Special Concretes through the RMC route

Dr. Manamohan R Kalgal

Sr. Vice President
Head, Technical Services,
UltraTech Cement Ltd.

INTRODUCTION
A significant proportion of concrete used in construction today is being
substantially modified to produce mixes which have properties (both in
fresh and/or hardened states) different from those of ordinary ones. It is
well known that the traditional concrete which was formed with the
cement aggregates and water is being modified by incorporating new
ingredients, either singly or in combination, to improve the quality of the
concrete and make it perform better in more demanding conditions of
service and also make it more suitable for handling by specialised
methods of constructions.
Under service conditions, the finished product is expected to show
improved properties namely higher strength, toughness and durability.
The specialised construction methods demand mixes suitable for an easy
and reliable placing by pumping, spraying, underwater placing, extrusion
etc.
Such demands and the consequent developments produced a range of
concretes which can be broadly classified as the special rather than the
ordinary ones which still prevail in the bulk of everyday construction.
Special Concretes are a fast growing area of concrete technology where
a stage has been reached in which the practical construction industry
has to adjust its site practice in order to maintain efficiency and high
quality of its products while using a wide range of mixes very different
from the traditional ones.
It is important to appreciate that there are no firm boundaries between
the special and the ordinary concrete mixes. In some situations, one and
the same concrete mix can show both an ordinary and a special
behaviour, depending on which properties are considered important or in
which type of practical application the concrete is used.
The experience suggests that a successful solution of the problem of
mixing some of the special concretes has to begin with the storage and
proportioning systems.

This is not only because the storage and proportioning (batching) of the
special constituents of such mixes may be itself difficult but also because
the manner in which these constituents are added into the mixer may
have considerable influence on the mixing process as a whole. This can
influence significantly the necessary mixing time and the overall mixing
efficiency of the plant.
It is important to have good knowledge of the type of Special Concretes,
their properties, their production process from batching and mixing to
final placing, including appropriate and effective testing methods. These
issues are discussed briefly along with the status as of today in India.
HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE
In recent years, the terminology "High-Performance Concrete" has been
introduced into the construction industry.
Definition
A high-performance concrete is something more than is achieved on a
routine basis and involves a specification that often requires the concrete
to meet several criteria. The American Concrete Institute (ACI) defines
high-performance concrete as concrete meeting special combinations of
performance and uniformity requirements that cannot always be
achieved routinely when using conventional constituents and normal
mixing, placing and curing practices. A commentary to the definition
states that a high-performance concrete is one in which certain
characteristics are developed for a particular application and
environment.
Properties
Examples of characteristics that may be considered critical for an
application are Ease of placement, Compaction without segregation,
Early age strength, Long-term mechanical properties, Permeability,
Density, Heat of hydration, Toughness, Volume stability, Long life in
severe environments etc.
Because many characteristics of high-performance concrete are
interrelated, a change in one usually results in changes in one or more of
the other characteristics. Consequently, if several characteristics have to
be taken into account in producing a concrete for the intended
application, each must be clearly specified in the contract documents.
A high-strength concrete is always a high-performance concrete, but a
high-performance concrete is not always a high-strength concrete. The

specification of high-strength concrete generally results in a true

performance specification in which the performance is specified for the
intended application, and the performance can be measured using a
well-accepted standard test procedure. The same is not always true for a
concrete whose primary requirement is durability.
Durable concrete Specifying a high-strength concrete does not ensure
that a durable concrete will be achieved. In addition to requiring a
minimum strength, concrete that needs to be durable must have other
characteristics specified to ensure durability. Given that the required
durability characteristics are more difficult to define than strength
characteristics, specifications often use a combination of performance
and prescriptive requirements, such as permeability and a maximum
water-cementitious material ratio to achieve a durable concrete. The end
result may be a high-strength concrete, but this only comes as a byproduct of requiring a durable concrete.
HPC though the RMC route
High-performance concretes are also more sensitive to changes in
constituent material properties than conventional concretes. Variations
in the chemical and physical properties of the cementitious materials
and chemical admixtures need to be carefully monitored. Substitutions
of alternate materials can result in changes in the performance
characteristics that may not be acceptable for high-performance
concrete. The proportions of the individual constituents vary, depending
on local preferences and local materials. Mix proportions developed in
one part of the country do not necessarily work in a different location.
Many trial batches are usually necessary before a successful mix is
developed. This means that a greater degree of quality control is required
for the successful production of high-performance concrete. RMC plants
are ideally suited to handle the above issues.
SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE
Definition
Self Compacting Concrete (SCC) is
defined as a category of High
Performance Concrete that has
excellent deformability in the fresh
state and high resistance to
segregation, and can be placed and

compacted under its self weight without applying vibration.

Origin and growth
SCC was first developed in Japan in mid 1980. Since then, it has found
applications in reinforced concrete sections containing congested
reinforcements. In 1988, Professor Okamura and his associates at the
University of Tokyo succeeded in developing SCC for commercial use.
About 90% of the concrete used in
Pre-cast industry in Japan is said
to be SCC.
While most of the pioneering
research was going on in Japan,
research also picked up in other
parts of the world. European
countries were interested in
exploring the significance and
potential of SCC developed in
Japan.
The European countries formed a large consortium in 1996 to promote
the development of SCC for practical applications in Europe. It has
reflected in the speed with which SCC is being adopted in many
European countries in the construction of pre-cast and cast-in-place
bridges and other structures. SCC is expected to replace conventional
concrete to promote innovations, lessen environmental impact, improve
durability and reduce cost in almost all applications.
The use of SCC in the U.S. picked up a little later than in Japan and
Europe. The pre-cast concrete industry has been using SCC since 2000
to produce pre-cast structural and non-structural elements, and
architectural panels. The widespread acceptance of SCC in construction
has been slow because of the limited experience in the workability,
durability, constructability and the long- term properties of SCC.
Constant efforts are on, in taking advantage of the characteristics of SCC
in pre-cast and cast-in-place construction in the US and all over the
world.
Properties
Poor quality of vibration of concrete, in congested locations, has often
been a shortcoming of traditional concrete. In such situations, SCC,
which flows under its self weight and does not require any external
vibration, has revolutionized the concrete placement. SCC allows easier
pumping - even from bottom up, flows into complex shapes, transitions
and inaccessible spots and minimizes voids around embedded items to
produce a high degree of homogeneity and uniformity. Since SCC flows
easily, self-levels with minimal consolidation, placement is quick and
easy, saving placement time, vibration equipment and time, labour and

equipment wear and tear. SCC's potential high early form stripping
strength and smooth finish mean faster turnaround and minimal
cosmetic repairs and a positive impact on maintaining projects on
schedule. By eliminating the need for consolidation, SCC results in fewer
safety and noise concerns and costs.
Self-compacting concrete is gradually becoming the preferred formulation
worldwide for many applications such as foundations, floors, walls and
complex structures. It combines great strength and superb finishes with
improved productivity, providing outstanding construction solutions.
SCC through the RMC route
RMC plants where constant and superior quality control can be
maintained is the ideal source for SCC. In order for self compacting
concrete to be used as a standard concrete rather than a special one,
new systems for its design, manufacturing and construction with SCC
are being established. A system by which SCC can be supplied by RMC
manufacturers would involve testing of self compactability, mix-design
method, acceptance testing method at job site, development/use of new
type of powder or admixture suitable for SCC. Okamura and Ozawa
(1995) had proposed a simple mix proportioning system assuming
general supply from RMC plants. The coarse and fine aggregate contents
are fixed so that self-compactability can be achieved easily by adjusting
the water-powder ratio and super-plasticiser dosage only.
Several improvements and variants have been reported in SCC mix
design since then. In mix proportioning of conventional concrete, the
water-cement ratio is fixed at first from the viewpoint of obtaining the
required strength. With SCC however, the water-powder ratio has to be
decided taking into account self-compactablity is very sensitive to this
ratio. The mortar or paste in SCC requires high viscosity as well as high
deformability. This can be achieved by the employment of a super
plasticizer with or without a viscosity modifying agent, resulting in a low
water-powder ratio for high
deformability.
As regards a suitable acceptability test
for SCC, a major problem arises with
regard to checking the whole concrete for
self-compactablity since poor
compactablity cannot be compensated by
the construction work. Interval of taking
samples needs to be pre-fixed based on
experience. An interesting acceptance
test method was proposed by Ouchi et
al.,(1999) wherein, a testing apparatus is
installed between the agitator truck and the pump at the job site. The

whole amount of concrete is poured into the apparatus. If the concrete

flows though the apparatus, the concrete is said to be having sufficient
self-compactability.
Indian Scenario
SCC was adopted in Indian research only in the 1990s. It was used in
various projects in small scale without much of a success till 2000.
Later, research and application stabilized with increasing awareness
about the product. Designers have started to specify SCC mainly to be
able to place concrete in congested reinforcement and in places where
access to vibration is not available. Pre-cast industry (which in itself is
small in comparisons to the potential) has not readily adopted SCC yet,
but it is expected to pick up very soon. Indian standards - IS 456, has
also adopted and introduced SCC in its latest amendment in 2007. With
increase in labour costs and reduction in ready availability of skilled man
power to place and vibrate concrete, SCC has a great scope in Indian
concrete structures.
Mix designs for various grades of SCC between M 25 and M 60(and
recently upto M80) have been developed and stabilised. Demonstrations
on the performance of SCC have been carried out to various clients in
different cities, in both pre-cast and cast in-situ applications.
Considerable volumes of commercial supplies have been made from our
plants in Mumbai, Pune, Gurgaon, Noida, Chennai and Hyderabad.
Recently, a successful landmark pour of 900 m3 of SCC of M 50 grade
was carried out for for M/S Indu Projects, Pune. SCC was poured into a
densely reinforced Post Tensioned beam of dimensions said to be the
largest ever made in Asia.
FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE
Definition
Fibre-reinforced concrete is conventional concrete to which
discontinuous discrete fibres are added during mixing, so as to enhance
the mechanical properties of the concrete such as tensile and flexural
strength, ductility, toughness and crack resistance.
The concept of fiber reinforcement is as old as the use of brittle materials
like clay, bricks or concrete. It was with the introduction of steel
reinforcement bars however that reinforced concrete came to be the
dominating construction material during the industrial revolution. The
modern use of fiber reinforced concrete started in the 1960s using
straight, smooth discontinuous steel fibers. Thereafter, various sorts of
fiber materials have been investigated and are utilized for different
applications. Steel fibers are the dominating fiber type, but there are
many others, such as polymeric fibers, mineral fibers and naturally
occurring fibers.

1. The improvement in the properties of concrete when fibre is added

to it, depends on three factors:
2. Physical properties of fibres and matrix
3. Uniform distribution of the discrete fibres throughout the matrix.
4. Bond between fibres and matrix
Types of Fibres
Fibers have been produced from steel, carbon, glass, plastic,
polypropylene, nylon, rayon, asbestos and also from natural materials
such as cotton, coir, sisal and baggasse. For structural applications
using concrete, steel and glass fibers are generally used, since they
possess high modulus of elasticity and lead to strong and stiff
composites.
Steel Fibers
Steel fibers are classified
based upon the nature of the
source steel, whether they are
straight or deformed, and
their aspect ratio. Figure
shows different shapes
commonly adopted. The use of
steel fibers in fiber-reinforced
concrete results in increased
impact resistance, toughness,
and ductility. Failure of the
fibers in the concrete matrix
usually occurs as a result of
failure of the bond between the fiber and the concrete matrix, resulting in
pull-out of the fibers.
Synthetic Fibers
Synthetic fibers, at current addition rates, are not designed as
replacement for structural (primary) reinforcement in concrete. However,
synthetic fibers do offer numerous benefits to concrete in both the plastic
and hardened states. Synthetic fibers are most commonly used to reduce
plastic shrinkage cracks. Other benefits include a reduction in
permeability and an increase in impact and abrasion resistance and
toughness (ASTM C-1018 89).
There are two general types of fiber currently available in the market.
These are referred to as fibrillated and monofilament and are very
different in configuration and performance.

The fibrillated type is easily recognized as

small bundles of interconnected fibers
that open up and disperse during the
mixing action to produce a three
dimensional maze of fiber in the cement
matrix, resulting in excellent bond
strength and crack control of hardened
concrete. Fiber lengths range from 6mm to
50mm. Graded fibrillated fiber consisting
of various lengths and fiber design for
greater ease of mixing and finishing are
available.
Monofilament fibers do not offer the bonding characteristics of the
fibrillated fiber; because of the shape the fiber acts more like a smooth
towel than a deformed bar. Monofilament fiber does not obtain the
mechanical bond achieved with the fibrillated fiber. Consequently,
monofilaments do not impart the post crack holding strength provided by
fibrillated fibers.
Recently CEMEX has developed Advanced
Polypropylene Fibre Concrete which is a
combination of fine and coarse
monofilament polypropylene fibres which
takes concrete fibre reinforcement to a new
level of performance. The introduction of
deformed coarse fibres into the concrete
mix allows much higher dosage rates,
resulting in increased toughness and
ductility of hardened concrete.
Synthetic Fiber Types
The number of fiber suppliers has grown in
recent years. The primary types of synthetic fibers commercially available
in the market are polypropylene, polyester and nylon. The fibers within
each type come in various lengths, thickness and geometries. Whatever
the fiber composition, they must show resistance to acid, alkali, mildew,
salts, be non-corrosive and have low thermal conductivity; as tested in
the presence of moisture. (ASTM C- 1116-89).
POLYPROPYLENE: Of the synthetic fibers available, polypropylene is the
most widely used in ready-mix concrete. Polypropylene is non-absorbent
and has no effect on mixing water requirements. These fibers are
produced as either fibrillated or monofilaments. Polypropylene is
resistant to alkali and all other chemicals normally present in concrete.

POLYESTER: Though not as widely used as polypropylene fibers, a few

manufacturers offer polyester fibers. Polyester fibers come only in
monofilament configuration, in lengths from 6mm to 50mm.
Like polypropylene, polyester is non-absorbent. Polyester, however, has
been shown to degrade in the alkaline environment of Portland cement
concrete. To retard this degradation, manufacturers of some polyesters
have tried to coat the fibers to resist alkali attack. Long-term
performance of these fibers has yet to be determined.
NYLON: Like polyester fibers, nylon only comes in monofilament form.
What primarily distinguishes them from polypropylene and polyester
fibers is their absorptive nature. They retain a natural balance of 4.5% of
water.
Glass Fiber
Glass fiber reinforced concrete (GFRC), in simplest terms, is the
replacement of conventional large aggregate and steel rebar with a
homogenously dispersed network of tiny strands of glass in a slurry of
cement and sand. By using glass fibers as the matrix bound by
cementitious adhesion, substantial increases in flexural, tensile and
impact strengths are achieved without losing the superb aging properties
of concrete.
The combination of cement and glass fibers allows the homoqenously
reinforced part (GFRC) to be made much thinner than one with only
intermittent reinforcement. This is the essence of the commercial
attractiveness of GFRC. Products made from GFRC generally weigh only
ten percent as much as conventional precast concrete products.
Carbon Fibres
This is a material with a lot of potential. Although carbon fibers are still
used in cement slurry and concrete, this area is no longer being pursued
as aggressively as it once was, primarily due to economics and codes that
do not take into account the higher levels of performance.
Asbestos Fibres
Traditionally used as reinforcement in the chopped fiber form for
applications such as thin sheet-like materials or boards, structural and
architectural panels that must withstand high loads and/or
deformations, and structural components where the fibers are added to
obtain toughness and prevent cracking.
The overall use of asbestos prior to the determination of it as a health
hazard has been estimated to be as high as 2.5 to 3 million tons.

Natural Fibres
There are many potential problems. Some fibers, like straw, have a thin
wax-like coating, which must be removed by chemical treatment before
the cement can adhere. Other fibers, like some species of wood fiber,
contain soluble sugars and tannins which interfere with the cement
hydration process. Perhaps the most important problem is that many
natural fibers are not durable in the highly-alkaline matrix of cement.
The alkalinity eventually embrittles the fibers, and they lose their
reinforcing ability. In addition, the fibers can still absorb some moisture,
and will swell because of this (particularly those fibers nearest the
surface especially in warm humid environments).
Properties
Fiber reinforced concrete is a whole class of materials rather than a
single new type. Different combinations of fiber types, fiber contents and
matrix compositions mixed using various production methods yield a
vast range of material behaviour. With the change in fiber content alone,
mechanical behaviour of the concrete may vary between being almost as
brittle as plain concrete to being close to elastic-plastic or even
deformation-hardening materials. Due to this feature of flexibility in
changing the mechanical behaviour for different uses, fiber reinforced
concrete, the material design gets closely connected with the structural
design and vice versa. The improvement of ductility of concrete elements
and connections in structures in seismic areas has been a long felt
desire. Generally this is achieved by confining concrete but confinement
reinforcements might result in congestion at joints create difficulties in
construction. Several researchers and practitioners in the field have
come out with useful and innovative suggestions for using fibers in
concrete.
The most important property is the crack arrest and crack control
mechanism of the fibers. This in turn, improves all other properties
linked with cracking, such as tensile strength, stiffness, ductility, energy
absorption and resistance to impact, fatigue and thermal loading.
Synthetic Fiber reinforcement combats cracking caused by several
different types of stresses which cause Plastic settlement cracking,
Plastic shrinkage cracking Drying shrinkage cracking
FRC through the RMC route
The complexities of designing the appropriate dosage for the requirement
and maintaining the uniform dispersion to obtain the desired
homogenous concrete again point towards the supply of FRC from RMC
plants.

Batching and mixing

The fibres are normally supplied either pre-weighed in portions as
specified by the customer or as bulk goods weighed manually prior to
batching. Several factors can make the mixing of the fibres into the
concrete difficult, viz.:
1. The tendency of the fibres towards entanglement (balling). This is
mainly a function of the type/dimension of the fibres
2. The difference between density of the fibres and the density of the
fresh concrete. This makes it often necessary to choose the correct
time in the mixing cycle for the addition of the fibres. A typical
example in is the addition of lightweight polymeric fibres. The
addition before water is much better because the addition after
water is into fresh liquid concrete and the buoyancy of the fibres
makes the mixing difficult.
3. The changed character of the fresh mix following the addition of
fibres. There is little change in the mixing process when small
quantities of the fibres are added (e.g., 1 kg. of polymer fibres per
cum of concrete). However, trial mixes using the actually selected
mixer are necessary when large quantities of fibres are added.
Manual batching continues to be used in cases of fibres with which
it appears impossible to avoid entanglement. When using
mechanical systems, the entanglement can cause problems both at
the storage and at the batching stages of the production process.
The manual batching has a number of drawbacks
-

An extended mixing time. This may be necessary to achieve a

homogenous mix.

A possible need for an unnecessarily more expensive mixer in

order to achieve the desired homogeneity and the possible
under-utilisation of the capacity of such plant.

A substantial time consumption for the weighing and

proportioning

An insufficient control of the whole batching process

A lack of documentation for the control of the quantity of fibres

actually added.

Mechanical batching plant which avoids the drawbacks mentioned above

has been developed for steel fibres and polymeric fibres
Placing:
Since synthetic fibers mix into the cement paste, they do not interfere
with structural reinforcement and they conform easily to unusually

shaped forms, such as curved driveways, architectural precasts, etc.

Fibers increase the cohesiveness and "stackability" of the mix. Workers
may notice a slight change in the visual slump in the mix, but
workability will remain the same at any given water/cement ratio.
Finishing:
Synthetic fibers are compatible with all concrete surface treatments and
finishes, such as stamped, exposed aggregate, broomed and trowelled
finish. Fibers are chemically inert and wont stain, rust or discolor the
concrete. Since fiber-reinforced concrete bleeds more uniformly than
plain concrete, it is important not to begin finishing too early. Early
finishing may tend to expose fibers on the slab. Finishing at the proper
time, when the surface has begun to "tighten up" will ensure that the
fibers will not be a cosmetic problem. The fear of "hairy" concrete can be
easily overcome with proper finishing.
Indian Scenario
Different grades of Fibre reinforced concrete are being tried to be
established by using polypropylene and polyester fibres for different
applications. Considerable quantities of FRC have been supplied from
our plants in Bangalore and small quantities have been supplied at
Mumbai and Gurgaon.
The work or bulk supply of FRC with glass, steel and other fibres, for
replacing reinforcement steel in RCC construction or for seismic
resistance is likely to pick up in the near future, once the consultants are
convinced of the benefits and specify FRC in large constructions.
HIGH VOLUME FLY ASH (HVFA) CONCRETE
In the modern construction practice 15%-20% of fly ash by mass of the
cementitious material is now commonly used in developed countries.
Higher amounts of fly ash on the order of 25%-30% are recommended
when there is a concern for thermal cracking, alkali-silica expansion, or
sulfate attack. Such high proportions of fly ash are not readily accepted
by the construction industry due to a slower rate of strength
development at early age.
The high-volume fly ash concrete system overcomes the problems of low
early strength to a great extent through a drastic reduction in the watercementitious materials ratio by using a combination of methods, such as
taking advantage of the super-plactisizing effect of fly ash when used in a
large volume, the use of a chemical super-plactisizer, and a judicious
aggregate grading. Consequently, properly cured high-volume concrete
products are very homogenous in microstructure, virtually crack-free,

and highly durable. Because there is a direct link between durability and
resource productivity, the increasing use of high volume concrete will
help to enhance the sustainability of the concrete industry.
Properties
Based on field experience and laboratory tests, the properties of HVFA
concrete, when compared to conventional Portland cement concrete, can
be summarized by P K Mehta as follows:
1. Easier flowability, pumpability, and compactability.
2. Better surface finish and quicker finishing time when power finish
is not required.
3. Slower setting time, which will have a corresponding effect on the
joint cutting and lower power-finishing times for slabs.
4. Early-strength up to 7 days, which can be accelerated with
suitable changes in the mix design when earlier removal of
formwork or early structural loading is desired.
5. Much later strength gain between 28 days and 90 days or more.
(With HVFA concrete mixtures, the strength enhancement between
7 and 90-day often exceeds 100%, therefore it is unnecessary to
over-design them with respect to a given specified strength.)
6. Superior dimensional stability and resistance to cracking from
thermal shrinkage, autogenous shrinkage, and drying shrinkage.
In unprotected concrete, a higher tendency for plastic shrinkage
cracking.
7. After three to six months of curing, much higher electrical
resistivity, and resistance to chloride ion penetration, according to
ASTM Method C1202.
8. Very high durability to the reinforcement corrosion, alkali-silica
expansion, and sulfate attack.
9. Better cost economy due to lower material cost and highly
favorable lifecycle cost.
10.
Superior environmental friendliness due to ecological
disposal of large quantities of fly ash, reduced carbon-dioxide
emissions, and enhancement of resource productivity of the
concrete construction industry.
The high-volume concrete offers a holistic solution to the problem of
meeting the increasing demands for concrete in the future in a
sustainable manner and at a reduced or no additional cost, and at the
same time reducing the environmental impact of two industries that are
vital to economic development namely the cement industry and the coalfired power industry. The technology of high-volume fly ash concrete is

especially significant for countries like China and India, where, given the
limited amount of financial and natural resources, the huge demand for
concrete needed for infrastructure and housing can be easily met in a
cost-effective and ecological manner.
HVFA though the RMC route
Site-mixed concrete is still used on numerous medium and small
concrete construction sites in India. It is for this category that the use of
HVFA concrete may pose a number of problems. They are as follows :
1. In HVFA concrete, the proportion of fly ash in the total
cementitious materials is kept in the range of 50-60 percent.
Mixing of two powdery materials cement and fly ash with
almost equal proportions in a low-efficiency mixer having a
capacity of 200-l or 280-l is bound to pose difficulties. It is quite
likely that fly ash may not get dispersed evenly in the concrete mix.
2. Further, HVFA concrete requires that the water-binder (w/b) ratio
be maintained between 0.32 to 0.38 and this is going to be the
toughest challenge in site-mixed concrete production. The water
content in the HVFA concrete needs to be kept around 120-135
l/m3 and if one is not able to control it then it is obvious that the
desired properties of strength and durability would not be
achieved
3. HVFA concrete necessarily includes a super plasticizer for
increasing the slump of this Concrete. We cannot expect the
masons and supervisors handling site mixed concrete to be
knowledgeable about the admixtures in general and super
plasticizers in particular. They are not capable of dealing with the
problem of cement-super plasticizer-fly ash compatibility. ? Also
they cannot introduce an exact amount of super plasticizer when
proper dosing arrangements are just not available on a site-mixed
concrete work.
4. The quality of fly ash is another big question. The IS 3812,
specifies certain physical requirements like Blaines fineness, lime
reactivity, particles retained on 45 micron sieve, compressive
strength, soundness, etc. for ensuring that only the desired quality
of fly ash is used in concrete. The code has also introduced certain
uniformity requirements. However, the quality control exercised on
a typical site-mixed concrete job site in India is just not equipped
to exercise proper controls on the quality of fly ash that would be
incorporated in concrete. Under such circumstances, there is a
possibility that improper quality fly ash even bottom ash get
introduced in concrete.
5. Proper supervision and quality control are generally lacking in
typical site-mixed concrete jobs. There is a total dependence on the

maistry and his team of labourers, who are not knowledgeable

enough to understand the importance of keeping the w/b ratio at
lower level, ensuring adequate mixing of fly ash and incorporating
adequate dosage of a good-quality superplasticiser in the mix.
Further, HVFA concrete also needs sufficient curing, which is
usually an ignored area in site-mixed concrete. Of course, there are
certain enlightened contractors/builders and consultants in the
country, who are fully aware of the implications of good quality
concrete and are exercising good controls on many of their
construction sites using site-mixed concrete. Unfortunately, their
number is very low.
HVFA concrete should only be produced in an RMC facility or on projects
having batching-mixing plant wherein sufficiently high level of quality
control measures are exercised
FOAM CONCRETE
It is a lightweight, free-flowing material that is ideal for many
applications, and can have a range of dry densities (typically 4001600kg/m3) and strengths (1-15MPa). It can be easily placed, by pump if
necessary, and does not require compacting, vibrating or levelling. Foam
concrete also has excellent resistance to water and frost, and provides a
high level of sound and thermal insulation. It is very versatile, since it
can be tailored for optimum performance and minimum cost by choice of
a suitable mix design.
First used in mainland Europe during the 1920s, foam concrete has
properties and applications that are different from conventional concrete,
where low compressive strengths are acceptable. The material is suitable
for a number of applications, including backfill and trench
reinstatement. One of the most cost-effective uses has been found in
sub-bases for roads.
Definition
The term 'foam concrete' is possibly more accurate than the more
frequently used `foamed concrete', as the product is not created by
foaming ordinary concrete but is a totally different material. In its most
fundamental form, foam concrete is composed of cement, water and air
pores. The air pores are introduced by agitating air with a foaming agent
diluted with water, creating a mechanically manufactured foam. This
foam is then carefully blended with the cement slurry or base mix.
With ordinary concrete, there is a compact aggregate/sand skeleton, and
cohesion is achieved by the cement matrix: compression loads are
predominantly transferred via this well-- stacked aggregate/sand
skeleton. Foam concrete is composed without coarse aggregates, but with
a substantial volume of foam bubbles. The bubbles are typically 0.30.4mm in diameter, surrounded by cement, the highest concentration

being near the plateau border where there is the conjunction of three
foam bubbles. In foam concrete mortar, these bubbles provide the
stability of the foam concrete. Once the material hydrates, load transfer
takes place via the cement matrix around the bubbles.
Mix designs and properties
In addition to cement, water and foam, various fillers are used for foam
concrete. Popular fillers are pfa, sand, (lime) stone dust or chalk, and
polystyrene beads.
All materials that are compatible with cement and have fineness between
that of cement and sand can be used in foam concrete, provided that
they have no adverse effect on the stability of the foam.
If mechanical properties, such as strength, are taken into account, it is
best to only use fine fillers, so sand with a maximum grain size of 1mm
is more effective than sand with a maximum grain size of 4mm. The
minimum cement content depends on the overall filler fineness, but in
general the minimum can be set at 150kg/m^sup 3^. The water/cement
ratio also depends on the volume and fineness of the ingredients and can
be as high as 1.0.
The properties of foam concrete depend on only a few elements:
* volume
* cement content
* filler type (density of filler) material age.
The amount of cement, although important, does not determine the
eventual strength and that both density of foam concrete and pore
volume are equally important. The presence of pfa gives the strength of
the material an extra boost at greater age.
Applications
Road sub-bases
A recent development has been the use of foam concrete as a road subbase. It is a highly effective way to improve unstable soil conditions or to
replace unsuitable soils. A typical application would be to raise the
elevation of a roadway by using foam concrete as a subbase, especially
where soil is unstable. Foam concrete does not require compacting,
imposes no lateral forces on adjacent structures, may be applied directly
to existing marginal ground such as peat concentrations or poor soils,
and weighs 20-25% of the weight of standard soils. Foam concrete can be
applied on uneven ground as it does not need a completely flat surface,
eliminating the requirement for surcharging with soil. Less consolidation
is required for subsoils and it also achieves equilibrium with surrounding
pressures.

Trench Filling
Foam Concrete is a simple answer
to trench reinstatement and voidfill. It reduces the time required to
back-fill, thereby providing a major
saving to contractors by increasing
productivity. Since it is a free
flowing, self-levelling material, it will
fill any voids and cavities in the
trench sides; eliminating settlement
issues. There is no need to use
compactors, thus eliminating
vibration related illnesses among
operatives.
Other Applications
Various other applications can be thought of like:

As heat insulating materials for roofs of residential and Industrial

Buildings.

As low temperature insulation material in cold storage plants.

Pre-cast panels for non-load-bearing partition walls, to give

lightweight and sound insulated construction.

Light weight-filling material for achieving slopes to facilitate

drainage.

To make complicated shapes for architectural facing work, because

of high flowing and moulding ability without adding significantly to
structural dead weight.

Foam Concrete through the RMC route

It is important to make the slurry
first, before making the foam.
Ideally the foam should be
generated and delivered directly
into the mixer of the ready mix
truck that contains the slurry.
The mixer should be rotated at
approximately 10 revolutions per
minute. All of the foam should be
allowed to blend into the slurry.
A sample of the foamed
concrete should be tested for its
wet density.
Foam concrete is manufactured

on site using mobile equipment. The base mix is manufactured off-site at

concrete or mortar batching plants and transported to the site by readymixed trucks. With the dry mix method, the base mix is manufactured
on site. Cement and fillers are transported to the site in bulk tankers.
The foam is then added to the base mix using several methods:

add foam using a special mixer and blend foam with base mix in a
ready-mixed truck

inject foam at throat of pump and blend foam with base mix by
means of turbulent flow and/or static mixer

inject at pressure side of base mix pump (similar to the previous).

The final method limits the required pump capacity but requires highcapacity foam equipment. Foam for foamed concrete is made from a
concentrated Foaming Agent. Foaming Agents are based on protein
hydrolyzates or synthetic surfactants or both. The foam is made using a
foam generator. In the foam generator the foaming agent is diluted in
water to make a pre-foaming solution and then the pre-foaming solution
is expanded with air into foam. The foam is stiff, like shaving foam, with
a density in the region of 45 g/litre. The bubbles are stable and able to
resist the physical and chemical forces imposed during mixing, placing
and hardening of the foamed concrete. Between 75 and 85% of the
bubbles are of 0.3 to 1.5 mm in diameter.
DECORATIVE CONCRETE
It is amazing how concrete has changed in the last twenty plus years.
Grey old concrete used to be the finished product now its just a canvass
awaiting beauty and talent. Decorative concrete now has a life all of its
own. It can be overlayed into many patterns, stamped, colored, engraved,
stained, polished and probably there is more to come.
Decorative concrete is a rapidly growing market, stamped concrete and
overlays are becoming ever more popular while acid staining has quickly
become the finish of choice for many commercial projects.
The Ready Mix industry has evolved from providing simple, functional,
grey concrete to offering decorative colored concrete that can turn a plain
structure into a work of art. Ready Mix pigments have been used in
developed countries like USA to create vibrant coloured concrete
structures. Coloured concrete reduces visual pollution on highways,
transforms ordinary flooring into a stunning show piece, and adds
beauty to airports. In short, coloured concrete turns the ordinary into the
extraordinary.
How Concrete Gets Colored
Color for concrete is not a dye, stain or paint. They are pigments, either
mined from the ground, or most often manufactured in huge chemical

plants around the world. They are available in powder, liquid and
granular forms, with no one form better then the other. To understand
how concrete gets colored, it should be understood that iron oxide
pigment particles are ten times smaller in size then a particle of cement.
When color is added to any cement based mix, the smaller pigment
particles cover the larger cement particle. This is why color is dosed
based on cement content (sack mix) and nothing else.
When it comes to major factors that affect colour, the most critical is
water to cement ratio. Controlling the amount of water added to the
concrete mix is critical to producing consistent colour. The addition of
water permanently changes the concrete, typically lightening the final
colour.
The second key factor to consider is the role that the gray cement plays
in the final color. The color that is added to the mix has to overpower the
gray base color of the concrete. These two colors come together to form
the final color we see. This is why colors (in gray cement) are all darker
earth tone shades. One can achieve lighter color shades in concrete, but
that requires the use of expensive white cement. Another important
consideration regarding gray cement is that they are not all the same
shade of gray. This reinforces the practice of maintaining batch-to-batch
consistency. One should deal with reputable ready mix supplies that
take steps to control these variables, and never switch ready mix
suppliers in the middle of a colored concrete project! Make sure your
RMC supplier understands colored concrete and that they use cement
from the same lot for the entire job. If a job starts with light cement and
then the RMC supplier tops off with another color of cement, color
differences are to be expected. Second only to water related issues,
cement is a major culprit of color differences in large pours.
The remaining factors, while not as critical, are important and need to be
considered and controlled: The proper curing of concrete is important to
reduce surface shrinkage cracking and obtain the proper strength. It is
even more important in colored concrete because lack of curing produces
inconsistent color. Slight color or shade differences in gray concrete are
seldom noticed.
The last of the key factors that affect colour are sub base preparation,
placement, finish and maintenance. As with most issues in architectural
concrete, color tends to magnify the above issues that are overlooked or
unnoticed in gray concrete. When placing large areas of colored concrete
over days, weeks or months, one should take into consideration the
ability to maintain color consistency.
Breaking up the large areas with bands of different color and or texture
can be considered. For large pours of one colour, it might be worthwhile

considering the use of dry shake color hardener that takes most color
related surface variables out of the picture.
Without periodic cleaning and resealing, the color will change. If you one
uses pure iron oxide pigments, which most reputable suppliers do, these
colors will not fade. Years of surface affects such as efflorescence,
pollution, dirt and traffic take their toll on the concrete surface giving the
appearance of fade.
Decorative Concrete through the RMC route
Here again, RMC is the best route to take, since the complications are
many and consistency is a major issue. In his book, "Guide to Stamped
Concrete," Bob Harris emphasizes "the importance of partnering with
your ready-mix supplier", who can help you get the mix you need for a
given application and condition. You can find a ready mix supplier in
your area to assist you in getting the right mix. He also notes that trial
and error is, unfortunately, often the best teacher. Learning to adjust the
mix to meet a specific situation is one of those things that comes with
experienceand probably a few mistakes.
For some decorative finishes, such as stamped concrete, time is needed
to complete the stamping process. But when ready-mix temperatures
rise, concrete sets more quickly, and the time needed to finish and stamp
patterns decreases. One option is to design a concrete mix with fly ash or
slag replacing some of the portland cement. The colour of the concrete
will likely be different with the addition of fly ash or slag, so the same
mix design should be used for an entire job. A mock-up sample is
generally recommended.
In India, this is still in its introductory phase with some projects having
been completed with coloured concrete overlays. There have been some
apprehensions on the durability of this concrete, the long term retention
of colour and efflorescence seen in some cases. But as the issues are
sorted out the demand is expected to pick up rapidly in the near future.
Pervious Concrete
Pervious concrete is a special type of concrete
with a high porocity used for concrete flat work. It
allows water to pass through for drainage, yet it
maintains it's strength. Possible uses include
pedestrian walkways, parking lots, drainage
structures and lakeside homes.
Pervious Concrete Technology Also known as nofines or low fines concrete, pervious concrete is a
mix of portland cement, coarse aggregate, water
and admixtures. Because there is little or no sand in the mix, the pore
structure contains many voids that allow water and air to pass through.
It typically has a voids content of 15% to 35%. This ensures that the

concrete has the unique ability to allow storm water to pass through its
mass into the ground underneath. Pervious concrete offers significant
environmental benefits as it reduces the requirement for drainage
facilities. Further it facilitates the recharge of ground water and the
filtration process purifies the water as it percolates below.
Building owners are realizing better land utilization and LEED credits
with pervious concrete parking lots. Pervious concrete applications can
be used as an alternative to complex drainage systems and water
retention areas reducing storm water runoff.
New possible applications for pervious concrete
1. Airport tarmac and terminal edge strips: So much rain water is
converted to storm water at airports because of the vast amount of
paving for runways, ramps, tarmacs and gate areas. If some of that
can be paved with pervious concrete, much rain water will reach
the aquifer.
2. Curbs, gutters and bicycle path strips: This is a way that could
divert a tremendous amount of water from the storm water sewers.
Consider: A 3' wide by 150' long strip of pervious concrete
upstream from a catch basin could return over 25,000 gallons of
water per hour to the aquifer, diverting it from surrounding bodies
of water. This estimate is based upon percolation rate of 1 gallon
per minute per square foot.
3. Playground bases: A well constructed pervious concrete system
covered with shredded tire mulch can provide a well drained easily
maintained playground surface.
4. Drainage ditch linings.
5. Sound absorption walls for highways.
6. Well linings
7. Seawalls
8. Sewage treatment plant - sludge beds etc.
Pervious Concrete through the RMC route
Pervious concrete is usually delivered
to the site in ready mix trucks and
mixed at a specified mixing speed to
result in 75 to 100 rotations of the
mixing drum before discharge. After
the closely controlled amount of water
is added, one hour is usually the
maximum time allowed for discharge.
The batch must be placed, rolled,

sprayed and covered quickly. This closely monitored process produces a

pavement with unique characteristics. This allows it to recharge the
aquifer beneath, to prevent puddles and to reduce drainage into storm
sewers, streams and adjacent properties.
Indian Experience
We have stabilised the mix for this product for a range of porosities of
15-20 %, with compressive strength of 18-12MPa. We have had extensive
in-house casting of the concrete and we have been able to successfully
demonstrate the performance of the concrete. We have also carried out a
demonstration to M/S Wadhwa group, Pune in one of their prestigious
hotel project. This concrete is available for commercial supply now.
Flowable Fill
Flowable fill, also known as constrolled lowstrength material (CLSM) is a self-compacted,
cementitious material used primarily as a
backfill in lieu of compacted fill. The
compressive strengths must be lower than 9MPa
and often is lower than 1.5 MPa. Flowable fill is
a versatile "liquid soil." It is placed as a flowable
liquid, yet hardens and rapidly develops loadbearing properties with no compaction. The
properties of flowable fill make it an economical
alternative to compacted granular material due
to savings of labor and time during placement. A
constant supply of material will make it flow
horizontally a distance of 90 m or more.
Flowable fill also has the advantage of displacing
any standing water left in a trench. Flowable fill
can be made with very high amounts of nonstandard materials.
The flowable characteristics of this material
mean it can readily be placed into a trench and into tight or restrictedaccess areas where placing and compacting fill is difficult. Flowable fill is
used as a bedding material for pipe, electrical, telephone, and other types
of conduits because the mixture easily fills voids beneath the conduit
and provides uniform support. Flowable fill is used to fill large voids such
as abandoned underground storage tanks, basements, tunnels, mines,
and sewers. Other uses include paving sub-base, bridge abutment, and
retaining wall backfill.
Flowable fill is an ideal pavement base material because it will not settle
or rut under loads. It can be placed quickly and support traffic load
within hours of placement thereby minimizing repair time and allowing a

rapid return of traffic. Costs may be equal or less than the cost of using
standard compacted backfill.
Flowable Fill through the RMC route
Ready Mixed Flowable Fill is a very specialized product that has a wide
variety of applications. It is an excellent choice for filling any subsurface
void when quality is critical or when inert filler is required. A ready mix
concrete producer can aid in developing a mix design for flowable fill.
However, when ordering, consideration should be given to the following
properties:
Strength: Applications that require removal of flowable fill at a later date
usually limit the maximum compressive strength to less than 1.4 MPa.
Setting and Early Strength: Hardening time can be as short as one hour,
but can take up to eight hours depending on mix design and trench
conditions (e.g moisture, temperature).
Density in Place: The in-place density of normal flowable fill typically
ranges from 1400 to 2000 kg/m3.
Flowability: Flowability can be enhanced through the use of fly ash or air
entraining admixtures.
Durability: Flowable fill is not designed to resist freezing and thawing,
abrasive or erosive actions, or aggressive chemicals.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
There are a variety of special concretes being made available to the
industry today (and the list is growing), thanks to the dedicated efforts of
the RMC industry. Since these concretes require a number of ingredients
to be added very judiciously, elaborate storing and batching of raw
materials is required. The modern Ready Mix Plants have the
wherewithal to handle the complexities and deliver the right concrete at
the right time
References
1. Henry G. Russell, What is high performance concrete?, Jan
1999, Concrete Products
2. H. Okamura and M Ouchi, Self Compacting Concrete, Journal
of Advanced Concrete Technology, Vol. 1, No. 1, April 2003, Japan
Concrete Institute.
3. Manamohan R Kalgal, Fiber Reinforced Concrete For Structures
In Seismic Areas, Proceedings of the International Conference on
Industrial Structures ISIS 2003, ACCE Coimbatore
4. Malhotra, V.M., and P.K. Mehta, High-Performance, HighVolume Fly Ash Concrete, Supplementary Cementing Materials for
Sustainable Development, Inc., Ottawa, Canada, 2002, 101 pp.

5. An Analyst, Point of View, The Indian Concrete Journal

November 2004
6. Cox, Lynton and van Dijk, Simon, Foam concrete: A different
kind of mix, Concrete, Feb 2002
7. Ghafoori, Nader and Dutta, Shivaji, Building and Non
Pavement Applications of No-Fines Concrete, Journal of Materials
in Civil Engineering, Vol. 7. No. 4. November1995, pp 286-289.