CHEMISTRY STUDY NOTES

Matter
Matter is anything which has mass and occupies space. The
kinetic theory states that particles are always in constant
motion because of the kinetic energy they contain.
Particles are always moving because they have thermal energy,
and this makes them vibrate or bounce around. When you cool
them down, you removed thermal energy, and this will slow them
down. However, you could not stop them completely unless you
cooled them to "absolute zero", which is about -273 degrees
Celsius. In practice, this is considered impossible.
Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration until equilibrium.
*When a cotton wool is soaked in concentrated
hydrochloric acid at one end of a glass tube and another
cotton wool is soaked in concentrated ammonia solution.
The gases will diffuse and form a white solid ammonium
chloride.(NH4Cl)
*If a solid sample of Potassium permanganate is placed in
water, the water molecules will interact with the
Potassium cations and the permanganate anions held in
the crystal to break the ionic bonds that hold the crystal
together.
This is a process of dissolving the crystal into solution. You will not
be able to see the Potassium ions, but the permanganate ions are
purple even in solution and you will see the water slowly darken
(perhaps turning pink or violet first near the solid and finally
taking on a uniform purple colour).

*Osmosis is the movement of water particles from an area of

high water concentration to an area of low water concentration,
through a semipermeable membrane.
A solution where there is a higher water concentration outside the
cell is called a hypotonic solution.
*Osmosis of Pawpaw (green) strips in a container of
distilled water.
A solution where there is a lower water concentration outside the
cell is called a hypertonic solution.
Brownian motion is the random motion of particles suspended
in a fluid (a liquid or a gas) resulting from their collision with the
quick atoms or molecules in the gas or liquid.

States of Matter
The three states of matter include solid, liquid and gas.
In a solid the particles are packed closely together due to
strong forces of attraction (The intermolecular forces between
neighbouring molecules are strong enough to keep them locked in
position) and there is a fixed volume, its shape is definite and it
is very hard to compress. (The particles are close together and
have no space to move into) They vibrate (movement is limited to
vibrating around a fixed point), but do not move from place to
place. Solids have very little energy. The average kinetic energy
is less than the attractive forces between particles.
In a liquid the forces of attraction are weaker than that of a
solid, so the particles are able to move and slide slower over each
other but not pull completely apart. The particles are arranged
less orderly than in a solid. Its volume is fixed and its shape is
not definite but takes the shape of the container. Liquids are a

little more high energy than solids. In liquids, particles have

enough kinetic energy to partly overcome the force of attraction
between them.
The kinetic energy is in a gas the forces of attraction between
particles are very small which enables the particles to move freely
in all directions at high speed. It is haphazardly arranged. It
takes the shape of the container and is easily compressed. The
particles have lots of energy in this state.
The average kinetic energy of the molecules is greater than any
attractive forces between the molecules

*(When hydrogen reacts with chlorine, hydrogen chloride is

formed. Hydrogen chloride is a gas, and has the formula HCl(g).
When hydrogen chloride dissolves in water, hydrochloric acid is
formed. This has the same formula, but you can tell the
difference because of the state symbol (aq), which stands for
'aqueous'.)

A substance can exist in any state.

The state it takes depends on the temperature and pressure.
These conditions affect state by changing the amount of energy
available to particles in the substance.
Two factors determine whether a substance is a solid, a liquid, or
a gas:
.The kinetic energies of the particles (atoms, molecules, or ions)
that make up a substance. Kinetic energy tends to keep the
particles moving apart. (Controlled by temperature)

.The attractive intermolecular forces between particles that tend

to draw the particles together.(Controlled by pressure)
Increasing the pressure on a substance forces the molecules
closer together, which increases the strength of intermolecular
forces

Melting
To melt a solid energy is required to overcome the attractions
between the particles and allow them to pull them apart.
The temperature at which something melts is called its "melting
point"