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CHAPTER 4
FE MODELING & SIMULATION OF GTAW PROCESS OF
THIN-WALLED STRUCTURE FOR CIRCUMFERENTIAL WELDING
4.1
Introduction
99
The some subroutines are integrated in ANSYS for the facilitation and the coding
comprises elements activation and deactivation functionality, meshing algorithm, heat source
modeling, material models, heat flux distribution for analytical model and material properties
management depending on the elements temperature etc. Transient thermal analysis followed
by elasto-plastic stress analysis is applied to simplify the simulation procedure.
In the following section, the simulation strategy for the transient thermal modeling
using code(s) from commercially available, analytical model for temperature fields during
arc welding simulation, thermal properties of the materials, adaptation of heat source
modeling and the filler metal deposition mechanism are presented in detail.
4.2.1
T ( x , y , z , )
= .q + Q ( x, y , z , )
(4.1)
The constitutive equation is the Fourier law of heat conduction as given by Equation
4.2 which relates the heat flux and the temperature distribution.
q = k (T ). A.T ( x, y, z , )
(4.2)
T ( x, y, z , )
+ (k (T ). A.T ( x, y, z , )) = Q( x, y, z , )
T
(4.3)
T ( x, y, z ,
+ K (T ). A. 2T ( x, y, z, ) = Q( x, y, z , )
(4.4)
(4.5)
100
Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures
Where i = 1, 2, 3
The stress-stain relationship in terms of Lames constant is given by Equation 4.6 for
linear thermo-elastic problems.
v = v kk + 2 (3 + 2 )T
(4.6)
= (
(4.7)
From Equations 4.6 and 4.7 into Equation 4.5 and simplifying into Equation 4.8.
2ui
T
= ( + ) kk + 2ui (3 + 2 )
+ Fl
2
t
xi
x j
(4.8)
T
provides a coupling between Equations 4.4 and 4.8. The
x j
temperatures are calculated from Equation 4.4 and applied as body loads through
T
(3 + 2 )
in Equation 4.8. From displacements, the strains and stresses are calculated.
x j
The term (3 + 2 )
4.2.2
FE Formulation
Temperature distribution for isotropic material given in Equation 4.4 can be written in
the form as given in Equation 4.9 [4].
C
T
T
T
= (K
) + (K
) + (K
)+Q
t x
x
y
y
z
z
(4.9)
T
= ( L )T ( D { L} T ) + Q
t
Where,
L=
y
(4.10)
and
D= 0
0
0
K
0
0
K
101
Applying convective boundary conditions at the surface enclosing the volume V, it can
be written as given in Equation 4.11.
[ q ]T = h f (TB T )
(4.11)
T
= {L}T ([ D ]{L}T ) + Q + h f (TB T )
t
(4.12)
Equation 4.10 when multiplied by T yields and integrated over the control volume using
the boundary conditions
T
T
(TC )dv + (T{L} [D]{L}T)dv = (TQ)dv + Thf (TB T)dA
t
v
v
v
(4.13)
and
T = [ N ]TE
(4.14)
T = [ N ] TE
(4.15)
Where, TE is the nodal temperature and [N] is the matrix of element shape functions.
This equation is valid for all permissible TE . If
B = [ L ][ N ]
(4.16)
(4.17)
Equation 4.17 containing nodal temperatures can be written in another form as [4]:
[C ]{TE } + [ K ]{TE } = {FE }
(4.18)
Where, [C ] = C[ N ][ N ]T )dv
[ K ] = ([ B ]T [ D ][ B ])dv + h f [ N ][ N ]T dA
v
In thermal analysis, the temperature fields can be obtained from the Equation 4.14.
These results can be used further for structural response in mechanical analysis. By
assembling the individual elemental equations, a system of equations is obtained and solved
102
Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures
for the unknown nodal temperatures TE. By using the principle of virtual work, which states
that a virtual change of internal strain energy must be offset by an identical change in
external work due to applied load, the finite element form of Equation 4.8 can be obtained
and it can be written mathematically as
U = P
(4.19)
Where,
= Virtual operator
U = { }T { }d {V }
(4.20)
and
= D el
(4.21)
= el + th
(4.22)
Where,
th = T (T )
(4.23)
U = {{ }T [ D ]{ } { }[ D ]{ th }) dV
(4.24)
(4.25)
(4.26)
103
P = { w}T
v
{F a }
dV
v
(4.27)
Where
w = displacement vector of a general point, {F a } = acceleration force vector
According to Newton second law of motion
{F a }
2
= 2 {w}
v
(4.28)
{w} = [ N ]{u}
(4.29)
(4.30)
= { u} p [ N ]T [ N ]dV
2
{u}
2
(4.31)
{ u}T Vector is a set of arbitrary virtual displacement common in all terms, the
condition required to satisfy Equation 4.30 gives [4].
[ K c ] {Fcth } = [ M c ]{u&&}
Where,
[ Kc] = [ B ]T [ D ][ B ]dV
(4.32)
Element stiffness matrix
[ M c ] = [ N ]T [ N ]dV
104
Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures
4.2.3
4.2.4
The problems of residual stresses, distortion, and reduced strength of structures in and
near the welded joint are a major concern of the welding industry which is in result directly
from the thermal cycle caused by localized intense heat input [51]. Computing the transient
temperature fields accurately is the first critical step of creating an efficient welding
simulation strategy because the temperature has a first order effect on the microstructure,
strain, stress and consequently defects formation in the welds and has a second order effect
on the temperature fields [142].
The welding induced imperfections are believed to be due to non-uniform
temperature fields arising during the welding and this phenomenon is even more significant
in arc welding process like GTAW [143, 144]. Weld induced residual stresses and
deformations are highly dependent on transient temperature gradients, a function of the total
heat input, and the patterns of heat distribution within the weldments, a critical requirement
to determine the temperature gradients in the weldments realistically. Therefore, an accurate
moving heat source modeling is mandatory to analyze the exact temperature distributions and
accordingly the weld induced imperfections like residual stresses and deformations etc.
A double ellipsoidal moving heat source model to incorporate the volume heating was
presented by Goldak et al. [51, 52]. The size and shape of the moving heat source can be
easily modified to model both the shallow and deep penetrating welding processes. Initially,
Goldak presented a semi-ellipsoidal heat source model in which heat flux was distributed in a
Gaussian manner throughout the heat sources volume. The temperature gradients predicted
by using this heat source model were less steep in front of the arc and steeper behind the arc
as compared to experimental observations. Therefore, a double ellipsoidal heat source model
was presented to overcome this problem and here, in the present research, the double
ellipsoidal heat source model is opted to model the heat input from the welding torch.
In Goldak double ellipsoidal heat source model as shown in Figure 4.1, the front half
of the source model is the quadrant of one ellipsoid and the rear half is the quadrant of
another ellipsoid. The specific mathematical equation is shown in the following.
105
The power density distribution of the front half is given in Equation 4.35 [51].
q( x, y, z) =
6 3Qf f
a f bc
3x2 3 y2 3z2
)
b2 c2 a f 2
(4.35)
Whereas the power density distribution of the rear half is given in Equation 4.36 [51].
q( x, y, z) =
6 3Qfr
ar bc
Where,
3x2 3 y2 3 z2
)
b2 c2 ar 2
Q = VI
(4.36)
f f + fr = 2
and
Where af, ar, b c are the shape parameters, qo is the effective heat input, ff and fr are
the fractions of the heat deposited both in the front and rear half, and all are the heat input
parameters. The 63 is heat flux distribution parameter that characterizes the concentration
level of heat flux distribution based on the heat flux concentration level or heat flux
distribution feature of a welding method to determine its value. The shape of the volume of
the power distribution can be selected by varying the parameters af, ar, b and c. By this way,
the geometry of the experimental fusion zone can be achieved. From experiments, the data
for weld pool geometries can be obtained [145]. However, the methods for estimating the
weld pool dimensions for arc welding suggested by Christensen et al. [146] can be used upon
the unavailability of such data. A good agreement between actual and modeled weld pool
sizes, if the modeled heat source size is approximately 10% smaller than the experimental
weld pool size, was presented by Goldak et al. [52]. Further, in the absence of better data, the
distance in front of the heat source equal to one-half of the weld widths and the distance
behind the heat source equal to twice of the width give better approximations [51].
Y
Heat flux
(watt m-3)
Z
b
c
af
ar
X
X
Fig. 4.1 Goldak's double ellipsoid heat source model for welding heat source [52]
The parameters for the Goldak model were derived from the experiments and values
are given in the Table 4.2 in the respective section. The problems may occur by slight
changes in the welding conditions due to lack of a good physical background between the
parameters from Goldaks model. Therefore, a new setting is to be required for every set of
106
Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures
welding parameters and material composition. Therefore, the model cannot predict any
fusion zone geometries that can be only back-calculated. However, the good results were
obtained from experiments for the weld pool geometry with estimations. In the heat source
geometry, very small changes affect the temperatures very close to the weld pool and in the
resultant, the calculated temperature history in and near the weld pool are less accurate. This
accuracy affects due to the uncertainties in the heat source geometry as well as in the high
temperature thermal material properties and also due to the convective and radiative
boundary conditions.
In the FE model, the origin of the coordinate system is located at the center of the
moving arc in order to simulate the welding torch (heat source) movement with the
respective welding speed. To calculate the centroidal distance of elements from the moving
arc center corresponding to the welding arc position at any instant, a user-subroutine in
APDL is utilized. The welding process parameters and the characteristics of the heat source
transient heat fluxes representing the moving of the distributed heat source can be calculated
at respective positions in welding areas based on the FE mesh generated by the ANSYS. It
is assumed that the heat source moves through volume and the calculated heat applied to
elements is volumetric heat generation. Mainly few researchers reported that the heat
introduces into the work-piece from the surface under welding current of 200 amperes due to
lack of turbulent motion into the work-piece [147]. Whereas, Kermanpur, Shamanian and
Yeganeh [91] proved that the heat flow function depends upon the welding current as well as
on the work-piece thickness.
For circumferential welding, a modified double ellipsoidal heat source model in
cylindrical coordinates is used. For better approximation of the weld pool, the use of
superimposed four ellipsoid quadrants is modeled as per recommendations of Goldak. The
modified double ellipsoid model used for circumferential welding with a single scalar
controlling parameter is given in Equations 4.37 and 4.38 [4].
qf =
6 3 M (r , z ) Q f f
a f bc
3{
r 2 2
af
r 2 2
6 3 M (r , z ) Q f r 3{ ar 2
qr =
e
ar bc
+3
+3
z2
b
Ro2 + r 2 -2 rRo
c2
z 2 Ro2 + r 2 -2 rRo
+
}
b2
c2
(4.37)
(4.38)
The value of scalar multiplier M ( r , z ) can be recalculated iteratively to match the weld
pool shape and dimensions. The origin of the coordinate system is selected at the centre of
the heat source for the calculations of spatial heat distribution from the Equation 4.37 and
Equation 4.38 and a user subroutine provides the movement of heat source at the defined
welding speed. To calculate the centroidal distances of elements from the centre of moving
heat source at every load step, another subroutine is used. The heat input to the elements
from the heat source parameters and welding process parameters is calculated and projected
through the thickness of finite element mesh.
107
A wide range of variation for the value of heat source efficiency in GTAW process is
shown in literature [148]. The temperatures with thermocouples at a specified location are
measured and compared with the related values for different efficiencies. Finally, it can be
concluded that the efficiency of heat source between the range 75% to 80% provides the best
agreement with the experiments. Therefore, an efficiency of 70% to 80% in different studies
is used. The simulations for circumferential welding are performed with the assumption of
perpendicularly focused welding torch as well as during the experimentation.
4.2.5
(4.39)
(4.40)
Where, hconvection
em
bol
=
=
=
(4.41)
In addition to convection and radiation heat losses, some researchers [149] refer that
contact heat losses also play a role whereas the other researchers [150] ignore the contact
heat losses. However, the contact heat losses are ignored in the present research due to point
contact of the clamping fixtures with cylinder through the bolts away from the weld line.
There are two unknown parameters, the convective heat transfer coefficient
(hconvection) and the radiation emissivity (em), in the Equation 4.41. The radiation heat losses
play a major role in high temperature zones and become in significant in low temperature
zones. Whereas the convection heat losses play a major role at lower temperatures only.
Mostly the handbooks on heat transfer have listed tabulated data for temperature dependent
emissivity for several materials [151, 152]. However, the emissivity is strongly dependent on
the surface conditions of the metal from em < 0.1 (for un-oxidized surfaces) to em = 0.8 (for
108
Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures
oxidized surfaces) [153]. The value of the emissivity is estimated during the welding due to a
constant changing of the temperatures and surface conditions of a metal surface. The
temperature dependent emissivity for common materials including AISI stainless steels and
low carbon steels is listed by many internet resources [154, 155]. The emissivity value (em =
0.51) is used on the surface of the steels in the present research, which is the average value
for hot rolled steel plates [156].
CL
4.2.6
Material Modeling
In arc welding simulation, the FE heat transfer analysis requires the precise values of
thermal conductivity, material density, specific heat and latent heat of fusion upto melting
point. The values of low temperature materials are mostly available in different literature like
[162-164], but the higher temperature values of materials in the published literature are
limited. Therefore, the material values at elevated temperatures are required to be estimated
or extrapolated from the available low temperature data. In the present research work, a high
strength low alloy steel (HSLA) is used for the experimental investigations and the
corresponding finite element predictions. The temperature dependent properties are taken
109
from the published literature. The weld dilution effects on the property changes are not
considered and the materials are assumed as homogenous and isotropic. The materials
temperature dependency is fully considered during the welding (a temperature range from
room temperature to materials melting point) and prescription of temperature independent
properties induces significant errors in the predicted results [46].
YS = YSRM
YS = 5% x YSRM +
YS = 5% x YSRM
Tmelt2/3-T
x
Tmelt2/3-100
(4.42)
(4.43)
(4.44)
Where, YS, YSRM and Tmelt2/3 are yield strength, yield strength at room
temperature and 2/3 of melting temperature of HSLA respectively.
110
Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures
Similar values of yield strength for both base and weld metal are used. For the
experimental work, HSLA steel grade with chemical composition previously
shown in Table 3.8 is used.
Thermal properties i.e. specific heat and thermal conductivity and density as a
function of temperature for HSLA adopted from [166] are given in Figure 4.3.
For specific heat, latent heat associated with low temperature solid-solid phase
transformation is accounted for both the base metal and the weld metal. Enthalpy formulation
is used to avoid the numerical non-convergence. 247 KJ/Kg1 oC-1 of latent heat for solidliquid phase transformation is distributed over the melting and solidification range i.e.
between solidus and liquidus temperatures. Due to similar material i.e. low alloy steels, the
solidus and liquidus temperatures are taken as 1440oC (1713K) and 1560oC (1833K)
respectively.
The rmal C onducti vity x 125 (W /m-C )
Spe ci fi c He at x 1000 (J/Kg-C )
C onve ctive C oe ffe cie nt x 10 (W /m-C )
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
600
1200
1800
2400
3000
Temperature ( C)
The elastic modulus reduces to almost zero values at elevated temperatures equal
to or greater than the melting temperature. Some recent research work in the
similar area [4] shows that numerical instabilities are encountered when
excessively low values of elastic modulus at and above the melting temperatures
are used. To overcome this issue, a constant value is set to 15.0 GPa. However
even lower values upto 1 GPa are reported in the literature [171].
The values for both the bulk modulus and Poissons coefficient are taken constant
after melting temperature of 1000oC.
Volumetric changes associated with low temperature solid-solid phase
transformations is not taken into account because [75] and [76] reported stress
reversals in hoop stresses at weld centerline, in contradiction to the experimental
measurements from [76]. However, later studies showed that volumetric changes
may give satisfactory results if the transformation plasticity is included which is
not included in the present simulation approach. Therefore, for the thermal
expansion, the material in the melt and heat affected zones follows material
properties of the base metal during heating and cooling.
The material behavior of elastic perfectly-plastic is considered whereas the dislocation
hardening effect and the effects of creep and transformation induced plasticity is not
considered here. A bi-linear kinematic hardening model (von mises yield criterion with
associated flow rule, kinematic hardening rule and bi-linear kinematic hardening material) as
given in Equation 4.45 [141] is used with 1, 2, and 3 being the three principal stresses.
v =
1
2
[( 1 - 2 ) 2 + ( 2 - 3 ) 2 + ( 3 - 1 ) 2 ]
(4.45)
1.1
0.9
0.7
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
400
800
1200
1600
2000
Temperature ( C)
Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures
4.2.7
In arc welding, modeling of filler metal deposition with metal addition as Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) processes is an important aspect for accurate result
prediction in numerical analysis. Presently, three different techniques for the filler metal
addition are in practice as the deactivated element or the elements rebirth technique, the quiet
element technique and the element movement technique. The conventional quiet element
technique is used in the FE models in the present research [175-178], which is relatively easy
to implement by utilizing the ANSYS features of element birth and death. All elements are
generated in the start including the filler metal elements to be deposited later. The filler
elements are not actually removed from the FE model to achieve the element death effect.
Instead, the conductivity, stiffness and other analogous material properties are multiplied by
a severe reduction factor to deactivate their contribution in the analysis. Although zeroed out
of the load vector, element loads associated with the deactivated elements still appears in the
element load lists. During the thermal analysis, all the nodes of deactivated elements except
those shared with the base metal are also fixed at ambient temperature until the birth of the
respective element and deactivated elements are reactivated sequentially when they come
under the influence of the heat source i.e. welding torch. For the sequel mechanical analysis,
a similar approach is used where the elements to be welded are first assigned a set of
artificial, very soft properties. The actual properties of the metal are reassigned as the
elements solidify from the weld pool.
4.2.8
(4.46)
Therefore, a constant time step is used during the heating phase and the heat source
moves with the specified welding speed quasi-stationary. However, the different time steps
are used during the cooling phase. As the cooling of the weldments approaches to the
ambient or equal to pre-heat temperature (if any), the time steps continuously increases.
113
THERMAL ANALYSIS
Thermal boundary conditions
Moving heat source
Non-linear material model
TEMPERATURE
HISTORIES FROM
THERMAL
ANALYSIS
114
Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures
Geometric parameters
Solid Modeling
Next element
Finite element
modeling
Elements centroid
calculation
Meshing parameters
Structural boundary conditions
Structural material properties
Finite element
modeling
Apply heat
source
No
Yes
Elements properties
switching
(If applicable)
Elements material
record file
Elements activation
(If applicable)
Elements activation
time record file
Application of heat
input
Check data
mapping
completion
Activation of elements
under influence of
heat source
No
Next element
Yes
Elements average
temperature calculation
Elements material number
switching
Elements material number
record file
Elements activation time
record file
Iterative transient
non-linear thermal
solution
Yes
Load steps
completed
Yes
Transient
temperature history
Iterative transient
non-linear structural
solution
No
Load steps
completed
No
Next load step
Yes
(4.47)
Where,
Re
Pr
ar
ar
ar
Kar
Car
D
NPD
4.2.9
A general purpose finite element code ANSYS is used for modeling/simulation and
welding phenomena is modeled as sequentially coupled transient non-linear thermal-stress
analysis in the present research work. There are generally three types of non-linearties in the
structural mechanics as geometric non-linearties (large deformations), boundary nonlinearties (contact), and material non-linearties (hyper-elasticity, plasticity, creep, anisotropy
etc.)
The incorporation of geometrical non-linearties (NLGEOM, ON) into welding
simulations can introduce ill conditioned matrix, resulting in numerical non-convergence
issues. Kinematic non-linearties are not included by using small displacement formulation in
modeling. No contact/target elements are used in the present research, therefore in most of
the work non-linearity due to contact opening and closing between the contact and target
elements is not present. Material model with temperature dependency are utilized and
properties used in different studies are, however, highly non-linear and are the major source
of non-linearties in finite elements studies. Iterative incremental Newton-Raphson (NR)
scheme was used to solve the system of equation. The use of this scheme is also essential in
the software to adopt quiet elements technique for filler metal deposition. The opted FULL
NR scheme updates the stiffness matrix at every, equilibrium iteration and thus shows more
flexibility to incorporate non-linear behavior of material properties. Though more frequent
updating of stiffness matrix needs larger matrix formulations and inversions but gives
relatively fast convergence [174]. The matrices obtained from finite element formulations are
usually sparsely populated. Therefore, the system of simultaneous equations is solved by
using direct sparse matrix solver (elimination solver). Since linear elements are used in the
both the thermal and structural analysis, during structural analysis average temperature at the
element centroids is used to calculate constant thermal strain within each element. It is
considered essential to avoid inconsistency between the thermal strain and displacement
strain fields because temperature field directly becomes the thermal strain in mechanical
116
Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures
analysis. The alternate is to have one degree higher finite element shape function in structural
analysis in comparison to thermal analysis. Similarly, when ever elements with linear shape
function are in use volumetric strain should be under integrated to avoid undesired locking.
Such locking may results in relatively small deformation but significantly high stresses and
excessively large computational time. In the present work, reduced integration is performed
at the element centroid. However, in contrast reduced integration in solid elements may cause
the elements more prone to the zero-energy modes. These modes, commonly referred to as
hourglass modes, are oscillatory in nature and tend to have periods that are much shorter than
those of the overall structural response. They typically have no stiffness and give a zigzag
appearance to a mesh, therefore should always be minimized. Hour-glassing is controlled by
adding artificial elastic stiffness to the model.
To enhance the convergence, different options available within the ANSYS such as
line search (LNSRCH), adaptive decent, ramped and stepped load (KBC, 0/1) are used. The
LINE-SEARCH option attempts to improve a NR solution by scaling the solution vector by a
scalar value termed the LINE-SEARCH parameter at the start of equilibrium iterations. The
scalar multiplier is automatically determined by minimizing the energy of the system which
reduces to find the zero of the nonlinear equation. An adaptive descent is a technique which
switches to a stiffer matrix if convergence difficulties are encountered, and switches back to
the full tangent as the solution convergence, resulting in the desired rapid convergence rate
[174].
4.3
To produce high strength welded structures, arc welding is mostly used as an effective
joining method enabling the welding community around the globe. The thermal stresses
occurs in the weld zone and the adjacent areas producing significant residual stress fields due
to the non-uniform expansion and contraction of the weld metal and surrounding base metal
by heating and cooling cycles during the welding. These high magnitude residual stresses of
the order of yield strength of the material within the heat affected zone (HAZ) can be a major
threat for the in-service structural integrity of welded structures [181]. The strains produced
due to the welding during the heating phase always induce plastic deformation of the metal
and in a result of these strains internal forces produced that cause a variety of welding
distortions. The shortening strength issue of the structures is a major challenge of the welding
industry for decades due to the residual stresses issues in and near the weld zone, and due to
poorly fabricated and distorted structures. Therefore, the accurate prediction of transient and
residual stress fields and distortions patterns is of critical importance to ensure the in-service
structural integrity and reliability of these welded structures.
To predict the magnitude and trends of residual stress fields is a complex phenomenon
due to the involvement of various factors including short term localized heating and rapid
cooling, moving heat source, temperature dependent material behavior and metallurgical
transformations. Therefore, the FE based numerical simulations attained a considerable
importance for the prediction of adverse consequences of complex welding phenomenon in
the last three decades [19, 182-183]. For the analysis of residual stress fields in
circumferentially welded structures focusing on pipe and cylinders, a significant contribution
is available in literature [184-192]. Mostly, the previous researcher [185-188] reduces
117
4.3.1
FE Discretization
118
Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures
"V" groove
Tack Welds
WL
Root Opening
Total No. of nodes: 71040
Total No. of elements: 54720
Fig. 4.7 (a) 3D FE mesh based on sensitivity analysis. (b) "V" groove, tack weld and root
opening in FE model [197]
2100
Temperature ( K)
1864
1836
1900
1730
1700
1860
1865
1790
1525
1500
1655
1300
1305
1100
1009
900
29,000
35,000
41,000
47,000
53,000
59,000
Numbe r of e le me nts
Fig. 4.8 Mesh sensitivity analysis based on maximum temperature attained [197]
of the weld are modeled comprising each of 4 elements (7.85 mm) in circumferential
direction, 4 elements (4 mm) and 2 elements (2 mm) in two layers in thickness direction. The
mesh sensitivity analysis based on maximum temperature attained was performed for
successive mesh refinements as shown in Figure 4.8 i.e. maximum temperature (1864 K) at
54720 elements. The tack lengths used in the FE models are according to the physical weld
sample. The two cylinders should be considered theoretically as separate parts in the model
setup because they are independent units until the moving heat source passes over them and
join those. But practically these cylinders are tack welded and mechanically restrained before
119
the welding. Therefore, the cylinders are modeled as single model in FE modeling because
they stay stationary relative to each other during the welding.
4.3.2
300 mm
The detail of modeling and simulation approach is already discussed in the previous
sections. For better understanding of the thermo-mechanical results, the other simulation
aspects are given in the following section. The same sequentially coupled thermo-mechanical
simulation approach and material model is used. The Goldak double ellipsoidal heat source
model along with quiet element technique for addition of filler metal is used for heat source
and filler material modeling. The modeling of heat losses from the exposed surfaces (inner
and outer) by convection and radiation are considered in thermal analysis. The combined heat
transfer coefficient is calculated and applied on all the applicable surfaces. The geometric
parameters and joint geometry of two cylinders for circumferential welding by GTAW
process are shown in Figure 4.9 and Figure 4.10 respectively. The total heating time along
the weld path of 300 mm diameter cylinder with a torch speed of 3 mm/s is about 314.16 sec
and the complete welding sequence is divided into 480 load steps of 0.65 sec with equally
space increment. For effective application of thermal load during the load step, the available
stepped load option in ANSYS is used. An other additional 47 load steps of different time
lengths are used for cooling of the weldments after extinguishing the arc. The total cooling
time from the start of the cooling phase to the ambient temperature of 300 K is about 1500
sec (i.e. 25 minutes). Only boundary condition is applied as the constraints to represent the
clamping of the cylinders under welding on welding positioner in the structural analysis. All
the nodes on a cartesian coordinate axis at the positioner end of the cylinders are constrained
in axial direction to match the experimental boundary conditions. In addition, two nodes 180o
apart at the positioner end are also constrained in axial radial and circumferential directions
for the stability of FE model. The welding process parameters and heat source parameters
used in the study are given in Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 respectively.
WL
3 mm
X
Y
Z
Y
Z
X
Y
Z
Legends:
X
Y
120
Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures
Current (I)
(amperes)
Voltage (V)
(volts)
200
12.5
15.0
Heat source
width (2b)
depth (c)
(mm)
(mm)
10.0
3.0
0.75
R
F
R
L
O
Fig. 4.10 Butt-weld joint geometry
4.3.3
Experimental Validation
To conduct the full-scale experiments with proper instrumentation for data measurement
for the experimental validation of the developed FE models is a mandatory to ensure the
reliability of the developed models before the application on a shop floor. An automatic TIG
welding setup with minimum human intervention and skill is also mandatory for the proper
validation of FE results due to the possibility of the variations associated with the skill of the
operators and rotary synchronization problems in arc welding experiments. A careful data
acquisition for proper data measurement, calibrated thermocouples and analysis system are
very necessary during the welding experiments for the validation purpose.
For the validation of FE models developed, GTAW (TIG) experiments on two thinwalled cylinders with same parameters of geometric and welding process as used in FE
models were conducted. The material used is high strength low alloy steel with chemical
composition as already given in Table 3.8. Further, argon as shielding gas with 99.999%
purity was used with flow rate (25 liters/min). A high-tech fully automatic SAF GTAW
welding equipment as shown in Figure 3.4 and Figure 3.5 commercially available along with
rotary positioner and required welding fixtures was used to achieve the desired structural
boundary conditions. A single pass butt-weld geometry was used with single "V" groove of
angle of 90o, 1 mm root face, 1 mm root opening, 3 mm wall thickness and 300 mm length of
cylinder as shown in Figure 4.10.
121
The two cylinders of 300 mm outer diameter, 3 mm wall thickness and 150 mm length
were used with placing of two tack welds of ~ 8 mm length at 0o and 180o from the starting
position of weld. Further, these tack welds were used to create a root opening prior to
welding with the insertion of spacers of 1 mm at some suitable locations during the tack
welding and these were removed after the tack welds cooling to room temperature. The areas
in and near the tack welds were considered as post weld heated upto 300oC to minimize the
effects of initial stress due to tack welds prior to welding. For heating, a conventional gas
torch was used with both infrared and touch probe thermocouples for the measurement.
However, the stress data was not recorded after the tack welds and the post weld heating and
these effects are not considered. Further, the effects of the linear seam weld was not
considered as first these cylinders were linearly seam welded after roll forming of sheet
metals and stress relieved by heat treatment prior tack welds on cylinders for circumferential
welding.
o
1000
Temperature (oC)
850
700
550
400
250
100
0
32
64
96
128
160
Time (sec)
P1-FE
P2-EXP
P2-FE
P3-EXP
P3-FE
P4-FE
P1-EXP
P4-EXP
Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures
verification for the accurate predictions of subsequent stress fields and distortion patterns. In
the present research for the thermal model validation, the later technique is used by using the
thermocouples and data acquisition system with computer interfacing. Four thermocouples at
different locations were placed and temperatures were recorded through the data logger after
the interval of each 10 seconds for the comparison with FE results. Figure 4.11 shows a
quantitative comparison of measured and predicted transient temperatures at four
thermocouple locations. Three thermocouples at P1, P2 and P3 show a close agreement with
the FE data whereas the fourth thermocouple at P4 shows slightly a higher variation of
predicted and measured temperatures. However, the overall temperatures are within the
maximum variation of about 8% only.
The residual stresses are measured at some specified points for comparison through the
predicted results for structural model validation,. A centre hole drilling strain gauge method
as already discussed in chapter 3 in section 3.3 is used to measure the residual hoop and axial
stresses at specified locations i.e. Points P1 to P3 on cylinder outer surface and P4 to P6 on
cylinder inner surface. Figure 4.12 shows the the gauge locations from P1 to P6. The further
details of the hole drilling residual strain measurement method can be found in [199]. Figure
4.12 shows a quantitative comparison of residual stresses from experiments with predicted
data with a good agreement. Figure 4.11 and Figure 4.12 shows the qualitative comparison of
nodal temperatures and residual stresses which are an evident that predicted results agreed
well with the experimental data showing the experimental validation and the developed FE
models can be used further for the research.
Legends:
o
200
Stress (MPa)
90
-20
-130
-240
-350
FE
EXP -88.8 88.42 12.87 -55.01 101 -39.71 -326.7 187.4 -152.9 163.8 -258.7 153.8
Fig. 4.12 Computed and measured residual stress values for different
locations at cylinder outer surface
123
4.3.4
The temperature distributions at four different times (13 sec, 52 sec, 318 sec and 1277
sec) during the welding process of cylinder of 300 mm diameter are shown in Figure 4.13 (a
d). The peak temperatures are observed close to the weld line at the heat source location and
steep temperatures gradients ahead of the heat source are observed representing the least heat
flow significance ahead of the heat source/welding torch. The cooling phenomenon after the
peak temperature achieved is shown by the gradients behind the torch as the torch moves
ahead from a certain point. The temperature distribution of the weldments after cooling to
almost uniform temperature is shown in Figure 4.13(d) that require some more time steps
further to simulate the cooling phase.
(a) t = 13s
(c) t = 318s
(b) t =
52s
(d) t = 1277s
Fig. 4.13 Temperature profiles at four different time steps during the welding process
The axial temperature distributions for four different cross-sections from the weld start
towards the time progress at different time steps is shown in Figure 4.14 (ad). The
temperature distribution at a section is steep as the arc crosses the section as incase of Figure
4.14 (a), the section is located at an angle of 45o from the weld start position (0o). The
welding torch at a speed of 3 mm/s reaches the section after 39.27s around a circumference
of 300 x mm and the maximum temperature is observed at the torch position. As the torch
crosses the section, the temperature falls down with slow rate. Figure 4.14 (c) and Figure
4.14 (d) shows the preheating action of the section due to the forward heat flow through the
torch just before the torch arrival at a section which is more dominant incase of the sections
oriented at 225o and 315o respectively.
124
Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures
The transient thermal cycles observed at various points at weld line at 5 mm and 15 mm
from the weld line and at 0o, 90o, 180o and 270o from the weld start position respectively are
shown in Figure 4.15(ad). When the arc crosses the corresponding section, the thermal
cycles shows that temperature at a point reaches a peak value corresponding to that time. The
figure shows that a point nearest to the weld line gets heated to a maximum temperature
whereas the points away from the weld line show peak temperatures very low.
1800
1800
Te m p-39.27 s e c
1650
Temperature (K)
Temperature ( K)
Te m p-196.35 s e c
1350
Te m p-39.27 s e c
1650
Te m p-117.81s e c
1500
Te m p-274.89 s e c
1200
1050
900
750
600
450
Te m p-117.81 s e c
1500
Te m p-196.35 s e c
1350
Te m p-274.89 s e c
1200
1050
900
750
600
450
300
300
-85
-68 -51
-34 -17
17
34
51
68
85
-85
-68 -51
-34 -17
(a)
34
51
68
85
51
68
85
1800
Te m p-39.27 s e c
1650
Te m p-196.35 s e c
1350
Te m p-39.27 s e c
1650
Te m p-117.81s e c
1500
Temperature (K)
Te m p-274.89 s e c
17
(b)
1800
Temperature (K)
1200
1050
900
750
600
450
Te m p-117.81 s e c
1500
Te m p-196.35 s e c
1350
Te m p-274.89 s e c
1200
1050
900
750
600
450
300
300
-85
-68 -51
-34
-17
17
34
51
68
85
-85
-68
-51 -34
-17
17
34
(c)
(d)
Fig. 4.14 Axial temperature distributions for four different cross-sections at
different time steps from the weld start position.
4.3.5
125
1800
0 mm from WL
1400
0 mm from WL
1600
5 mm from WL
5 mm from WL
15 mm from WL
1200
1000
800
600
1400
Temperature ( oK)
Temperature ( oK)
1600
15 mm from WL
1200
1000
800
600
400
400
200
200
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
50
100
150
(a)
250
300
350
400
300
350
400
(b)
1800
1800
0 mm from WL
1600
5 mm from WL
1400
Temperature ( oK)
1400
0 mm from WL
1600
5 mm from WL
15 mm from WL
1200
1000
800
600
15 mm from WL
1200
1000
800
600
400
400
200
200
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
50
100
150
200
250
Time (se c)
Time (se c)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 4.15 Transient thermal cycles experienced by various points at different
cross sections from the weld start position
200
100
Outer Stress (MPa)
Temperature ( oK)
200
Ti me (se c)
Ti me (se c)
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
-90
-72
-54
-36
-18
18
36
54
72
90
Axial @ 90 Deg
Fig. 4.16 Residual axial stresses (MPa) on outer surface at different cross
sections from the weld start position
126
Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures
The compressive residual axial stresses near the weld line approaches to zero after 18
mm on both sides of the weld line on the outer surface of cylinder. The stress reversal from
compressive to tensile is observed after 18 mm on outer surface. Almost 70 mm away from
the weld line, these low values tensile stresses again approach to a zero value. A constant
axial stress value near to zero after 70 mm from the weld line is observed as shown in Figure
4.16.
Figure 4.17 shows the high tensile residual stresses on the inner surface near the weld
line approaching to zero and then reversing to lower compressive residual stresses at 18 mm
same as observed in outer surface. Again these lower compressive residual stresses
increasing to almost constant value of zero at 70 mm on both sides of weld line observed for
cylinder inner surfaces at different cross sections (50o, 90o, 150o and 250o) from weld start
position. The general residual axial stresses distribution shows a similar trend as observed in
the previous research [4, 185, 187, 189, 192-193, 197].
500
400
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-90
-72
-54
-36
-18
18
36
54
72
90
Axial @ 90 Deg
Fig. 4.17 Residual axial stresses (MPa) on inner surface at different cross
sections from the weld start position
The quantitative variation of higher or lower residual stresses in the present research
study are due to the different material properties i.e. mechanical properties like yield strength
for base and weld filler metals along with other parameters such as weld geometry and heat
source parameters etc. The significant related to axial stress fields from Figure 4.16 and
Figure 4.17 are given in the following:
127
The compressive and tensile stress fields of high magnitude are observed on and
near the FZ for outer and inner surfaces respectively. These stresses are
symmetric across the weld line due to the symmetry.
Figure 4.16 shows a bulge showing stress variations beneath the weld crown near
the weld line at the outer surface of cylinder.
Figure 4.16 and Figure 4.17 shows the axial residual stresses on outer and inner
surfaces at four different cross sections (50o, 90o, 150o and 250o) and all are
almost of the same magnitude and trend with slightly higher tensile axial stresses
on inner surface. This previous research [4, 7, 197] shows the same trend. The
axial stresses are weakly dependent on the circumferential location and have
almost homogeneous distribution around the circumferential direction except the
weld start and near region.
The hoop residual stresses are also symmetric due to symmetry across the weld
line.
High tensile stresses of 146 MPa and 333 MPa are observed near the FZ on outer
on inner surfaces respectively. A compressive residual stresses of 230 MPa and
208 MPa are observed away from the HAZ region at about 17 mm from weld line
on outer and inner surfaces respectively.
The hoop stresses are based on the circumferential location from the weld start to
weld end. The hoop residual stresses at three different cross sections (50o, 90o and
250o) varies in magnitude on outer and inner surfaces as shown in Figure 4.18 and
Figure 4.19 with almost similar trend as shown by [4, 7, 197].
128
Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures
150
17
-50
-117
-183
-250
-90
-72
-54
-36
-18
18
36
54
72
90
Hoop @ 90 Deg
Fig. 4.18 Residual hoop stresses (MPa) on outer surface at different cross
sections from the weld start position
350
250
Inner Stress (MPa)
83
150
50
-50
-150
-250
-90
-72
-54
-36
-18
18
36
54
72
90
Hoop @ 90 Deg
Fig. 4.19 Residual hoop stresses (MPa) on inner surface at different cross
sections from the weld start position
129
4.3.5.3 Axial and Hoop Residual Stress Fields along the Circumference
Figure 4.20 shows the comparison of axial and hoop residual stresses distribution at the
weld line for outer and inner surfaces on a circumferential path. The stress distribution
profiles are generally in agreement with the other previous research. The important
observations are summarized as:
The hoop stress varies from -234 MPa to 117 MPa on the outer surface. However,
some exceptions at weld start and end and tack weld locations at 0o and 180o are
observed and almost a zero hoop residual stress is observed at these locations (0o
and 180o). For hoop residual stresses on inner surface, a slight variation in
magnitude and trend is observed from -95 MPa to 140 MPa, with some exceptions
on weld start and end and tack weld locations. Again the stress values almost to
zero are observed at tack weld locations.
Figure 4.20 shows the compressive axial stresses profile on the outer surface
varying from 203 MPa to 505 MPa. Almost a stable stress profile from weld start
to weld end with some exceptions near to the weld start and end and tack
locations is observed of a low magnitude. The significant effects of weld start and
at tack weld points are observed for axial stress on inner surface. The compressive
axial stresses varies from -286 MPa to about 490 MPa in magnitude with a
reduction upto about 286 MPa and 222 MPa at the weld start of 0o and tack weld
locations of 180o respectively.
575
Stress (MPa)
383
192
0
-192
-383
-575
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240 270
300
330
360
Axial-Inner
Hoop-Outer
Axial-Outer
Fig. 4.20 Axial and hoop residual stress fields on cylinder outer and inner
surfaces on a circumferential path at the WL
130
Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures
4.3.6
Welding Distortions
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
-3.0
0
36
72
108
144
180
216
252
288
324
360
Experimental
Fig. 4.21 Measured and predicted axial deformation (face tilt) of the cylinder face
131
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
-0.50
-1.00
-1.50
-2.00
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
Axial-90
Axial-150
Axial-250
Fig. 4.22 Axial shrinkage at four different cross sections from the WL on cylinder outer
surface
132
Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures
4.00
3.07
2.14
1.21
0.29
-0.64
-1.57
-2.50
-100
-75
-50
-25
25
50
75
100
Radial-90
Radial-150
Radial-250
Fig. 4.24 Radial shrinkage at different cross sections from the WL on cylinder outer surface
133
4.4
To validate the FE models, Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) experiments were
carried out. The appropriate way to ensure the reliability of the numerical simulations for the
utilization of the research work for applications is by conducting the full-scale experiments in
actual with proper instrumentation for data measurement. This section describes the
experimental welding set-up, data measuring and acquisition systems used in the present
research work for circumferential welding with the methodologies for experimental
procedures.
4.4.1
Experimental Setup
Due to the variations associated with the skill of the operators and rotary synchronization
problems in the manual arc welding, an automatic welding setup with minimum human
intervention is used for arc welding experiments. The skill is mandatory for the proper
validation of numerical simulations results because the heat source moves with constant
speed i.e. the phenomenon is quasi-stationary in numerical simulations. A proper data
acquisition system is required for the careful data measurement and analysis during the
experiments.
The TIG welding setup consisting of SAF TIGMATE 270 AC/DC power source,
automatic rotary positioner, and fully automatic torch control and movement system is used
to conduct the experiments. TIGMATE 270 welding power source as shown in Figure 3.1 in
chapter 3 is a computerized waveform control technology for high quality TIG welds with
the control of required parameters.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.25 Automatic rotary positioner with clamping and strain gages arrangements
134
Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures
To control and locate the torch movement, an automatic torch positioning system is used.
Initially, the tack welded cylinders clamped according to the desired structural boundary
conditions are rotated by rotary chuck with torch positioning at 90o to the cylinder. For
details of automatic rotary positioner along with TIG torch, clamping and strain gages
arrangements is given in Figure 4.25.
4.4.2
FE Models Validation
The welded part is subjected to a highly non-uniform and rapidly changing temperature
field during welding approaching to temperatures above the melting point and the heat
conducts away from the weld by convection and radiation to the surroundings. Numerous
factors of the thermal field distribution during welding are the welding heat input, the
thermal material properties, the amount of convective flow in the weld pool, the latent heat of
melting and solidification, cooling to the surroundings, and contact with the surrounding
materials as shown in Figure 4.26 [200]. Figure 4.27 shows the overall experimental
validation approach of TIG welding in the present research for circumferential welding.
Fig. 4.26 Factors affecting the heat distribution during welding [200]
Thermal
Structural
model validation
model validation
Transient
temperature
measurement
Weld pool
measurement
by macrograph
Residual stress
measurement
Distortion
measurement
K-type thermocouples are mounted directly on the outer surface of the cylinder prior to
welding and connected directly to multi-channels data logging system for transient
temperature history measurement. The temperature profile during welding at any specified
time can be easily stored in computer readable formats like MS Excel for data processing and
comparison with FE results later on. The thermocouples and data logger (acuracy and
resolution = 1oC) used in research work are shown in Figures 4.30 and 4.31 respectively.
136
Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures
As already shown in Figure 3.16 in chapter 3, the hole-drilling method is used for the
measurement of residual stresses and the equipment for hole-drilling strain gage along with
P3500 strain meter from Vishay Group as already discussed is used for experimental
determination of residual stress fields in circumferential welding. The milling guide RS-200
as shown in Figure 3.16 can be used for cylindrical surfaces with some special arrangements.
A separate fixture to hold the welded cylinder for proper mounting of RS-200 milling guide
is used for hole-drilling and measurements. Complete experimental setup for residual stress
measurement in circumferential welding is shown in Figure 4.34. The detail of six basic steps
involved for measurement of residual stresses by hole-drilling method is discussed in section
3.3 of chapter 3. The two strain gage rosettes (EA-XX-062RE-120 and CEA-XX-062UM120) are used as already shown in Figure 3.18.
138
Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures
Fig. 4.34 Experimental setup used for experimental measurement of residual stresses
4.5
In this chapter, the theoretical background and finite element modeling aspects of the
thermal-mechanical behavior during arc welding was discussed. In order to validate the FE
models, Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) experiments were carried out to ensure the
reliability of the numerical simulations with proper instrumentation for data measurement.
Computational methodology and techniques based on finite element analysis (FEA) for
the prediction of temperature profiles and subsequent weld induced residual stress fields and
distortion patterns in GTA welded thin-walled cylinders of high strength low alloy steel were
developed and implemented successfully with close correlation to the experimental
investigations. The results related to residual stress fields and distortion was discussed in
detail. The significant conclusions from the results are:
1. Due to symmetry across the weld line, the residual stresses (both hoop and axial) are
symmetric. Along and near the weld line, a high tensile and compressive axial
residual stresses occurs on the cylinder inner and outer surfaces respectively.
139
Compressive and tensile axial residual stresses produced on inner and outer surfaces
away from the weld line. Axial stresses are weakly dependent on the circumferential
locations from weld start.
2. Hoop residual stresses are sensitive to the angular location from the weld start
position. On the inner surface, the weld start effect is more severe for both axial and
hoop stresses and is dominant in the weld start direction. The significant effect of
tacks on the axial stress on the inner surface is observed at angular positions of 0 and
180 from the weld start point, whereas, the effect of tacks on hoop stresses is not as
prominent. The stress distribution is no more axis-symmetric for a single pass butt
circumferential weld with initial tacks. However, if the weld start/end effects are
ignored hoop stresses are almost uniform.
3. Maximum axial and radial deflection is observed near the weld line. The axial
shrinkage decreases continuously away from the WL and a minimum shrinkage of
almost zero shown at the restrained end. However, on the restraint free end some
deflection with face tilting is observed.
Further, this chapter described the details of experimental welding set-up, data measuring
and acquisition systems used for the validation of developed FE models.
The FE model developed proves to be very effective and efficient for conducting virtual
experiments for the prediction of residual stresses and distortion by using design of
experiments (DOE) for optimizing the TIG welding process of thin walled structure
(cylinder) and also to provide the data for developing the expert system.
140