampum)............. 55
dark color..................................................... 24
dark colored ................................................. 25
daughter = taunoh
day ..........................................5, 12, 15, 47, 68
day light, dawn .......................................63, 64
daytime ........................................................ 15
death ............................................................ 35
deep ............................................................. 24
deep or low land .......................................... 39
deep water.................................................... 40
deer ................................................................ 2
deer (plural) ................................................... 2
deer skin clothing = hogk or ach
den ................................................................. 6
deserted, solitary.......................................... 58
dew .........................................................30, 58
die ...........................................................25, 35
difficult ...................................................17, 53
disdaining (interjection) = quah
dish .........................................................38, 69
dish, bowl, plate......................................38, 69
dish, bowl, plate, so shaped ......................... 69
divided, separated ........................................ 43
division, partition......................................... 47
do not do ...................................................... 59
do not steal................................................... 59
dog ................................................................. 4
doing, dealing, action................................... 62

122

downward ...............................................33, 69
draw near together ........................................21
drink thou .................................................5, 71
dry...........................................................32, 34
dry land.........................................................34
dry place .................................................26, 34
dwell .............................................4, 20, 55, 67
E
each, every....................................................32
eagle .......................................................48, 68
Eagle heart 68
ear = mehtauog
ears ...............................................................65
earth (see ake)
earth, dry land...............................................34
earthen, of earth ............................................37
eastward........................................................68
eat raw stuff ....................................................5
eat, chew.......................................................61
eats..............................................20, 21, 24, 59
eels................................................................30
egg ................................................................69
eight........................................................38, 53
elder..............................................................14
elevated...................................................49, 61
elevated, high................................................61
elevation .......................................................54
embark..........................................................47
empty............................................................18
enclosed place.....................................8, 16, 50
enclosed, inside ............................................45
encourage someone to do something by
saying = ehhoh, hah
end of the earth .............................................66
end of, furthest away ..............................66, 67
enough ..........................................................64
escape, runaway............................................62
Eskimo............................................................5
estuary ..........................................................59
evening = wannonkonk
every day ........................................................5
everyplace, all around...................................50
everywhere on earth .....................................50
evil Spirit (see matche manitoo)..............9, 20
exceedingly...................................................27
except, besides = chaubohkisk
except for......................................................51
exil Spirit ......................................................20
exist ..............................................................55
exist, dwell....................................................55
external covering ..........................................11
extraordinary ................................................19
eye-eyes ........................................................26

F
face-faces..................................................... 26
falls in a tidal river....................................... 43
falls in stream .............................................. 42
falls in stream, water falls, rapids ............... 42
family........................................................... 66
far away ....................................................... 29
far off, away................................................. 29
fare you well ................................................ 70
fat, meat that is fat ....................................... 66
father............................................................ 40
feather .......................................................... 21
feathers = mqununog
female elders................................................ 14
female four-legged animal........................... 54
few ..........................................................36, 49
few, many (used with numbers)................... 49
finish, done, completion .............................. 14
fire ..........................................8, 22, 34, 36, 72
fire water...................................................... 36
first............................................................... 30
firstborn child .............................................. 24
fish . 3, 7, 22, 28, 30, 37, 42, 50, 52, 54, 55, 60
fish hook and line ........................................ 37
fish taken by hook.......................................... 3
fishing-net...................................................... 5
fishing-place .............................................7, 14
five............................................................... 28
flat.................................................4, 43, 46, 48
flat land.......................................................... 4
flat stone ...................................................... 48
flat, flat land, low land................................. 43
floating, appearance of................................. 59
flow.............................................................. 41
flower........................................................... 61
fluid grease .................................................. 48
fog................................................................ 44
fog, smoke ................................................... 44
folk of an area .............................................. 33
food.........................................................21, 65
foot............................................................... 26
for, from, therefore, because........................ 31
forest............................................................ 56
forever.......................................................... 21
fork (as in a river) ........................................ 45
fork-tailed bird............................................. 45
fort ..........................................................19, 68
four .....................................29, 54, 71, 98, 106
four times..................................................... 71
fox...........................................................44, 69
fragment....................................................... 16
freedom (see chepaiyeuonk)
freely, completely, thoroughly..................... 47
freeman ........................................................ 37
freezes.....................................................49, 58

123

friend ....................................31, 37, 58, 66, 70

friend, kinsman.............................................58
from thence...................................................72
from, because of, on behalf of, therefore, it
proceeds from ...........................................71
frost (see taquttin)......................................56
frozen............................................................56
frozenground ................................................56
fruit ...............................................................22
fully ..............................................................17
further on ......................................................40
future marker ................................................44
G
gathering.....................................19, 20, 21, 23
ghost ...............................................................9
gift ..........................................................18, 21
giving thanks ..................................................4
glistening ......................................................68
go away !, you go! = amash
go backwards..................................................5
God .........................................................14, 28
goes before in time, anticipates ....................50
good afternoon..............................................49
good land ......................................................70
good morning ...............................................24
good things ...................................................70
goose-geese ..................................................11
gourd...............................................................6
grain..............................................................22
grain, corn, fruit (small)................................22
Grandmother...................................................9
Grandmother (Duda) ......................................9
graphite (lead)...............................................21
grass....................................................6, 19, 25
grass or hay...................................................19
grass or herb ...........................................19, 25
gray...............................................................68
great..................................................18, 22, 23
great buck (deer) = kuttomp
great fishing place.........................................79
great fishing-place ........................................14
great hill brook .............................................19
great hill brook .............................................19
great house....................................................22
great intensity ...............................................25
great land beyond the earth...........................65
great mountain..............................................22
Great Spirit .....................................................8
great thing.....................................................23
great things ...................................................24
great tree .......................................................24
great way ......................................................22
greatness .......................................................25
great white bird.......................................48, 68
green .....................................................5, 6, 53

green tree ................................................... 5, 6

grey fox........................................................ 44
grove ............................................................ 17
gum.............................................................. 15
H
half............................................................... 47
half-wayplace .........................................28, 29
hair of animals = meesunk or weshagan
hand ............................................................. 69
happiness ..................................................... 70
harbor........................................................... 16
hard.............................................................. 17
hard (as stone).............................................. 53
hardwoods (birch)........................................ 44
harsh ............................................................ 17
harvest time ................................................. 31
hatchet.......................................................... 11
haven ........................................................... 16
haven, refuge ................................................. 1
having .......................................................... 29
hawk ............................................................ 70
he ................................................................ 65
he (it) is white ............................................. 68
he (it) grows................................................. 31
he became a man = wosketompo
he blows (whales, whaling) ......................... 47
he breaks it by hand ..................................... 61
he burns it (see -sum)
he cannot live long = pausawut
kitonckquban
he comes .................................................40, 45
he conquers.................................................... 3
he counts or reads ........................................ 36
he cuts it off ................................................. 59
he cuts or gashes .....................................31, 62
he descends, comes from ............................. 38
he devours.................................................... 25
he does by self ............................................. 35
he does, he did ............................................ 62
he does, moves............................................. 62
he dwells and abides .................................... 33
he eats ...............................................20, 21, 24
he eats him................................................... 24
he errs .......................................................... 41
he fears him ................................................. 50
he fishes with a hook ..................................... 7
he flies ......................................................... 48
he goes by boat (canoe) .............................. 22
he goes astray, wanders ............................... 65
he goes away.................................................. 3
he goes back ................................................ 50
he goes backwards ..................................... 5, 6
he goes before.............................................. 30
he goes below ................................................ 2
he goes by flying.......................................... 48

124

he goes by sea...............................................48
he goes by water ...........................................33
he goes down ................................................69
he goes down (downhill) ..............................65
he goes downward, descends........................33
he goes forth .................................................54
he goes forward ............................................18
he goes in, enters ..........................................45
he goes in, enters, is going in........................45
he goes now (is on his way)............................7
he goes or comes near...................................42
he goes quickly, runs to ................................62
he goes to a place..........................................39
he goes to and fro ...........................................7
he goes up, rises............................................63
he goes upwards ...........................................17
he goes, departs ............................................24
he has a purpose or purposes ........................15
he has not yet come = as peyau
he himself, she herself ..................................71
he holds it strongly .......................................19
he hunts ..........................................................1
he is a captive ...............................................23
he is coming with your brother = wche peyau
keemat
he is a good man ...........................................70
he is angry ....................................................26
he is at rest......................................................8
he is born ......................................................31
he us fast, quick = kenuppe
he is free, unbound .......................................37
he is gone........................................................6
he is happy (see -iyeu) ..................................70
he is hungry ..................................................61
he is like me..................................................32
he is more great than I ..................................38
he is naked ....................................................48
he is near water.............................................58
he is not at home...........................................19
he is old ..................................................14, 18
he is tall = qunnauqussu
he is thankful ................................................56
he is there........................................................7
he is white = wompesu
he jumps .......................................................49
he jumps, leaps .............................................49
he leads .........................................................30
he leaps .........................................................49
he leaps, jumps .............................................49
he leaves off....................................................2
he licks his paw ............................................25
he lives..........................................................47
he loves it................................................62, 68
he made the stars ..........................................36
he makes peace .........................................4, 70
he makes war ..................................................7

he moves...................................................... 18
he moves in the air....................................... 48
he plays, is playing ...................................... 47
he pours out ................................................. 54
he prays........................................................ 44
he presents ................................................... 18
he proceeds .................................................. 18
he pursues, follows ...................................... 34
he puts it into ............................................... 44
he rests on it................................................. 49
he returns ..................................................... 50
he rises and comes forth (of the rising sun) . 42
he runs ....................................................49, 50
he scratches, tears things.............................. 31
he sees it ...................................................... 29
he separates himself, goes apart..................... 8
he shoots ...................................................... 48
he shows himself ........................................... 3
he sings ........................................................ 61
he sits ....................................................4, 8, 49
he sits down ..........................................4, 8, 49
he sits on (it) ................................................ 49
he sleeps..................................................49, 52
he strikes, deals a blow ................................ 57
he strives after................................................ 2
he talks lies .................................................. 42
he trims ........................................................ 25
he trims trees................................................ 25
he turns, changes course .............................. 50
he turns, deviates ......................................... 43
he walks ....................................................... 26
he who goes on foot, walks......................... 41
he, she ...............................................11, 27, 33
he, she, it...........................................11, 27, 33
head ................................4, 23, 24, 58, 61, 120
headdress = chetuhquab
heap ............................................................. 29
heaped up..................................................... 19
(
heart (see me tah )
heavy ........................................................... 50
he builds his house....................................... 66
he buries him ............................................... 48
he comes from a place ................................. 39
he cooks meat ...........................................4, 40
he dances ..................................................... 20
he departs..................................................... 70
he divides it in two....................................... 47
he dwells and abides .................................7, 33
he entered the house .................................... 45
he gives ourishment ..................................... 66
he goes,went ................................................ 39
he goes after................................................. 39
he goes after him............................................ 6
he goes in the dark ....................................... 43
he goes to and fro......................................7, 39
he honors, shows respect, to him ................. 51

125

height............................................................54
he is humble-minded ....................................44
he loves it......................................................33
hemp ...............................................................5
he prays ........................................................44
here, there, where, hence, thence, this,thus...71
he returned there from___ ............................71
he runs ....................................................49, 50
he speaks.......................................................18
he stands .......................................................30
he stands erect ..............................................25
he was with me .............................................66
hide (of animal) ............................................40
high.............................................10, 16, 17, 61
high land .................................................17, 61
high place .....................................................16
high, elevated................................................49
high, high land........................................10, 17
hill................. 1, 2, 9, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 63, 65
his body ........................................................26
his father..33, 40
his (her) heart..........................................21, 71
his (her) house ..............................................66
his brother.....................................................36
his father .......................................................40
his heart ............................................21, 62, 71
his name is ____ = kennou (or) kennau ____
his shoe (mocassin).......................................23
ho!...................................................................9
hole .........................................................36, 46
Holy Man......................................................43
hoof...............................................................26
hook, so shaped ............................................60
horn (animal) = taskon
horse .............................................................29
horses............................................................53
hot.................................................................17
hot house.......................................................44
house, dwelling.............................................67
how are you ? ...............................................57
how many winters ?......................................56
how much, how many ?................................56
human being .................................................32
hunting....................................................1, 4, 7
husband = wasuk
I
I.............................................................30
I am glad, I rejoice........................................33
I am he ..........................................................30
I am pleased with it.......................................34
I am pretty well, thank you...........................35
I am in pain = nutonkquomom
(
I am sick = nummohtch i num
I am still alive .................................................6
I am very tired ..............................................41

I amwell minded .................................4, 27, 33

I am white = nwompes
I am wise = nwaatam
I am wise...................................................... 62
I cut.............................................................. 59
I eat ...................................................20, 21, 24
I go..........................................................34, 38
I go (Narr.)..............................................34, 38
I go to my people =
nuttm nummissinninneumut
I have a fever ............................................... 34
I have seen you ............................................ 17
I havent seen you for a long time ............... 19
I live..........................................................5, 47
I love...................................................9, 34, 70
I love you..................................................9, 34
I make ............................................................ 7
I meditate, pray ............................................ 35
I rejoice........................................................ 33
I say ......................................32, 33, 35, 61, 62
I see (it)........................................................ 28
I tell the truth ............................................... 35
I thank you................................................... 56
I think .......................................................... 61
I will never see you again ............................ 20
I, my (contraction) ....................................... 29
ice .............................................................8, 17
I eat .............................................................. 20
I keep it = nwadchanumun
I keep my corn =
nwadchanumunash nwatchimineash
I love.34, 64, 68
I love a book ................................................ 70
I marry ......................................................... 27
I must die ..................................................... 25
I wish to keep it = nwaadchanumun toh
if = tohneit
if you see = naumg
if ye see = naumog
in (see, ut)
in a corner .................................................... 46
in a place...................................................... 55
in his house = weekit
in my house = neekit
in our house = neekunonut
in thy (your) house = keekit in the four corners
of the earth.71
in the hill country......................................... 63
in the manner of........................................... 36
in the middle of............................................ 33
in the middle of the river ............................. 33
indefinite activity (see -atch)
Indian priest (Powwas) ................................ 43
inhabitantof.................................................. 70
instead, again ............................................... 33

126

instrumentortool .....................................11, 57
intensity ........................................................25
into a high mountain.....................................10
is it not? ........................................................55
is it? ..............................................................55
is not yet .........................................................6
island ............................................5, 10, 19, 26
island place ...................................................26
it becomes greater.........................................28
it begins ..................................................13, 17
it burns............................................................8
it burst forth ..................................................61
it comes ......................................41, 45, 62, 69
it comes from there.......................................69
it comes to ....................................................41
it covers ........................................................11
it crosses, goes across ...................................47
it ends ...........................................................67
it exists..........................................................56
it extends.......................................................54
it extends as far as.........................................41
it extends to ..................................................66
it goes away ....................................................3
it goes from.............................................37, 39
it goes through ..............................................48
it grows.........................................................15
it has myself..................................................37
it increases more and more ...........................28
it is a day.......................................................15
it is above......................................................63
it is ancient....................................................14
it is at the end of ...........................................60
it is clear or plain ..........................................41
it is completed ..................................18, 41, 72
it is done .................................................41, 72
it is dry..........................................................34
it is evening ............................................62, 70
it is evident ...................................................41
it is exceedingly good...................................27
it is far off .....................................................33
it is fierce or violent........................................8
it is good .......................................................70
it is great .....................................14, 22, 23, 24
it is hollow ....................................................48
it is little, small .............................................45
it is little, small .............................................45
it is long ..................................................49, 52
it is old..........................................................14
it is one .........................................................42
it is right or just ............................................51
it is separated ..................................................8
it is snowing now = muhpwi
it is so ...........................................................60
it is so long ...................................................54
it is straight ...................................................51
it is superior ..................................................14

it is there ...................................................... 37
it is true ........................................................ 60
it is very great, vast...................................... 14
it is warm ..................................................... 15
it is well ....................................................... 40
it is white = wompiyeu
it is wide ...................................................... 17
it leaps and bounds ...................................... 49
it lies (there)................................................. 36
it lies there ..............................................53, 60
it lies there, thus........................................... 60
it makes an angle ....................................27, 29
it may be .................................................41, 57
it originates .................................................. 17
it passes........................................................ 18
it proceeds from ........................................8, 38
it reaches a point .......................................... 19
it rolls........................................................... 59
it says the truth............................................. 69
it spreads out, extends.................................. 52
it springs up, shoots up (as a plant).............. 54
it stands there............................................... 30
it stinks......................................................... 12
it turns.......................................................... 50
it was done................................................... 60
it waves, flows in waves .............................. 59
its raining now............................................ 12
it is a long time .............................................. 8
it is dark ..................................................46, 47
it is evening.................................................. 70
it is green ....................................................... 5
it is hard ....................................................... 21
it is late .......................................................... 8
it is raw .......................................................... 5
it is strong .................................................... 21
(
it is sweet = we konne
it makes an angle ....................................27, 29
its length ...................................................... 31
it pours out (see sohkissum)
it was cold = tohkoi
I who continue to be .................................... 15
I will be wise ............................................... 16
J
jointly........................................................... 23
journey......................................................... 47
just ............................................................... 51
just (right) .................................................... 51
K
keen ............................................................. 13
keen (sharp) ................................................. 13
keep us ......................................................... 63
keep, protect, watch over us ........................ 63
kinds of things ............................................. 10

127

King (see Sachem)........................................54

King Philips War.........................................23
kinsmen ........................................9, 31, 32, 43
know, known ................................................65
L
lacking ..........................................................31
lake ...................................................32, 43, 51
lance .............................................................49
land (see ake)
large (plural) .................................................18
large tree = massatugk
lately = paswu
laugh ...............................................................2
leaf................................................................70
least.........................................................10, 36
leg = muhkont
length............................................................51
lest (for fear that) = ishkont
lets go = monchetuh
let it be so = nuxyeuutch
let it not be so = mattayeuutch
let us love one another..................................68
level ..........................................................4, 46
lift .................................................................61
light in color .................................................66
like so = netatup
likewise.........................................................29
life (see ketae)
like so = netatup
lip = mussissittn
little bird = psukses
little birds = psuksesog
little cove ........................................................6
little creek .......................................................6
little house ....................................................44
little island ..............................................10, 26
little pond......................................................43
little way .................................................42, 44
little woman..................................................61
live (to live) ............................5, 26, 44, 47, 66
living creature...............................................35
living life ......................................................47
lobster .............................................................6
long...............................................................50
long fish (eel, lamprey).................................50
long house.....................................................50
long pond......................................................50
long river ......................................................52
long stone = quinashin
long time.......................................8, 19, 33, 82
look out.........................................................20
look! ...............................................................9
love that which is good.................................68
loving............................................................65
loving or wise ...............................................65

low land ....................................................... 43

lying down (see -sin)
M
made of skins............................................... 12
magistrates..................................................... 9
male elders..............................................13, 14
male child ...............................................25, 26
man .... ..11, 14, 19, 21, 24, 26, 28, 32, 33,
34, 37, 44, 51, 65, 68, 70, 71
manifestation ................................................. 3
Manittoo ...................................................... 19
manner of...............................................12, 36,
many (used with numbers)........................... 49
many fish ................................................28, 55
many friends ................................................ 31
marked rock ................................................... 8
marshy, muddy ............................................ 69
marveling (interjection) = h (or) h
Massasoit ....................................20, 27, 40, 54
maybe .......................................................... 55
meadow...................................................21, 26
meadow (reeds, rushes) ............................... 26
means of....................................................... 29
meat, flesh.................................................... 67
meditating .................................................... 29
meeting .................................19, 20, 21, 23, 33
middle,between.......................................28, 33
midway ........................................................ 28
mill (pounding) stone................................... 57
mind (states of) .............................................. 4
mist ...................................................40, 44, 55
mixed ........................................................... 15
money = monash (Narr.)
month........................................................... 30
moon .......................................................30, 31
moon lodge .................................................. 20
moonlight..................................................... 66
moonlodge ................................................... 67
moose........................................................... 25
more (of something) = anue
more and more (of something) = nano
more strong = anue menuhkesu
moreover...................................................... 28
morning...................................................22, 24
morning star................................................. 22
most ......................................................2, 8, 67
mother.......................................................... 37
Mother Earth (land, country, etc.).................. 7
motion words (verbs)................................... 39
mountain .........1, 10, 13, 22, 50, 57, 63, 64, 65
mountain lion.............................................. 50
mountain and hill ..............................13, 22, 63
mountain, hill............................................... 63
mountains .................................................... 63
mountains, hills........................................... 65

128

mouth-mouths...............................................27
move .............................................................18
much .......................................................16, 48
much wood .......................................11, 22, 60
much .......................................................16, 48
muchless .......................................................36
muddy or miry ..............................................45
muddy or miry pond .....................................45
musical instrument........................................48
my back ........................................................26
my beloved Sachem......................................27
my bone = muskon
my belly = nunnogkus
my body = nuhog
my brother ....................................................30
my daughter = nuttaunoh
my father = nsh
my foot = nusseet
my friends.....................................................31
my grandfather = nummissoomis
my head = npuhkuk
my heart......................................21, 25, 27, 35
my heart is good ...........................................35
my heart is pure, good = wunnta nt (Narr.)
my herb...................................................10, 25
my house.................................................27, 30
my kinsman, kinswoman ..............................35
my land .....................................................7, 32
my mouth = nuttn
my name is ____ = ussoweneg ____
my offspring .................................................38
my people = nuttawaog
my sister .......................................................30
my son = nunnaumon
my tree..........................................................39
my grandmother = nokummus
my hand ........................................................69
my heart is good ...........................................25
my mother.....................................................37
my wife = nummittamwus
N
nail (of paw) .................................................26
naked ............................................................26
name .................................................14, 26, 67
Narragansett..................................................27
narrow.....................................................17, 28
narrow passage, crossing place.....................64
narrow river ..................................................58
nearby ...........................................................42
neck of land ............................................20, 38
negation ........................................................38
negative ..................................................18, 19
nest (especially a birds)...............................63
new ...............................................................53

Nickommo ................................................... 31
night............................................................. 34
nine .............................................................. 42
no = matta
none ............................................................. 38
noontime ...................................................... 47
north wind...............................................28, 42
northward, the north .................................... 28
northwards, towards the north ..................... 55
not................................................................ 20
not any ......................................................... 64
not yet ............................................................ 6
nothing....................................................19, 23
now .....................................................7, 12, 71
numbers (see Part III)
nuts ................................................................ 3
O
oak ............................................................... 43
ocean............................................................ 14
ocean, sea = kitthan
of calling (calling someone) = hoh (or) chuh
of continuing action = -unk
of northland, winter ..................................... 42
of unexpected happening (interjection) = hap
of winter, northland ..................................... 42
offspring ...................................................... 38
often............................................................. 18
oh!................................................................ 68
oil................................................................. 48
old land .......................................................... 9
on both sides of.............................................. 1
on the other side............................1, 36, 38, 70
one (see nquit, pasuck)
one (number) (see Part III)
one moon ..................................................... 30
oneness ........................................................ 42
onion country............................................... 67
onion, wild shallot ....................................... 66
only, alone ................................................... 29
on this side of................................................. 4
on thiss ide................................................... 71
on top of the mountain................................. 64
open ............................................................. 41
open (as land) .............................................. 46
open country ................................................ 46
open, spread out land, materials................... 41
opossum....................................................... 64
or = asuh
orchard........................................................... 2
origin, source ............................................... 38
original......................................................... 30
O Spirit ........................................................ 14
other, another..........................................38, 69
Ousa Mequin, Massasoit.........................27, 40
out from ....................................................... 11

129

outdoors, without..........................................46
out from ..................................................54, 55
outlet of waterway ........................................51
owl................................................................38
oysters.......................................................4, 40

protect us ..................................................... 63
Providence River ......................................... 64
pure (of water) ............................................. 46
purple........................................................... 55
Q

P
paint, pigment for painting ...........................38
panther..........................................................50
parents = chetuonganog
part..................................................................8
part of ...........................................................47
parts, into parts ...............................................9
passage .........................................................65
passing on .....................................................18
past .........................................................18, 19
past tense preverb marker = mesh, mes (Narr.)
past tense marker = -up, -op, -ip
path ...............................................................20
path, trail.......................................................20
Pautuxet........................................................42
Pawtucket ...............................................42, 79
peace.........................................................4, 70
peace and farewell ..........................................4
peace camp .....................................................4
peace or treaty camp.......................................4
pear-pears .....................................................69
peewee..........................................................45
people ...........................7, 9, 11, 32, 33, 69, 70
Pequot...........................................................44
perhaps .........................................................41
periwinkle (black wampum).........................21
pigeon ...........................................................70
pile................................................................29
pine, fir .........................................................16
pine, fir tree ..................................................16
place, place of (see -et, -ut)
place of little pond ........................................43
place of observation......................................20
place of residence ...........................................7
place separated or apart ................................42
place where something is..............................16
place where two streams meet ......................53
plant................................................................6
point of extremity .........................................60
point of land..................................................27
point of rock .................................................27
Pokanoket(Wampanoag) ..............................43
possession of, trait =-eke
pour out ........................................................53
pour out, rain (onomatopoetic root).............53
praying..........................................................29
presently (now) = teanuk
principal..................................................14, 17
pronoun forms ..................................13, 27, 62
proper ...........................................................42

quahog ......................................................... 47
question (where, who, what, how)............... 57
quite a bit ................................................16, 48
R
rabbits = wuhtukquasog accoon-raccoons ..... 7
rain..........................................................53, 54
rapids ........................................................... 42
rattlesnake.................................................... 52
rattle = asq
rattling.......................................................... 55
raw flesh ........................................................ 5
raw hide ......................................................... 6
raw animal skin (hide) ................................. 40
red...................................22, 25, 26, 50, 54, 69
red earth ............................................22, 25, 69
red fish ......................................................... 22
red fish (salmon).......................................... 54
red fox.......................................................... 22
red kettle (copper)........................................ 22
red tree (a cedar tree) ................................... 22
red fish ......................................................... 54
reeds or rushes ............................................. 25
relatives.........................................9, 31, 32, 43
repeated strokes ........................................... 57
respect, honor .............................................. 51
rising up ....................................................... 37
river .. 1, 14, 25, 33, 34, 38, 43, 45, 48, 51, 52,
58, 59, 62, 64, 65, 69
rivers ............................................................ 52
roast ............................................................... 4
rock ...... 6, 8, 14, 19, 27, 37, 38, 45, 48, 50, 62
rock in the sea .............................................. 48
rotten meat ................................................... 48
rough.......................................................16, 17
rough paths or ways..................................... 17
round about.................................45, 48, 65, 66
round loaf of bread or cake.......................... 45
round things, round about ............................ 66
round, round about....................................... 48
run.....................................................41, 49, 62
runaway,escape............................................ 62
running water................................................. 8
S
sachems wife .............................................. 51
salmon.....................................................22, 54
salt water.................................................34, 52
salt water (undrinkable water) ..................... 34

130

sand bank (dune)...........................................48

sandy place ...................................................27
satisfied with.................................................63
saying ...........................................................35
saytothem......................................................62
scant..............................................................31
sea.................................................................48
second (in order) = nahohteu
section of land, a neck of land ......................38
see it........................................................28, 55
seek...............................................................29
separate.........................................................46
separate, apart.................................................8
separated.............................8, 9, 42, 43, 46, 58
separated place ...............................................8
serpent ..........................................................53
seven.............................................................31
sever .............................................................13
shakingmarsh................................................49
shallow (of water ..........................................46
sharp .....................................13, 14, 15, 16, 60
sharp (keen) ..................................................13
sharpstone.....................................................15
she is not at home ........................................20
she is in the moon lodge ...............................20
shell ................................................1, 3, 11, 64
shells...............................................................3
shining ..........................................................68
shining, glistening, slippery..........................68
shining forth = wohsumoonk
shoes (mocassins) .........................................23
short..............................................................31
shut in ...........................................................16
side-to-side .......................................14, 15, 17
sister .................................................30, 31, 37
sit ....................................................................4
sitting..............................................................4
six .................................................................31
skins of animals (dressed).............................60
skunk ............................................................54
slippery .........................................................68
slowly .............................................................8
small body of fresh water .................10, 32, 35
small mountain, small hill ............................63
small pond ..............................................36, 79
small, little in quantity..................................36
smaller = peesik (or) peasik
smaller cove, creek .........................................7
smaller creek...................................................7
smallest of something .............................10, 36
smoke ...........................................................44
smooth ..........................................................26
smooth stone.................................................25
smooth, bald, bare.........................................25
snake...............................................................6
snake, serpent ...............................................53

snapping or sea turtle................................... 58

snow (see schepo).............................8, 16, 45
so (like so) = nemehkuh
so far .............................................................. 2
so many........................................................ 56
some............................................................. 18
something, anything..................................... 56
son = naumon
soon ........................................................42, 49
sorrow (interjection) = woi (or) wee
sour .............................................................. 52
south .......................................................13, 54
south land, place .......................................... 54
southward, towards the south ...................... 54
speak Indian to me ......................................... 9
spear, lance .................................................. 49
speedy .......................................................... 15
spider web...................................................... 5
spirit..........................................................9, 28
Spirit ...................................................3, 14, 20
spirit of God................................................. 28
spot ................................................................ 9
spring fish .................................................... 52
spring of water ..........................................5, 57
Spring season............................................... 52
squash ............................................................ 6
squaw........................................................... 54
squirrel......................................................... 22
standing........................................................ 25
standing tree, products of wood................... 60
standing, upright hard rock .......................... 37
star ..........................................................22, 26
steep descent................................................ 69
stick (noun).................................................. 23
sticky (like mud).......................................... 55
still ................................................................. 4
still, level, flat (as water or land) ................. 46
stone .. 8, 11, 12, 15, 18, 25, 28, 30, 37, 48, 50,
53, 57
stone path..................................................... 18
stop! ............................................................. 28
straight ......................................................... 51
strait or narrows ......................................64, 66
strange.......................................................... 41
strawberries.............................................36, 71
stream ...................................17, 24, 42, 51, 58
stretch .......................................................... 57
string............................................................ 60
string of white shell beads ..................1, 60, 64
strong ..........................................19, 21, 36, 51
stronghold .................................................... 21
sturgeon (fish) = kposh
subsequently then ........................................ 17
sufficient ...................................................... 56
summer ........................................................ 31
summit ..............................................16, 38, 64

131

sun ..............................5, 15, 26, 32, 42, 49, 65

sun or moon ..................................................26
sun-down ......................................................42
swamp.....................................................18, 68
swamp, marsh...............................................68
sweat lodge ...................................................44
swift..............................................................25
swift, violent motion.....................................52
T
tall.................................................................49
tall tree..........................................................50
tall, long........................................................50
talon..............................................................26
teaching = -teaonk
ten .................................................................48
thanks for that = tabotnee
thank you ................................................35, 56
Thanksgiving = tabuttantamoonk
that way = ne nogque
that which is great...........................................4
that which is sharp ........................................14
the (with dates) .............................................57
the body (see -hog)
the city (village) is large and great ...............14
the forest .................................................58, 60
the four corners of the earth..........................71
the head ..................................................24, 61
the heart ..................................................18, 21
the heart (human)....................................18, 55
the hill country................................1, 9, 10, 63
the name of this is (its called) = ussowetamuk
the north wind...............................................28
the old ways (ancient paths) .........................34
the sea...........................................................65
The Spirit of thr Creator ...............................28
the sun is hot.................................................15
the sun went away (down) ............................65
the tree of life = ketaemehtugk
the whole earth .............................................19
the wind ..................................................63, 65
the woods......................................................17
the woods (forest) .........................................67
the world.......................................................23
the ancient ways ...........................................20
the Devil .......................................................20
the earth is cold.............................................54
the five hills ..................................................28
the future.......................................................45
the giver of life on earth ...............................37
the height of it...............................................54
their...............................................................71
then ...................................................13, 17, 30
there (see na, ut, Part I)
the old are wise.............................................14
there is a white frost .....................................58

there is much................................................ 24
there is no water........................................... 32
there is only one Creator (or God) ............... 42
there was.................................................28, 64
thereat, thereat, therein ................................ 29
therefrom, thence, hence.............................. 29
there is land enough..................................... 63
there was no one left alive ........................... 64
these......................................32, 52, 60, 67, 71
these are ancient things................................ 71
these things .............................................68, 71
the setting of the sun...............................42, 65
the spirit (breath) of man ............................. 28
the Spirit of God .......................................... 28
they = nahoh (or) nagoh
they are assembled....................................... 23
they are great things.................................... 24
they are just like us ...................................... 32
they are laughing = ahhuock
they are many persons ................................. 24
they don't have a place................................. 20
they go by boat (canoe) ............................... 22
they go in pairs ............................................ 30
they journeyed ............................................... 7
they went on their way................................... 7
they were not ............................................... 20
they, them .................................................... 27
they go by boat (canoe) ............................... 22
thick wood ................................................... 17
thing............................................................. 56
thing in the earth ............................................ 6
thing, something, anything .......................... 56
third (in order) = nishwu
this is............................................................ 29
this is my land.............................................. 32
this men ....................................................... 71
this or that man .......................................11, 71
this place...........................................29, 31, 71
this same person........................................... 33
this same stone........................................28, 30
this thing ...........................................29, 31, 71
this way = yeu nogque
this, that ..................................................29, 30
thither........................................................... 10
thorn............................................................. 16
thoroughly, completely ................................ 41
those (animate forms) .................................. 34
three ............................................................. 32
thunder......................................................... 30
thus .......................................10, 60, 61, 71, 72
thus far ......................................................... 72
thus, to ....................................................60, 61
thus, to there ...........................................60, 61
tidal river ..................................................... 59
time . 2, 8, 17, 18, 19, 25, 30, 31, 33, 42, 45, 50
time to eat ...................................................... 2

132

to be wise = waatamunt
to come .........................................................45
to cut.............................................................62
to dance, dancing ..........................................20
to drink .....................................................5, 53
to go downward ............................................69
to know, to acknowledge ..............................65
to meet ..........................................................33
to plant..........................................................37
to possess, to have ........................................37
to read, to count ............................................36
to say ......................................6, 33, 61, 62, 70
to say ............................................................33
to that......................................................27, 33
to that place ..................................................33
to the hill country......................................1, 10
to the left hand-side ......................................72
to where ....................................................6, 20
to write..........................................................70
to anoint withoils ..........................................70
tobacco .........................................................71
tobacco pipe............................................11, 59
today = yeu kesukuk
together.............................................21, 23, 65
together with, along, with .............................65
tomahawk-stone (quarry)..............................57
tomorrow ......................................................52
tongue = meenan
too difficult to visit frequently......................29
tooth = meepit
top of hill ......................................................16
top, summit...................................................38
top,summit....................................................16
towards ......... 13, 33, 34, 37, 41, 54, 55, 61, 68
towards that way = ne nogque
towards the earth ..........................................37
towards the east ............................................68
towards the heavens (sky) = kesukquieu
towards the north ..........................................55
towards the southwest...................................34
towards the west ...........................................41
towards the south....................................13, 54
towards the southwest.............................33, 34
trail ...............................................................20
transparent (of water) ...................................46
trap-traps (hunting).........................................4
tree sap..........................................................15
tree- trees .... 2, 5, 6, 11, 15, 16, 21, 22, 23, 24,
25, 39, 50, 58, 60, 69, 70
tree, wood .....................................................60
tree-trees 2, 5, 6, 11, 15, 16, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25,
50, 58, 60, 69, 70
tribe...............................................9, 31, 32, 43
tribe (definition) .............................................9
trout ..............................................................23
truly = wunnamuhkut

try................................................................. 29
turkey-turkeys.............................................. 31
turning.........................................45, 51, 67, 68
turning at the end ......................................... 45
turns ............................................................. 51
turtle..................................................57, 58, 59
turtle (tortoise) ..................................57, 58, 59
two (see Part III)
U
under .........................................................2, 14
under a hill..................................................... 2
under a tree .................................................... 2
understand.................................................... 68
unexpectedly = tiadche
unfinished = teaogku
unicity (wholeness)...................................... 42
unity............................................................. 42
unless ........................................................... 18
unoccupied................................................... 58
unoccupied land............................................. 8
until.............................................................. 41
up from the water......................................... 49
up to............................................................. 41
upon the top,end of,end-place...................... 64
using ............................................................ 29
V
vast............................................................... 14
verbs ............................................................ 39
very little water........................................... 36
very much .................................................... 17
very lately .................................................... 18
vessel for liquids.......................................... 67
victory = sohkohsuonk
village .......................................................... 67
violently......................................................... 8
W
Wabanaki..................................................1, 63
wait .............................................................. 25
walk, walking .............................................. 41
walking ........................................................ 47
walking, a journey ....................................... 47
walnut tree ................................................... 70
Wampanoag............................................33, 43
wampum ...................................................... 21
wampum bead (loose or unstrung) = sawhog
wampumpeag......................................1, 60, 64
war captain................................................3, 26
War Dance ................................................... 20
warm melted fat ........................................... 48
watch over us............................................... 63
water ............................................................ 40
water (fresh)................................................. 32
water (plural form)....................................... 32

133

water container ...............................................6

water falls .....................................................42
water in motion.............................................58
water places ....................................................5
water-being...................................................20
water-land...............................................40, 44
water-monster...............................................20
water-place ...................................................44
we, they ........................................................30
weak = nchumwi (inanimate form) (or)
nchumwesu (animate form)
welcome .................................................63, 70
welcome friend .............................................70
wending ........................................................66
were it so! .....................................................68
westward, towards the west ..........................41
whale,whales ................................................43
what (question) ...............................................8
what is this called? = tahettamen?
what is his name? = toh ussowessu ?
what is your name? = toh kuttisowis ?
whatever .................................................57, 62
when = ahquompak
when did you come = chenock cuppeeyaumis
? (Narr.)
when he goes or proceeds from ....................63
when it is sharp.............................................14
when it snows = sochepwutch (Narr.)
when water runs (again) ...............................52
when he lives ................................................47
where have you been ? .................................57
where is curves, bends.................................66
where it extends............................................41
where it makes an angle ...............................27
where something is .......................................60
where the way divides ..................................72
where we change our route...........................50
where you sink in mire .................................46
where, who, what, how (a question) ............57
whetstone......................................................37
which ............................................................56
which (plural) ...............................................62
while the earth exists = (see sahke)
white ...........................................63, 64, 68, 69
white (the light) ......................................63, 64
white cloth ............................................68, 108
white things ..................................................71
whitecloth .....................................................24
white shell beads ................................1, 60, 64
who ....................... 9, 11, 15, 27, 41, 54, 57, 63
who is that?...................................................11
whole ......................................................18, 26
wholly...........................................................18
why = toh waj, tawhitch (Narr.)
wild beast................................................35, 52
wild cat .........................................................50

wild fowl in general..................................... 34

wild lands, forest (the woods)..................... 56
wild-cat ...................................................48, 50
will you smoke? (see woh)
winter....................................................3, 7, 42
winter fish.............................................3, 7, 42
wisdom ...................................................38, 62
wise man, councilor..................................... 65
wise or loving .............................................. 65
wise speaker................................................. 56
within........................................................... 61
without = woskeche
wolf.........................................................24, 26
woman ............................20, 23, 27, 32, 54, 61
woman who rules......................................... 54
woman, women.................................20, 23, 54
wood ............................................................ 60
wood, tree ...............................................25, 58
wooden stick................................................ 23
word (see kutonk, Part I)
worm.........................................................6, 39
would, should, could.................................... 68
Y
year-years .................................................... 16
yellow .....................................................40, 67
yes.......................................................6, 35, 40
yes, I agree................................................... 35
yesterday = wunnonkou
yonder .......................................................... 71
you (see keen)
you (contraction).......................................... 13
you (plural) .................................................. 15
you (singular)..........................................13, 14
you are gone astray from the path.................. 9
you are lost .................................................... 9
you are out of the way ................................... 9
you are very swift ........................................ 25
you are white = kwompes
you are wise = kwaantam
you come (come in, come to, etc.)............... 45
you have killed him? = wepe kinnishaumis ?
you tell me ................................................... 61
you hold me up .............................................. 3
young child (papoose) ................................. 42
young girl = nunksqau
young girls = nunksqauog
young man = nunkomp
young men = nunkompaog
young pines, firs .......................................... 17
young, new .................................................. 70
your hand = kenutcheg
your hands = kenutcheganon
your house ..............................................13, 14

134

135

About the Authors

he language research of Moondancer Dr. O'Brien and Strong Woman Julianne Jennings
has appeared in the American Indian Culture and Research Journal of the University of
California and Gatherings: The En'owkin Journal of First North American Peoples.
Their book, Understanding Algonquian Indian Words (New England), is used in Native language
classes in New England, and Dr. O'Brien teaches the language to regional tribal peoples through
the Rhode Island Indian Council. They have provided Indian language translations for two public
monuments in Rhode Island, one endorsed by the Rhode Island Committee for the Humanities
and the other endorsed by the Rhode Island State Council on the Arts.

Strong Woman attended the Algonquin Indian School where she received intensive training in the
Massachusett language (Natick) by Chief Spotted Eagle. She is a long-standing member of the
Rhode Island Indian Council. Strong Woman was recently selected for inclusion in the
forthcoming 2001 edition of Marquis Who's Who in America for her outstanding achievements in
Indian language reconstruction, traditional arts, crafts, and music, and listed in 1000 Greatest
Americans by International Biographical Centre of Cambridge, England. Dr. O'Brien
(Moondancer) is Secretary, Rhode Island Indian Council. He holds a Ph.D. from Columbia
University, where he presented his dissertation on linguistics, and is an elected member of the
New York Academy of Sciences. He recently was selected by the International Biographical
Centre of Cambridge, England for inclusion in 2000 Outstanding Scientists of the 20th Century,
and 2000 Outstanding Intellectuals of the 21st Century. Dr. Moondancer OBrien was recognized
for his original contributions to naval science and engineering at the Naval Undersea Warfare
Center in Rhode Island, as well as his original technical contributions to Native American studies.
Currently the couple are participating in the television historical documentary, Mystic
Voices: The Story of the Pequot War (http://ourworld.cs.com/pequotwar/) to be aired in 2001.
Strong Woman sings songs and chants in their latest collaborative work, an audiocassette, NkasI Come from Her, a compilation of music sung entirely in the lost dialects of the Massachusett,
Narragansett and Pequot languages
Dr. O'Brien and Julianne Jennings' work has been funded and supported by many
organizations at the local, State, Federal and International levels. A partial listing includes
Mashantucket Pequot Tribal Nation, the Rhode Island Indian Council, Eastern
Pequot Tribal Nation, Dighton Inter-tribal Indian Council, Aquidneck Indian
Council, The United States Department of Defense, The United States
Department of the Interior, Rhode Island Committee for the Humanities
(National Endowment for the Humanities), Rhode Island State Council on the
Arts (National Endowment for the Arts), Rhode Island Foundation, Expansion
Arts, Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology (Brown University), The Rhode
Island State Historical Society, Rhode Island School of Design, Annawan
Historical Society, Rehoboth Antiquarian Society, Kiwanis Club of Newport,
The Wandering Bull, Inc. of Attleboro, MA, Frank's Trading Post of Stonington,
CT, individual donors, and many others too numerous to list.

Whispering Wind (Vol. 31, No. 2, 2000) recently featured the couple's work on language
revival.

136

When the King Philips War ended in 1676, a People and their ways
seemed destined for extinction. Little by little, the structure of traditional
Indian culture was annihilated. The forces of blood mixing, racial attitude,
enactment of laws, disease, and isolation disintegrated Indian looks, language
and lore. The essence of Indian SpiritualityThe Indian languagefell silent
about 200 years ago.
But, today, Indians all over New England continue to struggle
heroically, against all odds, to find their way back to heal the Broken Circle.
The Aquidneck Indian Council, working with local Indians, Algonquian
language experts, and funding agencies, is committed to reconstructing and
reviving the Indian language once heard in these woods, fields, lakes and
mountains for over 10, 000 years.
Understanding Algonquian Indian Words [revised, 2001] is a modest
beginning in this effort. This book is a non-technical primer focusing on word
understanding and aspects of the complex grammar, using the oldest and most
reliable manuscripts available.
Since their first book, the authors have worked with Algonquians who
still speak their language. Other language works have come from the
Aquidneck IndianCouncil on MassachusettNarragansett.
Their most significant accomplishment is the production of an
audiocassette tape/CD of songs and chants, sung in the dialects by Strong
Woman. Nkas-I Come from Her is the culmination of this scholar-artist
couples work.