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PROSES PENGECORAN

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-1

Introduction
Casting
Penuangan logam cair ke cetakan sesuai dengan
bentuk yang diinginkan. Setelah penuangan,
dilanjutkan dengan proses pembekuan pada
cetakan dan benda dikeluarkan dari cetakan

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-2

Introduction
- Dapat digunakan untuk menghasilkan geometri yang
kompleks baik internal maupun eksternal
- Beberapa proses pengecoran dapat mengasilkan
komponen net shape (tidak memerlukan proses
pengerjaan manufaktur lanjutan)
- Dapat menghasilkan komponen yang sangat besar (berat
lebih dari 100 ton)
- Dapat digunakan untuk berbagai jenis logam yang dapat
dipanaskan sampai fasa cair
- Beberapa tipe proses casting cocok untuk mass
production
Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-3

TABLE 11.1
Process

Ringkasan
Proses proses
Pengecoran

Advantages

Limitations

Sand

Almost any metal cast; no limit


to size, shape or weight; low
tooling cost.

Some finishing required;


somewhat coarse finish; wide
tolerances.

Shell mold

Good dimensional accuracy and


surface finish; high production
rate.

Part size limited; expensive


patterns and equipment
required.

Expendable pattern

Most metals cast with no limit


to size; complex shapes

Patterns have low strength and


can be costly for low quantities

Plaster mold

Intricate shapes; good


dimensional accu- racy and
finish; low porosity.

Limited to nonferrous metals;


limited size and volume of
production; mold making time
relatively long.

Ceramic mold

Intricate shapes; close


tolerance parts; good surface
finish.

Limited size.

Investment

Intricate shapes; excellent


surface finish and accuracy;
almost any metal cast.

Part size limited; expensive


patterns, molds, and labor.

Permanent mold

Good surface finish and


dimensional accuracy; low
porosity; high production rate.

High mold cost; limited shape


and intricacy; not suitable for
high-melting-point metals.

Die

Excellent dimensional accuracy


and surface finish; high
production rate.

Die cost is high; part size


limited; usually limited to
nonferrous metals; long lead
time.

Centrifugal

Large cylindrical parts with


good quality; high production
rate.

Equipment is expensive; part


shape limited.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-4

Contoh komponen hasil pengecoran

Crank handle setelah casting


pada beberapa area dilakukan
pemesinan dan perakitan

C-clamps formed by casting


(left) and machining (right)

Complex part formed by casting


Courtesy of Toth Industries
Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-5

Contoh produk hasil


pengecoran
Figure 11.2 Typical grayiron castings used in
automobiles, including
transmission valve body
(left) and hub rotor with
disk-brake cylinder (front).
Source: Courtesy of Central
Foundry Division of General
Motors Corporation.

Figure 11.3 A cast


transmission housing.
Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-6

Contoh : Die-Casting

(a)

(b)

Figure 11.1 (a) The Polaroid PDC-2000 digital camera with a AZ91D die-cast, high purity
magnesium case. (b) Two-piece Polaroid camera case made by the hot-chamber die casting
process. Source: Courtesy of Polaroid Corporation and Chicago White Metal Casting, Inc.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-7

Karakteristik Umum Proses Pengecoran


TABLE 11.2

Process
Sand
Shell
Expendable
mold
pattern

Typical
materials
cast

Minimum

Maximum

All
All

0.05
0.05

No limit
100+

5-25
1-3

4
4

1-2
2-3

0.05

No limit

5-20

0.05

50+

1-2

0.005

100+

0.5

<0.05
--

All
Nonferrous
Plaster
(Al, Mg, Zn,
mold
Cu)
All
(High melting
Investment
pt.)
Permanent
mold
All
Nonferrous
(Al, Mg, Zn,
Die
Cu)
Centrifugal
All

Weig ht (kg)

Typical
surface
finish
(mm, Ra)

Section thic kness (mm)


Shape
Dimensional
Porosity* complexity* accuracy*

Minimum

Maximum

3
2

3
2

No limit
--

No limit

1-2

--

1-3

75

300

2-3

2-3

3-4

50

50
5000+

1-2
2-10

1-2
1-2

3-4
3-4

1
3

0.5
2

12
100

*Relative rating: 1 best, 5 worst.


Note : These ratings are only general; significant variations can occur, depending on the methods used.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-8

Hal penting dalam pengecoran


Persyaratan:
- Rongga cetakan sesuai dengan bentuk dan ukuran yang
diinginkan
- Proses pencairan untuk menghasilkan logam cair
- Proses penuangan untuk mengantarkan logam cair ke
cetakan
- Proses kontrol pembekuan untuk mencegah cacat
- Melepaskan produk dan cetakan
- Pembersihan, finishing dan inspeksi

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-9

Logam murni dan paduan


Lovgam munri membeku pada konstan temperatur dan paduan
membeku pada range temperatur

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-10

Proses pembekuan

A nucleating agent (inoculant) adalah senyawa yang


berfungsi sebagai tempat nukleasi butir agar proses
pengintian terbentuk pada waktu yang bersamaan di
seluruh bagian
Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-11

Laju pendinginan
Rapid cooling cenderung menghasilkan butir
equiaxed (bulat)
Slow cooling cenderung menghasilkan butir
kolumnar (memanjang) yang tumbuh dengan
arah ke bagian tengah

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-12

Pembekuan logam
Dendrites
Tree-like structures that form during the solidification of alloys

Slow cooling rates produce dendrites with larger branch spacing;


faster cooling rates produce finer spacing; very fast cooling rates
produce no dendrites or grains
Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-13

Istilah dalam Casting


Flask
The box containing the mold
Cope
The top half of any part of a 2-part mold
Drag
The bottom half of any part of a 2-part mold
Core
A shape inserted into the mold to form internal cavities
Core Print
A region used to support the core
Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-14

Istilah dalam Casting (lanjutan)


Mold Cavity
The hollow mold area in which metal solidifies into the part
Riser
An extra cavity to store additional metal to prevent shrinkage
Gating System
Channels used to deliver metal into the mold cavity
Pouring Cup
The part of the gating system that receives poured metal
Sprue
Vertical channel
Runners
Horizontal channels
Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-15

Istilah dalam Casting (lanjutan)


Parting Line / Parting Surface
Interface that separates the cope and drag of a 2-part
mold
Draft
Taper on a pattern or casting that allows removal from
the mold
Core Box
Mold or die used to produce cores
Casting
The process and product of solidifying metal in a mold
Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-16

Cetakan Pasir

Figure 11.4 Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing various features.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-17

Fungsi pada cetakan

Vents sebagai pembuangan udara


untuk mengeluarkan gas yang dihasilkan
pada saat logam cair masuk dan kontak
dengan cetakan.
Risers menahan dan men-supply logam
cair agar tidak terjadi penyusutan selama
proses pembekuan
Gates didesain untuk mencegah
kontaminan yang dapat masuk ke rongga
cetakan

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-18

Tahapan Sand Casting

Figure 11.5 Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting operation.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-19

Karakteristik material untuk


pola/cetakan
TABLE 11.3
a

Characteristic

Wood

Aluminum

Rating
Steel

Plastic

Cast iron

Machinability
E
G
F
G
G
Wear resistance
P
G
E
F
E
Strength
F
G
E
G
G
Weightb
E
G
P
G
P
Repairability
E
P
G
F
G
Resistance to:
Corrosionc
E
E
P
E
P
Swellingc
P
E
E
E
E
aE, Excellent; G, good; F, fair; P, poor.
bAs a factor in operator fatigue.
cBy water.
Source : D.C. Ekey and W.R. Winter, Introduction to Foundry Technology. New York.
McGraw-Hill, 1958.
Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-20

Patterns Untuk Sand


Casting
Figure 11.6 A typical metal
match-plate pattern used in
sand casting.

Figure 11.7 Taper on patterns for


ease of removal from the sand mold.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-21

Examples of Sand Cores and Chaplets

Figure 11.8 Examples of sand cores showing core prints and chaplets to support cores.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-22

Squeeze Heads
Figure 11.9 Various designs
of squeeze heads for mold
making: (a) conventional
flat head; (b) profile head;
(c) equalizing squeeze
pistons; and (d) flexible
diaphragm. Source:
Institute of British
Foundrymen. Used with
permission.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-23

Tahapan pengerjaan dalam Sand Casting

Figure 11.11 Schematic illustration of the sequence of operations for sand casting. Source: Steel
Founders' Society of America. (a) A mechanical drawing of the part is used to generate a design for the
pattern. Considerations such as part shrinkage and draft must be built into the drawing. (b-c) Patterns
have been mounted on plates equipped with pins for alignment. Note the presence of core prints designed
to hold the core in place. (d-e) Core boxes produce core halves, which are pasted together. The cores will
be used to produce the hollow area of the part shown in (a). (f) The cope half of the mold is assembled by
securing the cope pattern plate to the flask with aligning pins, and attaching inserts to form the sprue and
risers. (continued)
Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-24

Tahapan pengerjaan Sand Casting (lanjutan)

Figure 11.11 (g) The flask is rammed with sand and the plate and inserts are removed. (g) The drag half is
produced in a similar manner, with the pattern inserted. A bottom board is placed below the drag and aligned
with pins. (i) The pattern, flask, and bottom board are inverted, and the pattern is withdrawn, leaving the
appropriate imprint. (j) The core is set in place within the drag cavity. (k) The mold is closed by placing the
cope on top of the drag and buoyant forces in the liquid, which might lift the cope. (l) After the metal solidifies,
the casting is removed from the mold. (m) The sprue and risers are cut off and recycled and the casting is
cleaned, inspected, and heat treated (when necessary).
Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-25

Surface Roughness for Various Metalworking Processes

Figure 11.12 Surface roughness in casting and other metalworking processes. See also Figs. 22.14 and
26.4 for comparison with other manufacturing processes.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-26

Ceramic Molds
Figure 11.16 Sequence of operations in
making a ceramic mold. Source: Metals
Handbook, vol. 5, 8th ed.

Figure 11.17 A typical ceramic


mold (Shaw process) for casting
steel dies used in hot forging.
Source: Metals Handbook, vol.
5, 8th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-27

Figure 11.18
Schematic
illustration of
investment
casting, (lostwax process).
Castings by this
method can be
made with very
fine detail and
from a variety of
metals. Source:
Steel Founders'
Society of
America.

Investment
Casting

Proses
investment
casting disebut
juga dengan lostwax process
pattern dibuat
dari wax atau
plastic seperti
polystyrene

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-28

Investment Casting of a Rotor

Figure 11.19 Investment casting of an integrally cast rotor for a gas turbine. (a) Wax pattern assembly.
(b) Ceramic shell around wax pattern. (c) Wax is melted out and the mold is filled, under a vacuum,
with molten superalloy. (d) The cast rotor, produced to net or near-net shape. Source: Howmet
Corporation.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-29

Investment and Conventionally Cast Rotors


Figure 11.20 Crosssection and
microstructure of two
rotors: (top)
investment-cast;
(bottom) conventionally
cast. Source: Advanced
Materials and
Processes, October
1990, p. 25 ASM
International

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-30

Vacuum-Casting Process

Figure 11.21 Schematic illustration of the vacuum-casting process. Note that the mold has a
bottom gate. (a) Before and (b) after immersion of the mold into the molten metal. Source:
From R. Blackburn, "Vacuum Casting Goes Commercial," Advanced Materials and Processes,
February 1990, p. 18. ASM International.
Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-31

Pressure Casting

Figure 11.22 (a) The bottom-pressure casting process utilizes graphite molds for the production of steel
railroad wheels. Source: The Griffin Wheel Division of Amsted Industries Incorporated. (b) Gravitypouring method of casting a railroad wheel. Note that the pouring basin also serves as a riser. Railroad
wheels can also be manufactured by forging.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-32

Hot- and Cold-Chamber Die-Casting


(a)

(b)

Figure 11.23 (a) Schematic illustration of the hot-chamber die-casting process. (b) Schematic
illustration of the cold-chamber die-casting process. Source: Courtesy of Foundry Management and
Technology.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-33

Cold-Chamber Die-Casting Machine

(a)

Figure 11.24 (a) Schematic illustration of a cold-chamber die-casting machine.


These machines are large compared to the size of the casting because large forces are
required to keep the two halves of the dies closed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-34

Hot-Chamber Die-Casting Machine


(b)

Figure 11.24 (b) 800-ton hot-chamber die-casting machine, DAM 8005 (made
in Germany in 1998). This is the largest hot-chamber machine in the world
and costs about $1.25 million.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-35

Die-Casting Die Cavities


Figure 11.25 Various types of cavities in a die-casting die. Source: Courtesy of
American Die Casting Institute.

Figure 11.26 Examples of


cast-in- place inserts in die
casting. (a) Knurled
bushings. (b) Grooved
threaded rod.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-36

Properties and Typical Applications of


Common Die-Casting Alloys
TABLE 11.4
Ultimate
tensile
strength
(MPa)

Yield
strength
(MPa)

Elongation
in 50 mm
(%)

320

160

2.5

300

150

2.5

Brass 858 (60 Cu)

380

200

15

Magnesium AZ91 B (9 Al-0.7 Zn)

230

160

Zinc No. 3 (4 Al)

280

--

10

320

--

Alloy
Aluminum 380 (3.5 Cu-8.5 Si)
13 (12 Si)

5 (4 Al-1 Cu)

Applications
Appliances, automotive components,
electrical motor frames and housings
Complex shapes with thin walls, parts
requiring strength at elevated
temperatures
Plumbing fiztures, lock hardware,
bushings, ornamental castings
Power tools, automotive parts, sporting
goods
Automotive parts, office equipment,
household utensils, building hardware,
toys
Appliances, automotive parts, building
hardware, business equipment

Source : Data from American Die Casting Institute

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-37

Centrifugal Casting Process

Figure 11.27 Schematic


illustration of the centrifugal
casting process. Pipes,
cylinder liners, and similarly
shaped parts can be cast with
this process.
Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-38

Semicentrifugal Casting

Figure 11.28 (a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process. Wheels with spokes can
be cast by this process. (b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds are placed at
the periphery of the machine, and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal force.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-39

Squeeze-Casting

Figure 11.29 Sequence of operations in the squeeze-casting process. This process combines the
advantages of casting and forging.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-40

Single Crystal Casting of Turbine Blades


Figure 11.30 Methods of casting turbine blades: (a) directional solidification; (b) method to produce
a single-crystal blade; and (c) a single-crystal blade with the constriction portion still attached.
Source: (a) and (b) B. H. Kear, Scientific American, October 1986; (c) Advanced Materials and
Processes, October 1990, p. 29, ASM International.
(c)

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-41

Single Crystal Casting


Figure 11.31 Two methods of
crystal growing: (a) crystal
pulling (Czochralski process)
and (b) the floating-zone
method. Crystal growing is
especially important in the
semiconductor industry.
Source: L. H. Van Vlack,
Materials for Engineering.
Addison-Wesley Publishing
Co., Inc., 1982.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-42

Melt Spinning
Figure 11.32 Schematic
illustration of melt-spinning to
produce thin strips of
amorphous metal.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-43

Types of Melting Furnaces


Figure 11.33 Two types of melting furnaces used in foundries: (a) crucible, and (b) cupola.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-44

Casting Defects

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-45

Casting Defects
Porosity may be caused by shrinkage and/or gases
Thin sections solidify faster than thick sections; therefore
the molten metal cannot be supplied to thick regions that
are solidifying
Gases become less soluble in a metal as it cools and
solidifies, causing it to be expelled and sometimes form
or expand porosity

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-46

Casting Defects

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-47

Casting Defects
Chills
Pieces of material placed in the mold to speed up
heat transfer in thicker areas of the part to
prevent shrinkage porosity
Internal chills are left within the cast part; external
chills are removed

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-48

Chills

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 11-49

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