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CHAPTER 41

MATERIALS SELECTION FOR WEAR


RESISTANCE
Andrew W. Phelps
University of Dayton Research Institute
Dayton, Ohio

INTRODUCTION

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PROPERTIES OF WEAR
MATERIALS

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3
4
5

MATERIALS SELECTION
PROCESS

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MANUFACTURING PROCESS
SELECTION

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BASICS OF WEAR MATERIALS

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SUBSTRATE SELECTION

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SURFACE MODIFICATIONS

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FILM THICKNESS

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APPLICATIONS AND EXAMPLES


OF WEAR MATERIALS
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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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INTRODUCTION

The selection of materials and methods for wear applications is an important


part of both technological advancement and manufacturing activities. However,
materials selection is often viewed as a random process or worse. The individuals
charged with designing new parts, developing new processes, or overseeing component trade study projects rarely have had the opportunity or time needed to
develop a feel for the general materials performance of metals, ceramics, or
plastics during a typical undergraduate university education. The good news is
that ignorance is curable and its treatment should leave no permanent scars.
Methods and approaches to solving materials problems have been developed
over time that may help clarify needs and reduce the degree to which materials
selection may be considered a black art. Materials application, performance,
and manufacturability are all key parts in the selection for wear resistance applications, but the general methods are also extensible to other areas of materials
selection.
There is a great deal of interest in replacing hard metallurgical coatings with
materials and systems that are more environmentally benign and are capable of
providing equal or better performance than those materials they replace. Materials replacement efforts have traditionally relied on the shotgun approach where
a material is simply substituted for another. This particular approach, however,

Handbook of Materials Selection, Edited by Myer Kutz


ISBN 0-471-35924-6 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
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MATERIALS SELECTION FOR WEAR RESISTANCE

rarely ensures success. Numerous factors must be taken into account when
choosing a replacement for a hard coating. These factors include the temperature,
work face pressure, chemical environment, materials compatibility, elastic constants, and cost. If more environmentally benign materials were easily substituted
for traditional hard materials, then they would have been long ago. Because
there is no direct substitution, it is necessary to tailor the replacement materials
to the specific application.
The main tasks in materials selection for wear application are to first specify
performance needs and then financial needs. The order of these activities is
important because, while a lower cost component part may be preferred, that
less expensive parts performance must be suited to the task. It is very difficult
to specify a part mainly on cost without knowing the performance design limits.
This chapter is concerned mainly with the issue of performance, but one always
needs to be aware of the cost of component acquisition or manufacture.
The information base and deposition techniques developed for one class of
materials can typically be extended to other materials in the same class. Examples of this include hard coatings such as silicon carbide and titanium nitride,
soft coatings such as silver and gold, hardened metal alloys, and polycrystalline
ceramics. General wear surface selection methodology for one class of materials
may be extended to other unrelated classes.
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PROPERTIES OF WEAR MATERIALS

A wear material may be used to reduce dimensional changes due to unwanted


material removal, reduce frictional losses, to tailor the physical performance of
a component, and/or to provide a physically stable working surface. Wear can
be divided into several categories such as adhesive and abrasive wear that take
place during sliding contact. Surface fatigue and deformation wear are an impact
or loading rate phenomenon, and corrosive wear is caused by the interaction of
the wear surface with the local environment. These wear mechanisms may act
singly or in combination with one another to alter a surface. The proper selection
of a material for a wear application will strongly depend on both the type of
wear to be countered and on the wear environment. The wear environment can
be dry, wet, warm, cold, and so on. Wear taking place in a corrosive marine
environment will be more damaging than the marine environment or the wear
alone. Wear phenomenon is a factor in applications where it might not be readily
apparent. Optical windows that are exposed to the natural elements have a need
for wear protection where dust, sand, and ice can impact and roughen soft optical
surfaces. Fan and propeller blades in water can experience wear by cavitation
erosion in water and bug and dust impact erosion in air.
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MATERIALS SELECTION PROCESS

The classic method of selecting a wear material is to use what has always been
used in the past for a particular application. There is a reason for thisit works.
For example, steel ball bearings are relatively inexpensive and are superb at
what they do if they are not pushed beyond their performance limits. A good
reason would be needed to replace steel ball bearings in an application for an
alternative material or a different type of bearing. Changes in performance needs
such as increased rotational speeds, a need for mass or volume reduction, altered

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mechanical shock environment, or increased reliability could lead to a demand


for an alternative material.
Few particulars are provided here in terms of specific wear materials selection.
Each wear application needs to be approached as a unique situation if a best
result is to be achieved. That said, the following guidelines can allow for the
rapid selection and insertion of an optimal wear system into operational use.
1. Specify the maximum operational limits of the wear materials system for
safety and lifetime. Properties that make some wear films excellent for one
particular application may be completely unsuitable for other uses.
2. Specify the normal operational parameters and acceptable performance
criteria of the wear materials system. Performance criteria would include the
number of cycles of use and the physical and chemical exposure environment
before, during, and after use. This step provides for the selection of a broad
range of materials and technologies that could fit the needs of the application.
No preemptive elimination of technology should be attempted at this stage. Some
of the materials and technologies may later be found to be mutually exclusive
or inappropriate for use at a later point. Preemptive preselection at this point
may eliminate poor candidates but also serves to too narrowly focus the materials search too early in the process. Early candidate elimination is attractive,
but it can eliminate an entire class of potential solutions and can possibly restrict
the ultimate wear material selection to a good solution but perhaps not the best
solution. The more care that is taken during this crucial step will enable the
actual materials selection phase to be much smoother in terms of performance,
availability, and price.
3. Establish the degree of mechanical, physical (thermal expansion, dielectric constant, and so on), and chemical compatibility the wear material must
have with the system. The real process of wear material selection begins once
the preceding steps have been taken.
4. Material availability and cost are closely related factors usually taken into
account at the same time. The cost of a particular wear material is almost exclusively controlled by its availability. Availability is directly controlled by prevalence of use (numerous examples exist of high-priced finished parts made from
more common materials than their lower cost cousins) with the attendant savings
of resulting from high-volume manufacturing. Availability of raw materials and
the ability to work, shape, and form those materials can also influence materials
cost.
Cubic boron nitride is an extremely hard wear material used in tooling for
ferrous metals where diamond is inappropriate. It is a completely synthetic material not found in nature and is produced mainly as a bulk powder in highpressure growth apparatus in limited batches. The powder is then used as a loose
abrasive or it can be reworked into a solid piece of tooling. For all practical
purposes, cubic boron nitride is unavailable as a directly applied coating.
The need to process the material after its synthesis adds yet another layer of
expense to the cost of tooling. Cubic boron nitride tends to be expensive due to
its availability. Titanium nitride is a fairly hard materials that is also completely

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MATERIALS SELECTION FOR WEAR RESISTANCE

synthetic but it is easy to produce. Inexpensive titanium-nitride-coated tooling


is now available from many suppliers.
A General Hierarchy in Cost of Manufacture of Wear Materials
Bulk materials of commonplace composition that are easy to work and form
(a) Materials that can be made in final shape with no post processing
(b) Materials that can be made wear resistant after final shaping as by
tempering of metal or firing a ceramic
Coatings of commonplace composition that may be applied to easily manufactured substrates
(a) Coating applied under ambient conditions such as room temperature
and pressure
(b) Coatings formed in nontoxic water baths
(c) Coatings and treatments that require high temperatures and controlled atmospheres
(d) Small batch vacuum-based treatments
Wear materials that are formed ex situ and then are attached to a substrate
(a) Gluing
(b) Cementing
(c) Brazing
(d) Diffusion bonding
Bulk materials of uncommon composition that are difficult to work and form
such as solid carbides, borides, and silicides
4

MANUFACTURING PROCESS SELECTION

Process selection is a second-tier consideration in most instances of wear materials selection. The physical properties of wear coatings may vary depending
on the deposition method and technique. The standard cost savings from continuous and semicontinuous manufacturing methods such as extrusion and rolling versus stamping and milling operations also apply for wear materials.
Method of manufacture becomes very important when directional or textural
property characteristics of a material need to be considered. Many of the physical, optical, chemical, electrical properties of wear films will be controlled or
modified by their degree of deviation from perfection imparted during manufacture. This is a common consideration in the area of composites manufacture.
The component materials of a composite structure are only slightly more important than the manner in which they are arranged in space and bound to one
another. Workpieces with apparently similar material compositions can have dramatically varied performance characteristics depending on the arrangement in
space of their component parts as influenced by their method of manufacture.
The physical properties of wear films can be modified and controlled by altering

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deposition parameters, using additives, changing substrate selection, and varying


the seeding and nucleation method.
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BASICS OF WEAR MATERIALS

Wear materials tend to be one of two types: (1) bulk solids or (2) coatings, films,
and surface treatments. A bulk wear material will typically provide long-term
wear surface use. There is more of a wear part available for continued use
provided that significant dimensional changes have not affected the actual performance of the tool. However, the lack of availability of a wear material in
bulk form or difficulty or expense in its manufacture can force the use of coatings
or films instead. Likewise, coatings or films can enable the use of a material
that is unsuitable in the bulk form but has very good performance when combined with other materials in a multicomponent wear system. The trade-off in
the use of bulk and film materials is the possibility of enhanced performance of
a coated tool versus the cost and effort required to make the coated tool. Other
factors such as increased tool lifetime and length of time between tool changes
may make a coated wear system attractive with respect to an inexpensive bulk
material system. Cost and availability are two factors that strongly govern the
selection of a bulk material or a surface treatment for a particular wear application.
The following references provide a rich resource for review and further exploration of the properties and behavior of wear materials: Buckley and Rabinowicz (1986), Apachitei and Duszczyk (2000), Bull and Matthews (1992), Bull
et al. (1988), Formanek et al. (1993), Jackson and Mills (2000), Joost and
Schwedes (1996), Karja et al. (1993), Foroulis (1984), Dobrzanski (2001), John
(1984).
The general application of wear materials in varied situations are addressed
in a number of the following references: Ball and Ward (1985), Balon and
Aizinbud (1989), Berns (1995), Bull et al. (2000), Burkle et al. (1995), Cooper
et al. (1992), Franklin and Beuger (1992), Franklin and Dijkman (1995), Gagg
(2001), Gandhi and Agrawal (1994), Garbar (1995), Gates and Eaton (1993),
Geiger (1992), Hsu et al. (1991), Hsu and Shen (1996), Jang and Kim (1996),
Jilbert and Field (1998), Jones (1997), Jung (2000), Klocke and Krieg (1999),
Korsunsky et al. (1995), Kuljanic (1992), Kurzynski (1996), Larsen-Basse
(1990), Lempert (1988), Llewellyn (1996), Lohmann and Van Valkenhoef
(1989), Lyons (1998), Mainwaring (1994), Manning et al. (1984), Margus and
Comerford (1994), Martinella (1993), Medley (1992), Meyerrodenbeck et al.
(1992), Mikhailin et al. (1985), Nuttall (1985), Onate et al. (1998), Paller (1991),
Pascheto and Behnood (1997), Pejryd et al. (1995), Penlington et al. (1995),
Phillips and Knapp (1995), Ramalingam and Zheng (1995), Reinhard and Volz
(1983), Robinson et al. (1993), Rozenberg et al. (1987), Sare and Arnold (1995),
Sessler et al. (1993), Sexton et al. (2001), Stack (1997), Stewart (1997), Stokes
and Cooley (1985), Suchanek et al. (1999), Thompson (1994), Uma Devi and
Mohanty (1998), Voronenko (1992), Ward et al. (1996a), Wassell et al. (1997),
and Wendl and Wupper (1991).
Hardness is related to wear in that if it is very difficult to break one bond,
then the chances of breaking many bonds (wear) will be low. A related series
of references deal with the use of hard materials in wear applications: Bulloch

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and Henderson (1991), Beck et al. (1993), Knotek and Loffler (1992), Knotek
and Loffler (1991), Zahner and Menon (1995), Williamson and Bolton (1983).
The selection of specific wear materials for specific applications is reviewed in
Ashby (1992), Bolvari and Glenn (1995), Bamkin and Piearcey (1990), Charles
et al. (1997), Carnes et al. (2000), Edwards (1994), Edwards (1997), Eyre (1991),
Farrow and Gleave (1983), Fischer (1996), Sundaresan (1988), Syan (1994),
Strafford (1996), Subramanian and Strafford (1993), Subramanian et al. (1996),
Shubrook (1996), Glaeser (1992), Hogmark et al. (2000).
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SUBSTRATE SELECTION

There are several basic principles involved in substrate selection for wear film
deposition. The material has to be compatible with the chemistry of the wear
film deposition and growth environment. The substrate cannot have a coefficient
of thermal expansion that is far greater or less than that of the wear film. This
criterion can be reduced in importance by the use of very thin films that tend
not to build up large internal stresses.
7

SURFACE MODIFICATIONS

The as-grown surfaces of some hard films are not suited for immediate use. The
as-formed surface of some wear materials can be very rough. The degree of
roughness can prevent the use of these materials as bearings if there is no method
of making the surface smooth. These surfaces may be rough or chemically reactive and require an additional preparative step such as polishing or a run in
period prior to their use.
Films need to have less than a 0.4-m peak-to-valley roughness in general
to be used for bearings. Surfaces with roughness greater than 5 m peak-tovalley roughness have been found to be unacceptable and, in the absence of a
method of making the surface smooth, would prevent the use of these materials
as bearings. Mechanical polishing is preferably avoided to reduce the per-part
finishing cost as well as retain uniform dimensionality.
Making a wear film smooth to begin with reduces the likelihood of introducing flaws into the film as well as making the process much less expensive.
Smooth wear films may be made by several different methods. These include
polishing, brazing the rough side down, growing the films very thin, or growing
them very smooth initially. Smooth films can be made if the average crystallite
size is small and if there is no room for the crystal to grow laterally. A thin,
pinhole-free film can be grown if crystallites are densely packed. Making the
film smooth initially reduces the likelihood of introducing flaws into the film as
well as making the process much less expensive.
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FILM THICKNESS

A thin film will allow the physical properties of the substrate material to be
sampled during use. The scale of thickness is completely dependent on the scale
of the system. A thin film might be 0.5 m thick if the maximum foreign particle
size is 0.25 m in diameter where a thick film would be 5 m thick. Similarly,
a thin film might be 70 m thick if the maximum foreign particle size is 20 m
in diameter where a thick film would be 200 m thick. How thick must a film
be to be thick enough? The size and hardness of foreign particulate matter

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arriving at the bearing surface will determine the thickness of the wear film.
Thickness removal is comparable to cost because of time and material used
during finishing. Mechanical polishing can also be an agent of flaw introduction.
A brittle hard coating that is only a few microns thick would easily run a
through-crack.
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APPLICATIONS AND EXAMPLES OF WEAR MATERIALS

Wear materials are generally thought of in terms of metallurgical materials systems. Overall volume of wear materials would certainly demonstrate the importance of metals and metallurgy. There are a variety of other materials that have
and are being used in wear applications. While the total volume of these materials combined is small compared to metals, they do represent a significant
fraction of wear materials. Ceramics are slowly being phased in as wear materials in expected and unexpected places. Ceramics are now being used in highperformance ball bearing applications as well as high-end cutlery. The studies
by Dellacorte and Steinetz (1994) and Riley (1996) review some of the uses and
methods of selection of ceramics for wear applications.
Polymers have had a traditional role in wear applications from Teflon bearing
sleeves to the rubber tires strapped to the sides of harbor tugboats. The following
works provide some general guidelines for polymer use and selection in wear
applications: An et al. (1997), Besic (1995), Palmese and Chawalwala (1996),
Leger (1989), Price (1987), Wolpers and Hager (1990), Sysoev et al. (1986),
Sladkov et al. (1998), and Tewari and Bijwe (1991).
Stone and natural glass were some of the original wear materials used by
humans. These materials continue to be used into the twenty-first century in
cutting edge applications as described by Twitchen et al. (1995) and Ertingshausen (1985).
Injection, stamping, and figure mold surfaces in materials process facilities
face significant wear problems. This type of machinery will lose its dimensional
tolerance over time as it is used. An intricately carved stamping blank would
ideally never change its dimensions. This would reduce long-term production
costs and reduce the amount of mechanical downtime when workers are idled
while waiting for a stamping press to be retooled. The following studies examine
wear materials for this type of application: Clarke (1985), Elfick et al. (1999),
Haggag (1989), Hu et al. (1999), Murray et al. (1997), Bahadur (1993), Ward
et al. (1996b, 1998), Hampson (1994), Gonzalez et al. (1999), Atkinson and
Bristol (1992), Aksit and Tichy (1998), Stack and Pungiwat (1998), and Haugen
et al. (1995).
The purpose of numerous refernces cited above is to provide a resource to
those interested in wear materials selection. References cited range from wear
materials selection criteria to interesting accounts and analyses of wear materials
application and failure. The following references may also be of interest: Blau
and Gardner (1996), Collins (1981), Colombie et al. (1987), Freimanis et al.
(2000), Fu et al. (2000), Gil Sevillano (1997), Hepp et al. (1997), Hornbogen
and Schafer (1981), Middleton and Coupland (1996), Moore (1981), OBrien
(1982), Peterson and Ramalingam (1981), Samuels et al. (1981), and Wendl and
Wupper (1990).

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