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PART 1 INTRODUCTION to CHEMICAL TESTS and ANALYSING SUBSTANCES

Of what use is chemical analysis and chemical testing?


Well, rather a lot, as it happens! The production of many products we use in our
society involved some kind of chemical analysis at some stage or other. It migh
t analysing mineral ores for their metal content or testing the final purity of
some drug/medicine from the pharmaceutical industry.
For chemical analysis analysts have developed a wide range of qualitative tests
to detect specific chemicals which may be molecules or ions. Chemical tests are
based on reactions that produce a gas with distinctive properties, or a colour c
hange produced by adding a reagent or the production of an insoluble solid that
appears as a precipitate. Modern instrumental methods provide a fast, sensitive
and accurate means of analysing chemicals, and are particularly useful when the
amount of chemical being analysed is small. Forensic scientists and drug control
scientists rely heavily on such instrumental methods in their work.
Environmental agencies monitor levels of oxygen and pollutants in rives and lake
s. Hospitals carry out complex blood analysis for iron, proteins, cholesterol et
c. and this is very important diagnostic information for clinicians and doctors
seeking to get you well again prevent diseases developing. Blood can be analysed
for specific proteins to indicate particular medical conditions e.g. cancer, an
d ions such as sodium, chloride and iron compounds. At water treatment plants te
st are done to determine the levels of metal ions, insecticides and lots of othe
r substances to check that their levels are not high enough to be harmful to hum
ans.
Apart from a multitude of forensic tests for DNA, powder burns from guns, explos
ives etc. the police use breathalyser kits to test for alcohol levels in your br
eath and may request a blood sample for analysis too.
Elements and compounds can be detected and identified using instrumental methods
which are accurate, sensitive and rapid and are particularly useful when the am
ount of a sample is very small
There are two types of chemical analysis
Qualitative tests and quantitative analysis. Whatever the nature of the investig
ation, all tests of analyses should be carried out by using 'tried and tested' s
tandard procedures. They should be the most accurate, reliable and safest method
s that can be devised. It means, whatever laboratory you work in, anywhere in th
e world, you should get the same results as long as the sample is collected, sto
red and analysed by the same standard procedures.
(a) QUALITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Qualitative chemical analysis indicates whether a particular substance is presen
t or not. It does not tell how much of the substance is there or its concentrati
on. However, if a substance is potentially harmful, even toxic, its a good idea
to know whether the substance is there at all. The larger the sample you have, t
he better. With more to work with you are more likely to able to detect minute t
races of substances with qualitative tests AND have spare material to repeat tes
ts several times if the results seem uncertain at first.
At school/college level, the simple tests you learn enable to identify the catio
n (+ve ion e.g. metal ions) and anion (-ve ion, e.g. chloride, sulfate) in a sal
t, and the salt usually does contain only two ions, but some salts do have three
ions e.g. iron(II) ammonium sulfate which might take a bit of sorting out. Most
tests at this level are done on soluble substances so that you can dissolve the

substance in water and carry out tests on the aqueous solution. Aqueous means a
solution in water. You may come across a non-aqueous solution using a non-aqueo
us solvent like alcohol or hexane.
AND don't forget, negative test results are just as important as positive result
s, you may need to eliminate possibilities as well as confirm the presence of a
particular ion or gas etc.
UNFORTUNATELY, not all tests are unique for a particular ion, but this shouldn't
be a problem in school chemistry!
Associated qualitative analysis links
See index at top of page Typical qualitative tests are described in Parts 2 to 5
.
Summary of some cation and anion tests for GCSE/IGCSE/O Level students
(b) QUANTITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Quantitative analysis gives you (hopefully) a precise measure of how much of a s
ubstance is present or its concentration in a sample being analysed e.g. ore ana
lysis tells you whether it is worth exploiting for a metal, the purity of drug e
nsure no harmful impurities in it, blood sample analysis for alcohol allows the
police to decide to prosecute for 'being over the limit'. With a large sample yo
u have spare material to repeat the quantitative analysis several times to get t
he most statistically valid result.
In schools and colleges you can do quite accurate titrations to illustrate quant
itative analysis.
Associated quantitative links
% purity of a product (GCSE/IGCSE/O level, introduction for Advanced Level)
Volumetric titration analysis methods and calculations (GCSE/IGCSE/O level, intr
oduction for Advanced Level)
Various non-redox titration methods and questions (Advanced Level, acid-alkali,
EDTA, silver nitrate etc.)
Various redox titration methods and questions (Advanced Level, potassium mangana
te(VII), thiosulfate/iodine etc.)
Other Associated Qualitative or Quantitative Analysis LINKS (GCSE/IGCSE Level)
Instrumental Methods of Chemical Analysis
Chromatography - Paper/Thin Layer Chromatography and Gas Chromatography
GCSE/IGCSE Revision QUIZ on chemical tests for identifying ions, gases and compo
unds
Part 1 contd. Alphabetical TEST INDEX for cations, anions, organic functional gr
oups etc.
Full list of KEYWORDS for inorganic/organic identification methods in alphabetic
al order e.g. test/reagent for: * acid ==> H+ * acid/acyl chloride RCOCl * alcoh
ols
general ROH/prim RCH2OH/sec R2CHOH/tert R3COH) * aldehyde RCHO * prim alipha
tic amine R NH2 * aliphatic/aromatic carboxylic acids * alkali ==> OH * alkane/alke

ne >C=C</alkyne CC (saturated versus unsaturated) * aluminium/aluminum ion Al3+ *


amide RCONH2 * prim aliphatic amines R NH2 * ammonia gas NH3 * ammonium ion NH4+ *
prim aromatic amine C6H5 NH2 etc. * barium ion Ba2+ * Benedict's solution * Brady
's reagent * bromide ion Br * bromine Br2 * caesium ion Cs+ * calcium ion Ca2+ by
flame or hydroxide ppt. * carbonate CO32 /hydrogencarbonate HCO3 with acid or effe
ct of heating metal carbonate e.g. MCO3 * carbon dioxide gas CO2 * carboxylic ac
id RCOOH * carboxylic acid (aliphatic) salts e.g. RCOO Na+ * chloride ion Cl * chlo
rine gas Cl2 * Chomate(VI) ion CrO42 * copper(II) ion Cu2+ by flame or hydroxide
ppt. * 24DNPH (for aldehydes/ketones test) * esters RCOOR * Fehlings test/soluti
on * flame test for metal ions * fluoride ion F * haloalkanes/halogenoalkanes R X *
hydrogen gas H2 * hydrogen sulphide H2S * hydrogen ion, acids H+ * hydrogen bro
mide gas/hydrobromic acid HBr * hydrogen chloride gas/hydrochloric acid HCl * hy
drogen iodide gas/hydriodic acid HI * hydroxide ion, alkali OH * hydroxy/alcohol/
phenol (organic) * iodide ion I * iodine I2 * iodoform test
formation of CHI3 * i
ron(II) ion Fe2+ * iron(III) ion Fe3+ * ketone R2C=O * lead(II) ion Pb2+ * lithi
um ion Li+ * lime water Ca(OH)2(aq) * magnesium ion Mg2+ * metal carbonates heatin
g e.g. MCO3 * metal ions via hydroxide precipitate * nitrate or nitrate(V) NO3 *
nitrite or nitrate(III) NO2 * nitrogen dioxide or nitrogen(IV) oxide NO2 * oxygen
gas O2 * phenols C6H5OH etc. * potassium ion K+ * rubidium ion Rb+ * reducing s
ugars * saturated/unsaturated * silver nitrate AgNO3 (see chloride, bromide, iod
ide tests) * sugars (reducing) * sodium ion Na+ * strontium Sr+ * 'sulphate/sulf
ate' or sulphate(VI) SO42 * sulphide S2 * 'sulphite/sulfite' or sulphate(IV) SO32 *
sulphur dioxide gas SO2 * Tollen's Reagent * unsaturated/saturated * water H2O
* zinc ion Zn2+ *
Use the alphabetical test list above for identifying anions, cations, gases, mol
ecules etc. to find what you require! for your KS3 KS4 Science GCSE IGCSE Chemistry and
GCE AS A2 IB US grades 9 12 K12 advanced subsidiary chemistry course etc. and help you to
identify unknown inorganic and organic compounds molecules for qualitative analys
is. Its also a good idea to read the brief notes after the alphabetical list.
Advanced Chemistry Page Index and LinksEMAIL query?comment?test missing? * Gas P
reparations * Hazard warning signs/symbols examples of labelling
PLEASE NOTE:
Most of the tests describe use simple apparatus like test tubes, teat pipett
e, wire for flame test (nichrome, platinum best but costly) and standard chemica
l reagents accessible in most school or college laboratories.
Where possible balanced symbol equations are given for the reactions occurri
ng in doing the test.
Sometimes a precipitate (ppt) initially forms with a limited amount of a rea
gent, it may then dissolve in excess of reagent to give a clear solution. Both o
bservations will be crucial for a positive id.
There are no tests specific to identify a compound e.g.
(i) there is no test for calcium chloride, but there are tests for the c
alcium ion and the chloride ion, i.e. using specific ion tests.
(ii) Similarly, in organic tests, all you can do is identify a functiona
l group i.e. a particular bit of the molecular structure of a member of a homolo
gous series, rather a particular unique molecule.
Not all the reactions are good definitive tests, but they may well be im
portant reactions of cations or anions you need to know about.
The first tests in the 'inorganic' section are typical of GCSE Science level

, but finally these overlap and extend into those needed for GCE Advanced AS or
A2 level. In the organic section, only the alkene test is in GCSE double award s
cience, but some others might be found in a full single or coordinated triple aw
ard GCSE syllabus.
If any GCSE/IGCSE/GCE/AS/A2/IB/US grade 8 12 K12 test seems missing, just let
me know by email
These days more emphasis is given to modern spectroscopic methods of analysi
s such as NMR, Infrared, Mass spectrometry, Atomic Emission etc. Quite correctl
y, though updating A level chemistry is intellectually challenging at times, it
isn't always as much fun!
The methods described give no recipe details or risk assessment, just basica
lly what is needed, what you see and what you can or cannot deduce. Consult teac
her, 'practical' text books and Hazcards before attempting any analysis.
Most tests involve 'standard' chemical reactions and few tests are totally s
pecific so observations should be viewed in context, i.e. is this a realistic de
duction in that particular situation?
Please remember each syllabus has its own 'list' of required tests
'over learn'
check out what is needed!

so do not

There is a web page covering the methods some safety aspects of "Preparing a
nd collecting gases".
Use the alphabetical list to find the test you need.Advanced Chemistry Page
Index and Links
HAZARD WARNING SYMBOLS (signs or labels)
A brief description of what the hazard might be.
hazard signsbiohazardBiohazard: Biohazardous materials include anything that may
cause disease in living organisms or cause significant impact to the environme
nt or community.
NEW SECTION currently working on the table of examples below.
WARNING
For all experiments, appropriate risk assessments should be done
and hazcards studied etc. This section just illustrates the use of hazard warni
ng signs with common examples, and may NOT provide sufficient detail for specifi
c experiments, concentrations, coursework write up etc., but Google can!
Symbol Examples of what might be labelled/classified with this hazard warning s
ign (definitions above)
hazard Irritant: Most acidic and alkaline solutions unless very dilute; acidic
gases like chlorine, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide; bleaches
hazard Harmful - poisonous but not toxic: Some acids e.g. nitric acid; acidic g
ases like chlorine, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide; bleaches; heavy metal ion
s e.g. of lead, barium and copper (e.g. as copper sulfate) some salts e.g. silve
r nitrate,
hazard Corrosive: All concentrated acidic and alkaline solutions e.g. conc. sul
furic acid, conc. sodium hydroxide solution, non-metals like bromine
hazard
Highly flammable: Most organic solvents, petrol and other hydrocarbon fu
els, alkali metals?
hazard Toxic - very poisonous: Chlorine, iodine, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen cyan

ide, arsenic and compounds


hazard Oxidising: Chlorine and oxygen gases, potassium manganate(VII), potassiu
m chlorate (in some weed killers), peroxides
hazard Radioactive: Radioisotopes giving off dangerous ionising radiation
hazard Explosive: TNT, hydrogen, fireworks, peroxides
hazard Biohazard: organisms and viruses infectious to humans, animals or plants
(e.g. parasites, viruses, bacteria, fungi); and biologically active agents (i.e
. toxins, allergens, venoms)
Carcinogenic: nitrates, organic aromatic compounds like phenols, Advance
d Chemistry Page Index and Links
APPENDIX 1. A non-chemical test method for identifying elements - atomic emissio
n line spectroscopy
An instrumental method for IDENTIFYING ELEMENTS from LINE SPECTRA
If the atoms of an element are heated to a very high temperature in a flame they
emit light of a specific set of frequencies (or wavelengths). These are due to
electronic changes in the atoms, the electrons are excited and then lose energy
by emitting energy as photons of light. The high temperature promotes electrons
to higher energy levels and the electrons re-emit the energy as photons of light
as they go back to their normal stable level. These emitted frequencies can be
recorded on a photographic plate, or these days, more likely onto a sensitive ph
otocell (like in a digital camera) and displayed on a high resolution computer s
creen.
Each emission line spectra is unique for each element and so offers a different
pattern of lines i.e. a 'spectral fingerprint' by which to identify any element
in the periodic table .e.g. the diagram on the left shows some of the visible em
ission line spectra for the elements hydrogen, helium, neon, sodium and mercury.
Note the double yellow line for sodium, hence the dominance of yellow in its fla
me colour. In fact the simple flame test colour observations for certain metal i
ons relies entirely on the observed amalgamation of these spectral lines.
This is an example of an instrumental chemical analysis called spectroscopy and
is performed using an instrument called an optical spectrometer (simple ones are
called spectroscopes). It is a fast and reliable method of chemical analysis an
d this type of optical spectroscopy has enabled scientists to discover new eleme
nts in the past and today identify elements in distant stars and galaxies. The a
lkali metals caesium (cesium) and rubidium were discovered by observation of the
ir line spectrum and helium identified from spectral observation of our Sun.
Advanced level notes on spectroscopy
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