CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
The development of transportation infrastructure is the key to overall development
of a country. For countries like India, where resources are limited, the importance of rural
roads is to be highly emphasised. The subgrade, which is the bottom most layer of the
pavement, is made up of compacted soil and so also for the highway and railway
embankments the road alignment is decided based on many factors of which one is the
availability of good soil along the proposed alignment. In early days, areas having weak soil
deposits are avoided while fixing up the alignment. But with scarcity of land and other
resources, we do not have the choice of land and hence roads and embankments have to be
built on weak soil deposits. These problematic soils have one or more of the short comings
i.e. low shear strength, high compressibility, low hydraulic conductivity, swelling and
shrinkage, susceptibility to frost action etc., and hence are associated with problems such as
low bearing capacity, high settlement, high seepage loss. In such cases, it is often impossible
to build a stable base course over soft subgrade, without a ground improvement method. It is
a general term used for the modification of soil to enhance the strength and other engineering
properties. There are many methods of ground improvement such as using additives (like
cement, lime etc), compaction, etc., one of the methods, which got momentum in recent years
is the concept of reinforced soil. Though the principle was not clearly enunciated, people
have used techniques of reinforcing earth for centuries. With the development in the field of
polymer technology, a wide variety of geosynthetic materials have come up. Geosynthetics,
both natural and polymeric, establish a family of geomaterials, which are used in a wide
variety of civil engineering applications. Availability of good subgrade soil is of primary
concern in the design and construction of highway projects. Indian Road Congress (IRC: 372001) specifies that the subgrade soil should have California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of three
percent, In India On an average, 3 lakh sq km area is covered by Black cotton soil, Black
cotton soil contains a clay mineral called Montmorillonite which is having a peculiar
behaviour of swelling in the presence of moisture and developing shrinkage cracks in dry
season. Because of volumetric change in behaviour the structure constructed on such soils
will undergo differential settlements, cracks in buildings or total destruction of the structure
however the structures can be constructed on such a soil by treating the expansive soil with a
non-expansive material. This can be done by using ground improvement technique like

mechanical stabilization, chemical stabilization, freezing and heating, reinforcing earth

technique etc.
These soils occupy an area of 0.8 million square kilometer, which is 20% of total area
of India. The present investigations have been made on the black cotton soil obtained from
Davanagere, Karnataka State, India. This is a residual soil and is collected from open
excavation, at a depth of 1.5m below the natural ground surface near tank bed. The soil was
manually pulverized and sieved through IS sieve 425 before used in this investigation.
Expansive soils are known to behave differently than conventional soils. In India,
these soils also known as black cotton soils cover almost 20% of the total area of the country.
As a result of seasonal moistures variations, these soils shrink in summer and swell in rainy
season causing downward and upward movement of the structures. Such soil exhibits very
low CBR, shear strength in saturated condition whereas very high shear strength in case of
dry condition. These soils due to such behavior are considered as problematic for usage as
subgrade purposes.
The erection of structure on such soil arrest its swelling tendency, there by resulting the
development of swelling pressure below the structure. In case of lack of proper design
and construction method, structures would be subjected to damages depending upon the
magnitude of swelling pressure and load intensity transmitted by the structures.
1.2 Methods of Stabilization
The stabilization techniques may be grouped under the following two major heads:
1.2.1 Stabilization without additives (Mechanical stabilization).
1.2.2 Stabilization with additives.
1.2.1

Mechanical Stabilization
Mechanical stabilization is achieved by intelligently blending locally occurring

materials so as to obtain a desired grading. Compaction of soil is also a form of mechanical

stabilization. It is well known that a dense, well-graded mass offers high resistance to lateral
displacement under a load. If the well-graded material is compacted, densification of the
mass takes place. The mechanical strength of the mass is due to the internal friction and the
cohesion. Internal friction is supplied by the coarser particles (gravels, sands and silts)
whereas cohesion is due to the clay fraction.

1.2.2

Stabilization with additives.

Stabilization with additives may be with the use of cement, fly ash, lime, RBI-81,

fiber or combination of physico-chemical alterations involving ion exchange in clay minerals

or stabilization by grouting with cement or chemicals in present study additives used is as
follows.
1.2.2.1 Lime Stabilization
Lime is produced from natural limestone. The hydrated limes, called as slaked lime
are commonly used for stabilization. The use of lime for stabilizing plastic montmorillonitic
clays has been increasing in favour during the last few decades because it lowers volume
change characteristics. Lime stabilization is a widely used means of chemically transforming
unstable soils into structurally sound construction foundations. Lime stabilization is
particularly important in road construction for modifying subgrade soils, subbase materials,
and base materials. The improved engineering characteristics of lime-treated materials
provide important benefits to both Portland cement concrete (rigid) and asphalt (flexible)
pavements.
Lime stabilization creates a number of important engineering properties in soils, including
improved strength; improved resistance to fracture, fatigue, and permanent deformation;
improved resilient properties; reduced swelling; and resistance to the damaging effects of
moisture. The most substantial improvements in these properties are seen in moderately to
highly plastic soils, such as heavy clays. Although lime is generally used to transform finegrained soils permanently, it may be used for shorter-term soil modificationfor example, to
provide a working platform at a construction site.
Soil-lime reactions are complex; however, understanding of the chemistry involved and
results of field experience are sufficient to provide design guidelines for successful lime
treatment of a range of soils. The sustained (and relatively slow) pozzolanic reaction between
lime and soil silica and soil alumina (released in the high-pH environment) is key to effective
and durable stabilization in lime-soil mixtures. Mixture design procedures that secure this
reaction can be adopted if it is used for large scale.
In addition to stabilizing materials, lime plays an increasing role in the reclamation of
road bases. Lime has been used effectively to upgrade or reclaim not only clay soils, but also
clay-contaminated aggregate bases and even calcareous bases that have little or no
appreciable clay. Work in the United States, South Africa, and France has established the
benefits of lime stabilization of calcareous bases. The process results in significant

improvements in strength, moisture resistance, and resilient modulus without transforming

the calcareous bases into rigid systems that could be susceptible to cracking and shrinkage.
Design of lime-stabilized mixtures is usually based on laboratory analysis of desired
engineering properties. Several approaches to mix design currently exist. In addition to
engineering design criteria, users must consider whether the laboratory procedures used
adequately simulate field conditions and long-term performance. Aspects of these procedures
are likely to be superceded as the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) shifts to a mechanistic-empirical approach.
Laboratory testing procedures include determining optimum lime requirements and
moisture content, preparing samples, and curing the samples under simulated field conditions.
Curing is important for chemically stabilized soils and aggregatesparticularly limestabilized soilsbecause lime-soil reactions are time and temperature dependent and
continue for long periods of time (even years). Pozzolanic reactions are slower than cementhydration reactions and can result in construction and performance benefits, such as extended
mixing times in heavy clays (more intimate mixing) and autogenous healing of moderately
damaged layers, even after years of service. On the other hand, longer reactions may mean
that traffic delays are associated with using the pavement. In addition, protocols for lime-soil
mixture design must address the impact of moisture on performance.
Lime stabilization construction is relatively straightforward. In-place mixing (to the
appropriate depth) is usually employed to add the proper amount of lime to a soil, mixed to
an appropriate depth. Pulverization and mixing are used to combine the lime and soil
thoroughly. For heavy clays, preliminary mixing may be followed by 24 to 48 hours (or
more) of moist curing prior to final mixing. This ability to mellow the soil for extended
periods and then remix is unique to lime. During this process, a more intimate mixing of the
lime and the heavy clay occurs, resulting in more complete stabilization. For maximum
development of strength and durability, proper compaction is necessary; proper curing is also
important. Other methods of lime stabilization include in-plant mixing and pressure injection.
The performance of lime-stabilized subbases and bases has been somewhat difficult to assess
in the current AASHTO design protocol because the measure of structural contributionthe
structural layer coefficientcannot be ascertained directly. Indirectly determined coefficients
for lime-stabilized systems, however, have been found to be structurally significant. As
AASHTO shifts to a mechanistic-empirical approach, measurable properties, such as resilient
moduli, will be used to assess stress and strain distributions in pavement systems, including

stabilized bases and subbases. These properties will be coupled with shear strength properties
in assessing resistance to accumulated deformation.
1.2.2.2

Cement Stabilization
Portland cement is a multimineralic compound made up of oxides of calcium, silica,

alumina and iron. When cement is mixed with water, cementing compounds of calcium
silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) and calcium-aluminate-hydrate (C-A-H) are formed and excess
calcium hydroxide is released. Some calcium is therefore available to modify the clay particle
early in the modification process when the water is added, and additional calcium becomes
available later as it is formed as a result of cement hydration.
The hydrates help to stabilize flocculated clay particles through cementation. The
hydration reactions and strength increases occur for the most part between 24 hours and 28
days, although the cement will continue to hydrate at decreasing rates as long as free moisture
available.
Reaction between cement and water forms cementitious calcium silicate and
aluminate hydrates, which bind soil particles together. The hydration releases Ca (OH) 2,
slaked lime, which in turn may react with components of soil such as clay mineral. While
hydration occurs immediately upon contact of cement and water, secondary reactions are
slower and may go on for many months, similar to soil-lime interaction. Because the primary
reaction (hydration) is independent of the soil type, cement stabilization is effective for a
wide range of soils. The only soils which pose problems are the organic soils and the coarse
gravels.
The rate of gain in strength with curing age was higher for specimen prepared by
impact compaction than the corresponding specimen molded by kneading compaction. It
seems that method of compaction has an influence in rate of cement hydration with impact
compaction producing better hydration opportunities with age than kneading compaction for
a granular soil-cement mixture. For silt cement mixture wet of optimum impact compaction
gave higher strength than kneading compaction. Specimen prepared by kneading compaction
gave higher strength than those prepared by impact compaction for dry of optimum and at
optimum. For a fine grained soil-cement mixture prepared by kneading compaction attain
most of its strength at early day of curing (7days) and does not gain appreciable strength after
that time. But for silt cement mixture shows gain in strength between age 7 days and 28 days
curing.

The effect of compaction method in fine grained soil cement mixture does not only
influence particle orientation and/or pore-water pressure as in the case of soil with no cement.
But in addition it influences the rate of cement hydration with impact compaction yielding
better hydration with age. The effect of the method of compaction appears to be two-fold
namely, influencing both particle orientation and rate of cement hydration. The commonly
used additive for soil stabilization is ordinary Portland cement. Soils with cement admixtures
are generally termed as cement-stabilized or cement-treated soils.
1.2.2.3

Coir Stabilization

Coir fiber used for stabilization acts as reinforcing material for soil, Coir is a versatile
vegetable fibre extracted from the fibrous husk that surrounds the coconut. The fibres are
tough, strong and extremely resistant to fungal and bacterial decomposition. Fibre length
varies from 0.3 mm to 250mm; but to an average ranges from100 mm to 200mm. Coir cross
sections are highly elliptical and non uniform with average diameter 0.25 mm. It has high
degree of crystallinity; spiral angle of the micro fibres ranging between 30 and 40 which
imparts greater extensibility compared to other natural fibres. In spite of low cellulose
content, coir fibre has a very close fibre structure which account for its better durability
compared to other natural fibres. The function of reinforcement in the subgrade soil (soil
below the pavement) is to increase the strength and decrease the deformation. The
methodology involved is treating the weak soil(Black cotton soil) with coir fibre at different
quantities and studying the changes in the optimum moisture content (OMC), maximum dry
density (MDD) and California bearing ratio (CBR) values. The strength of subgrade soil is
assessed using California bearing Ratio test that gives the CBR value, which is integral to the
process of road design.
1.2.2.4 Polypropylene Fiber
Polypropylene is an economical material that offers a combination of outstanding
physical, chemical, mechanical, thermal and electrical properties not found in any other
thermoplastic. Compared to low or high density polyethylene, it has a lower impact strength,
but superior working temperature and tensile strength.
Polypropylene possesses excellent resistance to organic solvents and electrolytic
attack. It has lower impact strength, but its working temperatures and tensile strength are
superior to low or high density polyethylene. It is light in weight, resistant to staining, and
has a low moisture absorption rate. This is a tough, heat-resistant, semi-rigid material. It has

excellent resistance to acids and alkalies, but poor aromatic, aliphatic and chlorinated solvent
resistance.
1.2.2.5 Fly Ash as soil stabilizer
Fly ash is one of the most plentiful and industrial by-products. It is generated in vast
quantities as a by-product of burning coal at electric power plants. Fly ash by itself has little
cementatious value but in the presence of moisture it reacts chemically and forms
cementatious compounds and attributes to the improvement of strength and compressibility
characteristics of soils. Fly ash generated by coal combustion based power plants typically
fall within the ASTM fly ash classes C and F (Reyes and Pando, 2007). Fly ash consists of
inorganic matter present in the coal that has been fused during coal combustion. This material
is solidified while suspended in the exhaust gases and is collected from the exhaust gases by
electrostatic precipitators. Since the particles solidify while suspended in the exhaust gases,
fly ash particles are generally spherical in shape (Ferguson, 1999). Fly ash particles those are
collected in electrostatic precipitators are usually silt size (0.074 - 0.005 mm). Making a
more productive use of fly ash would have considerable environmental benefits, reducing air
and water pollution. Increased use as a partial cement or lime replacement would also
represent savings in energy because fly ash has been called a high-energy-based material
(Hausmann, 1990). In the present study the flyash collected from Raylaseema thermal power
plant (RTPP) Muddanur from Andhra Pradesh, hence forth called as Muddanur fly Ash
(MFA) has been used in this investigation. It is a non-Pozzolonic fly ash belonging to the
ASTM classification F the physical and chemical properties of Muddanur fly ash are listed
in Table 1 & 2 respectively.
1.2.2.6 RBI-81 Grade Chemical as stabiliser
RBi-81 is a unique, cost-effective, environment friendly technological breakthrough
in soil stabilization, waste binding and pavement layer design for the road and highway
building world. RBI-81 is a unique and highly effective natural inorganic soil stabilizer for
Infrastructure development and repair.
RBI-81 was originally developed by RBI for South African Army Road Building
International for the in the beginning of 1990s for pavement engineering applications. RBI81 is a natural inorganic soil-stabilizer which re-engineers and modifies the properties of the
soil strength it for roads, paving and roads and pavement. Alchemist Technology is the
exclusive manufacturer and distributor of RBI-81 in India.RBI-Grade 81 is patented

inorganic, natural powder/liquid form based, soil stabilizer, odourless having pH of 12.5and
specific gravity of 2.5 which, once applied to any type of soil from sand (beach to desert) to
very active clays, modifies the engineering properties of that soil through a natural
mechanism to stabilize, harden and waterproof the in-situ soil the properties of RBI-81
chemical is as shown in Table
1.3 Need for pulverization
A pre-requisite to successful stabilization is that at the time of addition of stabilizer,
the soil should be in a reasonably pulverized state. Whereas light textured soils are generally
friable, and therefore easy to pulverize, this is not so in the case of expansive soils like black
cotton soils, which are soft and sticky when wet but very hard when dry. Besides affecting the
uniform mixing of coir, the degree of pulverization influences the amount of coir necessary to
achieve the desired gain in strength.
Realizing the importance of pulverization in the case of black cotton soils, this
Standard was initially prepared by the Soil Engineering Committee (personnel given in IRC
49-1973) for general guidance in this respect.
1.3.1

Methods of pulverization
Using manual labour.
Using heavy agricultural machinery such as ploughs tractors of 110 H.P etc.
Using light agricultural machinery with Tractors of about 50 H.P., Mould Board
Ploughs (consisting of three furrows) Disc Harrows (consisting of 20 saucer shaped
discs having a dia of about 25 cm).