Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SR. NO.
TOPIC
PAGE NO.
LITERATURE REVIEW
13
19
CONCLUSION
25
BIBLIOGRAPHY
27
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people migrate to more developed countries where legal avenues for immigration are limited,
many fall prey to criminal syndicates of smugglers and traffickers in human beings, leading to gross
violations of human rights. Despite international standards to protect migrants, their rights as
workers are too often undermined, especially if their status is irregular.
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DECENT WORK DEFICITS: The worlds population, calculated at 6.7 billion in 2008, is
growing by about 75 million every year, with most of this increase taking place in developing
countries. The ILO report Global Employment Trends 2009 estimates the worlds labour force in
2008 at around 3 billion people (ILO, 2009a). The global drop in economic activity since 2008
has resulted in hiring freezes and workers being dismissed in considerable numbers. Revised
predictions for 2009 estimate that Labour migration in a globalizing world 19 global
unemployment could rise by between 29 million and 59 million, with the middle case being 39
million (ILO, 2009a). The number of working poor, defined as persons living on the equivalent
of US$2 per day or less, has continued to grow, reaching an estimated total of more than 1.4
billion in 2009, an increase of more than 200 million since 2007 (ILO, 2009a). The plight of
farmers in developing countries is a powerful economic factor behind international migration and
will continue to be so in the future. Many industrial countries had a great migration off the land
in the 1950s and 1960s, and similar movements are evident today in many major origin
countries, including China, Mexico and Turkey.
II. ECONOMIC DISPARITIES: Despite the progress made by the more populous developing
countries, such as China and India, in raising incomes over the past two decades, the gap in per
capita incomes between rich and the poor countries has remained large. Average annual per
capita gross national income (GNI) across the world in 2008 was about US$8,580. At the
country level, however, per capita GNI ranged from US$140 in Burundi to US$65,330 in
Switzerland. Moreover, the gaps between countries appear to have widened up to 2000 and
remained wide thereafter, as shown in table 1.3. In 1975, incomes in the high-income countries
Trends In International Migration
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were 41 times greater than those in low-income countries and eight times greater than those
inmiddle-income countries. By 2005, these differences had increased to 61 times and 13 times,
respectively. Meanwhile, very few low- and middle-income countries have entered the highincome ranks.
III.THE DEMOGRAPHIC DEFICIT AND CONSEQUENT DEMAND FOR MIGRANT
LABOUR IN DESTINATION COUNTRIES: Just as the nineteenth century was marked by
migration from densely populated Europe to more lightly populated America and Oceania,
another change in population density may be expected in the first half of the twenty-first
century. The population of the worlds less developed regions is increasing much more rapidly
(at an annual rate of 1.5 per cent) than that of the more developed regions (which is rising by
just 0.25 per cent annually). This difference is expected to continue until around 2050 (UNPD,
2003). There is also a difference between the average age of the population in more developed
countries and less developed countries, with the former having ageing populations and the latter
more youthful ones. Although life expectancies are increasing and populations are ageing to
some extent almost everywhere, the process has gone much further in Europe and Japan, where
fertility is so low that deaths exceed births. Figure 1.3 shows predicted world population trends
by region up to 2050. The populations of Africa and Asia (excluding China and Japan) are
expected to rise. If present trends continue, the population of Italy, for example, is projected to
drop by 22 per cent between 2000 and 2050, that of Latvia by 44 per cent and that of Estonia by
52 per cent (UNPD, 2003). The combination of low fertility and rising life expectancy means
that the proportion of the population above 65 years of age will rise from 15 to 28 per cent
between 2000 and 2050 in Europe as a whole and from 17 to 36 per cent in Japan. A
Communication from the European Commission, Confronting demographic change, highlights
the following trends for the EU: continued increase in life expectancy; continued growth in
numbers above age 60; continuing low birth rates; fertility below replacement level; more older
workers (aged 5564), elderly people (6579) and very elderly people (80+); and a rising
demographic dependency ratio (European Commission, 2005c). The dependency ratio is
predicted to double, reaching 51 per cent by 2050, which means that the EU will change from
having four persons of working age for each citizen aged 65 and above to only two persons
(European Commission, 2006).
IV. MILITARY INVOLVEMENT: Korean and Vietnamese people are found in USA, primarily due to
the involvement of USA in the wars in these countries.
V. COLONIAL POWERS: Western countries which have undergone early industrialisation have
attracted labour from periphery. Industrialisation has led to prosperity which in turn provided
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wages for skilled construction workers and possibly also for low-skilled 48 Overview and
analysis construction and agricultural workers (UN, 1998a). Similarly, real wages in the
Philippines seem to have risen in line with migration, especially for workers in manufacturing
(Lucas, 2005). In India, there are indications that the huge migration from the State of Kerala to
the Gulf region has helped raise wages in that state (Zachariah, Mathews and Irudaya Rajan,
1999). Some countries with high net emigration rates also have intractable unemployment
problems. In small countries with large expatriate populations, the reduction of unemployment
or underemployment related to emigration may be substantial.
III.SKILLED MIGRATION AND THE BRAIN DRAIN:
In considering the development impact of international migration, it is important to assess the
impact of skilled migration from developing countries. Since the early 1990s the international
mobility of highly skilled workers has been increasing (Docquier and Marfouk, 2005; Dumont
and Lematre, 2005; Lowell, 2008), reflecting globalization trends, rising global demand for
skills, selective admission policies in developed countries, and the phenomenal growth in ICT.
The impact of this brain drain from origin countries varies according to the characteristics of
those countries (size and level of development), the type of sector or occupation concerned, the
mode of financing education (public or private) and the type of migration (temporary,
permanent or circular) (Docquier and Marfouk, 2005; Kapur and McHale, 2005; Lowell and
Findlay, 2002; OECD, 2002a; World Bank, 2006b). Skilled people move for many reasons,
including higher wages, better facilities and more opportunities for advancement. Destination
countries sometimes promote the immigration of professionals through recruitment drives and
selection systems that facilitate entry.
These selection systems can amount to what has been called cherry picking, in the sense of
attracting the best and brightest from poor countries and depriving these countries of their
most qualified individuals individuals in whom they have made heavy investments in
education and human capital, often at public expense. Many migrants from developing countries
in the United States in 1990 had twice as much education as their compatriots. This trend has
continued for almost all developing countries since the 1990s. Thus, for example, in 2000 there
were 3.7 times more Jamaicans with a university education in the United States than in Jamaica;
and for every ten Salvadorian university graduates at home, there were four in the United States
(Adams, 2003).
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measures have largely accomplished the job of reducing economic differences between the
Member States (see Venables, 1999). The relation between trade and migration is, however,
much more complex than this would suggest. Some economic activities, such as call centres,
can easily be relocated to low-wage countries, so that jobs, rather than people, migrate, but other
activities cannot be relocated. In some fields, such as financial services and high-technology
products, trade and migration are complementary, in that the former prompts an increase in the
latter.
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Disadvantages
Disadvantages
Cheap labour
Language problems
Cultural diversity
POSITIVE EFFECTS
Job vacancies and skills gaps can be filled.
Economic growth can be sustained.
Services to an ageing population can be maintained when there are insufficient young people
locally.
The pension gap can be filled by the contributions of new young workers and they also pay
taxes.
Immigrants bring energy and innovation.
Trends In International Migration
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Brought benefits to the tourism industry through the development of new air routes
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LITERATURE REVIEW
RECENT TRENDS IN INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION 2015
1. The number of international migrants worldwide has continued to grow rapidly over
the past fifteen years.
The number of international migrants persons living in a country other than where they were
born reached 244 million in 2015 for the world as a whole, an increase of 71 million, or 41
per cent, compared to 2000. Nearly two thirds of all international migrants live in Europe (76
million) or Asia (75 million). Northern America hosts the third largest number of international
migrants (54 million), followed by Africa (21 million), Latin America and the Caribbean (9
million) and Oceania (8 million).
Between 2000 and 2015, Asia added more international migrants than any other major area of
the world. Asia gained 26 million international migrants during this period, or 1.7 million
additional migrants per annum. Europe added the second largest number of international
migrants between 2000 and 2015 (20 million, or 1.3 million per year), followed by Northern
America (14 million, or 0.9 million per year) and Africa (6 million, or 0.4 million per year).
Both Latin America and the Caribbean and Oceania added comparatively smaller numbers of
migrants during this period (3 million, or 0.2 million per year each).
In many parts of the world, migration occurs primarily between countries that are located within
the same major area. In 2015, the majority of the international migrants living in Africa (87 per
cent), Asia (82 per cent), Latin America and the Caribbean (66 per cent) and Europe (53 per
cent) originated from another country located in the same major area. In contrast, the majority
of international migrants living in Northern America (98 per cent) and Oceania (87 per cent)
were born in a major area other than the one where they currently reside.
In 2015, two thirds (67 per cent) of all international migrants were living in just twenty
countries. The largest number of international migrants (47 million) resides in the United States
of America, equal to about a fifth (19 per cent) of the worlds total. Germany and the Russian
Federation host the second and third largest numbers of migrants worldwide (12 million each),
followed by Saudi Arabia (10 million), the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland (nearly 9 million), and the United Arab Emirates (8 million). Of the top twenty countries
of destination for international migrants worldwide, nine are located in Asia, seven in Europe,
two in Northern America, and one each in Africa and Oceania.
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In recent years, Asia has witnessed a rapid increase in the number of international migrants. The
stock of male migrants in Asia grew by 62 per cent, from 27 million in 2000 to 44 million in
2015, while the stock of female migrants increased by more than 40 per cent, from 22 million to
32 million. Africa also experienced a more pronounced growth in the number of male compared
to female migrants. By contrast, in Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean, Northern America
and Oceania, the migrant stock grew faster for women than for men. The increasing number of
Trends In International Migration
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male migrants in Asia has been fuelled by a strong demand for migrant workers in the oilproducing countries of Western Asia. In Europe and Northern America, the greater number of
female compared to male migrants is due in part to the presence of many older migrants in the
population and the fact that women tend to live longer men.
3. Most international migrants are of working age.
The median age of foreign-born persons worldwide was 39 years in 2015, a slight increase from
38 years in 2000. International migrants living in Africa are the youngest, with a median age of
29, followed by Asia (35 years) and Latin America and the Caribbean (36 years). Migrants are
older in Northern America, Europe, and Oceania, where the median age is 42, 43 and 44 years,
respectively
In 2015, the number of international migrants below age 20 reached 37 million, or 15 per cent
of the global migrant stock. Among the major areas of the world, Africa hosts the highest
proportion of young persons among all international migrants (34 per cent), followed by Latin
America and the Caribbean (24 per cent) and Asia (18 per cent). In Europe (9 per cent) and in
Northern America and Oceania (11 per cent each), the share of those under age 20 is smaller. In
all areas, the relatively low share of young migrants is due to the fact that children born to
international migrants are not considered to be migrants in some countries.
Most international migrants are of working age. In 2015, 177 million international migrants,
equal to 72 per cent of the global total, were between the ages of 20 and 64. Europe and
Northern America have the largest share of migrants of working age (75 per cent each),
followed by Asia (73 per cent) and Oceania (71 per cent).
In 2015, the world hosted an estimated 30 million international migrants aged 65 or over, equal
to 12 per cent of the global migrant stock. Europe and Oceania record the largest share of
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migrants in that age range (16 and 18 per cent, respectively), while in Africa (5 per cent) and
Asia (9 per cent), the share of migrants aged 65 or older is small. The relatively low share of
older migrants is due to a combination of factors, including the age of international migrants at
arrival, the majority being of working age, and the fact that many migrants eventually return to
their country of origin
4. India has the largest diaspora in the world, followed by Mexico and the Russian
Federation.
Nearly half of all international migrants worldwide were born in Asia. In 2015, of the 244
million international migrants worldwide, 104 million, or 43 per cent of the total, were born in
Asia. Europe was the birthplace of the second largest number of international migrants (62
million, or 25 per cent), followed by Latin America and the Caribbean (37 million, or 15 per
cent) and Africa (34 million, or 14 per cent). Relatively few international migrants were born in
Northern America (4 million, or 2 per cent) or Oceania (2 million, or 1 per cent).
Between 2000 and 2015, the number of international migrants born in Asia grew more than
twice as fast as the number born in Europe. During 2000-2015, the average annual growth rate
of the migrant stock originating in Asia exceeded that of all other major areas. Over the same
period, the number of migrants from Asia grew by 2.8 per cent per year, compared to 1.2 per
cent for those from Europe. Other major areas that experienced a rapid growth in their
diasporas were Africa (2.7 per cent per annum), Latin America and the Caribbean (2.5),
Oceania (2.4) and Northern America (2.1).
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In 2015, 16 million persons from India were living outside of their country of birth compared to
12 million from Mexico (figure 4). Other countries with large diasporas include the Russian
Federation (11 million), China (10 million), Bangladesh (7 million), and Pakistan and the
Ukraine (6 million each). Of the twenty countries with the largest number of international
migrants living abroad, 11 were located in Asia, 6 in Europe, and one each in Africa, Latin
America and the Caribbean, and Northern America.
5. While international migration can contribute to population growth, it cannot reverse
the trend of population ageing.
The number of international migrants has grown faster than the worlds population. As a result,
the share of migrants in the global population reached 3.3 per cent in 2015, up from 2.8 per cent
in 2000. There are, however, considerable differences between major areas. In Europe, Northern
America and Oceania, international migrants account for at least 10 per cent of the total
population. By contrast, in Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean, less than 2 per
cent of the population is an international migrant.
Between 2000 and 2015, positive net migration1 contributed 42 per cent of total population
growth in Northern America and 32 per cent in Oceania. In Europe, the population would have
declined during the period 2000-2015 in the absence of positive net migration. In Africa, Asia,
and Latin America and the Caribbean in this period, negative net migration contributed
marginally to slowing population growth.
Net migration is projected to have an increasingly significant impact on the future size of
populations. In Europe, although current migration levels will not be sufficient to compensate
for the surplus of deaths over births (figure 5), population decline would be more pronounced
and would have started earlier under a scenario of zero net migration. In Northern America,
under a zero net migration scenario, the size of the population would start to decline during the
period 2040-2045, whereas with the maintenance of current migration patterns, the population is
projected to continue growing.
For Oceania, a zero net migration scenario would reduce by more than half the projected
increase of population during 2045-2050. Because international migrants tend to include a
larger proportion of working-age persons compared to the overall population, positive net
migration can contribute to reducing old-age dependency ratios. However, international
migration cannot reverse, or halt, the longterm trend toward population ageing. Even if current
migration patterns continue, all major areas are projected to have significantly higher old-age
dependency ratios in 2050. Assuming a continuation of current migration patterns, in Asia, for
every 100 persons of working age (from 15 to 64 years), there will be 28 dependent older
persons (aged 65 or older) in 2050, compared to a ratio of 11 per 100 in 2015. Likewise, during
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the period 2015-2050, old-age dependency ratios are projected to increase from 26 to 48 per 100
in Europe, from 22 to 38 per 100 in Northern America, from 11 to 31 per 100 in Latin America
and the Caribbean, and from 18 to 30 per 100 in Oceania. Only Africa is projected to have an
old-age dependency ratio below 10 per 100 by 2050.
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Forced migration
The number of forcibly displaced people has grown and the reality of global displacement is
increasingly complex. The number of people displaced by violence and conflict today is the
highest since World War II.
Refugees were estimated at 16.7 million by the end of 2013, up from 15.2 million in 2011
(UNHCR, 2014).
People internally displaced by conflict and violence were estimated at 33.3 million by the end
of 2013, up from 26.4 million in 2011 (IDMC, 2014).
Over 50% of the worlds refugees live scattered in urban areas and rural communities, not in
refugee camps or protracted refugee situations. By 2013, an estimated two-thirds of the
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worlds refugees had been in exile for over 5 years, and half of them were children (UNHCR,
2014).
Palestinians constitute the largest refugee group worldwide. Other main countries of origin of
refugees in 2013 were Afghanistan, Syrian Arab Republic, Somalia, Sudan, the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, and the Central African Republic.
At least 1,067,500 people submitted asylum applications in 2013. The main recipients of new
individual applications were Germany, the United States of America, South Africa, France and
Sweden. Syrian Arab Republic is the main country of origin of asylum
Over 86% of worlds refugees were being hosted by developing countries at the end of 2013.
Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran are the main host countries in absolute terms (1.6
million and over 850,000 refugees respectively), followed by Lebanon (over 856,000), Jordan
(over 640,000) and Turkey (almost 610,000; UNCHR, 2014).
Situations change dramatically in a very short time span: 500,000 people were displaced in Iraq
just in a few days in mid-June 2014 (IDMC, 2014). According to IOM data from the
Displacement Tracking Matrix (DTM), over 1.7 million people were newly displaced by
conflict in Iraq between 1 January and 28 September, 2014.
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The number of irregular migrants living in the U.S. was estimated at 11.1 million in 2011 (Pew
Hispanic Center, 2013).
92,500 people were detained for immigration reasons in the EU during 2013 (European
Migration Network, 2014). France detained the highest number of non-nationals in the EU
during the same year (38,266), followed by Spain (9,020), Hungary (6,469), Bulgaria (6,303),
and Belgium (6,285). The highest increase in the number of detained migrants in 2009-2013
was registered in Bulgaria and Hungary, while the number decreased in Slovakia and the
Netherlands. The average length of detention across EU Member States was 40 days.
Human Trafficking and Forced Labour
According to the U.S. State Departments Trafficking in Persons report, the number of identified
victims of trafficking at the global level was over 44,500 in 2013. The lack of uniformity in
national reporting structures makes it impossible to collect accurate figures
The number of identified victims has increased in all regions, and convictions represent only a
small proportion of identified cases
An estimated 20.9 million people are victims of forced labour globally (ILO, 2014). This is
twice the 2004 estimate of 12.3 million people (ILO, 2005). ILO estimates include victims of
human trafficking for labour and sexual exploitation. The actual number of trafficked victims
remains unknown.
11.4 million victims of forced labour are women and girls, 9.5 million men and boys. 4.5
million are victims of forced sexual exploitation, 98% of which are women and girls. The
percentage of detected child victims has increased from 20% in 2003-2006 to 27% in 2007-2010
(Ibid.).
Forced labour in the private economy concerning 19 million individuals generates 150
billion USD in illegal profits annually (ILO estimates). UN estimates for 2005 suggested the
total market value of illicit human trafficking was around 32 billion USD.
Migrant deaths
IOM estimated that between January and early December 2014 over 4,900 migrants died or
went missing attempting to reach destinations around the world. This figure for the whole of
2013 was of 2,400 recorded deaths.
Of the total recorded fatalities, over 3,200 occurred in the Mediterranean, making this the
deadliest route worldwide (66% of the total). An estimated 11% of deaths globally this year
occurred in the Bay of Bengal, 6% in the Horn of Africa (the vast majority during sea crossings
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in Yemen), and 6% along the U.S.-Mexico border. Over 85% recorded up to early December
occurred along sea routes.
Globally, migrants who lost their lives are mainly from Africa and the Middle East: 27% from
subSaharan Africa, 19% from the Middle East and North Africa, 13% from the Horn of Africa.
A large share of those whose region of origin is unknown is likely to be from Africa or the
Middle East as well, so the above figures are likely higher.
IOM estimates that over 40,000 migrants have died in transit since 2000. According to IOM
calculations based on The Migrant Files data, over 22,400 of them have lost their lives trying to
reach Europe.
Existing figures may greatly underestimate the real number of dead migrants, given the number
of people who go missing and are never found. Experts estimate that for every dead body found
there are at least two others that are never recorded.
Regio
nal estimates of migrant boder-related deaths
Remittances
There has been an exponential growth in remittances but transfer costs remain high. The link
between rising remittances and the relatively stable stock of migrants needs to be explored.
The World Bank estimated that remittances to developing countries amounted to 404 billion
USD in 2013, up by 3.5% relative to the previous year (World Bank).
Growth in remittance flows to developing countries is expected to accelerate at an annual
average of 8.4% per year over the next 3 years. Remittances to developing countries are
projected to grow by 5% and reach 435 billion USD in 2014, and increase further by 4.4% to
454 billion in 2015 (Ibid.).
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However, recent research suggests that much of the recorded increase in remittances to
developing countries is due to better reporting systems and changes in the ways remittances
have been measured over time, and might therefore not be as high as often claimed
The global average cost of sending remittances fell to 7.9% of the value sent in the third quarter
of 2014 from 8.9% in the same period last year. Efforts to reduce the cost of remittances have
resulted in estimated savings to migrants and their families of 42.5 billion USD over the period
2009-2013 (World Bank, 2013).
Yet more remains to be done: in 173 corridors (78% of those surveyed), average costs of
transmitting remittances are above 5%, while only in 47 corridors remittance costs are below
5%. Sub-Saharan Africa is the costliest region to which to send remittances (11.3% of value
sent).
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CONCLUSION
The number of international migrants worldwide reaches 232 million
In 2013, the number of international migrants worldwide reached 232 million, up from 175
million in 2000 and 154 million in 1990. Between 1990 and 2000, the international migrant
stock grew by an average of 1.2 per cent per year. During the period from 2000 to 2010, the
annual growth rate accelerated, reaching 2.3 per cent. Since then, however, it has slowed, falling
to around 1.6 per cent per year during the period from 2010 to 2013.
In 2013, 136 million international migrants lived in the North, while 96 million resided in the
South (figure 1). Since 1990, the share of international migrants living in the developed regions
has increased. In 2013, the North2 hosted 59 per cent of all international migrants; up from 53
per cent in 1990.
Between 1990 and 2013, the North gained a larger number of international migrants compared
to the South. Some 2.3 million migrants were added annually in the developed regions,
compared to 1 million in the developing regions.
Yet since 2000, the migrant stock in the South has been growing more rapidly than in the North.
Between 2000 and 2010, the average annual growth rate for migrants in the South was 2.5 per
cent per annum. In the North, the annual growth rate was around 2.3 per cent. Since 2010, the
annual growth rate has slowed to 1.5 per cent in the developed regions and 1.8 per cent in the
developing regions
Worldwide, international migrants account for a small share of the total population. They
comprised about 3.2 per cent of the world population in 2013, compared to 2.9 per cent in 1990.
In the North, the proportion of international migrants in total population exceeds that of the
South. In 2013 migrants constituted 10.8 per cent of the total population in developed regions
Trends In International Migration
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compared to 1.6 per cent in developing regions. Between 1990 and 2013, international migrants
as a share of total population grew in the North but remained unchanged in the South.
Europe and Asia host the largest number of international migrants
Europe and Asia combined host nearly twothirds of all international migrants worldwide. In
2013, 72 million international migrants were residing in Europe, compared to 71 million in
Asia. Northern America hosted the third largest number of international migrants in 2013 (53
million), followed by Africa (19 million), Latin America and the Caribbean (9 million), and
Oceania (8 million)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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www.biographies.com
ARTICLES :
What are the Factors which affects the International Capital Movements? - By NIRAV S
Impact of International Capital Flow on Indian Economy - by Narayan Sethi, K. Uma and
Shankar Patnaik
BOOK :
Economics Of Global Trade And Finance. Author:- Johnson
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